International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

Motivators and inhibitors in booking a hotel via smartphones

Sangwon Park, Yiqun Huang,
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Motivators and inhibitors in Motivators

and inhibitors
booking a hotel via smartphones
Sangwon Park
Department of Hospitality and Food Management, University of Surrey,
Guildford, UK, and 161
Yiqun Huang Received 9 March 2015
Department of International Hotel Management, University of Surrey, Revised 23 September 2015
16 February 2016
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Guildford, UK Accepted 7 June 2016

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this research is to identify motivators (i.e. self-efficacy, perceived behavioural
control and perceived benefits) and inhibitors (i.e. perceived cost and anxiety) that affect behavioural
intentions to book hotel rooms using smartphones.
Design/methodology/approach – Utilising survey data collected from online consumers who have
booked hotels in London, two stages of structural equation modelling were applied to estimate the proposed
model.
Findings – The results of this research indicate that perceived behavioural control appears to be the core
motivator for the use of smartphones to book a hotel with perceived benefits, whereas anxiety plays a negative
role in leading to mobile booking behaviours. It is also identified that self-efficacy indirectly influences
intentions to reserve hotel accommodation.
Practical implications – This study suggests that hospitality marketers should simplify the mobile
purchasing process to enhance self-confidence in controlling the system during transactions, educate current and
potential online consumers to become aware of the competitive benefits of using smartphones and create alliances
with credit card companies to relieve anxiety when users are asked to provide personal or banking information.
Originality/value – In light of the substantial literature regarding the adoption of technology in terms of
user experience (i.e. TAM), this study integrates two theoretical foundations of understanding consumer
behaviours (i.e. a concept of consumer values and theory of planned behaviour) to assess motivators and
inhibitors in behaviours related to booking hotel accommodation via smartphones.
Keywords Information technology, Decision-making, Hotel
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Smartphones and tablets are revolutionizing consumers’ planning, researching and executing in
the decision-making process. Nelson (2013) reported that about 67 per cent of South Koreans, 66
per cent of Chinese, 65 per cent of Australians, 61 per cent of British and 53 per cent of Americans
use smartphones (with or without touch screens) in their daily lives. eMarketer (2013) expected 80
per cent of the Americans to be users of mobile devices by 2014. In terms of mobile device use for
travel purposes, Targeting Innovation (2013) stated that about 75 per cent of the mobile users
have used their smartphones when travelling domestically or overseas. This remarkable growth
in the utilization of smartphones implies potential capacity of advanced information and
communication technology (ICT) in the hospitality and tourism industry because the ubiquity of International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
mobile information services enables people to gain advantage from spatial, temporal and Management
Vol. 29 No. 1, 2017
contextual mobility (Rasinger et al., 2009). pp. 161-178
Recently, several scholars in hospitality and tourism have endeavoured to understand the © Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-6119
usage of smartphones in information-search behaviours (Kim et al., 2011) and travel DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-03-2015-0103
 IJCHM planning process (Park and Wang, 2013), and ultimately to identify the structure of
29,1 enhancing travel experiences (Brown et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2012; Tussyadiah and Zach,
2012). This suggests that the previous studies investigating advanced information
technology (i.e. smartphones) focus primarily on the travel planning process in general and
the aspect of information-search behaviours in particular. Importantly, however, there is
scarcity of research to assess the stage of a purchase decision along with the advancement of
162 information technology (Bouwman et al., 2007).
Hotels and accommodations comprise a type of hospitality products that most online
travellers are likely to access on smartphones (Expedia Media Solutions, 2014); however,
these products seem to be less likely purchased via mobile phones. According to the HeBS
Digital (2012) hotel client portfolio, about 14.0 per cent of visits to hotels’ websites occur via
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mobile phones, whereas just 2.6 per cent of them completed bookings on the device,
generating 1.1 per cent of total revenues for hotels. These statistics propose an important
research issue to identify those factors that drive or inhibit consumer’ hotel booking
decisions via smartphones.
There are a number of extant studies that investigate the adoption of technology in the
hospitality area. Indeed, the dominant paradigm used to assess the adoption of mobile
information services is the technology adoption model (TAM), originally developed to
explain individuals’ adoption of technology in an organizational setting (Kim et al., 2008a,
2008b). The theory argues that the adoption of mobile service is largely determined by two
factors: perceived usefulness and ease of use. However, from the consumer behaviour
perspective, adopters of new ICTs are individuals who play the dual roles of technology user
and service consumer, and thus, tend to evaluate the services in regard to perceived values.
Thus, the authors of this paper argue that the concept of perceived value composing
perceived benefits and sacrifice that includes perceived cost and risk (anxiety) is an
important concern as one of the underlying concepts in this study (Kim et al., 2008a, 2008b).
Furthermore, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is a well-developed model that has been
shown to predict behaviours across a variety of settings. In particular, this theory suggests
the influential roles of perceived behaviour control (Pavlou and Fygenson, 2006) and
self-efficacy (Venkatesh et al., 2003) in understanding online consumer behaviours.
Based on the integration of those two important theories relevant to consumer
behaviours, this research aims to identify motivators (i.e. self-efficacy, perceived behavioural
control and perceived benefits) and inhibitors (i.e. perceived cost and anxiety) that affect
behavioural intentions to book hotel rooms using smartphones.

