Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Sensitivity analysis for optimization of renewable-energy-based air- T

circulation-type temperature-control system
⁎
Haksung Leea, , Akihito Ozakib
a
Graduate School of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University, Japan
b
Faculty of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University, Japan

H I GH L IG H T S

• Hybrid passive system comprising air circulation system and PCM unit proposed.
• The proposed system controls thermal and peak loads utilizing renewable energy.
• Individual effects and correlations for various parameters confirmed.
• Simulation-based analysis results agreed well with experimental results.
• Temperature control optimization and the efficacy of the system assessed.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A detailed investigation of thermal performance of an air-circulation-type temperature-control system to serve as

Renewable energy an alternative means of saving energy and heat storage is reported. The proposed system is of the hybrid type
Ventilated cavity combining a central air-conditioning system, system incorporating phase-change material (PCM), and a roof-
Air-circulation system ventilation layer. The said hybrid system was tested by means of an experiment performed in an actual house
PCM
located in Yufuin in the Oita prefecture in Japan. Numerical analysis was performed using Hygrabe—an un-
Sensible heat-load reduction
Optimization
steady heat-transfer-analysis tool—for the building envelope. Results of the said experiment were observed to
accurately predict the effects of radiative cooling, exhaust cooling, cold storage and release in summer, solar-
heat collection, and heat storage and release in winter. The potential for improved operation of the proposed
system was demonstrated via parameter sensitivity analysis, which quantified the change in each effect along
with resulting correlations deduced based on changes brought about in individual factors, such as air velocity,
roof length, and PCM box. The proposed study, therefore, facilitates development of design guidelines for
temperature-control systems to be installed in high-performance passive homes.

1. Introduction 1.1. Utilization of building-envelope heat energy

Presently, high energy-conservation standards are being maintained
across the world. In Japan, however, approximately 30% of all re-
sidential energy consumption accounts for home heating and cooling
[1]. Whereas energy consumption can be slightly reduced by
strengthening thermal insulation and airtight performance of houses,
introduction of a new technology is indispensable for further econo-
mization of energy consumption with the ultimate aim being realization
of zero-energy buildings (ZEBs) and houses (ZEHs). Indeed, passive
technology using renewable energy is expected to reduce heating and
cooling loads. The Japanese Basic Energy Plan targets realization of
ZEHs in new homes by 2030 [2].
1.1.1. Radiative cooling
The building envelope offers advantages, such as radiative cooling
and solar-heat collection, and many researchers have developed tech-
nologies to save energy based on these properties. Radiative cooling
involves heat dissipation via radiations in the wavelength interval of
8–14 μm from buildings to the Earth’s atmosphere facilitating its use as
a passive cooling technique. Although night ventilation is a viable
method for minimizing overheating during summer [3], the corre-
sponding cooling effect can be enhanced via use of a free cooling system
based on nocturnal radiative cooling. Bokor et al. [4] investigated the
cooling potential of nocturnal radiative air cooling in four European

