History of Afghanistan

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History of Afghanistan

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The written history of Afghanistan (Pashto: ‫ د افغانستان تاريخ‬, Da Afġānistān Tārīkh), can be traced
back to around 500 BCE when the area was under the Achaemenid Empire,[1] although evidence
indicates that an advanced degree of urbanized culture has existed in the land since between 3000
and 2000 BCE.[2][3][4] The Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up to large parts of Afghanistan in the
north, with several sites being known.[5] Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army arrived to
what is now Afghanistan in 330 BCE after conquering Persia during the Battle of Gaugamela.[6] Since
then, many empires have established capitals inside Afghanistan, including the Greco-
Bactrians, Mauryas, Kushans,Hindu
Shahi, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Timurids, Mughals, Hotakis, Khalsa
Empire and Durranis.[7]
Afghanistan (meaning "land of the Afghans") has been a strategically important location throughout
history.[8] The land served as "a gateway toIndia, impinging on the ancient Silk Road, which carried
trade from the Mediterranean to China".[9] Sitting on many trade and migration routes, Afghanistan
 may be called the 'Central Asian roundabout'[10] since routes converge from the Middle East, from
the Indus Valley through the passes over the Hindu Kush, from the Far East via the Tarim Basin,
and from the adjacent Eurasian Steppe.
The Aryans arrived to Afghanistan from the north after the 20th century BCE,[2] who left their
languages that survived in the form of Pashto andDari. The Arab invasions influenced the culture of
Afghanistan, as its pre-Islamic period of Zoroastrian, Hindu and Buddhist past had long
vanished. Turkic empire-builders such as the Ghaznavids, Ghurids and Timurids made the region
now called Afghanistan of major importance.
Mirwais Hotak followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani unified Afghan tribes and founded the last Afghan
Empire in the early 18th century CE.[11][12][13][14][15] Afghanistan's sovereignty has been held during
the Anglo-Afghan Wars, the 1980s Soviet war, and the 2001-present war by the country's many and
diverse people: the Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, Turkmen, Aimak, Baloch and others. The
Pashtuns form the largest group, claiming to be descendants of ancient Israelites or Qais Abdur
Rashid but scholars believe that they are a confederation of various peoples from the past who
united under Pashtunwali.

Contents
[hide]

 1Prehistory
o 1.1Indus Valley Civilisation
o 1.2Bactria-Margiana
 2Ancient history (700 BCE–565 CE)
o 2.1Medes
o 2.2Achaemenid Empire
o 2.3Alexander and the Seleucids
o 2.4Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
o 2.5Mauryan Empire
o 2.6Indo-Scythians
o 2.7Indo-Parthians
o 2.8Kushans
o 2.9Sassanids
o 2.10Kidarites
 2.10.1The White Huns
 3Middle Ages (565–1504 CE)
o 3.1Hindu Shahi
o 3.2Palas
o 3.3Islamic conquest
o 3.4Ghaznavids
o 3.5Ghorids
o 3.6Mongol invasion
o 3.7Timurids
 4Modern era (1504–1973)
o 4.1Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids
o 4.2Hotaki dynasty
o 4.3Durrani Empire
o 4.4Barakzai dynasty and British influence
o 4.5Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war
o 4.6Reigns of Nadir Khan and Zahir Khan
 5Contemporary era (1973–present)
 o 5.1Republic of Afghanistan and the end of monarchy
o 5.2Democratic Republic and Soviet war
o 5.3Foreign interference and civil war
o 5.4Taliban and the United Front
o 5.5NATO presence and the Karzai administration
 6See also
 7References
 8Further reading
 9External links

Prehistory[edit]
Main article: Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan

Tents of Afghan nomads in the northern Badghis province of Afghanistan. Early peasant farming villages came
into existence in Afghanistan about 7,000 years ago.

Excavations of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree and others at Darra-e Kur in 1966 where 800 stone
implements were recovered along with a fragment of Neanderthal right temporal bone, suggest that
early humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 52,000 years ago. A cave called Kara
Kamar contained Upper Paleolithic blades Carbon-14 dated at 34,000 years old.[16] Farming
communities in Afghanistan were among the earliest in the world.[4] Archaeologists have found
evidence of human habitation in Afghanistan from as far back as 50,000 BC. The artifacts indicate
that the indigenous people were small farmers and herdsmen, very probably grouped into tribes,
with small local kingdoms rising and falling through the ages. Urbanization may have begun as early
as 3000 BCE.[17] Zoroastrianism predominated as the religion in the area; even the modern Afghan
solar calendar shows the influence of Zoroastrianism in the names of the months. Other religions
such as Buddhism and Hinduism flourished later, leaving a major mark in the region. Gandhara is
the name of an ancient kingdom from the Vedic period and its capital city located between
theHindukush and Sulaiman Mountains (mountains of Solomon),[18] although Kandahar in modern
times and the ancient Gandhara are not geographically identical.[19][20]
Early inhabitants, around 3000 BCE were likely to have been connected through culture and trade to
neighboring civilizations like Jiroft and Tappeh Sialk and the Indus Valley Civilization. Urban
civilization may have begun as early as 3000 BCE and it is possible that the early city of Mundigak
(nearKandahar) was a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization.[3] The first known people
were Indo-Iranians,[4] but their date of arrival has been estimated widely from as early as about 3000
BCE[21] to 1500 BCE.[22] (For further detail see Indo-Aryan migration.)
Indus Valley Civilisation[edit]
Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300-1300 BCE; mature period
2600-1900 BCE) extending from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast
Afghanistan.[5] An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern
Afghanistan.[23] Apart from Shortughai is Mundigak another notable site. There are several other
smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well.
Bactria-Margiana[edit]
Main article: Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex became prominent in the southwest region between
2200 and 1700 BCE (approximately). The city of Balkh (Bactra) was founded about this time (c.
2000–1500 BCE). It is possible that the BMAC may have been an Indo-European culture, perhaps
the Proto-Indo-Aryans.[21] But the standard model holds the arrival of Indo-Aryans to have been in
the Late Harappan which gave rise to the Vedic civilization of the Early Iron Age.[24]

Ancient history (700 BCE–565 CE)[edit]

Medes[edit]
Further information: Medes
There have been many different opinions about the extent of the Median kingdom. For instance,
according to Ernst Herzfeld, it was a powerful empire, which stretched from
central Anatoliato Bactria, to around the borders of nowadays India. On the other side, Heleen
Sancisi-Weerdenburg insists that there is no real evidence about the very existence of the Median
empire and that it was an unstable state formation. Nevertheless, the region of nowadays
Afghanistan came under Median rule for a short time.[25]
Achaemenid Empire[edit]
Main article: Achaemenid Empire

Arachosia, Aria and Bactria were the ancient satraps of the Achaemenid Empire that made up most of what is
now Afghanistan during 500 BCE. Some of the inhabitants of Arachosia were known as Pactyans, whose name
possibly survives in today's Pakhtuns(Pashtuns).

