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INDEX

CHAPTER SECTION TOPIC PAGE


NO. NO. NO.
Acknowledgement vi
Abstract vii
List of figure with page number viii

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Literature survey 1
1.2 Study and analysis 1

2 PROPOSAL
2.1 Proposed Work 3
2.2 Proposed Methodology 3
2.3 System Requirements 3

3. PLANNING AND FORMULATION 9

4. DESIGN OF SYSTEM
4.1 Working Principle 10
4.2 Advantages 10
4.3 Disadvantages 11
4.4 Applications 11

5. MARKET STUDY
5.1 Market Drivers 14
5.2 Market Restraints 14
6 CONCLUSION 16

REFERENCES 17
Abstract
A scheme of Electricity billing system called MULTITERIFF ENERGY METER WITH TARIFF
INDICATOR can facilitate in improved cash flow management in energy utilities and can reduces
problem associated with billing consumer living in isolated area and reduces deployment of
manpower for taking meter readings.
Every consumer can buy a memory card (is nothing but an EEPROM IC) with a password stored
inside it using a MC program. The memory card is available at various ranges (i.e. Rs 50, Rs 100,
Rs 200 etc).In our project we have given the name for memory card as smart card.
When the consumer insert a smart card into the card reader which is connected in prepaid energy
meter with tariff indicator kit. The card reader will read the stored information and delete the
information from the EEPROM IC(smart card) using the MC program. So that the smart card
cannot be reused by others. Suppose if a consumer buys a card for Rs.50/- so on. He / She can
insert this amount through the card reader so that prepaid energy meter with tariff indicator kit
will be activated. According to the power consumption the amount will be reduced. When the
amount is over, the relays will automatically shutdown the whole system. In our project we also
have a provision to give an alarm sound to consumer before the whole amount is reduced.
This user manual describes the functions and features of the single-phase multi-tariff energy meter.
The reference board is an integrated system designed to provide a complete, ready-to-use energy
meter application. It is a medium-end solution for power metering, using the ST72F321 microcontroller,
the M41T94 Real Time Clock, the M95256 EEPROM and the STPM14 energy meter ASSP device.
The multi-tariff energy meter reference board implements several features including multi- tariff
management, absolute and average maximum demand calculation, two types of tamper management
and power failure management. It can therefore be used as a platform for evaluation and development of
meter applications.
The aim of this guide is to provide:
■ Procedures for getting the reference board functioning quickly
■ An overview of the implementation of meter main features
■ The information required to be able to customize meter features.
List of Figures:
Title Page no.
Fig (3.1.1) Block Diagram of Prepaid Energy Meter 9
Fig (3.1.2) Circuit Diagram of Prepaid energy meter 10
Fig (3.2.1.1) LCD Display 11
Fig (3.2.1.2) LDR 11
Fig (3.2.1.3) Voltage Regulator 11
Fig (3.2.1.4) Power Relays 12

1. INTRODUCTION
Many of the Smart Grid Investment Grant (SGIG) projects that invest in smart meters also choose to
introduce various forms of time-based rate programs to their customers. These programs range from
time-of-use to real-time pricing and are frequently referred to with terms such as time-differentiated
retail rates, time-variant pricing, advanced pricing programs, and time-varying retail pricing. We refer
to all of these as time-based rate programs—in which prices vary over time and different prices are in
effect for different hours on different days.
Because electric power companies are generally monopoly utilities, regulatory agencies approve
prices for electricity to consumers. These prices are referred to as electricity rates or tariffs.
Sometimes a distinction is made between prices or rates on the one hand and tariffs on the other. In
these instances, a tariff is an approved collection of different rates that utilities offer to specific but
different types of customers (e.g., real-time pricing for large commercial and industrial customers vs.
flat-rate for low-income residential customers).
Electricity tariffs can be affected by the granularity, or precision, of electricity usage data that is
recorded by the customer’s meter. Mass-market customers (i.e., residential and small commercial)
overwhelmingly have bulk usage meters with a single data register, which simply accumulates the
usage over time. As such, these customers can only be billed for the electricity they use according to
the following types of pricing:
 Flat Rates - all usage during a given period of time (e.g., 30-day billing cycle) is charged the
same rate; or
 Tiered Rates - typically charge a different price based on blocks of usage (e.g., first 500 kWh
vs. next 500 kWh) during a given period of time (e.g., 30-day billing cycle).
Such electricity rate designs do not convey the variability over time (e.g., hour-to-hour, day-to-day,
season-to-season) in the cost to produce electricity.
Using smart meters, utilities are now capable of recording electricity usage on a much more frequent
basis (e.g., every 15 minutes), enabling mass market customers, who previously had bulk usage
meters, to be introduced to new types of pricing programs that better reflect these differences over
time in the cost to produce electricity.
Forms of time-based rate programs include:
 Time-of-use pricing (TOU) - typically applies to usage over broad blocks of hours (e.g., on-
peak=6 hours for summer weekday afternoon; off-peak = all other hours in the summer
months) where the price for each period is predetermined and constant.
 Real-time pricing (RTP) - pricing rates generally apply to usage on an hourly basis.
 Variable Peak Pricing (VPP) - a hybrid of time-of-use and real-time pricing where the
different periods for pricing are defined in advance (e.g., on-peak=6 hours for summer
weekday afternoon; off-peak = all other hours in the summer months), but the price
established for the on-peak period varies by utility and market conditions.
 Critical peak pricing (CPP) - when utilities observe or anticipate high wholesale market
prices or power system emergency conditions, they may call critical events during a specified
time period (e.g., 3 p.m.—6 p.m. on a hot summer weekday), the price for electricity during
these time periods is substantially raised. Two variants of this type of rate design exist: one
where the time and duration of the price increase are predetermined when events are called
and another where the time and duration of the price increase may vary based on the electric
grid’s need to have loads reduced;
 Critical peak rebates (CPR) - when utilities observe or anticipate high wholesale market
prices or power system emergency conditions, they may call critical events during pre-
specified time periods (e.g., 3 p.m.—6 p.m. summer weekday afternoons), the price for
electricity during these time periods remains the same but the customer is refunded at a
single, predetermined value for any reduction in consumption relative to what the utility
deemed the customer was expected to consume.
All of the pricing programs listed above, except for TOU, are also commonly referred to as dynamic
pricing because prices are not known with certainty ahead of time. TOU tariffs are not a type of
dynamic pricing because the rate schedule is predetermined and static. Dynamic pricing programs
allow customers and utilities to take greater advantage of grid and wholesale market variability and of
the capabilities of smart grid customer systems. All of these forms of time-based rate programs are
enabled by the investment and installation of smart meters. Currently, most of the SGIG projects that
include time-based rate programs are relatively small-scale pilot programs, although several projects
with smart meters and time-of-use rates involve system-wide implementation.
The table below explains the typology used for the SGIG time-based rate program categories.