⁎
Corresponding author at: Kyushu University, Hakozaki, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan.
E-mail address: h.lee.513@s.kyushu-u.ac.jp (H. Lee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.08.111
Received 12 May 2018; Received in revised form 30 July 2018; Accepted 18 August 2018
0306-2619/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Lee, A. Ozaki
capitals by using a corrugated, perforated metal plate that intakes
ambient air and acts as a radiant surface. Considerable cooling potential
was demonstrated in southern Europe, where the nocturnal cooling
effect was observed to be insufficient despite the high demand for
adequate cooling. However, detailed research must be conducted con-
cerning combined use of a solar air heater and a nocturnal radiator.
Parker et al. [5] evaluated a nocturnal radiation-cooling system for use
in North American climates. They studied air circulation in an indoor
room and the attic space covered by a metal roof equipped with an
integrated radiator. A comparison between the two test buildings re-
vealed that an average 15% of the cooling energy could be saved.
Hollick [6] proposed that the air cooled by radiative cooling on roofs
can be better utilized by connecting ventilation fans to provide heating
as well as cooling effects in a building. Water can also be used as a heat
carrier in cooling systems. Meanwhile, studies on passive cooling
techniques employing refrigerant circulation and radiant-cooling panels
have also been reported. Meir et al. [7] presented a radiative cooling
system comprising unglazed flat-plate radiators to be installed on roofs
of houses. Hydronic radiant-distribution systems with large surfaces,
such as ceilings or floors, have also been proposed. Farahani et al. [8]
proposed a cooling system using water cooled by nocturnal radiative
cooling. Their system utilized chilled water pumped into the cooling
coil unit to reduce the temperature of outdoor air. They observed that
their proposed two-stage system was capable of providing comfortable
conditions. Gentle et al. [9] analyzed the substantial heat-load-reduc-
tion effect of cooled roofs by considering albedo, thermal emittance,
and R-value. Research has also been performed concerning the effect of
temperature reduction using radiative cooling not only at night but also
during the day under presence direct sunlight [10]. Research con-
cerning nighttime radiation cooling has mainly been focused on redu-
cing cooling energy during summer. However, further research is re-
quired to be performed concerning hybrid systems that are equally
potent at collecting solar heat during winter months.
1.1.2. Solar collectors and ventilated cavity
The use of ventilated facades—an additional ventilation layer to
facilitate airflow—has recently increased, because the ventilated cavity
in the envelope facilitates passive solar cooling and heating. Ibáñez-Puy
et al. [11] reviewed and arranged literature concerning opaque venti-
lated facades in terms of their thermal performance and parameters
under presence of natural wind and buoyancy-driven ventilation. They
pointed out that the effect of ventilated facades during winter is in-
sufficient, and that realizable benefits of solar heat during winter
months are disputed. Gracia et al. [12] described various typologies for
numerical modeling when computing the thermal performance of
ventilated (or double-skin) facades whilst also examining their benefits
and limitations. Sandberg et al. [13] experimentally determined para-
meters for airflow and heat transfer with ventilated solar roofs from
solar-cell modules to air gaps. Hirunlabh et al. [14] numerically dis-
cussed the ventilation-cooling effect using a roof equipped with a
ventilated cavity. They concluded that long-term data analysis with
full-scale testing is required, and that systems coupled with other pas-
sive cooling devices, such as a Trombe wall, would considerably im-
prove this effect. Dimoudi et al. [15] implemented a comparative ex-
periment using a full-scale ventilated roof under real southern climates.
Baloco [16] devised a simple tool by applying the steady-state energy
balance principle using a finite-element code. He evaluated the cooling
effect of ventilated facades in accordance with the channel widths.
Moreover, non-dimensional analysis was proposed to evaluate me-
chanically ventilated double-glazed facades [17]. Lee et al. [18] con-
ducted an experiment using a full-scale roof simulator to evaluate the
cooling effect and influence of the roof slope, solar-radiation intensity,
size and figure of cavities, and panel profiles. Falk et al. [19,20] per-
formed experiments to measure air velocities and temperatures inside
south-oriented wall cavities that possess vertical wooden or horizontal
and vented metal battens, because the air-change rate per hour and its
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Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329
corresponding variation depend on multiple factors. Subsequently,
using their proposed driving-force model based on experimental results,
they performed calculations to predict the hygrothermal performance
of a rain-screen cladding.
Research has also been performed concerning utilization of solar
heat in winter via use of ventilated facades. López et al. [21] performed
a simulation on variable weather conditions in Spain using a model
wherein air entered a ventilated façade, through a lower opening in the
external wall, and was subsequently introduced into individual rooms,
through an upper opening in the insulation layer. They demonstrated
the potential of use of this model under varying climatic conditions
during winter, and confirmed that the energy saving effect is mostly
influenced by the temperature and wind speed. Marinosci et al. [22]
performed field measurements during winter using test buildings and
numerical simulations. Ma et al. [23] investigated utilization of solar-
radiation heat stored within a Trombe wall inside a house installed with
central air-conditioning and air-circulation systems. Their findings
confirmed realization of heat-load reduction that results from supplying
heat in the air channel of the Trombe wall to the air-conditioning room
during the heating period. Furthermore, they noted aesthetic problems
and increased solar irradiation through use of additional windows.
They also stressed the need for further studies concerning optimization
of thickness of various materials, air-channel ventilation, window area
of storage wall, and installation of a temperature-controlled fan. Jones
et al. [24] demonstrated the possibility of applying ventilated cavities
to glass facades. They considered examples of passive design for in-
stallation in a modern office building, thereby demonstrating the po-
tential for reduced-energy demand through smart facade design along
with applicability of passive design in the design process through si-
mulations performed in Europe, the Middle East, and China. However,
it seems that further analysis of the specific acquired heat and partial
effects by the facade is necessary with regards to their proposed case
study and simulation. Building-integrated photovoltaic thermal solar-
collector systems also have attracted research attention owing to their
offered advantage of simultaneous useful electricity and heat genera-
tion along with aesthetic appeal [25]. These systems have, therefore,
been examined as viable techniques to control heating loads of build-
ings [26]. However, although these systems have been under devel-
opment since the early 1990 s, their widespread application is yet to be
realized owing to the higher costs involved [27]. Athienitis et al. [28]
assessed passive and active effects of a system building integrated
photovoltaic thermal solar collector with an air open-loop on the facade
of high-rise buildings in European climatic zones. Their numerical as-
sessment confirmed realization of reduction in the final energy con-
sumption of the order of 56.8% to 104.4%.
1.2. Phase-change material
Thermal-energy-derived passive cooling and heating of the building
envelope offers the disadvantage of high time dependency. Adoption of