Literature review
The adoption of smartphones in hospitality and tourism
Due to the nature of the hospitality products (inherently experiential, intangible and
heterogeneous), assessment of the quality of products before purchasing is difficult for
consumers. Hence, consumers seek recent and relevant information to reduce the level of
information asymmetry referring to the difference of information between sellers and buyers
(Pavlou et al., 2007). The highly innovative location-based services allow online consumers to
obtain personalized and “last minute” information based on the user’s current location (Krum,
2010), which make travel behaviours adaptable to the specific context they confronted (Kramer
et al., 2007).
With recognizing the important role of smartphones, several researchers have attempted
to identify factors that influence the adoption of smartphones for travel purposes. Oh et al.
(2009) applied the expectance theory, comprising performance and effort expectancies, to
understand behavioural intention to use mobile devices for future travel. Kim et al. (2008a,
 2008b) applied the TAM theory with two external variables, technology and trip experiences, Motivators
to find out determinants leading to tourists’ acceptance of mobile devices. Recently, a series and inhibitors
of studies conducted by Morosan (2014) proposed an extensive TAM in purchasing ancillary
services in airline, and accepting biometric systems for the security in air travel and using
mobile devices in private clubs.
While TAM has been extensively used and provided significant contributions to
understanding adoption behaviours, it includes limitations in accounting for the advanced 163
information and communication technology. First, the theory suggests two types of beliefs (i.e.
perceived usefulness and ease of use) to account for the likelihood to adopt a technology, which
has restrictions of predicting behavioural intention from those two factors (Bagozi, 2007).
Furthermore, the TAM model is developed in the organizational context where people use
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free-of-charge technology daily for work purposes. Importantly, however, individual users adopt
the new technology for their personal purposes which requires to pay the usage fee of voluntary
adoption.
From the consumer behaviour perspective, perceived value regards as an important
determinant of the behavioural intention. That is, consumers are likely to choose a behaviour by
evaluating the way to maximize the value comprising the trade-off between total benefits and
sacrifice, when making a decision to use a new technology (Kim et al., 2011). Wang and Wang
(2010) examined the perceived value derived in using mobile devices to account for behavioural
intentions to adopt mobile services for hotel reservations. The results of the study concluded that
perceived benefits and sacrifices consisting of perceived cost and anxiety (or risk) form the
perceived value inducing adoption behaviour. In addition, this study takes into account
important factors in TPB that cause a behavioural intention: self-efficacy and personal
behavioural control. Numerous researchers suggested that perceived capability to control a new
technology are vital in leading to the adoption behaviour. The following section discusses the
relationships between the theoretical factors examined in this research (Figure 1).

Hypothesis development
Perceived behavioural control
Ajzen (1991) developed the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) based on the theory of
reasoned action (TRA) by adding perceived behavioural control as a crucial factor. In the
view of Ajzen (1991), perceived behavioural control defined as “individual perception of the
ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour of interest” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 183) is an extended
determinant that affects the intentions which allow to understand the reasons for individual
actions. Accordingly, in this study, perceived behavioural control refers to consumers’
perceptions of the ease or difficultly of obtaining information about a hotel and booking the
hotel room via a smartphone’s application. Indeed, when individuals perceive technology
easily manipulated and in their control, confidence for using a new technology and the
outcome derived increases that lead to forming a favourable attitude towards purchasing
products via a certain technological device (Hansen, 2008; Al-Swidi et al., 2012). Thus, the
current study argues that for those travellers having sufficient confidence to use mobile
devices (i.e. high level of perceived behavioural control), attitudes towards purchasing
products or services via a smartphone become favourable, and increases the likelihood of
booking hotel reservations (Maity, 2010). Thus, this study proposes the hypothesis:
H1. Perceived behaviour control has a positive effect on the intention to reserve hotel
accommodations using a smartphone.
 IJCHM
29,1

164
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Figure 1.
The proposed model