1.1 Literature Survey:


Over 40 countries have implemented prepaid meters in their markets. In United Kingdom the
system, has been in use for well over 70 years with about 3.5 million consumers. The prepaid
program in South Africa was started in 1992, since then they have installed over 6 million meters.
Other African counties such as Sudan, Madagascar are following the South African success. The
concept has found ground in Argentina and New Zealand with few thousands of installations.
The Sabah Electricity Sdn Bhd (SESB), Malaysia, has awarded a contract to a local manufacturer
to supply 1,080 prepaid meters.
Countries such as Thailand, Bangladesh, Singapore, and Iran have been showing increased
interest in adopting prepaid system.
In India, the State of West Bengal has decided to introduce the smart card operated prepaid energy
meters in remote islands of Sunderbans. In Mumbai, pre-paid power is provided by the
Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) Undertaking. Tata Power plans to
introduce pre-paid electricity in Delhi. Tata Steel is likely to install prepaid electricity meters at its
employee township in Jamshedpur.

1.2 Study and Analysis:


Over the last few years, Prepaid Energy Meter has been proposed as an innovative solution aimed
at facilitating affordability and reducing the cost of utilities. This mechanism, essentially, requires
the users to pay for the electricity before its consumption. In this way, consumers hold credit and
then use the electricity until the credit is exhausted. If the available credit is exhausted then the
supply of electricity is cut off by a relay.
But their use is still controversial. On the one hand, those that support the diffusion of prepaid
meters claim that they benefit both consumers and utilities because they help users to consume
more efficiently and to improve the management of their budget, while allowing firms to reduce
financial costs, as well as the costs of operation and bad debts. On the other hand, those that are
against prepaid meters argue that their adoption is expensive for firms and risky for low income
consumers, as the insecurity and volatility of their income may force them to make little use of the
service, or ultimately, bring about involuntary self-disconnection.
Prepaid meters are usually installed by electricity supplier, if it feels that the customer cannot keep
up payments on their energy bill. However, they can also be requested by the customer themselves
- and are often seen as a good method of budgeting. Generally speaking they are used by lower
income households, such as people on welfare benefits, lone parents or those with no bank
account.
From a technological point of view, the prepayment system consists of three well differentiated
components. The first is a service meter installed at the unit where energy will be consumed, such
as a household dwelling or a store. In general, these meters are of the “two-gang” type, and
consist of a user’s interface unit and a current measuring set. The interface unit is a device
installed inside the building, which allows the user to “interact” with the meter. The metering unit,
on the other hand, is the intelligent component that stores credit and consumption information,
and makes up the element that either clears or switches off electricity supply. The second
component of the system is the so-called credit dispensing unit, which is the vending machine
where consumers can purchase electricity credit. In general, these sales outlets are located at the
utility’s commercial offices, as well as in stores with long opening hours. The third component is
the supporting device that links the various sales outlets to the utility’s management system.
Conventions
The lowest analog and digital power supply voltage is called VSS. All voltage
specifications for digital input/output pins are referred to as VSS. The highest OTP writing
power supply voltage is VOTP. The highest power supply voltage of the device is VCC.
Positive currents flow into a pin. Sinking means that the current flows to the pin
while sourcing means that the current flows from the pin.
Timing specifications of signals treated by the device are relative to the CLKOUT. This
signal is fed from a 4.194 MHz on-board crystal oscillator.
Timing specifications of SPI interface signals are relative to the SCLNLC, which need not
to be in phase with CLKOUT.
A positive logic convention is used in all equations.

1.3 Multi tariff meter description


The single-phase multi-tariff energy meter reference board is designed using
STPM14 metering ASSP and ST72F321BR6 microcontroller.
The STPM14 belongs to STPM1x metering devices family. It measures the active energy
that is output as a pulse train with a frequency proportional to the measured power. It
supports tamper detection, monitoring both phase and neutral line wires, where two
current transformers are used as current sensors. The clock to STPM14 is supplied by a
crystal of frequency 4.194304 MHz.
The microcontroller drives the LCD, processes measurements coming from the ASSP
and manages RTC and EEPROM functionalities, for example saving relevant data in
EEPROM before moving to halt mode during power down. It also manages maximum
demand calculation on a daily,

4 Multi tariff meter features


● Cost-effective and flexible, based on STPM14
● Fulfils class 1 accuracy for Ib=5A and Imax=80A according to IEC 61036:1996 + A1:
2000, Static meter for active energy (classes 1 and 2)
● Operating Voltage range 220V ±20%
● Continuously detects and displays No load condition, Reverse direction and fraud &
case Tamper conditions
● Configurable number of tariffs (1 to 4) and Maximum demand Type (day type,
one month type or three month type)
● Accumulated data for whole meter life (Total kWh consumption, Average MDs, Total
number of Tariffs, Tariff time slots, consumption under different tariff rates, power
failure date/time)
● Data for last 12 months (Consumption under Tamper mode for each month,
First/last Case/fraud Tamper Date/time, total Tamper time and power failure
accumulating time for each month)
● Data for Absolute Maximum Demand (Absolute MD, Date/Time) according toType of
MD requested
● SW LCD driver for 24X4 segments LCD glass with contrast control
● RTC with SPI exists for real Date/Time
● EEPROM with SPI for storing 256 Kbit of data
● Case tamper detection in power down also
● External switch to see all the data stored into EEPROM sequentially even when AC
power is not available
● Battery backup to detect tampering and see all the parameters stored in EEPROM
during power down also
● Single point and fast calibration of STPM14 for Class 1 meter

1.5 Recommended reading


This documentation describes how to use the Multi Tariff Meter Reference
Board. Additional information can be found in the following documents:

● STPM14 datasheet;
● Components datasheets;
● inDART-STX for ST7 User's Manuals;
● IEC 62056 IrDA Protocol Mode C;
● IrDA module for Multitariff Meter user manual.

4.2 Maximum demand management and configuration


The maximum demand (MD) is the maximum continuous load (kW) which remains for a
certain period. This period is programmable and can be chosen from 1 minute up to 60
minutes. There are three types of absolute maximum demand which are defined:
a) Daily based,
b) Monthly based,
c) Quarterly based.
According to this selection, the absolute maximum demand will be calculated and stored
for each day, or for each month or for each quarter in a 12 month base.
Out of these three options, one can be selected by the user in the lib.h file by
preprocessor directive; in the same way it is possible to program the period of constant
load.
An example definition is given below:
/* define type for MD*/
#defineMD_minutes 1

// #defineDAY1
#defineONE_MONTH 1
// #defineTHREE_MONTHS 1
In every case the average of these maximum demands is calculated and stored for a
year as:
● last three months average maximum demand,
● second last three months average maximum
demand,
● third last three months average maximum demand,
● fourth last three months average maximum
demand,
● last six months average maximum demand,
● last nine months average maximum demand
● last twelve months average maximum demand.
In the following paragraphs the three types of MD will be explained in detail.