a phase-change material (PCM) is regarded as one of the most efficient
ways to store thermal energy made possible by the high latent-heat
storage capacity of such a material during active and passive cooling
and/or heating, thereby increasing the heat capacity of buildings. A
PCM absorbs and releases a large amount of latent heat during its phase
change, and the corresponding latent heat consequently reduces tem-
perature fluctuations, levels the thermal load, and improves resident
comfort. Laouadi et al. [29,30] developed governing heat-transfer
equations for PCM and performed a theoretical study to assess the
thermal performance of a ventilated panel-heating unit employing
PCM. Devaux et al. [31] demonstrated benefits of PCM when in-
corporated in walls, ceilings, and in combination with a PCM subfloor
heating system using two different types of PCMs. In their study, peak
loads during morning and evening were observed to have shifted,
yielding energy and cost savings of up to 32% and 42%, respectively.
Pop et al. [32] suggested equations to evaluate the energy efficiency of
H. Lee, A. Ozaki
a fresh-air cooling system coupled with PCM. Saffari et al. [33] pre-
sented a single-objective optimization method to determine the op-
timum PCM melting temperature using Energy Plus. Their results de-
monstrate the feasibility of saving energy in many regions when an
appropriate PCM is selected for use in an enhanced passive system. Xiao
et al. [34] established a simplified theoretical model that optimizes an
interior PCM in a lightweight passive solar room. They evaluated the
optimum phase-change temperature, which depends on the average
indoor-air temperature and solar radiation absorbed by PCM panels.
Kabeel et al. [35] performed an experiment to investigate the thermal
performance of a finned-plate solar heater utilizing PCM. By using PCM,
the system demonstrated a daily improvement in efficiency of the order
of 10.8–13.6%. Royon et al. [36] studied a hollow concrete floor panel
filled with tailor-made shape-stabilized PCM. Biswas et al. [37] per-
formed simulations using a 2D-wall model with a PCM layer with
evaluation of the impact of hysteresis. PCM could be damaged during
mixing with rough concrete components. The resulting PCM leakage
could lead to deterioration of concrete-mix properties and building
durability. It also leads to increase in flammability of PCM leakage in
buildings. In another extant study [38], a robust microencapsulated
PCM has been introduced, and the corresponding heat-storage effect
has been demonstrated via simulations performed in TRANSYS. The
importance of studying various methods for building and PCM in-
tegration can, therefore, be confirmed. PCM is also used in industry to
increase energy efficiency and reduce installation costs. Zondag et al.
[39] performed an experiment concerning PCM storage designed based
on a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, wherein the shell side was filled
with PCM. Comparing the stable reference and high temperature salt
hydrate PCMs, the one, which is more likely to find wide applications in
the industry, was identified. Finally, Mavigiannaki et al. [40] system-
atically reviewed numerous research papers to catalogue current re-
searches being performed and identify corresponding trends.
1.3. Aim of the study
As mentioned above, many studies have analyzed the ability of
circulation systems to optimize temperature control by utilizing the
heat energy of building envelopes or latent-heat storage material;
however, these studies mainly focus on short-term measurements and/
or numerical analysis models for particular systems. Moreover, research
on the use of solar heat in winter is insufficient, because realizable
benefits of solar heat under these weather conditions are disputed [11].
Regarding radiative cooling, the ASHRAE Handbook (2001) [41] states
that radiative building cooling has not been fully developed. Moreover,
PCM studies performed to date have mainly integrated PCM into
structures, such as walls, floors, or ceilings, in an attempt to embed
them into building elements [40]; yet this strategy can only realize
minor heat-storage capacities relative to the building volume. More-
over, when a PCM pack is damaged or leaks during the liquefaction
process inside walls or slabs, their replacement is rather difficult, and
the failure to take appropriate action tends to increase the risk of a fire
hazard in buildings, and the effect of PCM on heat storage would also be
negatively affected. Investigations concerning development of new
methods for integrating buildings and PCM is, therefore, necessary.
Thus, although passive methods, such as building envelope heat and air
circulation and PCM technologies, offer numerous advantages, studies
concerning these methods have often independently examined each
system and its corresponding effects. In order to overcome the short-
comings of each system and optimize efficiency, development of an
integrated system and subsequent comprehensive analysis of its effects
is needed.
In view of this requirement, the authors propose an air-circulation
heat-storage system—a hybrid system that comprises (i) a central air-
conditioning air-circulation system; (ii) the concept of air circulation
via a roof-ventilation layer; and (iii) a PCM unit. Using the proposed
hybrid system, all indoor spaces can be maintained at a constant
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Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329
temperature. Furthermore, 24-h renewable energy produced by the
effects of radiative cooling, cooling via forced exhaust heat, cooling by
PCM cold release under summer mode of operation, and heating via
solar-heat collection with PCM heat release under winter mode of op-
eration also facilitate realization of energy-saving effects [42]. In the
proposed system, PCM has been arranged in the form of a large capacity
unit in the attic space between the roof-ventilation layer for utilizing
renewable energy and indoor living space. Should PCM replacement be
necessary owing to breakage or expiration of life span, it can be quickly
and efficiently performed. Further, the PCM unit is located in the center
of all air-circulation routes, and the air that passes through the PCM
unit helps in the realization of a balanced thermal-storage effect
throughout the building through the PCM unit → air-conditioning
space → all interior space route. In a previous research, the authors
demonstrated the effects of peak- and thermal-load reduction during
system under summer and winter modes. To continue this line of re-
search, this paper reports the authors' findings based on analytical
optimization and detailed system improvement, insofar as the previous
study exclusively revealed the effects of the current structure and set-
ting conditions.
Objectives of this study can be listed as under.
(1) To confirm magnitudes of heat corresponding to each componen-
t—radiative cooling, heat exhaust in the roof-ventilation layer, heat
stored within PCM during summer, solar-heat collected in the roof-
ventilation layer, and heat stored within PCM during winter—-
through actual measurements and simulations performed con-
cerning the hybrid system employed in a real house in Japan and
subsequently identify relevant correlations.
(2) To examine the optimization and improved system operation by
analyzing each effect via parameter sensitivity analysis based on
actual measurements performed within the house.
(3) To review energy-saving and storage effects of the system during
the hottest summer and coldest winter operating conditions.
The proposed study provides a foundation for further investigation
into methods that can be used to optimize and improve temperature-
control systems, thereby enabling the realization of high-performance
passive houses that not only save energy but also create a healthy in-
door environment. As a research methodology to achieve this objective,
the thermal environment of a real house for demonstration was mea-
sured during months of August 2016 (summer mode) and January 2017
(winter mode), and corresponding effects were examined.
Subsequently, by comparing measured values against numerical-simu-
