SKAA 4383

TALL BUILDING SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT 1

Prepared by:
Edwin Tan Ai Yang
B16KA0042
TABLE OF CONTENT

No Pages

1 Table of Content 1

2 Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction (PPVC) 2-5

3 Precast Panel 6-8

4 On-Site Wall Panel 9-11

5 3D Printed Building 12-16

6 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (FRC) 17-20

7 Formwork System 21-24

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 1. Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction (PPVC)

1.1 Definition

PPVC, also known as modular construction, is a construction method whereby free-

standing volumetric modules completed with finishes for walls, floors and ceilings are:

constructed and assembled, and

manufactured and assembled.

1.2 Considerations and Key Factors

1.2.1 Type of PPVC Modules

The choice of material will dictate the size and number of modules in the design as
weight is a major consideration for the hoisting of the modules. Other major factors will involve
logistics of transportation, site layout and holding area, crane or hoisting position.

Material

Characteristic of Module Concrete Steel

Weight Heavy Light

Table 1: Choice of material

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 Reinforced Concrete
Steel Module
Module

Weight (tons) 20 to 35 15 to 20

Protection for completed modules

Permanent/temporary roof decking
Handling and Transportation
May require temporary stiffening
Require lifting frame

Installation Method Stacking method

Hoisting Machinery Hoisting by crane

Familiarity to Renovators in
Similar with conventional To include information of
Maintenance, Replacement /
construction supplier manual
Renovation Works

Compartmentation and use

Fire Compartmentation / Similar with conventional
of materials shall comply
Rating construction
with the applicable Code

Provision for Barrier-Free

Similar with conventional construction
Accessibility Requirements

Table 2 Comparison between RC module and steel module

1.2.2 Transportation

Logistics for modules transportation from factory to site will determine the maximum
size and volume of each module design, which in turn affects the number of modules to
complete the layout design.

The size of a single module should be limited to the dimensions allowed to be

transported on public road without requiring special measures such as police escort. Height
consideration must be factored in if the route involves passing through overhead bridges.

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1.2.3 Type of Hoisting Machinery

Sizing and arrangement of cranes on a site will be dictated by the total lift weight of the
module and the reach of the crane. Below are some generic information on the type of
cranes available.

Characteristics of Crane Tower Crane Mobile Crane Crawler Crane

Crane Capacity (tons) 50 700 500

Lifting Capacity (tons) 25 - 40 25 - 40 25 – 40

Height of Equipment (m) 120 40 80

Radius of Work (m) 40 40 40

Table 3 Hoisting machinery

1.3 Advantage and Disadvantage

Developers and contractors who adopted PPVC in their projects are beginning to reap the
benefits as below:

Time – the pioneer projects that adopted PPVC have reported to have shorter
construction duration, savings between 2 to 6 months
Manpower – less trade sub-contractors are required on site which means better
sequence of work and a less crowded construction site during project peak. A lower
manpower usage also means reduced idling time and reduced downtime due to
inclement weather
Site safety - as there are less workers working on site and workers are spending less
time on site due to shortened construction period, correspondingly it reduces the
chances of work injuries. Less work-at-height also reduces fall from height incidents

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 Quality – fabrication/production in a controlled environment ensures appropriate
supervision and consistent quality, and immediate rectification can be carried out
Sustainability – “green” and lean construction with reduction of construction material
wastage. Has the flexibility to incorporate “green” features i.e. green concrete, etc.
Environment friendly – minimises construction noise and dust. As fabrications are in
an industrial environment, most yards can operate longer hours for optimum
production, at minimal disruptions
Flexibility – it is expected that the PPVC modules can be easily “detached” and
demolished. This flexibility also enables a building to undergo future addition and
alteration works with ease

and many more.

However, PPVC can be a cost driver. In any one project, owners or developers are
invariably concerned with the project cost. While some expect a saving with modularisation
(given that the construction period can be reduced), there are other associated works that drive
up the PPVC cost. Although modular, in truth all PPVC modules are “custom-made” to suit
the project. Contractors are generally indicating a broad 10% - 20% range (incremental), or
15% - 25% for steel PPVC (incremental) depending on the system and its complexity.
However, with a shift in supply and demand, we predict that the cost will reduce, albeit at a
slow pace.