4.2.1 Day type maximum demand


In this type the storing period is chosen and programmed to be one
day.
As an example, the maximum load period is chosen and programmed to be 15
minutes. If on the first day (e.g. 25th Dec'06) there is a continuous load of 150 kW for
15 minutes
starting from 10:15PM to 10:30PM, and another one of 200 kW for 10 minutes starting
from
11:11PM to 11:21PM, the meter stores the value of 150 kW as the "maximum demand" of
that day with date 25th Dec'06 and time 22:30:00 in 24Hour HH:MM:SS format.
The meter acts the same way for each day. Average maximum demands are
calculated using the MD values of each day.
Then at the end of the month, the meter calculates and stores:
● maximum demand for each day of the month,
● average maximum demands of all types.

In EEPROM, the storing of the day type MD for each day is defined as below:
1st Jan
2nd Jan

27th Feb

28th Feb

29th Feb
1st March
..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..
31st Dec

Name

Index 0 1 .. .. .. 57 58 59 60 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 365

If the particular year is a leap year, then 59th index data will be filled by 29th Feb
maximum demand, otherwise index will be incremented by 2 which leaves the 59th index
maximum demand data as it was.

4.2.2 Month type maximum demand


In this type the storing period is chosen and programmed to be one month.
As an example, the maximum load period is chosen and programmed to be 15
minutes. The maximum demand of a day is calculated as in the previous case.
If the first day the absolute maximum demand is 150 kW, and the second day it is 75 kW,
the meter keeps the value of the 150 kW of the previous day as the maximum demand
value.
If the third day the maximum demand is 200 kW, the meter stores 200 kW with new date
and time instead of the 150 kW as maximum demand of the month.
At the end of the month the meter stores only one value of maximum demand,
and calculates average maximum demands using the MD values of each month.
Then at the end of the month, the meter calculates and stores:
● maximum demand of the month,
● average maximum demands of all types.
In EEPROM, the storing of month type MD for each month is defined as below:
Name JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

4.2.3 Quarter type maximum demand


In this type the storing period is chosen and programmed to be three months.
Let suppose that the maximum load period is chosen and programmed to be 15
minutes. The maximum demand of each month is calculated as in the previous case.
Moreover, at the end of each month the maximum demand of the quarter is calculated as
the maximum demand of the three months of the quarter, and average maximum
demands are calculated using the MD values of each month.
Summarizing, at the end of month meter calculates and stores:
● maximum demand of the month,
● maximum demand of the quarter,
● average maximum demands of all types.
In EEPROM, in the case of three months type MD the storing of month-wise maximum
demand and three month-wise maximum demand is defined as below:
Name JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Name JAN, FEB, MAR APR, MAY, JUN JUL, AUG, SEP OCT, NOV, DEC

Index 0 1 2 3

4.3 Date and time configuration


RTC date and time can be set by the firmware itself. There is a RTC_init() function
which initializes the RTC with the specified date and time. The date and time to be
initialized in RTC should be specified in RTC_table[10] array. The definition of array is as
below:
RTC_table[0] = write command and 7 bit address(0x00) = 0x80
RTC_table[1] = Seconds up to 0.01 in BCD format = value given by user
RTC_table[2] = ST and Seconds in BCD format = value given by user
RTC_table[3] = Minutes in BCD format = value given by user
RTC_table[4] = CEB, CB and Hours in BCD format = value given by
user RTC_table[5] = Day of week = value given by user
RTC_table[6] = Date of month in BCD format = value given by
user RTC_table[7] = Month in BCD format = value given by user
RTC_table[8] = Year = value given by user
RTC_table[9] = calibration value = value given by user
For more information, please refer to M41T94 datasheet of RTC used in the board.
Date and time can also be set by using the IRDA protocol. Please refer to the IEC 62056
PROTOCOL MODE C user manual.
2. Proposal
2.1 Proposed work:
At first an energy meter is to be made. The output of the energy meter works as the
input to the next circuit for prepaid services. The prepaid circuit consist of a
Microcontroller and a memory reading circuit.The memory reading circuit is for putting
in the credit.
The microcontroller will act as the brain of the circuit.It will constantly check the credit
and accordingly provie the power

2.2 Proposed Methodology:


 At first we will get a PCB layout f the whole circuit and the layout will be etched
on to the PCB.We will be using the Proteus software to create the layout.
 Once the PCB is etched we will mount the components checking regularly for the
errors.
 Once all components are mounted correctly we will test the circuit.

2.3 System Requirement:


The system requirements are

2.3.1 Components Used:


2.3.1.1 Hardware Used:
1. Microcontroller AT89S52
2. Energy Metering IC AD7752
3. EEPROM IC AT24C02
4. Voltage Regulator
5. Relays
6. LDR
7. LCD display
8. Relay Driver IC ULN2003

Microcontroller AT89S52:
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K
bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using
Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the
industry- standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out.

Features:
1) 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
2) Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles
3) 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
4) 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
5) 32 Programmable I/O Lines
6) Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
7) Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz

Vital role of Micro controller-AT89S52:


1) It will acts a master to communicate with memory
2) Whenever command is sent to reset the memory ,controller resets the memory
3) Controller takes the pulses from the energy meter and increments the Unit which
depends upon the calculations and stores in memory.
4) Microcontroller also switches off the energy meter whenever the command is sent
from the server. This happens when the owner has not paid the bill.

External EEPROM memory (2/4/8/32/64 Kbytes)


These memory devices are used to store the data for off line process. The AT24C02A /
04A/ 08A/ 32/64 provides 2048/4096/8192/32,768/65,536 bits of serial electrically
erasable and programmable read only memory (EEPROM) organized as
56/512/1024/4096/8192 words of 8 bits each. The device is optimized for use in many
industrial and commercial applications where low power and low voltage operation are
essential. The AT24C02A/04A/08A is available in space saving 8-pin PDIP.

Features:
Internally Organized 256 x 8 (2K), 512 x 8 (4K) or 1024 x 8 (8K)
2-Wire Serial Interface (I2C protocol)
High Reliability

Vital role of External EEPROM memory:


1) Used to store the amount of unit the user consumed.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):


LCD’s can add a lot to your application in terms of providing a useful interface for the
user, debugging an application or just giving it a "professional" look. The most common
type of LCD controller is the Hitachi 44780, which provides a relatively simple interface
between a processor and an LCD. Inexperienced designers do often not attempt using this
interface and programmers because it is difficult to find good documentation on the
interface, initializing the interface can be a problem and the displays themselves are
expensive.
LCD has single line display, Two-line display, four line display. Every line has 16
characters.

Vital role of LCD:


Used to display the status of device

Relay Driver IC ULN2003:


The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistor arrays.
It consists of seven NPN darlington pairs that features high-voltage outputs with
common-cathode clamp diode for switching inductive loads. The collector-current Rating
of a single darlington pair is 500mA. The darlington pairs May be paralleled for higher
current capability. Applications include Relay drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers,
display drivers (LED gas discharge), line drivers, and logic buffers. The ULN2003 has a
2.7k series base resistor for each Darlington pair for operation directly with TTL or
5VCMOS devices.