Afghanistan fell to the Achaemenid Empire after it was conquered by Darius I of Persia. The area
was divided into several provinces called satrapies, which were each ruled by a governor, or satrap.
These ancient satrapies included: Aria (Herat); Arachosia (Kandahar, Lashkar Gah,
and Quetta);Bactriana (Balkh); Sattagydia (Ghazni); and Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad, Peshawar).[26]
Alexander and the Seleucids[edit]
Main article: Wars of Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great arrived in the area of Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of
Persia a year earlier at the Battle of Gaugamela.[27] His army faced very strong resistance in the
Afghan tribal areas where he is said to have commented that Afghanistan is "easy to march into,
hard to march out of."[28] Although his expedition through Afghanistan was brief, Alexander left behind
a Hellenic cultural influence that lasted several centuries. Several great cities were built in the region
named "Alexandria," including: Alexandria-of-the-Arians (modern-day Herat); Alexandria-on-the-
Tarnak (near Kandahar); Alexandria-ad-Caucasum (near Begram, at Bordj-i-Abdullah); and finally,
Alexandria-Eschate (near Kojend), in the north. After Alexander's death, his loosely connected
empire was divided. Seleucus, a Macedonian officer during Alexander's campaign, declared himself
ruler of his own Seleucid Empire, encompassing Persia and Afghanistan.[29]
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom[edit]
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by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (June 2012)
Main article: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

Approximate maximum extent of theGreco-Bactrian kingdom circa 180 BCE, including the regions
of Tapuriaand Traxiane to the West, Sogdianaand Ferghana to the north, Bactria andArachosia to the south.

The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was founded when Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria (and probably the
surrounding provinces) seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BCE. Greco-Bactria
continued until c. 130 BCE, when Eucratides' son, King Heliocles I, was defeated and driven out of
Bactria by the Yuezhi tribes. It is thought that his dynasty continued to rule in Kabul and Alexandria
of the Caucasus until 70 BCE when King Hermaeus was defeated by the Yuezhi.
One of Demetrius' successors, Menander I, brought the Indo-Greek Kingdom to its height between
165–130 BCE, expanding the kingdom in Afghanistan and Pakistan to even larger proportions than
Demetrius. After Menander's death, the Indo-Greeks steadily declined and the last Indo-Greek king
was defeated in c. 10 CE.
Mauryan Empire[edit]
Main article: Mauryan Empire
The territory fell to the Maurya Empire, which was led by Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryas
introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the region, and were planning to capture more territory of
Central Asia until they faced local Greco-Bactrian forces. Seleucus is said to have reach a peace
treaty with Chandragupta by given control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to the Mauryas
upon intermarriage and 500 elephants.
Maurya Empire underAshoka the Great

Newly excavated Buddhist stupa atMes Aynak in Logar Province of Afghanistan. Similar stupas have been
discovered in neighboring Ghazni Province, including in the northernSamangan Province.

Alexander took these away from the Indo-Aryans and established settlements of his own,
but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), upon terms of intermarriage and
of receiving in exchange 500 elephants.[30]

— Strabo, 64 BCE–24 CE

Some time after, as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander, a wild elephant of great
bulk presented itself before him of its own accord, and, as if tamed down to gentleness, took him on
its back, and became his guide in the war, and conspicuous in fields of battle. Sandrocottus, having
thus acquired a throne, was in possession of India, when Seleucus was laying the foundations of his
future greatness; who, after making a league with him, and settling his affairs in the east, proceeded
to join in the war against Antigonus. As soon as the forces, therefore, of all the confederates were
united, a battle was fought, in which Antigonus was slain, and his son Demetrius put to flight.[31]

— Junianus Justinus

Having consolidated power in the northwest, Chandragupta pushed east towards the Nanda Empire.
Afghanistan's significant ancient tangible and intangible Buddhist heritage is recorded through wide-
ranging archeological finds, including religious and artistic remnants. Buddhist doctrines are reported
to have reached as far as Balkh even during the life of the Buddha (563 BCE to 483 BCE), as
recorded by Husang Tsang.
In this context a legend recorded by Husang Tsang refers to the first two lay disciples of Buddha,
Trapusa and Bhallika responsible for introducing Buddhism in that country. Originally these two were
merchants of the kingdom of Balhika, as the name Bhalluka or Bhallika probably suggests the
association of one with that country. They had gone to India for trade and had happened to be
at Bodhgaya when the Buddha had just attained enlightenment.[32]

Indo-Scythians[edit]
The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddhasurrounded by Brahma (left) andŚakra (right) was found inside
astupa with coins of Azes inside.British Museum.

The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from
southern Siberia to Pakistan and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st
century BCE.[33] They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara
to Mathura. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians
were defeated by the south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of theSatavahana
dynasty.[34][35] Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta
Empire from eastern India in the 4th century.[36]
Indo-Parthians[edit]
Main article: Indo-Parthians

Gandhara Buddhist reliquary with content, including Indo-Parthian coins. 1st century CE.