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2 Precast Panel

2.1 Introduction
Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a
reusable mold or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the
construction site and lifted into place. In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site-specific
forms and cured on site. By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically
referred to as a precast plant), the precast concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure
and be closely monitored by plant employees. Precast concrete production can be performed
on ground level, which helps with safety throughout a project. There is greater control over
material quality and workmanship in a precast plant compared to a construction site. The forms
used in a precast plant can be reused hundreds to thousands of times before they have to be
replaced, often making it cheaper than onsite casting when looking at the cost per unit of
formwork.

Figure 1 Precast Wall Panel

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2.2 Manufacturing Process

The production of precast concrete elements takes place under controlled conditions in
enclosed factories. This means that tolerances can be accurately controlled, waste can be
minimised, and that a denser, stronger and better quality concrete can be produced.

Concrete is casted into forms and left to cure. Precast forms are normally made
of steel or plywood. Whereas plywood forms are usually limited to about 20-50 castings
depending upon the complexity of the form, a virtually unlimited number of castings can be
made by pre-casting using steel forms.

Precast elements generally incorporate steel reinforcement to resist loading stresses. A

common cause of the deterioration of concrete structures is the corrosion of this reinforcement.
It is important therefore, that they are properly designed and embedded in the concrete.

During the manufacturing process, admixtures can be included in the concrete. These
can be water-reducing, air-entraining, retarders and accelerators (for faster curing time). The
purpose of admixtures is to improve concrete quality in both its fresh and hardened state.
Colour pigments can also be added, such as iron oxides (red and brown), chrome oxides (green)
or cobalt oxides (blue).

An alternative form of pre-casting is prestressed concrete, where stresses are introduced

into the structural member during fabrication as a way of improving both its strength
and performance. For more information, see Prestressed concrete.

2.3 Installation

The on-site installation of precast components can be a high-risk activity involving the
use of heavy plant, cranes and personnel working at height. Consideration should be given
therefore to safeguarding against risks when receiving delivery, moving, and placing units.
Consideration should be given to:

The method and sequence of assembly and erection,

The method of providing temporary supports,
Structural connections and joint details,
Tolerances,

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 Handling and rigging requirements,
Site accessibility for delivery and storage,
Crane capacity and working clearance for hoisting,
Sample measurement to confirm the accuracy of critical dimensions,
Visual inspection of concrete finishes for defects, and
Locations and conditions of lifting inserts for hoisting

2.4 Advantage of Precast Concrete

Precast concrete means that engineers can enjoy greater latitude in planning and design.
Precast concrete arrives on site completely customized and ready for fast installation. Thus, it
accelerates project’s schedule and saves cost. The benefits extend beyond convenience and
workflow to include versatility, control, efficiency and sustainability as shown below.
Versatility – The ability to shape this concrete to include the colors, texture and size
Controlled environment – It is created in a fully controlled environment, which
eliminates any chance of outside variables, like the weather, interfering with the quality
or timeline of production
Efficiency – Efficiency comes as a result of controlled manufacturing environment. It
speeds up overall construction process. It also saves time and money because of
assembly line techniques.
Sustainability – Precast concrete manufacturing is a sustainable process because:
• Concrete is made by natural aggregates
• Water used in making concrete is recycled
• Factory environment greatly reduces waste
• Precast structure lessens raw materials harvested from environment.
• Factory environment is healthier compared to construction site because safety
hazards, noise and air quality can be controlled

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3 On-site Wall Panel

3.1 Definition
Tilt-up is a type of building and a construction technique using concrete. Although it
is a cost-effective technique with a shorter completion time, poor performance
in earthquakes has mandated significant seismic retrofit requirements in older buildings.