Features:
500mA rated collector current (Single output)
High-voltage outputs: 50V
Inputs compatible with various types of logic.
Relay driver application

Role of Relay Driver:


1) To control the triggering of the Relays

2.3.2 Software Used:


1. Keil u-Vision
2. PRO51 Programmer Software
3. Proteus Software

Kiel u-Vision:
Keil Software is used provide you with software development tools for 8051 based
microcontrollers. With the Keil tools, you can generate embedded applications for
virtually every 8051 derivative. The supported microcontrollers are listed in the µ-vision.
(Fig 2.1) LCD Display

Referred from Google.com

(Fig 2.2) LDR

Referred from Google.com


(Fig 2.3) Voltage Regulator

Referred from Google.com

(Fig 2.4) Power Relay

Referred from Google.com


2. Planning and formulation
 First we visited the VERITEK ENGG. Pvt Ltd. And decided the project PREPAID
ENERGY METER.
 Next week we visited the manufacturing site at Veritek and learnt about the
various methods of making an Energy meter.
 Next two weeks we worked upon the IC AD7752 and learnt its characteristics
and uses.
 Worked on the circuit diagram of the respective project.
 Learnt PCB itching method using PROTEUS software.
 We met Mr. Giradkar ( Marketing Sales Manager) at MSEB HeadOffice, Bandra,
regarding the market study of our project .
 We had been to L&T for market research and learning the technicalities of our
project.
3. System Design
3.1 Working Principle
Every consumer can buy a memory card (is nothing but an EEPROM IC) with a
password stored inside it using a MC program. The memory card is available at various
ranges (i.e. Rs 50, Rs 100, Rs 200 etc).In our project we have given the name for memory
card as
smart card.
When the consumer insert a smart card into the card reader which is connected in prepaid
energy meter with tariff indicator kit. The card reader will read the stored information
and delete the information from the EEPROM IC (smart card) using the MC program. So
that the smart card cannot be reused by others. According to the power consumption the
amount will be reduced. When the amount is over, the relays will automatically shutdown
the whole system.
Microcontroller AT89S52 acts as the primary controller. The primary controller collects
information from energy meter as well as from the smart card which is IC AT24C02
(EEPROM chip). Smart card gives information about the limitation of units. The energy
meter reading is compared with the smart card information by the primary controller.
Depending on the result the Primary Controller will activate the buzzer if the credit is low
and the Controller will trigger the Relay if the credit goes very low.
Once the Relay is triggered, the electricity Supply will be cut. The supply will start again
only when the meter is recharged with enough credit. The Block diagram is shown in
figure 2.1 and the circuit diagram is shown is figure 2.2
Description.

This is a simple approach to obtain a 12V and 5V DC power supply using a single
circuit. The circuit uses two ICs 7812(IC1) and 7805 (IC2) for obtaining the
required voltages. The AC mains voltage will be stepped down by the transformer
T1, rectified by bridge B1 and filtered by capacitor C1 to obtain a steady DC
level .The IC1 regulates this voltage to obtain a steady 12V DC. The output of the
IC1 will be regulated by the IC2 to obtain a steady 5V DC at its output. In this way
both 12V and 5V DC are obtained.

Such a circuit is very useful in cases when we need two DC voltages for the
operation of a circuit. By varying the type number of the IC1 and IC2, various
combinations of output voltages can be obtained. If 7806 is used for IC2, we will
get 6V instead of 5V.Same way if 7809 is used for IC1 we get 9V instead of 12V.

Circuit diagram with Parts list.

Notes.

 Assemble the circuit on a good quality PCB or common board.


 The transformer T1 can be a 230V primary, 15V secondary, 1A step-down
transformer.
 The fuse F1 can be of 1A.
 The switch S1 can be a SPST ON/OFF switch.
 The LED D1 acts as a power ON indicator.
 If 1A bridge B1 is not available, make one using four 1N4007 diodes.
 78XX series ICs can deliver only up to 1A output current.
Almost all basic household electronic circuits need an unregulated AC to be
converted to constant DC, in order to operate the electronic device. All devices
will have a certain power supply limit and the electronic circuits inside these
devices must be able to supply a constant DC voltage within this limit. This DC
supply is regulated and limited in terms of voltage and current. But the supply
provided from mains may be fluctuating and could easily break down the
electronic equipment, if not properly limited. This work of converting an
unregulated alternating current (AC) or voltage to a limited Direct current (DC) or
voltage to make the output constant regardless of the fluctuations in input, is
done by a regulated power supply circuit.

All the active and passive electronic devices will have a certain DC operating point
(Q-point or Quiescent point), and this point must be achieved by the source of DC
power.

The DC power supply is practically converted to each and every stage in an


electronic system. Thus a common requirement for all these phases will be the DC
power supply. All low power system can be run with a battery. But, for a long time
operating devices, batteries could prove to be costly and complicated. The best
method used is in the form of an unregulated power supply –a combination of a
transformer, rectifier and a filter. The diagram is shown below.

Unregulated Power Supply – Diagram


As shown in the figure above, a small step down transformer is used to reduce the
voltage level to the devices needs. In India, a 1 Ø supply is available at 230 volts.
The output of the transformer is a pulsating sinusoidal AC voltage, which is
converted to pulsating DC with the help of a rectifier. This output is given to a
filter circuit which reduces the AC ripples, and passes the DC components. But
here are certain disadvantages in using an unregulated power supply.

Disadvantages of unregulated power supply

1. Poor Regulation – When the load varies, the output does not appear constant.
The output voltage changes by a great value due to the huge change in the
current drawn from the supply. This is mainly due to the high internal resistance of
the power supply (>30 Ohms).

2. AC Supply Main Variations – The maximum variations in AC supply mains is


give or take 6% of its rated value. But this value may go higher in some countries
(180-280 volts). When the value is higher it’s DC voltage output will differ largely.

3. Temperature Variation – The use of semiconductor devices in electronic devices


may cause variation in temperature.

These variations in dc output voltage may cause an inaccurate or erratic operation


or even malfunctioning of many electronic circuits. For instance, in oscillators the
frequency will shift, in transmitters output will get distorted, and in amplifiers, the
operating point will shift causing bias instability.

All the above-listed problems are overcome with the help of a voltage
regulator which is employed in conjunction with an unregulated power supply.
Thus, the ripple voltage is largely reduced. Thus, the supply becomes a regulated
power supply.

The internal circuitry of a regulated power supply also contains certain current
limiting circuits which help the supply circuit from getting fried from inadvertent
circuits. Nowadays, all the power supplies use IC’s to reduce ripples, enhance
voltage regulation and for widened control options. Programmable power supplies
are also available to allow remote operation that is useful in many settings.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY


Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a
constant dc voltage of predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of
ac mains fluctuations or load variations.