The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first
ruler Gondophares. They ruled parts of present-dayAfghanistan, Pakistan,[37] and northwestern India,
during or slightly before the 1st century AD. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings
heldTaxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan) as their residence, but during their last few
years of existence the capital shifted between Kabul andPeshawar. These kings have traditionally
been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but
they probably belonged to a wider groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there
is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares, which means ”Holder of Glory”,
were even related. Christian writings claim that the Apostle Saint Thomas – an architect and skilled
carpenter – had a long sojourn in the court of king Gondophares, had built a palace for the king
at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for Indus Valley in a chariot,
for sailing out to eventually reach Malabar Coast.
Kushans[edit]
Main article: Kushan Empire
Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee,Maitreya, the Buddha, Avalokitesvara, and
a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent
under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE.
They came of an Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe called the Yuezhi,[38][39] a
branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka, they had
conquered most of northern India, at least as far as Saketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges
Valley, and probably as far as the Bay of Bengal.[40]
They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central
Asia and China. Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:
He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.[41]

The kingdom linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through
the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The
Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara Art, which reached its peak
during Kushan Rule. H.G. Rowlinson commented:
The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.[42]

By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor
was Vasudeva I[43][44]
Sassanids[edit]
Main article: Sasanian Empire
For a period, much of modern-day Afghanistan was part of the Sasanian Empire. Shapur I extended
his authority eastwards into Afghanistan. The previously autonomous Kushans were obliged to
accept his suzerainty.
Kidarites[edit]
Main article: Kidarites
The Kidarites were a nomadic clan. They are supposed to have originated in Western China and
arrived in Bactria with the great migrations of the second half of the 4th century.
The White Huns[edit]
Main article: Hephthalite Empire
Sardonyx seal representing Vishnuwith a worshipper (probablyMihirakula), 4th-6th century CE. The inscription
in cursive Bactrian reads: "Mihira, Vishnu and Shiva". British Museum.

The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the White Huns, were a nomadic confederation
in Central Asia during the late antiquity period. TheWhite Huns established themselves in modern-
day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader Toramana, they
overran the northern region of Pakistan and North India. Toramana's son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu,
moved up to near Pataliputra to the east andGwalior to the central India. Hiuen Tsiang narrates
Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the
description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned.[45] The Huns were defeated by the
Indian kings Yasodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some of them were
driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.[46]

Middle Ages (565–1504 CE)[edit]

Map of the region during the 7th century

From the Middle Ages to around 1750 part of Afghanistan was recognized as Khorasan.[47] Two of
the four main capitals of Khorasan (Balkh andHerat) are now located in Afghanistan. The countries
of Kandahar, Ghazni and Kabul formed the frontier region between Khorasan and Hindustan.[48]The
land inhabited by the Afghan tribes (i.e. ancestors of Pashtuns) was called Afghanistan, which
loosely covered a wide area between the Hindu Kush and the Indus River, principally around
the Sulaiman Mountains.[49][50] The earliest record of the name "Afghan" ("Abgân") being mentioned is
byShapur I of the Sassanid Empire during the 3rd century CE[51][52][53] which is later recorded in the
form of "Avagānā" by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in his 6th century CE Brihat-samhita.[54] It
was used to refer to a common legendary ancestor known as "Afghana", grandson of King Saul of
Israel.[55] Hiven Tsiang, a Chinese pilgrim, visiting the Afghanistan area several times between 630 to
644 CE also speaks about them.[51] Ancestors of many of today's Turkic-speaking Afghans settled in
the Hindu Kush area and began to assimilate much of the culture and language of the Pashtun tribes
already present there.[56] Among these were the Khalaj people which are known today as Ghilzai.[57]
Hindu Shahi[edit]
Main article: Kabul Shahi
The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley and Gandhara from the decline of the Kushan
Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.[58]The Shahis are generally split up into two eras:
the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime
around 870. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565-670, when
the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund[59] for
its new capital.[60][61][62]
The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against
the Ghaznavids in the modern-day easternAfghanistan and Pakistan region. Jayapala saw a danger
in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign
of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi
struggles.[63] Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.[63] Jayapala
defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more.[63] Jayapala however, lost control of
the entire region between the Kabul Valley and Indus River.[64]
Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus. When Jaipal went to
the Punjab region, his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable host of foot
soldiers. According to Ferishta:
"The two armies having met on the confines of Lumghan, Subooktugeen ascended a hill to view the
forces of Jeipal, which appeared in extent like the boundless ocean, and in number like the ants or
the locusts of the wilderness. But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf about to attack a flock
of sheep: calling, therefore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to glory, and issued to each his
commands. His soldiers, though few in number, were divided into squadrons of five hundred men
each, which were directed to attack successively, one particular point of the Hindoo line, so that it
might continually have to encounter fresh troops."[64]

However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young
Mahmud of Ghazni.[64] In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied
with the Qarakhanids north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more and upon suffering
yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-dayPeshawar. After the Battle of
Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace
to the Shahi dynasty.[63][64]
Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala,[63] who along with other succeeding generations of
the Shahiya dynasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznvids
but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik Hills.[64]
Palas[edit]
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and removed. (June 2012)
Main article: Pala Empire
The Pāla's were a Buddhist and Vaishnav Hindu Bengali dynasty of India, which lasted for four
centuries (750-1120 CE). Dharmapala expanded the empire into the northern parts of theIndian
Subcontinent. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the
subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, extended the empire even further, covering
much of South Asia and several other territories. His empire stretched from Assam and Utkala in the
east, and Afghanistan in the north-west and Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate
inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the
pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords of Pratiharas, Gurjara and theDravidas. The Pala Empire
eventually disintegrated in the 12th century CE under the attack of the Sena dynasty.
Islamic conquest[edit]
Main article: Islamic conquest of Afghanistan
In 642 CE, Rashidun Arabs had conquered most of West Asia from the Sassanids and Byzantines,
and from the western city of Herat they introduced the religion of Islam as they entered new cities.
Afghanistan at that period had a number of different independent rulers, depending on the area.
Ancestors of Abū Ḥanīfa, including his father, were from the Kabul region.
The early Arab forces did not fully explore Afghanistan due to attacks by the mountain tribes. Much
of the eastern parts of the country remained independent, as part of the Hindu Shahi kingdoms of
Kabul and Gandhara, which lasted that way until the forces of the Muslim Saffarid dynasty followed
by the Ghaznavids conquered them.
Arab armies carrying the banner of Islam came out of the west to defeat the Sasanians in 642
CE and then they marched with confidence to the east. On the western periphery of the Afghan area
the princes of Herat and Seistan gave way to rule by Arab governors but in the east, in the
mountains, cities submitted only to rise in revolt and the hastily converted returned to their old beliefs
once the armies passed. The harshness and avariciousness of Arab rule produced such unrest,
however, that once the waning power of the Caliphate became apparent, native rulers once again
established themselves independent. Among these the Saffarids of Seistan shone briefly in the
Afghan area. The fanatic founder of this dynasty, the persian Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari, came forth
from his capital at Zaranj in 870 CE and marched
through Bost, Kandahar, Ghazni, Kabul,Bamyan, Balkh and Herat, conquering in the name of
Islam. [65]