lation results, the observed high accuracy of numerical simulations was
analyzed, and a parameter-sensitivity analysis was performed. Long-
term measurements of the actual residential environment equipped
with the proposed system enabled verification of the practical applic-
ability of the system via examination and analysis of temperature
changes in indoor and building elements in accordance with weather
and variable changes. Moreover, the said parameter-sensitivity analysis
along with verification of simulation accuracy and optimization based
on measured values can be used to serve as design guidelines for de-
velopment of future systems employing renewable energy and their
subsequent improvement, to be used by related field researchers,
system designers, and on-site construction professionals.
2. House used during experiment and overview of air-circulation-
type room-temperature-control system
A two-story wooden house (Fig. 1) built in Yufuin in the Oita Pre-
fecture, Japan was considered for performing experiments concerning
use of the proposed hybrid temperature-control system. The air-circu-
lation route of the central air-conditioning system along with the
summer and winter modes are briefly described in this section. Fig. 2
depicts the central air-conditioning system route within the
H. Lee, A. Ozaki
Fig. 1. Experimental house—(a) house exterior; (b) interior of air-conditioned room.
experimental house. In the room equipped with the heat-pump air
conditioner, outside air was introduced through a total heat exchanger
and subsequently circulated to each room via DC fans and ducts. The
system, therefore, functioned as an air-conditioning system with in-
tegrated ventilation and air conditioning operations, because the air in
each room was circulated—via ducts, corridors, etc.—to the air-condi-
tioner-equipped room. Fan A was installed on the eaves side to circulate
outside ambient air or air within the room into the roof-ventilation
layer; similarly, Fan B was installed in the attic space to introduce air
directly into the PCM unit without circulating it into the roof-ventila-
tion layer. When the system operates in the summer mode (Fig. 3),
during nighttime, the air within the room is circulated into the roof-
ventilation layer during nighttime, whereas that cooled via radiative
cooling is circulated into the room equipped with the air con-
ditioner—in conjunction with the cold stored within the PCM unit—to
reduce the overall cooling load (Fig. 3(a)). The cold energy is subse-
quently recovered and circulated when the outside-air temperature
Fig. 2. Central air-conditioning system.
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increases the following day (Fig. 3(b)). With increase in outside-air
temperature, the temperature within the roof-ventilation layer in-
creases owing to solar radiation received during daytime. The forced
fan operates to draw in outside air through the eaves and discharge it
outside to the ridge side. Consequently, the heat stored within the roof-
ventilation layer is exhausted (Fig. 3(c)). Conversely, when the system
operates in the winter mode (Fig. 4), air within the room flows into the
roof-ventilation layer, which during daytime, is heated by solar radia-
tion; subsequently, the heated air is circulated into the room equipped
with the air conditioner—in conjunction with the heat stored within the
PCM unit—to reduce the overall heating load (Fig. 4(a)). The stored
heat is then recovered during nighttime (Fig. 4(b)). Analysis of mea-
sured values during experiment revealed that the maximum amount of
heat or cold energy released in a single day approximately equaled 6
kWh. Additionally, simulation results concerning proposed-system op-
eration in the summer and winter modes yielded approximately 28%
reduction in sensible heat when compared against conventional
H. Lee, A. Ozaki
(a) Summer mode Route 1
(b) Summer mode Route 2
(c) Summer mode Route 2-2
Fig. 3. Air-circulation routes during system operation in summer mode.
systems, wherein each room is equipped with an air conditioner.
3. Sensitivity analysis for optimization
3.1. Experimental setup and numerical validation
Numerical analysis was performed using Hygrabe—a simulation
software that conducts hygrothermal analysis of building envelopes
[43,44]. More specifically, Hygrabe is used as an unsteady heat-
transfer-analysis tool for building envelopes. Within Hygrabe exists the
P-model, which is a non-equilibrium thermodynamic model based on
the law of energy conservation and moisture, which is characterized by
its use of thermodynamic energy with due consideration of the
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Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329
influence of stress as the driving force (water potential) of water flow
[45]. The numerical heat-transfer model for the wall was based on the
Crank–Nicolson and implicit methods, and was capable of in-
dependently modeling convection- and radiating-heat-type heat trans-
fers. The convective heat-transfer rate was determined based on the
boundary-layer theory. The finite difference method was applied to the
one-dimensional transient thermal conduction model for multi-layered
walls. Heat-balance equations concerning conductive heat transfer
within all materials were obtained as follows.
• Heat balance
∂CρT
= ∇ λ ∇T
∂t (1)
where C and ρ denote the specific heat and specific weight of the
material containing water, and λ denotes the corresponding thermal
conductivity.
Values of convective heat-transfer coefficients were recalculated at
each time step on all surfaces—exterior, interior, and those of building
cavities—using dimensionless equations listed in Table 1, which have
been deduced based on either the boundary-layer profile method (using
the energy conservation, momentum conservation, and fluid friction
equations) or experimental findings in accordance with the natural
and/or forced convection phenomena. It is possible to use functional
equations concerning wind direction and velocity for determination of
exterior convective heat-transfer coefficients as well as those con-
cerning the temperature difference between all surfaces and ambient
environment within the room for determination of interior convective
heat-transfer coefficients.
The Sherwood number can be calculated by replacing the Prandtl
number with Schmidt number, as listed in Table 1. Consequently,
boundary conditions for heat balance equations can be expressed as
follow.
• Heat balance in the ventilation layer
2
dT
Vvol, c ·cγ
dt
= ∑ Sc, j·α c, j (Tj−Tc ) + Vven·cγ (To−Tc )
j=1 (2)
wherein cγ refers to the volumetric specific heat of air; Sc, j and Tj denote
surface area of the ventilation layer surface j and corresponding surface
temperature; Vvol, c denotes volume of the ventilation layer c ; Vven de-
notes the airflow rate; α c, j represents the convective heat-transfer
coefficient of the ventilation layer surface j .
Additionally, in case of natural ventilation, the airflow rate Vven
under buoyancy can be calculated using the network airflow model
[46].
• Boundary conditions
∂T
−λ = α c (Ta−Ts ) + qs + qs
∂n v (3)
where n v refers to the normal line vector directed inwards on a
boundary surface; qs denotes the quantity of long wave and short wave
radiant heat; and Ts denote the air and surface temperatures, respec-
tively; and α c denotes the convective heat-transfer coefficient.
In the above table, Gr: Grashof number; Nu: Nusselt number; Pr:
Prandtl number; Ra: Rayleigh number; Re: Reynolds number; Tm: mean
surface temperature; Δ Ta: temperature difference between surface and
air; Δ Ts: temperature difference between two surfaces; g: gravitational
constant; l: length; β : expansion coefficient; υ: kinematic viscosity.
Table 2 lists relevant design parameter values concerning the house
used in the experiments performed in this study. A parameter sensitivity
analysis was performed using these values under conditions identical to
those corresponding to the experimental house with the exception of
explanatory variables. Additionally, the range of variations in
H. Lee, A. Ozaki Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329