Perceived benefits
The development of informational technology enables consumers to evaluate and use relatively
convenient, effective and inexpensive channels to purchase travel products (Buhalis and Law,
2008) that brings about perceived benefit to technology uses (Kim et al., 2008a, 2008b).
Smartphones facilitate for consumers obtaining ubiquitous, convenient, personalized and
location-based benefits when searching for information to decide on a purchase (Akturan and
Tezcan, 2012; Turban and King, 2003). More specifically, the mobile reservation channel allows
travellers to receive location-based recommendations, corresponding to a certain moment when
people seek to accomplish specific tasks by using smartphones.
Liebermann and Stashevsky (2009) reviewed a substantial number of studies that discuss
determinants of online shopping, and suggested that consumers who recognize the benefits
of using the information technology, including in-depth information, social interaction,
convenience, selection and availability, tend to increase the likelihood of online purchasing
(Doolin et al., 2005; Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2001). That is, consumers assess certain benefits
from the solution for need that a product offers and consider the comprehensive attributes
that deliver benefits (Kotler and Armstrong, 2003). Thus, it can be argued that when
travellers use mobile phones to reserve hotel accommodations, they can reduce the time and
costs for searching, and encounter a wider range of informational alternatives for products
and services, thereby leading to increased likelihood of reserving hotel rooms via the
smartphone. The proposed hypothesis is:
H2. Perceived benefit has a positive effect on the intention to reserve hotel
accommodations using a smartphone.

Perceived costs
Previous studies of consumer behaviour identified a trade-off between perceived benefits
and costs that exist during the decision-making process for a purchase. The perceived costs
 consist of monetary and nonmonetary aspects (Hauser and Wernerfelt, 1990): for example, Motivators
effort cost, difficulty of use and risk of privacy in using ICT for booking a hotel (Parra-López and inhibitors
et al., 2011). Effort costs refer to money and time spent adapting ICT for searches,
communication and transactional activities (Patterson and Smith, 2001). The difficulty of use
indicates the extent to which the use of technological device is difficult for people to obtain
customized information and produces unsatisfied search results. A number of MIS
researchers have broadly suggested the importance of ease of use as a vital factor that leads
to adopting behaviour for using new ICTs (Gefen et al., 2003; Venkatesh and Davis, 2000). 165
Third element reflects anxiety and/or perceived risk, which is largely discussed as an
important factor itself. Thus, the next section focuses on the notion of anxiety more details.
In terms of mobile phones, while sifting and simplifying information and content on the
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smartphones would fit “relatively” small screens of the devices, there is a potential limitation
that may not present sufficient information to meet user’s information-seeking needs (Chan
et al., 2002). That is, when adopting new type of ICTs, consumers incur relatively higher
levels of cognitive costs to use it and accomplish the specific tasks by the technology (Maity,
2010; Swartz, 2001). Therefore, the proposed hypothesis is:
H3. Perceived cost has a negative effect on the intention to reserve hotel
accommodations using a smartphone.

Anxiety
Based on the Çelik (2011)’s study, anxiety refers to transitory unpleasant and negative
emotions in cognitive states evoked in actual or imaginary interactions in online purchasing
experiences. These negative emotions include feeling fearful, worried, apprehensive and
uneasy. Adopting a new technology, imaginations or physical experiences may engender
uncertainty for outcomes that leads to negative emotions (Lazarus, 1991). More specifically,
when online travellers receive requests to provide their personal information, such as
demographic and banking details in the payment process, anxiety may arise from losing
control if transactional errors occur (Kuisma et al., 2007). With regard to intangibility in
m-commerce environment, consumers may also have perceived uncertainty in unexpected
product performance.
Several studies examined anxiety’s direct and indirect negative effects on the use of
information technology (Beaudry and Pinsonneault, 2010; Lu and Su, 2009). Beaudry and
Pinsonneault (2010) indicated that individuals who have a high level of anxiety behave more
rigidly and cautiously during use of technology compared to those who are less likely to be
anxious. In the mobile purchasing context, Lu and Su (2009) explored the relationship
between anxiety and mobile shopping behaviour. The results of the study revealed that
highly anxious and uncomfortable individuals are likely to avoid situations that trigger
these feelings, and are thus, less likely mobile shopping. Therefore, the proposed hypothesis
tests the effect of anxiety:
H4. Anxiety has a negative effect on the intention to reserve hotel accommodations
using a smartphone.