— Nancy Hatch Dupree, 1971

The Shahi or Shahiya dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the
old province of Gandhara (northern Pakistan and Kashmir) from the decline of the Kushan
Empire up to the early 9th century CE. The Shahis continued to rule eastern Afghanistan until the
late 9th century until the Ghaznavid invasions.
During the eighth and ninth centuries CE the eastern parts of modern Afghanistan were still in the
hands of non-muslim rulers. The Muslims tended to regard them as Indians, although many of the
local rulers were apparently of Hunnish or Turkic descent. Yet, the Muslims were right in so far as
the non Muslim population of Eastern Afghanistan was, culturally, strongly linked to the Indian sub-
continent. Most of them were either Hindus or Buddhists.[66]

Ghaznavids[edit]
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Main article: Ghaznavids
was ruled from the city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan.
Mahmud of Ghazni consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and turned the city
of Ghazni into a great cultural center as well as a base for frequent forays into the Indian
subcontinent. The Nasher Khans became princes of the Kharoti until the Soviet invasion.[67][68][69]
Ghorids[edit]
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by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (June 2012)
Main article: Ghurid Dynasty
The Ghaznavid dynasty was defeated in 1148 by the Ghurids from Ghor, but the
Ghaznavid Sultans continued to live in Ghazni as the 'Nasher' until the early 20th century. They did
not regain their once vast power until about 500 years later when the Ghilzai Hotakis rose to power.
Various princes and Seljuk rulers attempted to rule parts of the country until the ShahMuhammad
II of the Khwarezmid Empire conquered all of Persia in 1205 CE. By 1219, the empire had fallen to
the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan.
Mongol invasion[edit]
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and removed. (June 2012)
Further information: Mongol invasion of Central Asia and Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia
The Mongols resulted in massive destruction of several cities, including Bamiyan, Herat, and Balkh,
and the despoliation of fertile agricultural areas. Large numbers of the inhabitants were also
slaughtered. Most major cities north of the Hindu Kush became part of the Mongol Empire. The
Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush were usually either allied with the Khilji dynasty of
northern India or independent.
Timurids[edit]
Main article: Timurid Empire
Timur (Tamerlane), incorporated much of the area into his own vast Timurid Empire. The city of
Herat became one of the capitals of his empire, and his grandson Pir Muhammad held the seat
of Kandahar. Timur rebuilt most of Afghanistan's infrastructure which was destroyed by his early
ancestor. The area was progressing under his rule. Timurid rule began declining in the early 16th
century with the rise of a new ruler in Kabul, Babur. Taimur, a descendent of Genghis Khan, created
a vast new empire across Russia and Persia which he ruled from his capital in Samarkland in
present-day Uzbekistan. Taimur captured Herat in 1381 and his son, Shah Rudkh moved the capital
of the Timurid empire to Herat in 1405. The Timurks, a Turkic people, brought the Turkic nomadic
culture of Central Asia within the orbit of Persian civilisation, establishing Herat as one of the most
cultured and refined cities in the world. This fusion of Central Asian and Persian culture was a major
legacy for the future Afghanistan. A century later, the emperor Babur, a descendent of Taimur,
visited Herat and wrote, "the whole habitable world had not such a town as Herat." For the next 300
years the eastern Afghan tribes periodically invaded India creating vast Indo-Afghan empires. In
1500 CE, Taimur's descendent Babur was driven out of his home in the Ferghana valley. By the 16th
century western Afghanistan again reverted to Persian rule under the Safavid dynasty.[70][71]

Modern era (1504–1973)[edit]

Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids[edit]
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 and removed. (June 2012)
Main articles: Mughal Empire and Khanate of Bukhara

A miniature fromPadshahnama depicting the surrender of the Shia Safavidgarrison of Kandahar in 1638 to
the Mughal army of Shah Jahan commanded by Kilij Khan.

In 1504, Babur, a descendant of Timur, arrived from present-day Uzbekistan and moved to the city
of Kabul. He began exploring new territories in the region, with Kabul serving as his military
headquarters. Instead of looking towards the powerful Safavids towards the west, Babur was more
focused on the Indian subcontinent, which included the region known as Kabulistan. In 1526, he left
with his army to capture the seat of the Delhi Sultanate, which at that point was possessed by the
Afghan Lodi dynasty of India. After defeating Ibrahim Lodi and his army, Babur turned Delhi into the
capital of his newly established Mughal Empire.
From the 16th century to the 17th century CE, Afghanistan was divided into three major areas. The
north was ruled by the Khanate of Bukhara, the west was under the rule of the Iranian Shia Safavids,
and the eastern section was under the Sunni Mughals of northern India. The Kandahar region in the
south served as a buffer zone between the Mughals and the Safavids, with the native Afghans often
switching support from one side to the other. Babur explored a number of cities in the region before
his campaign into India. In the city of Kandahar his personal epigraphy can be found in the Chilzina
rock mountain. Like in the rest of the territories that used to make part of the Indian Mughal Empire,
Afghanistan holds tombs, palaces, and forts build by the Mughals.[72]
Hotaki dynasty[edit]
Main article: Hotaki dynasty
In 1704, the Safavid Shah Husayn appointed George XI (Gurgīn Khān), a ruthless Georgian subject,
to govern their easternmost territories in the Greater Kandahar region. One of Gurgīn's main
objectives was to crush the rebellions started by native Afghans. Under his rule the revolts were
successfully suppressed and ruled Kandahar with uncomprising severity. He began imprisoning and
executing the native Afghans, especially those suspected in having taken part in the rebellions. One
of those arrested and imprisoned was Mirwais Hotak who belonged to an influential family
in Kandahar. Mirwais was sent as a prisoner to the Persian court in Isfahan but the charges against
him were dismissed by the king, so he was sent back to his native land as a free man.[73]
In April 1709, Mirwais along with his militia under Khan Nasher revolted.[74][75] The uprising began
when Gurgīn and his escort were killed after a picnic and a banquet that were prepared by Mirwais
at his farmhouse outside the city. "[76] Around four days later, an army of well-trained Georgian troops
arrived in the town after hearing of Gurgīn's death but Mirwais and his Afghan forces successfully
held off the town. From 1710 to 1713, the Afghan forces defeated several large Persian armies that
were dispatched from Isfahan by the heavily declining Safavids, which included Qizilbash and
Georgian/Circassian troops.[77]
Several half-hearted attempts to subdue the rebellious city having failed, the Persian Government
despatched Khusraw Khán, nephew of the late Gurgín Khán, with an army of 30,000 men to effect
its subjugation, but in spite of an initial success, which led the Afghans to offer to surrender on
terms, his uncompromising attitude impelled them to make a fresh desperate effort, resulting in the
complete defeat of the Persian army (of whom only some 700 escaped) and the death of their
general. Two years later, in 1713, another Persian army commanded by Rustam Khán was also
defeated by the rebels, who thus secured possession of the whole province of Qandahár.[78]