(a) Winter mode Route 1

(b) Winter mode Route 2

Fig. 4. Air circulation routes during system operation in winter mode.

parameter values was determined based on reference values. The am-
bient temperature and solar radiation, which were measured simulta-
neously when measuring the thermal environment inside the demon-
stration house, were used for performing simulations. Wind direction,
wind speed, and cloud volume constituted used data measured and
published by the Japan Meteorological Agency during the experimental
period.
Fig. 5 depicts the numerical model of the roof of the experimental
house considered in this study. Measured values for data concerning
external weather and room temperature were used to established the
numerical model. The temperature at the inlet was determined in ac-
cordance with the route condition, whereas the roof temperature was
determined based on the temperature at the side of the ridge, which
fluctuates with air circulation. Fig. 6 depicts the actual composition and
calculation model of the PCM unit installed in the attic under the roof.
The PCM unit comprised the mix and PCM boxes. The PCM box was
filled with paraffin PCM.
Heat conducted across the numerical model of PCM was minimized,
and the air inside the mix box was passed through the space between
PCMs within the PCM box. The air inside the mix box was received from

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Table 1
Expressions for dimensionless numbers used for estimating convective heat-
transfer coefficient.
Part of buildings Dimensionless number

Exterior Nu = 0.037Re0.8Pr1/3
Interior (Vertical Plane) Nu = 0.241(Gri·Pr)0.4
Gri = gβ ΔTa l3/ υ2
Interior (Horizontal Nu = C·Ram
f
Plane) Raf = Gri·Pr
f = (Ts + T∞)/2
Upward C = 0.58, m = 1/5
Downward C = 0.54, m = 1/4 (Raf: 2E4 to 8E6) C = 0.15,
m = 1/3 (Raf: 8E6 to 1E11)
Cavity (ventilated) Nu = 0.023Re0.8Pr 0.4
Cavity (closed) Nu = 0.035(Grc·Pr)0.38
Grc = g ΔTs l3/ Tm υ2

Table 2
Design parameters concerning experimental house.
System parameter Denoted by Experimental value Unit
(standard)

Length of roof-ventilation x 6 m
layer
Tilt angle α 22.4 °
Flow velocity within roof- V1 0.5 m/s
ventilation layer
Flow rate F 450 × 3 fans = 1350 m3
Flow velocity inside PCM box V2 1.78 m/s
PCM-box length y 1500 mm
Interval between PCMs z 57.5 mm
Average envelope heat- U 0.34 W/m2 K
transfer coefficient
Roof area A 62.215 m2

Fig. 6. PCM unit—(a) Actual unit composition; (b) Numerical model; (c) PCM
Fig. 5. Numerical model of roof. box dimensions; and (d) PCM unit installed in experimental house).

the roof-ventilation layer or attic space depending on the air-circulation
route condition. Fig. 7 depicts measurement results obtained con-
cerning the PCM unit installed in the house through use of the heat flux
plate method. As the gradient of the curve representing change in the
amount of heat stored increases in connection with the temperature
interval, the occurrence of phase-change phenomena, such as solidifi-
cation and melting, can be confirmed. The specific heat was calculated
based on the heat-flow rate observed during heating process of the heat
flux plate method. Correspondingly, in the numerical model, specific
heat of PCM was determined based on measured results.
Figs. 8 and 9 depict summer-mode operation results for the roof and
PCM unit, respectively, calculated in August 2016. The high accuracy of
calculated results observed in both cases serves to validate the simu-
lation. Grey columns in Figs. 8 and 9 depict times at which radiative
cooling during nighttime is performed via circulation through the roof-
ventilation layer (Fig. 3(a)). Conversely, white background sections
represent times at which the roof-ventilation layer circulates the forced
exhaust air (Fig. 3(c)). As an experimental condition for the house
considered in this study, the air within the roof-ventilation layer was
circulated at a flow velocity approximately equal to 0.5 m/s. It can be