Self-efficacy
Based on the social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1994), self-efficacy refers to the level of
confidence individuals have for successful completion of a task within their capacities to do
so as a proximal determinant of one’s behaviour (Bandura, 1977). Accordingly, this research
defines self-efficacy in the context of mobile technology as confidence in the capability to
conduct an online hotel booking and confidence in accomplishing tasks based on perceived
capability to use smartphones (Compeau and Higgins, 1995).
 IJCHM Several previous studies examined the effect of self-efficacy in technological experiences
29,1 (Kim et al., 2011; Iconaru, 2013; Islam et al., 2011). Pavlou and Fygenson (2006) demonstrated
that judgment of consumers’ capabilities to gain information about a product online has a
positive and indirect influence on consumers’ actual purchase behaviour, mediated by
consumers’ perceptions of ability to control behaviour. That is, a greater level of perceived
self-efficacy leads to an increasing degree of perceived ease of performing an action, thereby
166 generating intentions to purchase products using certain technological devices (Manstead
and van Eekelen, 1998). A recent study conducted by Yang (2012) concluded the consistent
argument in mobile context. Indeed, when consumers become confident in using mobile
phones, they are more comfortable using purchasing behaviour via the mobile channel and in
turn, are likely to explore more functions and features that enhance outcomes from mobile
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shopping.
Besides, studies suggest self-efficacy is an influential factor for alleviating anxiety
(Bandura, 1994). Consumers with a high level of self-efficacy regard the adoption of
purchasing via a smartphone as a challenge; in contrast, those with a low level of self-efficacy
consider the technology to be a threat that causes a high level of cognitive stress and negative
feelings, leading to unwillingness to use information technology. In this vein, Fagan et al.
(2003) demonstrated that individual self-efficacy negatively relates to anxiety for using new
technology. Hence, the proposed hypotheses can be proposed that:
H5a. Self-efficacy has a positive effect on perceived behavioural control.
H5b. Self-efficacy has a negative effect on anxiety.

Research method
Data collection
An online survey, conducted from June to August in 2013, collected relevant data by
contacting through a social media website, TripAdvisor that is the most popular social
community websites to share travel experiences ranked top five apps of Apple store in
travel category. Specifically, the randomly contacted participants were those who posted
comments regarding hotel experiences in London, UK. The sample frame includes online
travellers who have stayed hotels in London, UK. London is one of the most popular travel
destinations that 160.2 million travellers visited in 2013 and numbers are expected to arise up
to 179 million in 2018 (Mintel, 2013). According to the report by Mintel (2014), London
provides 22 per cent of room supply in the entire UK. Of those who stayed in London hotels,
91 per cent of the people have used information technology (i.e. mobiles) when booking hotels
(Mintel, 2014). These statistics indicate that London city is a relevant strength towards the
specific setting of this research. Then, potential respondents were asked to approach every
tenth user who posts the reviews of London hotels in TripAdvisor. The logic is that those
people who have left online comments of their hotel experiences are accustomed to using
advanced technology for other activities in everyday life (Gretzel and Yoo, 2008). Thus, the
way to contact sample of this study is appropriate to address the purposes of this research.
More specifically, the initial approach to potential participants included detailed information
of the purposes of the research to request participation through the provided survey. Upon
receipt of agreement from online travellers, they received a link to access the online
questionnaire along with an explanation of the mechanics for responding. As a result, the
total valid responses considered for data analysis were 295, excluding ten respondents who
did not complete the entire survey (response rate: about 11 per cent).
Further, to identify relevant samples, the process of data collection included filter
questions:
 • “Do you own a smartphone or mobile phone that can access to the internet?”; and Motivators
• “Have you used a smartphone or mobile phone to search for information about hotels and inhibitors
you stayed in hotels in London, UK?”.

These questions allow determining whether respondents not only have access to the certain
technological device related to the research’s context (i.e. smartphones) but also experience
using mobile phones to search for accommodations.
167
Measurement development
The survey consists of three sections. The first section inquires of participants’ travel and
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smartphone experiences. Specifically, the questions asked for types and number of travel
companions, length of stays in a hotel and travel budget per day. The second section includes
multiple items to measure six theoretical variables, including perceived behavioural control,
perceived benefits, perceived costs, anxiety, self-efficacy and behavioural purchasing
intention, to address the purpose of this research. All of measurements used a five-point
Likert scale (1 ⫽ strongly disagree; 5 ⫽ strongly agree), according to an accepted
methodology for determining consumers’ attitudes, perceptions and/or intentions (Wilson,
2012). The scales of the variables are adaptations from previous studies which exhibited
relatively high levels of reliability and validity.
The items of perceived behavioural control include four questions derived from Taylor and
Todd (1995) and Yang (2012). Five items on perceived benefits and six items of perceived costs are
adaptations similar to those of Park and Kim (2006) and Parra-López et al. (2011). The current
research used three items to measure anxiety (Compeau et al., 1999; Lu and Su, 2009; Thatcher
and Perrewe, 2002) and three items, adapted from Compeau and Higgins (1995) and Kim et al.
(2011), to measure self-efficacy. For behavioural intentions, three items relied on the suggestions
of Lee et al., (2002), Pavlou and Chai (2002) and Yang (2012). The final section seeks demographic
information: gender, age, marital status, level of education and monthly income.