— Edward G. Browne, 1924

Modern-day sketch work ofMahmud Hotaki

Southern Afghanistan was made into an independent local Pashtun kingdom.[15] Refusing the title of
a king, Mirwais was called "Prince of Qandahár andGeneral of the national troops" by his Afghan
countrymen. He died of a natural cause in November 1715 and was succeeded by his brother Abdul
Aziz Hotak. Aziz was killed about two years later by Mirwais' son Mahmud Hotaki, allegedly for
planning to give Kandahar's sovereignty back to Persia.[79] Mahmud led an Afghan army into Persia
in 1722 and defeated the for decades declining Safavids at the Battle of Gulnabad. The Afghans
captured Isfahan (Safavid capital) and Mahmud became briefly the new Persian Shah, known after
that as Shah Mahmud.
Mahmud began a short-lived reign of terror against his Persian subjects who defied his rule from the
very start, and he was eventually murdered in 1725 by his own cousin, Ashraf Hotaki. Some sources
say he died of madness. Ashraf became the new Afghan Shah of Persia soon after Mahmud's death,
while the home region of Afghanistan was ruled by Mahmud's younger brother Shah Hussain Hotaki.
Ashraf was able to secure peace, at highly unfavourable terms, with the Ottoman Empire in 1727
winning against a superior Ottoman army, but the Russian Empire took advantage of the continuing
political unrest, civil strife and utter disgust and disloyalty by the vast majority of people in the
empire, to seize former Persian territories for themselves, limiting the amount of territory under Shah
Mahmud's control.
The short lived Hotaki dynasty was a troubled and violent one from the very start as internecine
conflict made it difficult to establish permanent control. The dynasty lived under great turmoil due to
bloody succession feuds that made their hold on power tenuous, and after the massacre of
thousands of civilians in Isfahan; including more than three thousand religious scholars, nobles, and
members of the Safavid family.[80] The vast majority of the Persians rejected the Afghan regime as
usurping from the very start. Hotaki's rule continued in the region of Afghanistan until 1738 when
Shah Hussain was defeated and banished by Nader Shah of Persia.[81]
The Hotakis were eventually removed from power by 1729, after a very short lived reign. They were
defeated by the emerging Iranian military commander Nader Shah, head of theAfsharids, in the
October 1729 Battle of Damghan, also banishing the Hotaki's to southern Afghanistan. The last ruler
of the Hotaki dynasty, Shah Hussain, ruled southern Afghanistan until 1738 when the Afsharids and
the Abdali Pashtuns crushed him at Kandahar.[81]
Durrani Empire[edit]
Main article: Durrani Empire
Nader Shah and his Afsharid Persian army arrived in the town of Kandahar in 1738 and
defeated Hussain Hotaki, subsequently absorbing all of Afghanistan in his empire. Here, the young
imprisoned teenager Ahmad Khan joined his service in his invasion of India.

The greatest extent of the Durrani Empire in 1747 A.D.

Shah Shuja, the last Durrani King, sitting at his court inside the Bala Hissarbefore it was destroyed by
the British Army.

Nadir Shah was assassinated on June 19, 1747, by several of his Persian officers, and the Asharid
kingdom fell to pieces. At the same time the 25-year-old Ahmad Khan was busy in Afghanistan
calling for a loya jirga("grand assembly") to select a leader among his people. The Afghans gathered
near Kandahar in October 1747 and chose Ahmad Shah among the challengers, making him their
new head of state. After the inauguration or coronation, he became known as Ahmad Shah Durrani.
He adopted the title padshah durr-i dawran ('King, "pearl of the age") and the Abdali tribe became
known as the Durrani tribe after this.[82] Ahmad Shah not only represented the Durranis but he also
united all the Pashtun tribes. By 1751, Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the
entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and for a short time, the Khorasan and Kohistan provinces
of Iran, along with Delhi in India.[83] He defeated the Maratha Empire in 1761 at the Battle of Panipat.
In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in Kandahar where he died peacefully and was
buried at a site that is now adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak. He was succeeded by his son, Timur
Shah Durrani, who transferred the capital of their Afghan Empire from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur
died in 1793 and his son Zaman Shah Durrani took over the reign.
Zaman Shah and his brothers had a weak hold on the legacy left to them by their famous ancestor.
They sorted out their differences through a "round robin of expulsions, blindings and executions,"
which resulted in the deterioration of the Afghan hold over far-flung territories, such
as Attock and Kashmir. Durrani's other grandson, Shuja Shah Durrani, fled the wrath of his brother
and sought refuge with the Sikhs. Not only had Durrani invaded the Punjab region many times, but
had destroyed the holiest shrine of the Sikhs – the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar, defiling
its sarowar with the blood of cows and decapitating Baba Deep Singh in 1757. The Sikhs,
under Ranjit Singh, eventually wrested a large part of the Kingdom of Kabul (present day Pakistan,
but not including Sindh) from the Afghans.[84] In 1837, the Afghan army descended through
the Khyber Pass on Sikh forces at Jamrud.[85] The Sikhs were supported by the East India
Company until they were defeated later by the British forces during the First and Second Anglo-Sikh
Wars[citation needed].
Barakzai dynasty and British influence[edit]
Further information: European influence in Afghanistan and Barakzai dynasty

King Yaqub Khan with Britain's SirPierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari on May 26, 1879, when the Treaty of
Gandamak was signed.