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H. Lee, A. Ozaki
Ta Tb Tc
Fig. 7. Thermal properties of PCM.
confirmed that the exhaust heat causes the roof temperature to decrease
by more than 10 °C during daytime when compared against the corre-
sponding simulation result wherein roof-ventilation mostly relies on
natural convection (i.e., no use of the fan).
Figs. 10 and 11 depict winter-mode operation results corresponding
to the roof and PCM unit, respectively, calculated during January 2017.
As observed in the case of summer-mode results, high accuracy of the
calculated results observed in both cases served to validate the simu-
lation against experimental data. In Fig. 10, the roof temperature refers
to temperature recorded on the ridge side of the roof-ventilation layer.
Grey columns in both figures represent times during which indoor air is
injected into the roof-ventilation layer, which in turn, is heated via
solar radiation heat and circulated back into the indoor space. During
this circulation, the temperature rise—relative to the actual tempera-
ture at the inlet—equals approximately 10 °C. This finding confirms the
ability of the proposed system to collect solar heat.
3.2. Considerations for optimization of radiative cooling, PCM cold storage,
and exhaust cooling
Fig. 12 depicts necessary considerations to effect an increase in ef-
fectiveness of system operation inside the experimental house in the
summer-mode. That is, to enhance the effectiveness of summer-mode
cooling, reduction in heat transmitted through the roof via increased
forced exhaust heat, increased radiative cooling during nighttime, and
increased PCM cold storage and/or release must be considered. Because
the air cooled via radiative cooling effect of the roof-ventilation layer
passes through the PCM unit to store the cold, the amount of cold
storage also increases in accordance with an increase in radiative
Radiation cooling circulation
Roof temperature (measured)
Roof temperature (calculated)
Attic space
70
60
Temperature [ºC]
50
40
30
20
10
Time [day]
Fig. 8. Time history of variation in roof-ventilation-layer temperature (August 2016).
324
Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329
cooling. The corresponding calculation procedure can be described as
follows.
(1) Exhaust cooling: This can be calculated based on the airflow rate
and temperature difference between the ventilation layer and attic
space when the roof-ventilation temperature exceeds 25 °C
(Fig. 3(c)).
(2) Amount of radiative cooling: This can be calculated based on the
airflow rate and temperature difference between the ventilation
layer and the attic space when the roof-ventilation temperature
measured below 25 °C (Fig. 3(a)).
(3) Amount of cold release: This can be calculated based on the airflow
rate and temperature difference between the PCM-unit outlet and
mix box (Fig. 3(b)). The mix-box temperature refers to the tem-
perature of air flowing from the roof-ventilation layer into the mix
box or that of the attic space depending on route conditions. The
temperature on the ridge side of the roof-ventilation layer or that of
the attic space was predetermined during parameter sensitivity
analysis.
3.3. Considerations for the optimization of solar-heat collection and heat
storage
Fig. 13 illustrates necessary considerations to enhance effectiveness
of proposed system operation inside the experimental house in the
winter-mode. For more efficient heat collection and storage, three
factors have been considered in this study. Because air heated by solar
radiation in the roof-ventilation layer passes through the PCM unit to
store heat, the amount of stored heat increases corresponding to an
increase in solar-heat collection. Therefore, if heat loss between the
roof-ventilation layer and PCM unit is high, the corresponding heat-
storage efficiency is reduced. Further, if the proposed system results in
heat loss, heat circulates throughout the indoor space, thereby reducing
the heat load due to solar heat. However, to enhance heat-storage ef-
ficiency, heat-loss reduction must be necessarily considered. As pre-
viously mentioned, length of the roof-ventilation layer and air-circu-
lation flow rate significantly influence temperature fluctuations inside
the house. In view of this fact, increasing system efficiency under
winter-mode of operation requires that the system flow velocity be used
as an indicator of solar-heat collection. Moreover, to improve PCM
thermal storage, length of the PCM box and width of the space through
which air passes between PCMs must be optimized. The corresponding
calculation procedure can be described as under.
(1) Heat loss reduction: During solar-heat collection (Fig. 4(a)), input
temperature of the mix box corresponds to the temperature
Solar radiation
Outdoor temperature
Natural convection(calculated)
2000
Solar radiation [W/m2]
1500
1000
500
0
H. Lee, A. Ozaki Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329

Radiation cooling circulation PCM unit outlet temperature(measured)

PCM unit outlet temperature(calculated) MIX BOX

40

Temperature [℃]
35

30

25

20

15

Time [day]

Fig. 9. Time history of variation in PCM-unit temperature (August 2016).

measured on the ridge side of the roof-ventilation layer; the pre- Solar heat collection circulation Mix box(measured)
dicted discrepancy between the temperature on the duct side of the PCM unit outlet(measured) PCM unit outlet(calculated)
30
mix box and that of the roof-ventilation layer yield the simulated 28

Temperature [℃]
amount of heat loss. 26
24
(2) Amount of solar heat collected: This can be calculated based on the 22
airflow rate and temperature difference between the ventilation 20
layer and air inside the room when the roof-ventilation temperature 18
16
exceeds 25 °C (Fig. 4(a)). 14
(3) Amount of released heat: This can be calculated based on the air- 12
10
flow rate and temperature difference between the PCM-unit outlet
and mix box (Fig. 4(b)). Time [day]

Fig. 11. Time history of variation in PCM-unit temperature (January 2017).