Regulated Power Supply – Block Diagram

A regulated power supply essentially consists of an ordinary power supply and a


voltage regulating device, as illustrated in the figure. The output from an ordinary
power supply is fed to the voltage regulating device that provides the final output.
The output voltage remains constant irrespective of variations in the ac input
voltage or variations in output (or load) current.

Figure given below shows the complete circuit of a regulated power supply with a
transistor series regulator as a regulating device. Each part of the circuit is
explained in detail.

Transformer

A step down transformer is used to step down the voltage from the input AC to
the required voltage of the electronic device. This output voltage of the
transformer is customized by changing the turns ratio of the transformer
according the electronic device specs. The input of the transformer being 230
Volts AC mains, the output is provided to a full bridge rectifier circuit.

Know More: Transformers

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The FWR consists of 4 diodes which rectifies the output AC voltage or current
from the transistor to its equivalent DC quantity. As the name implies the FWR
rectifies both half’s of the AC input. The rectified DC output is given as input to
the filter circuit.

Know More: Full Wave Rectifier & Half Wave Rectifier

Filter Circuit

The filter circuit is used to convert the high rippled DC output of the FWR to
ripple free DC content. A ∏ filter is used to make the waveforms ripple free.

Know More: Filter Circuits

In Short

The ac voltage, typically 230 Vrms is connected to a transformer which transforms


that ac voltage to the level for the desired dc output. A bridge rectifier then
provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a ∏ (or C-L-C) filter
to produce a dc voltage. The resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac
voltage variation. A regulating circuit use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that
not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains constant even if the input
dc voltage varies somewhat or the load connected to the output dc voltage
changes. The regulated dc supply is available across a voltage divider.
Regulated Power Supply – Diagram

Often more than one dc voltage is required for the operation of electronic circuits.
A single power supply can provide as many as voltages as are required by using a
voltage (or potential) divider, as illustrated in the figure. As illustrated in the figure,
a potential divider is a single tapped resistor connected across the output
terminals of the supply. The tapped resistor may consist of two or three resistors
connected in series across the supply. In fact, a bleeder resistor may also be
employed as a potential divider.

Power Supply Characteristics


There are various factors that determine the quality of the power supply like the
load voltage, load current, voltage regulation, source regulation, output
impedance, ripple rejection, and so on. Some of the characteristics are briefly
explained below:

1. Load Regulation – The load regulation or load effect is the change in regulated
output voltage when the load current changes from minimum to maximum value.
Load regulation = Vno-load - Vfull-load

Vno-load refers to the Load Voltage at no load

Vfull-load refers to the Load voltage at full load.

From the above equation we can understand that when Vno-load occurs the load
resistance is infinite, that is, the out terminals are open circuited. Vfull-load occurs
when the load resistance is of the minimum value where voltage regulation is lost.

% Load Regulation = [(Vno-load - Vfull-load)/Vfull-load] * 100

2. Minimum Load Resistance – The load resistance at which a power supply


delivers its full-load rated current at rated voltage is referred to as minimum load
resistance.

Minimum Load Resistance = Vfull-load/Ifull-load

The value of Ifull-load, full load current should never increase than that mentioned
in the datasheet of the power supply.

3. Source/Line Regulation – In the block diagram, the input line voltage has a
nominal value of 230 Volts but in practice, here are considerable variations in ac
supply mains voltage. Since this ac supply mains voltage is the input to the
ordinary power supply, the filtered output of the bridge rectifier is almost directly
proportional to the ac mains voltage.
The source regulation is defined as the change in regulated output voltage for a
specified rage of lie voltage.

4. Output Impedance – A regulated power supply is a very stiff dc voltage source.


This means that the output resistance is very small. Even though the external load
resistance is varied, almost no change is seen in the load voltage. An ideal voltage
source has an output impedance of zero.

5. Ripple Rejection – Voltage regulators stabilize the output voltage against


variations in input voltage. Ripple is equivalent to a periodic variation in the input
voltage. Thus,a voltage regulator attenuates the ripple that comes in with the
unregulated input voltage. Since a voltage regulator uses negative feedback, the
distortion is reduced by the same factor as the gain.

PCB Manufacturing Process — A Step-by-


Step Guide
Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) form the backbone of all major electronics.

These miraculous inventions pop up in nearly all computational

electronics, including simpler devices like digital clocks, calculators etc.

For the uninitiated, a PCB routes electrical signals through electronics,

which satisfies the device's electrical and mechanical circuit

requirements. In short, PCBs tell the electricity where to go, bringing your

electronics to life.

PCBs direct current around their surface through a network of copper

pathways. The complex system of copper routes determines the unique

role of each piece of printed circuit board.

Before PCB design, circuit designers are recommended to get a tour of a

PC board shop and communicate with fabricators face to face over their

PCB manufacturing demands. It helps prevent designers making any

unnecessary errors from getting transmitted during the design stage.

However, as more companies outsourcing their PCB manufacturing


inquiries to overseas suppliers, this becomes unpractical. On this account,

we present this article in order to provide a proper understanding of PCB

manufacturing steps. Hopefully it gives circuit designers and those new to

PCB Industry a clear view on how printed circuit boards are manufactured,

and avoid making those unnecessary errors.

PCB Manufacturing Process Steps

Step 1: Design and Output

circuit boards should be rigorously compatible with, the designer creates

a PCB layout using PCB design software. Commonly-used PCB design

software includes Altium Designer, OrCAD, Pads, KiCad, Eagle etc. NOTE:

Before PCB fabrication, designers should inform their contract


manufacturer about the PCB design software version used to design the
circuit, it helps avoid issues caused by discrepancies.

Once the PCB design is approved for production, designers export the

design into format their manufacturers support. The most frequently used

program is called extended Gerber. The 1980's baby food ad campaign

sought beautiful babies, and this software creates some beautifully

designed offspring. Gerber also goes by the name IX274X.


The PCB industry birthed extended Gerber as the perfect output format.

Different PCB design software possibly calls for different Gerber file

generation steps, they all encode comprehensive vital information

including copper tracking layers, drill drawing, apertures, component

notations and other options. All aspects of the PCB design undergo checks

at this point. The software performs oversight algorithms on the design to

ensure that no errors go undetected. Designers also examines the plan

with regard to elements relating to track width, board edge spacing, trace

and hole spacing and hole size.

After a thorough examination, designers forward PCB file to PC Board

Houses for production. To ensure the design fulfills requirements for the

minimum tolerances during manufacturing process, almost all PCB Fab

Houses run Design for Manufacture (DFM) check before circuit boards

fabrication.

Step 2: From File to Film

PCB printing begins after designers output the PCB schematic files and

manufacturers conduct a DFM check. Manufacturers use a special printer

called a plotter, which makes photo films of the PCBs, to print circuit

boards. Manufacturers will use the films to image the PCBs. Although it's a

laser printer, it isn't a standard laser jet printer. Plotters use incredibly

precise printing technology to provide a highly detailed film of the PCB

design.
The final product results in a plastic sheet with a photo negative of the

PCB in black ink. For the inner layers of PCB, black ink represents the

conductive copper parts of the PCB. The remaining clear portion of the

image denotes the areas of non-conductive material. The outer layers

follow the opposite pattern: clear for copper, but black refers to the area

that'll be etched away. The plotter automatically develops the film, and the

film is securely stored to prevent any unwanted contact.