Dost Mohammed Khan gained control in Kabul. Collision between the expanding British and Russian
Empires significantly influenced Afghanistan during the 19th century in what was termed "The Great
Game". British concern over Russian advances in Central Asia and growing influence in West
Asia and Persia in particular culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars and "The Siege of Herat" 1837–
1838, in which the Persians, trying to retake Afghanistan and throw out the British, sent armies into
the country and fought the British mostly around and in the city of Herat. The first Anglo-Afghan
War (1839–1842) resulted in the destruction of a British army; it is remembered by first-hand
account as an example of the ferocity of Afghan resistance to foreign rule.[86] The Second Anglo-
Afghan War (1878–1880) was sparked by Amir Shir Ali's refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul.
This conflict brought Amir Abdur Rahman, known by some as the "Iron Amir", to the Afghan throne.
During his reign (1880–1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what
would become modern Afghanistan. The British retained effective control over Kabul's foreign affairs.
Abdur Rahman's reforms of the army, legal system and structure of government were able to give
Afghanistan a degree of unity and stability which it had not before known. This, however, came at
the cost of strong centralisation, harsh punishments for crime and corruption, and a certain degree of
international isolation.[11]
Afghanistan remained neutral during World War I, despite German encouragement of anti-British
feelings and Afghan rebellion along the borders of British India. The Afghan king's policy of neutrality
was not universally popular within the country, however, and Habibullah, Abdur Rahman's son and
successor, in 1919 was assassinated, possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His
third son, Amanullah, regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the Third
Anglo-Afghan War with an attack on India in the same year. During the ensuing conflict, the war-
weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the Treaty of
Rawalpindi in August 1920. In commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate August 20 as their
Independence Day.
Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war[edit]
Main article: Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war

King Amanullah Khan

King Amanullah Khan moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the Third
Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a
1927 tour of Europe and Turkey (during which he noted the modernization and secularization
advanced byAtatürk), introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. A key force
behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, Amanullah Khan's Foreign Minister and father-in-law —
and an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's first
constitution (declared through a Loya Jirga), which made elementary education compulsory.[87] Some
of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditionalMuslim veil for
women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and
religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate in
January 1929 after Kabul fell to forces led by Habibullah Kalakani.
Reigns of Nadir Khan and Zahir Khan[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section
by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (June 2012)
Main article: Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah
Mohammad Zahir Shah in 1963

Prince Mohammed Nadir Khan, cousin of Amanullah Khan, in turn defeated and executed
Habibullah Kalakani in early November 1929. He was soon declared King Nadir Khan. He began
consolidating power and regenerating the country. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in
favour of a more gradual approach to modernisation. In 1933, however, he was assassinated in a
revenge killing by a student from Kabul.
Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from
1933 to 1973. Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle Sardar Mohammad
Hashim Khan, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Khan. In
1946, another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister and
began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further
than he expected. In 1953, he was replaced as Prime Minister by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the
king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud looked for a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a
more distant one towards Pakistan. However, disputes with Pakistan led to an economic crisis and
he was asked to resign in 1963. From 1963 until 1973, Zahir Shah took a more active role.
In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a bicameral legislature to
which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and the
remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir's "experiment in
democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties on
both the left and the right. This included the communist People's Democratic Party of
Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In 1967, the PDPA split
into two major rival factions: the Khalq (Masses) was headed by Nur Muhammad
Taraki and Hafizullah Amin who were supported by elements within the military, and
the Parcham (Banner) led by Babrak Karmal.

Contemporary era (1973–present)[edit]

1973 film about contemporary events in Afghanistan

Republic of Afghanistan and the end of monarchy[edit]

Main article: Republic of Afghanistan
Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor economic conditions
created by the severe 1971–72 drought, former Prime Minister Mohammad Sardar Daoud
Khan seized power in a non-violent coup on July 17, 1973, while Zahir Shah was receiving treatment
for eye problems and therapy for lumbago in Italy.[88] Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the
1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime
Minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success,
and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability.
As disillusionment set in, in 1978 a prominent member of the People's Democratic Party of
Afghanistan (PDPA), Mir Akbar Khyber (or "Kaibar"), was killed by the government. The leaders of
PDPA apparently feared that Daoud was planning to exterminate them all, especially since most of
them were arrested by the government shortly after. Nonetheless, Hafizullah Amin and a number of
military wing officers of the PDPA's Khalq faction managed to remain at large and organize a military
coup.
Democratic Republic and Soviet war[edit]
Main articles: History of Afghanistan (1978–1992), Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, People's
Democratic Party of Afghanistan, Saur Revolution and Soviet war in Afghanistan

Outside the Presidential Palace inKabul, a day after the Marxist revolutionon April 28, 1978.

The day after the Marxist revolution on April 28, 1978.

On 27 April 1978, the PDPA, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Amin Taha
overthrew the government of Mohammad Daoud, who was assassinated along with all his family
members in a bloody military coup. The coup became known as the Saur Revolution. On 1 May,
Taraki became President, Prime Minister and General Secretary of the PDPA. The country was then
renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan(DRA), and the PDPA regime lasted, in some form
or another, until April 1992.
In March 1979, Hafizullah Amin took over as prime minister, retaining the position of field
marshal and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained President
and in control of the Army. On 14 September, Amin overthrew Taraki, who was killed. Amin stated
that "the Afghans recognize only crude force."[89] Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal writes: "As his
powers grew, so apparently did his craving for personal dictatorship ... and his vision of the
revolutionary process based on terror."[89]
Once in power, the PDPA implemented a liberal and Marxist–Leninist agenda. It moved to replace
religious and traditional laws with secular and Marxist–Leninist ones. Men were obliged to cut their
beards, women could not wear a chador, and mosques were placed off limits. The PDPA made a
number of reforms on women's rights, banning forced marriages, giving state recognition of women's
right to vote, and introducing women to political life. A prominent example was Anahita Ratebzad,
who was a major Marxist leader and a member of the Revolutionary Council. Ratebzad wrote the
famous New Kabul Times editorial (May 28, 1978) which declared: "Privileges which women, by
right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy
generation for building the future of the country ... Educating and enlightening women is now the
subject of close government attention." The PDPA also carried out socialist land reforms and moved
to promote state atheism.[90] They also prohibitedusury.[91] The PDPA invited the Soviet Union to
assist in modernizing its economic infrastructure (predominantly its exploration and mining of rare
minerals and natural gas). The USSR also sent contractors to build roads, hospitals and schools and
to drill water wells; they also trained and equipped the Afghan army. Upon the PDPA's ascension to
power, and the establishment of the DRA, the Soviet Union promised monetary aid amounting to at
least $1.262 billion.
At the same time, the PDPA imprisoned, tortured or murdered thousands of members of the
traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia.[citation needed] The government launched
a campaign of violent repression, killing some 10,000 to 27,000 people and imprisoning 14,000 to
20,000 more, mostly at Pul-e-Charkhi prison.[92][93][94] In December 1978 the PDPA leadership signed
an agreement with the Soviet Union which would allow military support for the PDPA in Afghanistan
if needed. The majority of people in the cities including Kabul either welcomed or were ambivalent to
these policies. However, the Marxist–Leninist and secular nature of the government as well as its
heavy dependence on the Soviet Union made it unpopular with a majority of the Afghan population.
Repressions plunged large parts of the country, especially the rural areas, into open revolt against
the new Marxist–Leninist government. By spring 1979 unrests had reached 24 out of 28 Afghan
provinces including major urban areas. Over half of the Afghan army would either desert or join the
insurrection. Most of the government's new policies clashed directly with the traditional Afghan
understanding of Islam, making religion one of the only forces capable of unifying the tribally and
ethnically divided population against the unpopular new government, and ushering in the advent
of Islamist participation in Afghan politics.[95]