4. Simulation conditions and results

4.1. Summer mode of operation
The simulation conditions are described in this section. The stan-
dard value of flow velocity and dimensions of the roof and PCM unit
used during simulation were identical to those corresponding to the
experimental house. For preliminary calculations, flow velocity within
the roof-ventilation layer was increased from 0.4 to 0.7 m/s in steps of
0.1 m/s, whereas the length of the roof-ventilation layer was increased
from 4 to 10 m in steps of 2 m corresponding to a flow rate of 0.5 m/s.
For secondary calculations, among varying temperatures of the roof-
ventilation layer, only temperatures measuring below 25 °C were con-
sidered as the mix-box temperature. When the roof temperature ex-
ceeded 25 °C, the mix-box temperature was set to be equal to the attic
space temperature. Fig. 14 illustrates daily cooling efficiency results for
varying values of flow velocity and roof-ventilation-layer length. The
daytime exhaust cooling effect of the roof-ventilation layer via use of
the forced fan is represented by a decrease in the amount of heat
transmitted through the roof. This amount of heat transmission was
derived based on the temperature difference between the roof-ventila-
tion layer and air inside the room, average heat-transmission coefficient
of the envelope, and roof area.
When airflow velocity within the roof-ventilation layer was in-
creased by 0.1 m/s, no significant increase was observed in the amount
of nighttime radiative cooling; however, the PCM-induced radiative
cooling demonstrated an increase of approximately 1.5 kWh/d. At an
airflow velocity was 0.7 m/s, the amount of cold released via PCM was
observed to exceed that of heat transmitted through the roof, thereby
improving the daytime-cooling effect. Although the amount of heat
transmitted through the roof increased in proportion to the roof length,
the cooling effect could be enhanced by increasing radiative cooling

Solar radiation Solar heat collection circulation

Roof temperature(measured) Roof temperature(calculated)
Outdoor temperature Roof inlet temperature(measured)
Attic Space
40 2000
Solar radiation [W/m2]

30
1500
Temperature [℃]

20

10 1000

0
500
-10

-20 0

Time [day]

Fig. 10. Time history of variation in roof-ventilation-layer temperature (January 2017).

325
H. Lee, A. Ozaki Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329

Fig. 12. Considerations for optimization of summer-mode operation.

and PCM cold release.
4.2. Winter mode of operation
Fig. 15 depicts simulation results concerning the PCM-box tem-
perature under the condition of variations in mix-box temperature to
equal the temperature on the ridge side of the roof-ventilation layer
when the roof temperature exceeds 25 °C (Winter route 1). Fig. 16 de-
picts the amount of heat stored and released, as calculated based on the
temperature difference between the mix box and PCM-unit outlet and
airflow rate. When the air moved from the roof-ventilation layer to the
mix box; assuming the occurrence of zero heat loss (e.g., Days 1, 4, and
28, as depicted in Fig. 16), the maximum amount of stored heat equals
approximately twice the standard amount.
Simulation conditions were maintained identical to those corre-
sponding to the experimental house, exceptions being explanatory
variables observed in the summer mode. Fig. 17 depicts how solar-heat
collection, heat storage, fan operating time for roof-ventilation, and
average value of the direct solar radiation that varies over several days.
Note that the average value of the ambient temperature is only

Fig. 13. Considerations for optimization of winter-mode operation.

326
H. Lee, A. Ozaki Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329

indicated when the temperature measures above zero. When the tem-
perature of the roof-ventilation layer exceeds 25 °C, the amount of solar
heat collected was calculated based on the temperature difference be-
tween the ventilation layer and ambient air in the attic space, and the
flow rate. Additionally, under this condition, the amount of heat stored
by the PCM box was obtained based on the airflow rate and tempera-
ture difference between inlet and outlet of the PCM box. On days when
sufficient solar heat (average direct solar radiation exceeding 3 kWh/
m2 d) was received, such as days 25, 26, and 28, the increase in flow
rate corresponded to a reduction in roof temperature along with cor-
responding increases in solar-heat collection and heat storage. Con-
(a) Observed trend in cooling efficacy versely, when only a small amount of solar radiation was received, or
corresponding to variations in flow velocity when the outside-air temperature measured very low, less time was
required to circulate air to the roof, thereby reducing solar-heat col-
lection. In view of this fact, although the three fans installed for air
circulation through the roof-ventilation layer of the experimental house
were designed to operate at high airflow rates (450 m3 per fan) under
winter-mode operation, their corresponding low-strength operation
could help increase heat collection on days with little solar irradiation.
Effects of the PCM-box length and space interval between PCMs
(i.e., the ventilation layer inside the PCM box) through which air flows
within the PCM box on the amount of heat stored can now be explained.
Once again, simulation conditions used were maintained identical to
experimental conditions with airflow velocity through the roof-venti-
lation layer measuring 0.5 m/s. Figs. 18 and 19 illustrate how the PCM-
box length and length of the ventilation layer affect their respective
(b) Observed trend in cooling efficacy
abilities to store and release heat over several days. The heat-storage
corresponding to variations in roof-ventilation-layer length capacity of the PCM box increases proportionally with increase in di-
Fig. 14. Cooling efficacy during summer mode of operation (as on August 23, mensions (length and width) of the PCM box. More specifically, when
2016). the length of the PCM box increases by 1 m, the amount of heat stored
increases to approximately 1.4 times. Additionally, when the space
Solar heat collection circulation Mix box temperature (measured)
interval between adjacent PCMs is increased by 2.5 times, the amount
of heat stored increases to approximately 1.5 times. Given a constant
PCM unit outlet(Calculated) Indoor temperatures
40 circulation airflow rate through the roof-ventilation layer, the ventila-
tion layer in the PCM box widens, thereby causing a decrease in cor-
Temperature [℃]