Data analysis
Descriptive analysis determined the characteristics of the sample and identified the
distributions of the data relevant to the variables in the theoretical model. Then, structural
equation modelling (SEM) assessed the proposed relationships by estimating measurement,
functional and predictive hypotheses (Bagozzi and Yi, 2012). Specifically, SEM consists of
two steps:
(1) assessment of latent variables along with levels of observations (i.e. measurement
model); and
(2) testing the proposed relationships between latent variables on the theoretical level
(i.e. structural model).

Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) estimated the measurement model to check reliability and
validity of the constructs using M-Plus software. A number of methods for the model’s fit
considered factor loadings (or indicator reliability) (above 0.70), composite reliability of the latent
constructs (above 0.70), chi-square (␹2), comparative fit index (CFI) (above 0.90), Tucker–Lewis
Index (TLI) (above 0.90), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (less than 0.05) and
root mean square residual (RMSR) (less than 0.05) (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). Furthermore,
guiding post-hoc analysis of the model used statistical output but in accordance with underlying
theory to ensure maintaining the psychometric properties of each construct (Kline, 2011).
Estimating the structural model, the same goodness-of-fit indexes such as CFI, TLI, RMSEA and
 IJCHM RMSR included are concerned with R2. The indication from the R2 values of 0.75, 0.50 or 0.25 is
29,1 that the endogenous constructs are high, moderate and weak, respectively.

Results
Profiles of respondents
As shown at Table I, female respondents (n ⫽ 162, 54.9 per cent) are slightly more than males
168 (n ⫽ 133, 45.1 per cent). Online travellers in this research appear with relatively high level of
education: about 90 per cent of respondents completed college or above. Approximately, half of
the people are married (51.2 per cent) and have monthly net income less than £1,000 (48.8 per
cent). The average age was 31.68 with 10.86 of standard deviation. With regard to travel
behaviours visiting London, 41 per cent of the respondents have travelled with spouse/partners,
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followed by with friends (31.9 per cent), colleagues (11.9 per cent), children (7.8
per cent) and alone (7.5 per cent). Majority (90.5 per cent) of the subjects went to the trip with more
than one companion. Asking their behaviours about hotel stay, more than half (57.9
per cent) of the travellers have stayed in the hotel between one and three days while visiting the
UK.

Measurement model
CFA was used to test the validity and reliability of the theoretical constructs by the latent variable
approach using M-Plus software. Checking the factor loadings, two items below cut-off values are
decided to be eliminated: one of perceived behavioural control (PBC_2 ⫽ 0.24), which is consistent
with PCA result, and an item of perceived costs (PC_2 ⫽ 0.50). After the modification, all the
factor loadings are over 0.68, which means that interrelations are significantly high in magnitude
(p ⬍ 0.001) (Kline, 2011). The results of composite reliability also show reasonable values,
including perceived behavioural control (0.93), perceived benefit (0.92), perceived cost (0.92),
anxiety (0.92), self-efficacy (0.96) and behavioural intention (0.97) (Table II).
The square root of average variance extracted (AVE) was calculated to test the convergent
validity for six latent variables and then, the values were compared with other constructs to
assess discriminant validity. The results of the analysis show that the AVEs (the mean-squared
loading for each construct) of each construct are larger than the cross-correlations of other
constructs, which suggests that each reflective construct is distinct from other constructs in the
measurement model: the confirmation of discriminant validity. The squared AVE is also over
0.82, implying that the latent variables explain its indicators more than error variance: the
confirmation of convergent validity (Table III). Furthermore, there is no correlation value over
0.90, which limits the collinearity between constructs.
The various goodness-of-fit indexes for CFA reasonably fit well; the model chi-square (␹2)
value was 515.18 with 194 df, which refers to that the value of ␹2/df (2.66) is lower than cut-off level
3.0 (Kline, 2011). The comparative fit index (CFI) and the TLI support the conclusion that the
model including six theoretical constructs fits (CFI ⫽ 0.939 and TLI ⫽ 0.928) acceptably by
indicating over cut-off values (Table IV). The RMSEA and standardized root mean square
residual (SRMR) were also calculated to evaluate the model fit (RMSEA ⫽ 0.075 and SRMR ⫽
0.046). While the values are slightly higher than the recommended levels (⬍ 0.05), Hu and Bentler
(1999) suggested that values of RMSEA below 0.10 and SRMR as high as 0.07 are deemed
acceptable (MacCallum et al., 1996). Thus, it can be concluded that the results of the model indexes
show the reasonable values as well.