Soviet troops (in right row) withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988. Afghan government BTR on the left.

In the wake of the Iranian Revolution, the US sought rapprochement with the Afghan government—a
prospect that the USSR found unacceptable due to weakening Soviet leverage over the regime.[96] In
February 1979, U.S. Ambassador Adolph "Spike" Dubs was murdered in Kabul after Afghan security
forces burst in on his kidnappers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small
military training program.
To bolster the Parcham faction, the Soviet Union decided to intervene on December 24, 1979, when
the Red Army invaded its southern neighbor. Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the invasion,
which was backed by another 100,000 Afghan military men and supporters of the Parcham faction.
In the meantime, Hafizullah Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal.
All remaining US assistance agreements were ended after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet
withdrawal. In addition, generous U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a
major part in efforts to assist Afghan refugees.
In response to the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the Carter administration and Reagan
administration in the U.S. began arming the Mujahideen, thanks in large part to the efforts of Charlie
Wilson and CIA officer Gust Avrakotos. Early reports estimated that $6–20 billion had been spent by
the U.S. and Saudi Arabia[97] but more recent reports state that the U.S. and Saudi Arabia provided
as much as up to $40 billion[98][99][100] in cash and weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92
Stinger surface-to-air missiles, for building up Islamic groups against the Soviet Union. The U.S.
handled most of its support through Pakistan's ISI. Saudi Arabia was also providing financial
support.
The 10-year Soviet occupation resulted in the deaths of between 850,000 and 1,500,000 Afghan
civilians.[101][102] About 6 million fled as Afghan refugees to Pakistan and Iran, and from there over
38,000 made it to the United States[103] and many more to the European Union. Faced with mounting
international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989.
Their withdrawal from Afghanistan was seen as an ideological victory in the United States, which
had backed some Mujahideen factions through three U.S. presidential administrations to counter
Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich Persian Gulf. The USSR continued to support
President Mohammad Najibullah (former head of the Afghan secret service, KHAD) until 1992.[104]
Foreign interference and civil war[edit]
Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (1989-1992) and Civil war in Afghanistan (1992-1996)
1992-1996
After the fall of the communist Najibullah-regime in 1992, the Afghan political parties agreed on a
peace and power-sharing agreement (the Peshawar Accords). The Peshawar Accords created the
Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for a transitional period.
According to Human Rights Watch:
The sovereignty of Afghanistan was vested formally in the Islamic State of Afghanistan, an
government created in April 1992, after the fall of the Soviet-backed Najibullah government. [...] With
the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties [...] were ostensibly unified
under this government in April 1992 headed by Subghatullah Mujadady. [...] Hekmatyar's Hezb-e
Islami, for its part, refused to recognize the government for most of the period discussed in this
report and launched attacks against government forces and Kabul generally. [...] Shells and rockets
fell everywhere.[105]

Subghatullah Mujadady was elected as Afghanistan's elected interim president for two months and
then professor Burhanuddin Rabani a well known Kabul university professor and the leader of
Jamiat - e - Islami party of Mujahiddin who fought against Russians during the occupation was
chosen by all of the Jahadi leaders except Golbuddin Hikmat Yar. Professor Rabani reigned as the
official and elected president of Afghanistan by Shurai Mujahiddin Peshawer (Peshawer Mujahiddin
Council) from 1992 until 2001 when he officially handed over the presidency post to Hamid Karzai
the next US appointed interim president. During Rabbani's presidency some parts of the country
including few provinces in the north such as Mazar e - Sharif, Jawzjan, Faryab, Shuburghan and
some parts of Baghlan provinces were ruled by general Abdul Rashid Dostom. During Rabbani's first
five years before the emergence of Taliban, the eastern and the western provinces and the some of
the northern provinces such Badakhshan, Takhar, Kunduz, main parts of Baghlan Province, and
some parts of Kandahar and other southern provinces were under the control of central government
while the other parts of southern provinces did not obey him because of his ethnicity of Tajik. During
the 9 years presidency of Burhanuddin Rabani Gulbuddin Hekmatyar was directed, funded and
supplied by the Pakistani army.[106] Afghanistan analyst Amin Saikal concludes in his book Modern
Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival:
Pakistan was keen to gear up for a breakthrough in Central Asia. [...] Islamabad could not possibly
expect the new Islamic government leaders [...] to subordinate their own nationalist objectives in
order to help Pakistan realize its regional ambitions. [...] Had it not been for the ISI's logistic support
and supply of a large number of rockets, Hekmatyar's forces would not have been able to target and
destroy half of Kabul.[107]

There was no time for the interim government to create working government departments, police
units or a system of justice and accountability. Saudi Arabia and Iran also armed and directed
Afghan militias.[89] A publication by the George Washington University describes:
[O]utside forces saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and
political agendas.[108]

According to Human Rights Watch, numerous Iranian agents were assisting the Shia Hezb-i
Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari, as Iran was attempting to maximize Wahdat's military power and
influence.[89][105][109] Saudi Arabia was trying to strengthen the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and
his Ittihad-i Islami faction.[89][105] Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different factions while
Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and
the Afghanistan Justice Project.[105][110] Again, Human Rights Watch writes:
Rare ceasefires, usually negotiated by representatives of Ahmad Shah Massoud, Sibghatullah
Mojaddedi or Burhanuddin Rabbani (the interim government), or officials from the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), commonly collapsed within days.[105]