3.2 Process
With the tilt-up method, concrete elements such as wall and column are formed
horizontally on a concrete slab. This normally requires the building floor as a building form
but may be a temporary concrete casting surface near the building footprint. After the concrete
has cured, the elements are ‘tilted’ to the vertical position with a crane and braced into position
until the remaining building structural components such as roof and intermediate floor are
secured.

Concrete elements can also be formed at factories away from the building site. Tilt-up
differs from prefabrication, or plant cast construction, in that all elements are constructed on
the job site. This eliminates the size limitation imposed by transporting elements from a factory
to the project site.

Figure 2 Tilt-up Wall

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3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tilt-Up

For the most part, tilt-up walls offer far more benefit than traditional or alternative
construction method. The following are four main advantages of tilt-up:

Cost – More budget-friendly overall as it requires less equipment and smaller

workforce except the use of crane is pricey

Installation – Faster and safer to install. Once panels are ready, it is only matter of
tilting up. Tilt-up reduces worksite congestion and increases worker safety, as well.

Eco-friendly – Less waste and lowered environmental impact. Also, tilt-up walls are
recyclable.

Customisable – Some different textures and surface effects can be done.

However, there are some possible downsides to consider before settling on this method.
Here are the three main reasons tilt-up walls maybe inadequate:

Not ideal for complex building – Tilt-up is perfect for large and rectangular buildings
or structures.

Difficult to work with on some worksites.

Low versatility – Easy to install but far more suitable for smaller commercial building
projects.

Figure 3 Tilt up wall lifted by crane

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3.4 Difference between Tilt-Up and Precast
While there are many similarities between two approaches, there are also significant
differences. The following are five aspects to consider when choosing between tilt-up and
precast:

Tilt-Up Precast

Formed in casting bed on the

Formed off-site, usually in a
Location job site and lifted into place
factory
using cranes

Panel Size Can be extremely large or tall Limited size

Less opportunity for

Building Design Almost limitless flexibility
customized shapes

Controlled environment –

Depends on conditions of lower risk of delay due to

Timelines
weather weather – significant storage
and transportation cost

Fewer panel joints – provide Interrupted insulation where

Energy efficiency
continuous insulation air can infiltrate

Table 4 Comparison between tilt-up and precast

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4 3D Printed Building

3.1 Introduction

Construction Printing (3DCP) refers to various technologies that use 3D printing as a core
method to fabricate buildings or construction components.

There are a variety of 3D printing methods used at construction scale, these include
extrusion (concrete/cement, wax, foam, polymers), powder bonding (polymer bond, reactive
bond, sintering) and additive welding. 3D printing at a construction scale will have a wide
variety of applications within the private, commercial, industrial and public sectors. Potential
advantages of these technologies include faster construction, lower labor costs, increased
complexity and/or accuracy, greater integration of function and less waste produced.

The technology has seen a significant increase in popularity in recent years with many new
companies, including some backed up by prominent names from the construction industry and
academia. This led to several important milestones, such as the first 3D printed building, the
first 3D printed bridge and the first 3D printed part in a public building among many others.

3.2 Process

Process of 3D printing of building construction by Building Information Modelling

(BIM) is shown below. A model is prepared in a 3D modelling application.

BIM Layer 3D
STL Slicing Object
Modelling Combine Printer

Figure 4 3D printing construction process

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3.2.1 STL

STL means Stereo Lithography. And, it can be exported into most CAD software suites.
The STL format only utilizes the three-dimensional description of the surface geometry without
generating non-relevant information for printing like texture or color, leading to the popularity
within the community. The format approximates the surface of a solid model with triangles.
The more complex the surface, the more triangles produced.

3.2.2 Slicing

In the slicing step, the geometric model is intersected with parallel planes to obtain the
contour of each material layer. This step can be done with a constant layer thickness (uniform
slicing) or with variable layer thickness (adaptive slicing). Adaptive slicing provides better
surface quality in critical features of the printed model while saving time in regions where
rougher finish is acceptable.