35
responding flow velocity. Consequently, the amount of heat stored in
30 the PCM box increases. However, a larger PCM space interval mandates
a PCM box design that enables uniform airflow through each of the
25
ventilation layers within the PCM box. These results provide evidence
20 that the area and scale of the attic and duct spaces for air circulation
15 must also be considered during utilization of the proposed system.

Time [Day]
5. Conclusion
Fig. 15. Time history of variation in PCM-unit temperature (January 2017).
This paper reports the design of a smart air-circulation-type room-
temperature control system with an integrated PCM unit along with
validation of its energy-saving and heat-storage effects, which could be

Fig. 16. Time history of variation in PCM-unit heat storage and release (January 2017).

327
H. Lee, A. Ozaki
0.6m/s
0.7m/s
0.6m/s
0.7m/s
Fig. 17. Solar-heat collection and heat-storage fluctuation in accordance with airflow velocity.
attributed to radiative cooling, exhaust-heat cooling, cold storage and
release during summer, solar-heat collection, and heat storage and re-
lease during winter. The indoor air, controlled by operation of the
central air-conditioning system for 24 h, circulates through the roof-
ventilation layer in summer during nighttime to obtain air with reduced
temperature through radiative cooling. Likewise, during winter months,
heat can be absorbed during periods solar irradiation in daytime, and
the heated air can be sent to the indoor space. Thus, the sensible heat
load can be reduced through use of the cooling and heating effect via
utilization of renewable energy, and at the same time, the effect ob-
tained by the natural energy can be utilized efficiently for 24 h.
In addition, limitations of passive design and renewable-energy
utilization techniques, such as use of the building-envelope heat and
PCM integration with the building, which have been pointed out in
extant studies, have been improved upon and overcome through use of
the proposed integrated system.
Especially, among the many variables affecting the previously dis-
cussed effects, the most realistic application possibility in architectural
design and facility planning is suggested as a factor of improvement in
terms of length, width, and flow control for each ventilation layer.
Results of numerical analyses performed using the Hygrabe simulation
software were found to demonstrate good agreement with experimental
results based on long-term measurements performed for an actual house
equipped with the proposed system. The results confirm high simula-
tion accuracy. The superiority and potential for improvement of the
proposed system was confirmed via parameter sensitivity analysis,
which quantified individual effects of various parameters along with
Fig. 18. Effects of PCM-box length on heat storage and release capabilities.
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Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329
7
0.4m/s
0.5m/s 6
0.6m/s 0.5m/s
0.7m/s 0.6m/s
0.7m/s
5
3
0.5m/s
0.6m/s 2
0.7m/s
1
respective correlations between heating and cooling capability and air
velocity, roof length, and PCM box length. Consequently, the proposed
research can be utilized as a reference to establish design guidelines for
high-performance systems to be installed in passive houses.
From the parameter sensitivity analysis performed in this study,
following conclusions can be drawn.
• Advantages associated with air circulation via utilization of roof
ventilation to exploit renewable-energy techniques, such as radia-
tive cooling, exhaust cooling, and solar-heat collection, increase in
proportion with the airflow rate and roof-ventilation layer length.
• Heat storage and release capabilities can be enhanced by increasing
the airflow rate and length of the PCM box as well as thickening of
the ventilation layer within the PCM box.
• Under summer-mode operation, when airflow velocity within the
roof-ventilation layer increases to 0.7 m/s, the cooling effect can be
increased during daytime by increasing the amount of PCM cold
release such that it exceeds the amount of transmitted heat. Under
winter-mode operation, the system efficiency can be optimized by
lowering the flow velocity when the average temperature of the
outside air measures below zero.
• Increasing the length of the PCM box by 1 m results in an approxi-
mately 1.4 times increase (maximum) in heat-storage capacity; ad-
ditionally, when the space interval between adjacent PCMs increases
by 2.5 times, the corresponding heat-storage capacity demonstrates
an approximately 1.5 times increase.
H. Lee, A. Ozaki Applied Energy 230 (2018) 317–329

Fig. 19. Effects of air-ventilation-layer length on PCM box heat storage and release capabilities.

Because the proposed research was performed under condition void
of any residents within the house, further research is needed to account
for the heat that may be generated in future. Development of a passive
hygrothermal performance system, capable of reducing the latent-heat
load through passive dehumidification and condensation prevention
inside walls through use of this system and fibrous insulation material
with excellent moisture capacity and hygroscopic performance, is pre-
sently in progress.
Acknowledgment
Funding sources.
This research did not receive any specific grant from any funding
agency from public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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