Each layer of PCB and solder mask receives its own clear and black film

sheet. In total, a two-layer PCB needs four sheets: two for the layers and

two for the solder mask. Significantly, all the films have to correspond

perfectly to each other. When used in harmony, they map out the PCB

alignment.

To achieve perfect alignment of all films, registration holes should be

punched through all films. The exactness of the hole occurs by adjusting

the table on which the film sits. When the tiny calibrations of the table
lead to an optimal match, the hole is punched. The holes will fit into the

registration pins in the next step of the imaging process.

Step 3: Printing the Inner layers: Where Will the Copper Go?

The creation of films in previous step aims to map out a figure of copper

path. Now it's time to print the figure on the film onto a copper foil.

This step in PCB manufacturing prepares to make actual PCB. The basic

form of PCB comprises a laminate board whose core material is epoxy

resin and glass fiber that are also called substrate material. Laminate

serves as an ideal body for receiving the copper that structures the PCB.

Substrate material provides a sturdy and dust-resistant starting point for

the PCB. Copper is pre-bonded on both sides. The process involves

whittling away the copper to reveal the design from the films.

In PCB construction, cleanliness does matter. The copper-sided laminate is

cleaned and passed into a decontaminated environment. During this stage,

it's vital that no dust particles settle on the laminate. An errant speck of

dirt might otherwise cause a circuit to be short or remain open.


Next, the clean panel receives a layer of photo-sensitive film called photo

resist. The photo resist comprises a layer of photo reactive chemicals that

harden after exposure to ultra violet light. This ensures an exact match

from the photo films to the photo resist. The films fit onto pins that hold

them in place over the laminate panel.

The film and board line up and receive a blast of UV light. The light passes

through the clear parts of the film, hardening the photo resist on the

copper underneath. The black ink from the plotter prevents the light from

reaching the areas not meant to harden, and they are slated for removal.

After the board becomes prepared, it is washed with an alkaline solution

that removes any photo resist left unhardened. A final pressure wash

removes anything else left on the surface. The board is then dried.

The product emerges with resist properly covering the copper areas meant

to remain in the final form. A technician examines the boards to ensure


that no errors occur during this stage. All the resist present at this point

denotes the copper that will emerge in the finished PCB.

This step only applies to boards with more than two layers. Simple two-

layer boards skip ahead to drilling. Multiple-layer boards require more

steps.

Step 4: Removing the Unwanted Copper

With the photo resist removed and the hardened resist covering the copper

we wish to keep, the board proceeds to the next stage: unwanted copper

removal. Just as the alkaline solution removed the resist, a more powerful

chemical preparation eats away the excess copper. The copper solvent

solution bath removes all of the exposed copper. Meanwhile, the desired

copper remains fully protected beneath the hardened layer of photo resist.

Not all copper boards are created equal. Some heavier boards require

larger amounts of copper solvent and varying lengths of exposure. As a

side note, heavier copper boards require additional attention for track

spacing. Most standard PCBs rely on similar specification.

Now that the solvent removed the unwanted copper, the hardened resist

protecting the preferred copper needs washing off. Another solvent

accomplishes this task. The board now glistens with only the copper

substrate necessary for the PCB.

Step 5: Layer Alignment and Optical Inspection

With all the layers clean and ready, the layers require alignment punches

to ensure they all line up. The registration holes align the inner layers to

the outer ones. The technician places the layers into a machine called the

optical punch, which permits an exact correspondence so the registration

holes are accurately punched.


Once the layers are placed together, it's impossible to correct any errors

occurring on the inner layers. Another machine performs an automatic

optical inspection of the panels to confirm a total absence of defects. The

original design from Gerber, which the manufacturer received, serves as

the model. The machine scans the layers using a laser sensor and

proceeds to electronically compare the digital image with the original

Gerber file.

If the machine finds inconsistency, the comparison is displayed on a

monitor for the technician to assess. Once the layer passes inspection, it

moves to the final stages of PCB production.

Step 6: Layer-up and Bond

In this stage, the circuit board takes shape. All the separate layers await

their union. With the layers ready and confirmed, they simply need to fuse

together. Outer layers must join with the substrate. The process happens

in two steps: layer-up and bonding.

The outer layer material consists of sheets of fiber glass, pre-impregnated

with epoxy resin. The shorthand for this is called prepreg. A thin copper

foil also covers the top and bottom of the original substrate, which

contains the copper trace etchings. Now, it's time to sandwich them

together.
The bonding occurs on a heavy steel table with metal clamps. The layers

securely fit into pins attached to the table. Everything must fit snugly to

prevent shifting during the alignment.

A technician begins by placing a prepreg layer over alignment basin. The

substrate layer fits over the prepreg before the copper sheet is placed.

Further sheets of prepreg sit on top of the copper layer. Finally, an

aluminum foil and copper press plate complete the stack. Now it's prepped

for pressing.

The entire operation undergoes an automatic routine run by the bonding

press computer. The computer orchestrates the process of heating up the

stack, the point in which to apply pressure, and when to allow the stack to

cool at a controlled rate.

Next, a certain amount of unpacking occurs. With all the layers molded

together in a super sandwich of PCB glory, the technician simply unpacks


the multi-layer PCB product. It's a simple matter of removing the

restraining pins and discarding the top pressure plate. The PCB goodness

emerges victorious from within its shell of aluminum press plates. The

copper foil, included in the process, remains to comprise the outer layers

of the PCB.

Step 7: Drill

Finally, holes are bored into the stack board. All components slated to

come later, such as copper-linking via holes and leaded aspects, rely on

the exactness of precision drill holes. The holes are drilled to a hairs-width

- the drill achieves 100 microns in diameter, while hair averages at 150

microns.

To find the location of the drill targets, an x-ray locator identifies the

proper drill target spots. Then, proper registration holes are bored to

secure the stack for the series of more specific holes.


Before drilling, the technician places a board of buffer material beneath

the drill target to ensure a clean bore is enacted. The exit-material

prevents any unnecessary tearing upon the drill's exits.

A computer controls every micro-movement of the drill - it's only natural

that a product that determines the behavior of machines would rely on

computers. The computer-driven machine uses the drilling file from the

original design to identify the proper spots to bore.

The drills use air-driven spindles that turn at 150,000 rpm. At this speed,

you might think that drilling happens in a flash, but there are many holes

to bore. An average PCB contains well over one hundred bore intact points.

During drilling, each needs its own special moment with the drill, so it

takes time. The holes later house the vias and mechanical mounting holes

for the PCB. The final affixation of these parts occurs later, after plating.

After the drilling completes itself, the additional copper that lines the

edges of the production panel undergoes removal by a profiling tool.