3.2.3 Layer Combine

Combining different polymers in different combinations per layer of 3D printed material,

is leading to the development of an entirely new palette of materials. Mixing materials is
certainly nothing new. Samurai Swordsmiths knew that to make the famous katana swords used
by its warriors, it needed to combine several steels in various layers to produce the curved
blades that are hard, flexible and sharp. Getting the right mix of materials, in the right place,
was a skill that was developed through the ages. It’s a philosophy that is perhaps unknowingly
being applied to the modern day. As 3D print manufacturers expand on the multi-material
capabilities of printers, many are looking to build up databases of ‘meta-materials’, known
recipes that combine various polymers in different ways to produce very honed and specific
properties, which are often quite different to the building block base materials used.

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3.3 Advantages and Challenges
Although 3D printing construction is still in its early development, it could offer the
following benefits:
Onsite or factory applications,
Printed products only use as much material as needed to form them. This means fewer
resources are required and less waste is generated,
Reduced transportation costs if products are printed on-site (although the cost of
transporting the printer can be expensive due to the size of printers currently needed for
construction),
Potential to create more efficient and interesting designs as 3D printing can achieve
shapes that conventional techniques cannot,
Lower labour costs,
Reduced cost of customized design (with 3D printing, it costs the same to create one
item as to produce thousands), and
Reduced health and safety risks if 3D printing can be used to produce assemblies that
would otherwise need special equipment and precautions to be taken.
However, there is still several current challenges in 3D printing construction that need
to be overcame including:
More expensive than conventional construction due to high cost of 3D printer and lack
of familiarity in the industry with 3D printing technologies and applications,
Currently, a limited number of materials have been used, although experimentation is
underway with printers capable of using multiple materials to produce more complex
assemblies,
3D printers can be large and, therefore, difficult and costly to place on site,
3D printing incurs more up-front costs to create the digital model that will result in safe,
cost-effective products,
Printers are currently slow compared to conventional construction, although they can
be operated 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and
The potential of a disruptive impact on the type of skills and labor needed to design and
build homes.

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3.4 Application
3.4.1 Dubai’s Office of the Future

The 3D printed office was designed for the United Arab Emirates National Committee
as the headquarter for the Dubai Futures Foundation. The so-called “Office of the Future”
primarily serves as a meeting space for parties from all over the globe. The 3D printed office
is a fully functional building featuring electricity, water and telecommunications and air-
conditioning systems. The 3D printed house was produced in China. After the parts had been
printed, they were shipped to Dubai. The project ultimately reduced labor costs by 50 % to
80% and construction waste by 30% to 60%. It is considered as the catalyst behind the
construction 3D printing revolution happening in Dubai.

Figure 5 Office of Future in Dubai

3.4.2 Russia’s Apis Cor Printed House

A Russian company has done just, with a 400 ft2 home being built from scratch in just
24 hours in Moscow. The cost of the building is only $10,000, highlighting just how much
potential the 3D printing technology has for the future. The house was built entirely on site
using nothing but a mobile 3D printer, which makes all the results impressive. It is a house that
is certainly habitable and short on space. The fact that it was produced at such low-cost in 24
hours. All the walls and foundations of this structure were printed with a concrete mixture and
other parts such as windows, fixtures and furniture being added after construction. The house
was finished with a fresh coat of paint with the final cost of the entire project totaling a modest
$10,134.

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 Figure 6 Apis Cor Printed House in Russia

Figure 7: A five-storey apartment building constructed by 3D printing in Suzhou Industrial

Park in China

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4 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
4.1 Introduction

FRC is a type of concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural
integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented.
Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers which each of which
lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of FRC changes with varying
concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation, and densities.

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to
drying shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding
of water. Some types of fibers produce greater resistance to impact, abrasion, and shattering in
concrete. Generally, fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, and so cannot
replace moment–resisting or structural steel reinforcement. Indeed, some fibers reduce the
strength of concrete.