Structural model
Given confirming the measurement model, the structural model was assessed to examine
the hypothesized relationships among the latent factors. SEM using maximum
likelihood estimation was undertaken using M-Plus. The goodness-of-fit results show
 Variables Frequency (%)
Motivators
and inhibitors
Demographic variables
Gender
Female 162 54.9
Male 133 45.1
Education
Less than high school 1 0.3 169
Completed high school 7 2.4
Some college, not completed 19 6.4
Completed college 179 60.7
Post graduate work started or completed 89 30.2
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Marital status
Married 151 51.2
Single or never married 128 43.4
Divorced, separated, widowed 3 1.0
Living with partner 11 3.7
Do not wish to comment 2 0.7
Monthly income
Below £1,000 144 48.8
£1,001-2,000 42 14.2
£2,001-3,000 16 5.4
£3,001-4,000 8 2.7
Over £4,001 20 6.8
Do not wish to comment 65 22.0
Mean SD
Age 31.68 10.86
Travel behaviors
Travel party in the most recent trip
Alone 22 7.5
With children 23 7.8
With spouse/partners 121 41.0
With friends 94 31.9
With colleagues 35 11.9
Number of travel company in the most recent trip
One 28 9.5
Two 140 47.5
Three-five people 87 29.5
Six or more people 40 13.6
Length of stays in a hotel
1 day 39 13.2
2 days 65 22.0
3 days 67 22.7
4 days 45 15.3
5-10 days 77 26.1 Table I.
11 or more days 2 0.7 Profiles of respondents

that 2.72 of ␹2/df (p ⬍ 0.001), CFI (0.936), TLI (0.925), RMSEA (0.076) and SRMR (0.05),
which suggests that the estimated model built on the covariance metrics is reasonably
acceptable (Figure 2).
To be more specific, the path relationships are statistically significant except for the
relationship between perceived cost and purchasing intention (␤ ⫽ 0.06, p ⬎ 0.05). As this
 IJCHM Factor Construct
29,1 Variables loadings SE t-values reliability

PBC 0.93
PBC_1: I have an internet-enabled mobile phone
(or smartphone) to access the hotel booking
sites 0.70 0.03 21.28***
170 PBC_3: It could be easy for me to use the
system when booking a hotel via mobile devices 0.92 0.02 61.98***
PBC_4: I have the knowledge necessary for
mobile hotel booking 0.89 0.02 53.32***
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Perceived benefit 0.92

PB_1: Keeping up to date with knowledge
about the hotels of interest 0.80 0.02 33.40***
PB_2: Permitting to save costs and get the most
from the resources invested in the trip 0.80 0.02 32.88***
PB_3: Giving the possibility to provide and to
receive information about hotels of interest 0.81 0.02 34.86***
PB_4: Both pleasing and fun 0.84 0.02 41.08***
PB_5: I am proud of doing so 0.72 0.03 22.92***
Perceived costs 0.92
PC_1: The personal effort and time is excessive
and not worthwhile 0.70 0.03 20.63***
PC_3: Difficult to spend the time needed to
monitor the mobile hotel websites 0.70 0.03 20.80***
PC_4: High risk of losing my privacy 0.69 0.03 20.32***
PC_5: Often involves processes that are too
complicated or bothersome, which makes me
abandon the idea 0.85 0.02 39.51***
PC_6: Difficult to know where to book a hotel
via mobile devices 0.80 0.03 31.87***
Anxiety 0.92
Anxiety_1: Feel apprehensive about using
smartphones or mobile devices to book a hotel 0.88 0.02 45.54***
Anxiety_2: Hesitate to use smartphones or
mobile devices to book a hotel because I could
make mistakes 0.79 0.03 30.43***
Anxiety_3: Using smartphones or mobile
devices to book a hotel is somewhat
intimidating to me 0.77 0.03 27.63***
Self-efficacy 0.96
SE_1: Feel comfortable booking hotels via
mobile devices on my own 0.89 0.02 58.52***
SE_2: Easily to book a hotel via mobile devices
on my own 0.88 0.02 55.40***
SE_3: Feel comfortable booking a hotel via
mobile devices even if there is no one around
Table II. me to tell me how to use it 0.93 0.01 79.30***
The results of CFA (continued)
 Factor Construct
Motivators
Variables loadings SE t-values reliability and inhibitors
Behavioral intention 0.97
Intention_1: Intend to book a hotel via
smartphones or mobile devices 0.87 0.02 53.99***
Intention_2: Expect my mobile hotel booking to
continue in the future 0.91 0.01 70.75*** 171
Intention_3: Intend to make a hotel reservation
via smartphones or mobile devices 0.97 0.01 119.02***

Note: *** p ⬍ 0.001 Table II.