Step 8: Plating and Copper Deposition

After drilling, the panel moves onto plating. The process fuses the

different layers together using chemical deposition. After a thorough

cleaning, the panel undergoes a series of chemical baths. During the


baths, a chemical deposition process deposits a thin layer - about one

micron thick - of copper over the surface of the panel. The copper goes

into the recently drilled holes.

Prior to this step, the interior surface of the holes simply exposes the fiber

glass material that comprises the interior of the panel. The copper baths

completely cover, or plate, the walls of the holes. Incidentally, the entire

panel receives a new layer of copper. Most importantly, the new holes are

covered. Computers control the entire process of dipping, removal and

procession.

Step 9: Outer Layer Imaging

In Step 3, we applied photo resist to the panel. In this step, we do it again -

except this time, we image the outer layers of the panel with PCB design.

We begin with the layers in a sterile room to prevent any contaminants

from sticking to the layer surface, then apply a layer of photo resist to the

panel. The prepped panel passes into the yellow room. UV lights affect

photo resist. Yellow light wavelengths don't carry UV levels sufficient to

affect the photo resist.

Black ink transparencies are secured by pins to prevent misalignment with

the panel. With panel and stencil in contact, a generator blasts them with

high UV light, which hardens the photo resist. The panel then passes into a

machine that removes the unhardened resist, protected by the black ink

opacity.

The process stands as an inversion to that of the inner layers. Finally, the

outer plates undergo inspection to ensure all of the undesired photo resist

was removed during the previous stage.

Step 10: Plating


We return to the plating room. As we did in Step 8, we electroplate the

panel with a thin layer of copper. The exposed sections of the panel from

the outer layer photo resist stage receive the copper electro-plating.

Following the initial copper plating baths, the panel usually receives tin

plating, which permits the removal of all the copper left on the board

slated for removal. The tin guards the section of the panel meant to remain

covered with copper during the next etching stage. Etching removes the

unwanted copper foil from the panel.

Step 11: Final Etching

The tin protects the desired copper during this stage. The unwanted

exposed copper and copper beneath the remaining resist layer undergo

removal. Again, chemical solutions are applied to remove the excess

copper. Meanwhile, the tin protects the valued copper during this stage.

The conducting areas and connections are now properly established.

Step 12: Solder Mask Application

Before the solder mask is applied to both sides of the board, the panels

are cleaned and covered with an epoxy solder mask ink. The boards

receive a blast of UV light, which passes through a solder mask photo film.

The covered portions remain unhardened and will undergo removal.

Finally, the board passes into an oven to cure the solder mask.

Step 13: Surface Finish

To add extra solder-ability to the PCB, we chemically plate them with gold

or silver. Some PCBs also receive hot air-leveled pads during this stage.

The hot air leveling results in uniform pads. That process leads to the

generation of surface finish. PCBCart can process multiple types

of surface finish according to customers' specific demands.

Step 14: Silkscreen


The nearly completed board receives ink-jet writing on its surface, used to

indicate all vital information pertaining to the PCB. The PCB finally passes

onto the last coating and curing stage.

Step 15: Electrical Test

As a final precaution, a technician performs electrical tests on the PCB.

The automated procedure confirms the functionality of the PCB and its

conformity to the original design. At PCBCart, we offer an advanced

version of electrical testing called Flying Probe Testing, which depends on

moving probes to test electrical performance of each net on a bare circuit

board.

Step 16: Profiling and V-Scoring

Now we've come to the last step: cutting. Different boards are cut from the

original panel. The method employed either centers on using a router or a

v-groove. A router leaves small tabs along the board edges while the v-

groove cuts diagonal channels along both sides of the board. Both ways

permit the boards to easily pop out from the panel.


Need Someone to Manufacture Your PCBs? PCBCart can help!

As you can see, a lot of work goes into manufacturing process of printed

circuit boards. To guarantee PCBs be manufactured with your expected

quality, performance and durability, you have to pick up a PCB

Manufacturer which has high level of expertise and a focus on quality at

each stage.

PCBCart is one of China's most experienced custom PCB production

service supplier. With the idea that our success is measured by our clients'

success, we focus on the care and attention to detail that each PCB

manufacturing step requires. We also offer vacuum packaging, weighing

and delivery to make sure your PCB order arrives safely and free of

damage. Up to now, we have printed circuit boards for companies of all

sizes from over 80 countries, we aim to deliver our manufactured PCBs to

every corner of this world in the coming years.

We offer quickturn PCB prototype, mass PCB production and assembly

services. Quotation is always free. Check out following articles to learn

more about our services. If you have questions or prefer discuss with us

directly, please drop us a line here.

• A Brief Introduction about PCBCart

• Custom PCB Fabrication Service Featuring Multiple Value-added services

• Advanced PCB Assembly Service at Cost-effective Price

• File Requirement for a Quick and Precise PCB Quotation

• Get an Instant PCB Fabrication Price of Your Project

• Request PCB Assembly Price for Your Custom Project

• How to Evaluate A PCB Manufacturer or A PCB Assembler


16x2 LCD Module
30 August 2017 - 0 Comments
16x2 LCD Module
16x2 LCD Module Pinout
[Click the image to enlarge it]

Pin Configuration

Pin No: Pin Name: Description

1 Vss (Ground) Ground pin connected to system ground

2 Vdd (+5 Volt) Powers the LCD with +5V (4.7V – 5.3V)

3 VE (Contrast V) Decides the contrast level of display. Grounded to get maximum contr

4 Register Select Connected to Microcontroller to shit between command/data register

5 Read/Write Used to read or write data. Normally grounded to write data to LCD

6 Enable Connected to Microcontroller Pin and toggled between 1 and 0


acknowledgement

7 Data Pin 0
8 Data Pin 1
Data pins 0 to 7 forms a 8-bit data line. They can be con
9 Data Pin 2 Microcontroller to send 8-bit data.
These LCD’s can also operate on 4-bit mode in such case Data pin 4
will be left free.
10 Data Pin 3

11 Data Pin 4

12 Data Pin 5

13 Data Pin 6

14 Data Pin 7

15 LED Positive Backlight LED pin positive terminal

16 LED Negative Backlight LED pin negative terminal

Features of 16×2 LCD module


 Operating Voltage is 4.7V to 5.3V
 Current consumption is 1mA without backlight
 Alphanumeric LCD display module, meaning can display alphabets and numbers
 Consists of two rows and each row can print 16 characters.
 Each character is build by a 5×8 pixel box
 Can work on both 8-bit and 4-bit mode
 It can also display any custom generated characters
 Available in Green and Blue Backlight

16x2 Display Equivalents


Dot Matrix LED Display, 7-Segment LED Display, OLED Display, TFT LCD Screen Display
Brief Description on LCD modules
LCD modules are vey commonly used in most embedded projects, the reason being its cheap price,
availability and programmer friendly. Most of us would have come across these displays in our day to
day life, either at PCO’s or calculators. The appearance and the pinouts have already been visualized
above now let us get a bit technical.
16×2 LCD is named so because; it has 16 Columns and 2 Rows. There are a lot of combinations
available like, 8×1, 8×2, 10×2, 16×1, etc. but the most used one is the 16×2 LCD. So, it will have
(16×2=32) 32 characters in total and each character will be made of 5×8 Pixel Dots. A Single
character with all its Pixels is shown in the below picture.