Figure 8 Steel FRC

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4.2 Type
Following are the different types of FRC generally used in the construction industries:
Steel FRC,
Polypropylene fiber-reinforced (PFR) cement mortar and concrete,
GFRC Glass FRC,
Asbestos fibers,
Carbon fibers, and
Organic fibers.
4.2.1 Steel FRC
Steel fiber-reinforced concrete is basically a cheaper and easier to use form of rebar
reinforced concrete. Rebar reinforced concrete uses steel bars that are laid within the liquid
cement, which requires a great deal of prep work but make for a much stronger concrete. Steel
fiber-reinforced concrete uses thin steel wires mixed in with the cement. This imparts the
concrete with greater structural strength, reduces cracking and helps protect against extreme
cold. Steel fiber is often used in conjunction with rebar or one of the other fiber types.
4.2.2 Glass FRC
Glass fiber-reinforced concrete uses fiberglass, much like you would find in fiberglass
insulation, to reinforce the concrete. The glass fiber helps insulate the concrete in addition to
making it stronger. Glass fiber also helps prevent the concrete from cracking over time due to
mechanical or thermal stress. In addition, the glass fiber does not interfere with radio signals
like the steel fiber reinforcement does.

Figure 9 Glass fibers

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4.2.3 Synthetic Fiber
Synthetic fiber-reinforced concrete uses plastic and nylon fibers to improve the
concrete's strength. In addition, the synthetic fibers have many benefits over the other fibers.
While they are not as strong as steel, they do help improve the cement pumpability by keeping
it from sticking in the pipes. The synthetic fibers do not expand in heat or contract in the cold
which helps prevent cracking. Finally, synthetic fibers help keep the concrete from spalling
during impacts or fires.
4.2.4 Natural Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Historically, fiber-reinforced concretes have used natural fibers, such as hay or hair.
While these fibers help the strength of concrete, they can also make it weaker if too much is
used. In addition, if the natural fibers are rotting when they are mixed in then the rot can
continue while in the concrete. This eventually leads to the concrete crumbling from the inside,
which is why natural fibers are no longer used in construction.

4.3 Advantage
Polypropylene and nylon fibers can:
Improve mix cohesion and pumpability over long distance,
Improve freeze-thaw resistance,
Improve resistance to explosive spalling (in case of severe fire),
Improve resistance to impact and abrasion,
Improve structural strength,
Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing,
Reduce steel reinforcement requirements,
Improve ductility, and
Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly thus improving durability.
Steel fibers can:
Improve structural strength,
Reduce steel reinforcement requirement,
Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly thus improving durability,
Improve resistance to impact and abrasion, and
Improve freeze-thaw resistance.

Blend of both steel and polymeric fibers are often used in construction projects in order
to combine benefits of both products; structural improvements provided by steel fibers and the

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resistance to explosive spalling and plastic shrinkage improvements provided by polymeric
fibers.

In certain specific circumstances, steel fibers or macro synthetic fibers can entirely
replace traditional steel reinforcement bar in reinforced concrete. This is most common in
industrial flooring but also in some other precasting applications. Typically, these are
corroborated with laboratory testing to confirm that performance requirements are met. Care
should be taken to ensure that local design code requirements are also met, which may impose
minimum quantities of steel reinforcement within the concrete. There are increasing numbers
of tunnelling projects using precast lining segments reinforced only with steel fibers.

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5 Formwork System

5.1 Introduction

A formwork (also known as shuttering) system signifies the moulds used to store and
hold wet concrete until curing is achieved. Curing is a significant process in concrete
construction. Concrete has been demonstrated to be the most suitable construction material for
buildings and foundations since it withstands fire and ensures protection against storms and
extreme temperatures. In addition, concrete contributes to the creative modern architectural
design. Therefore, modernization of formwork systems was essential to keep pace with
concrete advancement. As tall structures have gradually emerged to be the modern trend,
formwork systems have also developed from being simple timber-based to pre-engineered
structures of steel, aluminium, timber, plywood, and plastics. The formwork technology has
translated into rapid construction with less labour.