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study proposed, self-efficacy positively affects perceived behavioural control (␤ ⫽ 0.77,

p ⬍ 0.001, R2 ⫽ 0.59) and negatively influences anxiety (␤ ⫽ ⫺0.62, p ⬍ 0.001, R2 ⫽ 0.38).
With regard to the direct antecedents of intention to book hotels using smartphones,
perceived benefit (␤ ⫽ 0.33, p ⬍ 0.001) and perceived behavioural control (␤ ⫽ 0.45, p ⬍
0.001) positively as well as anxiety (␤ ⫽ ⫺0.25, p ⬍ 0.001) negatively affects the endogenous
variable (purchasing intention), which accounts for 70 per cent of variance explained (R2 ⫽
0.70) (Figure 2).
The indirect effect of self-efficacy on purchasing intention was also estimated by
concerning Sobel test. Table V presents that self-efficacy has statistically indirect influence
via both perceived behavioural control (␤ ⫽ 0.31, p ⬍ 0.001) and anxiety (␤ ⫽ 0.14, p ⬍ 0.001)
on intention to book a hotel room using smartphones.
Then, this study calculated the post-hoc statistical power to test the insignificant
relationship between perceived cost and behavioural intention reflecting H3 (Cohen, 1988).
The observed statistical power indicates 0.99, given the probability of the relationship, 0.01,
which suggests that the chance of a Type II error occurring for the specific hypothesized
relationship is very restricted.

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. PBC 3.86 1.07 0.90

2. Self-efficacy 3.71 1.07 0.77 0.94
3. Perceived benefit 3.76 0.94 0.64 0.84 0.87
4. Perceived cost 2.61 0.98 –0.48 –0.62 –0.58 0.83
5. Anxiety 2.50 1.03 –0.48 –0.62 –0.52 0.39 0.88
6. Behavioral intention 3.66 1.05 0.75 0.74 0.71 –0.44 –0.61 0.95 Table III.
Latent correlation
Note: The diagonal elements (in italic) represent the square root of AVE analysis

Chi-square (␹2) df ␹2/df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR

515.175*** 194 2.66 0.939 0.928 0.075 0.046

Table IV.
Notes: *** p ⬍ 0.001; CFI refers to comparative fit index; TLI refers to Tucker–Lewis index; RMSEA refers Summary of model-fit
to root mean square error of approximation; SRMR refers to standardized root mean square residual indexes for CFA model
 IJCHM
29,1

172
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Figure 2.
Structural model

Relationship ␤ SE t-values

Self-efficacy ¡ perceived behavioral control ¡ intention 0.31 0.04 7.16***

Table V. Self-efficacy ¡ anxiety ¡ intention 0.14 0.04 3.55***
Estimations of indirect
effect Note: *** p ⬍ 0.001