Now, we know that each character has (5×8=40) 40 Pixels and for 32 Characters we will have (32×40)
1280 Pixels. Further, the LCD should also be instructed about the Position of the Pixels. Hence it will
be a hectic task to handle everything with the help of MCU, hence an Interface IC like HD44780is
used, which is mounted on the backside of the LCD Module itself. The function of this IC is to get
the Commands and Data from the MCU and process them to display meaningful information onto
our LCD Screen. You can learn how to interface an LCD using the above mentioned links. If you are
an advanced programmer and would like to create your own library for interfacing your
Microcontroller with this LCD module then you have to understand the HD44780 IC is working and
commands which can be found its datasheet.

2D model of 16×2 LCD module

A gripper is a device which enables the holding of an object to be manipulated. The


easier way to describe a gripper is to think of the human hand. Just like a hand, a
gripper enables holding, tightening, handling and releasing of an object. A gripper is just
one component of an automated system. A gripper can be attached to a robot or it can
be part of a fixed automation system. Many styles and sizes of grippers exist so that the
correct model can be selected for the application.

WHAT IS THE BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPAL OF A GRIPPER?


Compressed air is supplied to the cylinder of the gripper body forcing the piston up and
down, which through a mechanical linkage, forces the gripper jaws open and closed.
There are 3 primary motions of the gripper jaws; parallel, angular and toggle. These
operating principals refer to the motion of the gripper jaws in relation to the gripper
body.

Parallel Gripper
The gripper jaws move in a parallel motion in relation to the gripper body. Used in a
majority of applications, parallel grippers are typically more accurate than other style
grippers.

Angular Gripper
The gripper jaws are opened and closed around a central pivot point, moving in a
sweeping or arcing motion. Angular grippers are often used when limited space is
available or when the jaws need to move up and out of the way. Toggle Gripper The
pivot point jaw movement acts as an over-center toggle lock, providing a high grip force
to weight ratio. This mechanism will remain locked even if air pressure is lost.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A 2-JAW AND 3-JAW GRIPPER


2-Jaw Gripper: The most popular style of gripper, all 2 Jaw grippers (angular, parallel
and toggle) provide 2 mounting locations for the fingers that come in contact with the
part to be grasped. The jaws move in a synchronous motion opening and closing toward
the central axis of the gripper body
3-Jaw Gripper: A more specialized style of gripper, all 3 Jaw grippers (parallel and
toggle) provide 3 mounting locations for the fingers that come in contact with the part to
be grasped. The jaws move in a synchronous motion opening and closing toward the
central axis of the gripper body. 3 Jaws provide more contact with the part to be
grasped and more accurate centering than 2 jaw models.

INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL GRIPPING


Grippers are used in two different holding options, External and Internal. The option
used is determined by the geometry of the part to be grasped, the process to be
performed, orientation of the parts to be grasped and the physical space available.

your workshop. Making the right tool choice is always important and
should help you save time and money at the end of the day.

3.2 Advantages of Prepaid Energy Meters:


Pay before use
Recover money owed (debt)
Lower Overheads
No bill production
No bill distribution
No need to chase payments
No further actions such as disconnections

3.3 Disadvantages:
1.) The main disadvantage of the system is, because of huge electronic hardware involved
in the system, the overall system consumes more electric energy
Remedy: When the system is converted into engineering module, the bulky hardware
can be converted into a small-integrated chip. When the hardware is minimized naturally
the system consumes less power.
2.) Since it is a prototype module, because of huge hardware the system occupies more
space
3.) The consumer or the electrical department has to spend more amounts for installing
this kind of smart energy meters. Economically it is not advised.

3.4 Applications:
1.) In Homes
2.) In Festivals where electricity is required just for a few days.
3.) Rental accommodation
4.) Industries and Factories
5.) In Malls
Energy Meter Digital Display

Microcontroller Unit

Smart Card
Buzzer
Read/Write

Power Supply

(Figure 3.1.1) Block Diagram


(Figure 3.1.2) Circuit Diagram

Referred from www.electronicsforu.com.


4. Market Study
4.1 Market Drivers
4.1.1 Power sector reforms:
The upcoming competitive and customer focused deregulated power distribution market
will force the market participants to make the existing metering and billing process more
competent. This is likely to drive the prepaid market.

4.1.2 Increasing non-technical losses:


Metering errors, tampering with meters leading to low registration and calibration related
frauds are some of the key components of non-technical losses. India reports greater than
10 percent of non-technical losses. It has been reported that prepaid meters control non-
technical losses better than conventional ones.

4.1.3 Opportunities in the emerging electrifying markets:


Most of the Asian countries do not have 100 percent electrification; hence new markets
are being created by the increasing generating capacity. Prepaid systems can be more
easily introduced in such new markets rather than the existing ones.

4.2 Market Restraints

4.2.1 Consumer behavior:


Consumers have not had any major problems with the existing post-paid system, and
hence it is likely to be difficult to convince them to change over to prepaid system.
Consumers might not appreciate the concept of "pay and use" as far as electricity is
concerned because it might be perceived as an instrument to control common man’s life
style.

4.2.2 Initial investment:


Utilities might be discouraged by the huge initial investment, which includes the cost of
instrument, marketing campaign, establishing distribution channel, and other
management costs.
4.2.3 Rapid technology changes:
The rapid technology changes happening in the metering market are expected to delay the
decision to go for prepaid system.

4.2.4 Uncertainty over the success:


Prepaid system is not as proven a concept in all the markets as South Africa; hence there
is bound to be uncertainty over its success, if implemented. The success of the system
depends on the commitment by utilities and for this they need to get convinced on the
real benefits of prepaid meters
5. Conclusions
Prepayment systems have been proposed as an innovative solution to the problem of
affordability in utilities services. In spite of being a popular system in European and
African countries, the use of such mechanisms remains controversial. Among the main
arguments in favor of its dissemination are the advantages concerning lower costs of
arrears, running costs and finance charges for the service provider and the better
allocation of resources it implies for users. The arguments against prepaid meters are
based on the higher cost of the technology and the possibility of self-disconnection of
low-income users.
The monopolistic power distribution market in Asia is gradually transforming into a
competitive marketplace. Differentiation in service is going to be the key competitive
factor to improve market share in the deregulated power markets. Prepaid meters with
their advantages over conventional ones are likely to help power distributors to
differentiate and offer value-added services to consumers. Encouraging consumers to opt
for prepaid meters on a voluntary basis and offering tariff or non-tariff incentives to those
consumers who prepay their power charges, would help the utilities to implement this
system.
References:
www.electronicsforu.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.energymeter.com
www.thinkfast.com

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