5.2 Material of Formwork

5.2.1 Timber Formwork

Timber is the most common material used for bracing the member, hence called as the
traditional formwork. Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

Well-seasoned,

Lightweight,

High workability (with nails and without splitting),

Free from loose knots, and

Smooth and even surfaces on all faces (for exposed concrete work).

Normal Sizes of Members for Timber Formwork

Sheeting for slab, column side and beam

25mm to 40mm thick
bottom

Joints and ledges 50x70mm to 50x150mm

Posts 75x100mm to 100x100mm

Table 5 Normal sizes of member for timber formwork

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5.2.2 Plywood Formwork

Plywood is by far the most common material used for the facing panel. It is easily cut
to shape on site, and if handles and stored carefully, it can be used many times. A standard
plywood thickness on site is 18mm. Usually, this is sufficient for most pours. However, if the
formwork is curved, a thinner plywood is used to facilitate bending. Thicker plywood maybe
used when the weight of concrete causes a standard thickness plywood to bow out, distorting
the concrete face.

Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of
required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber
shuttering and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following
considerations:

It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there,

By use of large-sized panel, it is possible to affect saving in labour cost of fixing and
dismantling, and

Number of reuses are more compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose,
number of reusing can be taken as 20 to 25.

5.2.3 Steel Formwork

This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by
small steel angles. The panel units can be held together by using suitable clamps or bolts and
nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel
forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the
shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved
structures. Compared with timber formwork, steel formwork offers the following benefits
which are:

Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their
reuses are more in number,
Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed,
The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such
surfaces need no further treatment,
Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete, and
Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

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5.2.4 Aluminium Formwork
This formwork is often used in pre-fabricated formwork, that is put together on site.
Aluminium is strong and light, and consequently fewer supports and ties are required. The
lighter sections will deflect more, but this can be avoided by simply following the
manufacturers recommendations.
5.2.5 Plastic Formwork
Glass reinforced plastics (GRP) and vacuum formed plastics are used when complicated
concrete shapes are required. Although vacuum formed plastics will always need support, GRP
can be fabricated with integral bearers making it self-supporting. Like steel, plastic formwork
can be reused many times, as long as care is taken not to scour the surface whilst vibrating the
concrete.
5.3 Construction of Formwork
This construction normally involves the following operations:
1. Propping and centring
2. Shuttering
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment

5.4 Climbing Formwork

Climbing formwork is a special type formwork for vertical concrete structures that
rises with the building process. While relatively complicated and costly, it can be an effective
solution for buildings that are either very repetitive in form (such as towers or skyscrapers) or
that require a seamless wall structure (using gliding formwork, a special type of climbing
formwork).

Climbing formwork is best known in the construction of towers, skyscrapers and other
tall vertical structures. It allows the reuse of the same formwork over and over and over for
identical sections or stories further up the structure. Also, it can enable very large concrete
structures to be constructed in one single pour (which may take days or weeks as the formwork
rises with the process), thus creating seamless structures with enhanced strength and visual
appearance, as well as reducing construction times and material costs.

The climbing formwork structure normally does not only contain the formwork itself,
but also usually provides working space or scaffolds for construction crews. It may also

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provide areas for machinery and screens for weather protection, up to being fully enclosed
while yet staying modular around a changing building structure.

There are several types of climbing formwork which are:

Crane-climbing - The formwork around the structure is displaced upwards with the
help of one or more cranes once the hardening of the concrete has proceeded far enough.
This may entail lifting the whole section or be achieved segmentally.

Self-climbing - The structure elevates itself with the help of mechanic leverage
equipment (usually hydraulic). To do this, it is usually fixed to sacrificial cones or rails
emplaced in the previously cast concrete.

Figure 10 Crane-Climbing Formwork

Gliding formwork - This type of formwork is similar with the self-climbing type above.
However, the climbing process is continuous instead of intermittent, and is usually only
interrupted for a very short time (for example to fix the mounting mechanisms to new
anchoring points). The advantage is that it will produce seamless structures, but it
requires a continuous, uninterrupted process throughout, with serious potential quality
and stability problems if the pour had to be stopped.

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