Discussion
With recognition of the importance of smartphones to the hospitality business, previous
researchers mainly discussed consumers’ adoption of smartphones with TAM theory
emphasizing perceived usefulness and ease of use, as well as the roles of the technology in the
information-search stage (Kim et al., 2008a, 2008b; Oh et al., 2009). However, efforts to
identify factors that affect transaction behaviours using mobiles are limited despite the large
potential of expanding the future market in hospitality industries. Accordingly, this study
adapted the concept of consumer values that suggest the trade-off between perceived
benefits and sacrifices (i.e. costs and anxiety) and TPB that proposes the importance of PBC
and self-efficacy factors. As a result, this paper identifies that perceived benefit, PBC and
self-efficacy play roles of direct or indirect motivators, whereas anxiety serve as an inhibitor
to make a behavioural intention to use their smartphones for booking hotel accommodations.
More specifically, perceived behavioural control has a positive influence on mobile
hotel-booking behaviour. This finding is consistent with the results of previous studies
(Hansen, 2008; Kidwell and Jewell, 2010), which argued that the behavioural intention
increases when consumers perceive ease for performing a particular task. That is, online
consumers are more likely to use smartphones for purchasing products when they can
recognize that doing so via new technology is a simple, uncomplicated transaction. This
 study also identified that perceived benefit is one of the main motivators for inducing Motivators
reservations via smartphones (Parra-López et al., 2011). That is, online travellers who and inhibitors
recognize the benefits of using smartphones from past experiences or knowledge tend to
have higher intentions to use mobile devices for booking hospitality products (Strader and
Inapudi, 2004).
While several prior studies stated that perceived costs negatively associate with
behavioural intentions in e-commerce (Maity, 2010; Parra-López et al., 2011), the current
study relating to the mobile purchasing aspect shows an insignificant relationship. It can be 173
explained that, as penetration of smartphones in daily life increases, people may adjust the
marginal levels of effort and time required to use the smartphones, and less suspend concern
for the potential risk to the security of personal information. Consistently, the respondents in
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this current study showed the average values of perceived costs below the median (Mean ⫽
2.60; SD ⫽ 0.98) (Table III). Additionally, Doolin et al. (2005) suggested an offset effect of
negative factors for online purchasing processes, whereby elements that positively influence
buying behaviour (i.e. behavioural control and benefits) alleviate the effect of perceived costs.
A negative correlation between anxiety and intention to secure reservations via mobile
devices appeared in this study. This finding is consistent with prior studies, such as
Compeau et al. (1999), Beaudry and Pinsonneault (2010), and Lu and Su (2009). That is,
consumers who purchase travel products using smartphones (advanced ICT) may provoke
anxiety from potentially uncertain outcomes, an unsuccessful transaction and individual
mistakes during the transaction, which may create reluctance to purchase products via
smartphones.
Last, self-efficacy directly affects perceived benefit and anxiety as well as indirectly
influences intentions to reserve hotel accommodations using a mobile device (Yang, 2012;
Pavlou and Fygenson, 2006). This result implies that the level of individuals’ confidence for
capability to complete a task with a positive outcome influences perceptions for estimating
behavioural control, and negatively influences anxiety. Consumers who have a high level of
self-efficacy use smartphones with relative ease, and in turn, that characteristic improves
confidence for purchasing hospitality products via smartphones. Contrarily, those who feel
less confident in ability to accomplish an online reservation have a relatively higher level of
discomfort, and therefore, less likely to use a smartphone for that purpose (Fagan et al., 2003).

Implications and future research

The implications of this study are twofold: theoretical and managerial aspects. This research
provides a theoretical contribution to the hospitality literature by identifying the factors that
have positive and negative influences on intentions to book hotel reservations via
smartphones. Most of the previous studies have applied theories of TAM developed from the
organizational context to assess the adoption and impact of smartphones on hospitality
activities, which implicitly assume that behaviour is volitional. However, smartphone users
confront several new constraints pertaining to use of new technology, such as uncertainty of
outcomes from use, lack of control, etc. These issues induce a need to assess elements more
relevant to the consumer behaviours. Accordingly, this study took into account consumer
values and TPB model that propose five important factors. As a result, this research finds
significant motivators and obstacles to mobile hotel booking behaviours.
The findings of this research provide hotel marketers with important practical
suggestions to motivate consumers reserve accommodations using smartphones. Marketers
should simplify the process to improve mobile purchasing confidence through transactions
that allow individuals to control systems personally. For example, development of a clear
and concise mobile webpage or mobile application would enhance consumers’ experiences
 IJCHM for the purchasing process. Moreover, marketers need to educate current and potential online
29,1 consumers to become aware of competitive benefits (i.e. optimized recommendations and
last-minute offers from location-based systems) by providing advertisements/promotions to
assess the values of using smartphones compared to other information and communication
resources. Furthermore, creating alliances with credit card companies could be a valuable
solution for relieving anxiety when consumers must provide personal or banking
174 information. These cooperatives may also reduce inconvenience for consumers and increase
the efficiency, as online consumers would not need to input credit card information
repeatedly.
A number of suggestions for future research are apparent by concerning limitations in
this study. First, building on the current study’s estimation of behavioural intention for
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mobile purchasing, future research should investigate the actual purchasing behaviour.
Accordingly, longitudinal research should estimate and track the cause of motivators and
inhibitors to actual mobile purchasing behaviours. Second, the model considering more
contextually specific variables is a recommendation for future research; for example, types of
smartphone applications, the individual characteristics, the features of products and etc.
Venkatesh (2000) stated that as more contextual information becomes available, judgments
within that context expand and improve.

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About the authors

Sangwon Park is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University
of Surrey. His research includes information technology, travel decision-making process, hospitality
and tourism marketing. His works are published in Annals of Tourism Research, Journal of Travel
Research, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, International Journal of Tourism Research,
Tourism Analysis, Anatolia, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing and Journal of Hospitality
Marketing and Management. Sangwon Park is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
sangwon.park@surrey.ac.uk
Yiqun Huang is graduated with a degree of International Hotel Management at the University of
Surrey, UK.

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