The main forces involved during that period in Kabul, northern, central and eastern Afghanistan were
the Hezb-i Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar directed by Pakistan, the Hezb-i Wahdat ofAbdul Ali
Mazari directed by Iran, the Ittehad-i Islami of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf supported by Saudi Arabia,
the Junbish-i Milli of Abdul Rashid Dostum backed by Uzbekisten, the Harakat-i Islamiof Hussain
Anwari and the Shura-i Nazar operating as the regular Islamic State forces (as agreed upon in the
Peshawar Accords) under the defense ministry of Ahmad Shah Massoud.
Meanwhile, southern Afghanistan was The city of Kandahar was a centre of lawlessness, crime and
atrocities fuelled by complex Pashtun tribal rivalries.[111] In 1994, the Taliban (a movement originating
from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in
Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local
governor.[111] Mullah Omar started his movement with fewer than 50 armed madrassah students in
his hometown of Kandahar.[111] As Gulbuddin Hekmatyar remained unsuccessful in conquering
Kabul, Pakistan started its support to the Taliban.[89][112] Many analysts like Amin Saikal describe the
Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests which the Taliban
decline.[89] In 1994 the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan.
In 1995 the Hezb-i Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, the Iranian-backed Hezb-i Wahdat as well as
Rashid Dostum's Junbish forces were defeated militarily in the capital Kabul by forces of the interim
government under Massoud who subsequently tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the
goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the
process.[113] The Taliban declined.[113] Subghatullah Mujadady the first interim president after the
fall of Dr najibbullah's government. despite the chaos and autonomy in different part of the
country the agreed president after two months of subghatullah mujadady's interim presidency
professor Burhanudin Rabani and in the country
Taliban and the United Front[edit]
1996-2001
Main articles: Taliban, Afghan Northern Alliance, Afghan training camp and Civil war in Afghanistan
(1996-2001)

Former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf sent more troops against theUnited Front of Ahmad Shah
Massoudthan the Afghan Taliban.

Map of the situation in Afghanistan in late 1996; Massoud (red), Dostum(green) and Taliban (yellow) territories.

Map of the situation in Afghanistan in August 2001 until October 2001

The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were defeated by forces of the Islamic State
government under Ahmad Shah Massoud.[114]Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban
offensive, wrote in a 1995 report:
This is the first time in several months that Kabul civilians have become the targets of rocket attacks
and shelling aimed at residential areas in the city.[114]
On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban, with military support by Pakistan and financial support by
Saudi Arabia, prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from
Kabul.[115] The Taliban seized Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established the Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan. They imposed on the parts of Afghanistan under their control their political and judicial
interpretation of Islam, issuing edicts forbidding women from working outside the home, attending
school or leaving their homes unless accompanied by a male relative.[116] Physicians for Human
Rights (PHR) said:
To PHR's knowledge, no other regime in the world has methodically and violently forced half of its
population into virtual house arrest, prohibiting them on pain of physical punishment.[116]

After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban on September 27, 1996,[117] Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul
Rashid Dostum, two former nemesis, created the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the
Taliban, who were preparing offensives against the remaining areas under the control of Massoud
and Dostum.[118] The United Front included beside the dominantly Tajik forces of Massoud and
the Uzbek forces of Dostum, Hazara factions and Pashtunforces under the leadership of
commanders such as Abdul Haq, Haji Abdul Qadir, Qari Baba or diplomat Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai.
From the Taliban conquest in 1996 until November 2001 the United Front controlled roughly 30% of
Afghanistan's population in provinces such as Badakhshan, Kapisa,Takhar and parts
of Parwan, Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Samangan, Kunduz, Ghōr and Bamyan.
According to a 55-page report by the United Nations, the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control
over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians.[119][120] UN
officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001.[119][120]They also said,
that "[t]hese have been highly systematic and they all lead back to the [Taliban] Ministry of Defense
or to Mullah Omarhimself."[119][120] The Taliban especially targeted people of Shia religious or Hazara
ethnic background.[119][120] Upon taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998, about 4,000 civilians were executed by
the Taliban and many more reported tortured.[121][122] Among those killed in Mazari Sharif were several
Iranian diplomats. Others were kidnapped by the Taliban, touching off a hostage crisis that nearly
escalated to a full-scale war, with 150,000 Iranian soldiers massed on the Afghan border at one
time.[123] It was later admitted that the diplomats were killed by the Taliban, and their bodies were
returned to Iran.[124]
The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in these killings.[119][120] Bin
Laden's so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass-killings of Afghan civilians.[125] The report by
the United Nations quotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab fighters carrying long
knives used for slitting throats and skinning people.[119][120]
Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf - then as Chief of Army Staff - was responsible for sending
thousands of Pakistanis to fight alongside the Taliban and Bin Laden against the forces of
Massoud.[112][113][126][127] In total there were believed to be 28,000 Pakistani nationals fighting inside
Afghanistan.[113] 20,000 were regular Pakistani soldiers either from the Frontier Corps or army and an
estimated 8,000 were militants recruited inmadrassas filling regular Taliban ranks.[125] The estimated
25,000 Taliban regular force thus comprised more than 8,000 Pakistani nationals.[125] A 1998
document by the U.S. State Department confirms that "20-40 percent of [regular] Taliban soldiers
are Pakistani."[112] The document further states that the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know
nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought
back to Pakistan."[112] A further 3,000 fighter of the regular Taliban army were Arab and Central Asian
militants.[125] From 1996 to 2001 the Al Qaeda of Osama Bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri became a
state within the Taliban state.[128] Bin Laden sent Arab recruits to join the fight against the United
Front.[128][129] Of roughly 45,000 Pakistani, Taliban and Al Qaeda soldiers fighting against the forces of
Massoud only 14,000 were Afghan.[113][125]
According to Human Rights Watch in 1997 Taliban soldiers were summarily executed in and around
Mazar-i Sharif by Dostum's Junbish forces.[130] Dostum was defeated by the Taliban in 1998 with the
fall of Mazar-i-Sharif. Massoud remained the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan.
In the areas under his control Ahmad Shah Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the
Women's Rights Charter.[131] Human Rights Watch cites no human rights crimes for the forces under
direct control of Massoud for the period from October 1996 until the assassination of Massoud in
September 2001.[130] As a consequence many civilians fled to the area ofAhmad Shah
Massoud.[126][132] National Geographic concluded in its documentary "Inside the Taliban":
The only thing standing in the way of future Taliban massacres is Ahmad Shah Massoud."[126]

The Taliban repeatedly offered Massoud a position of power to make him stop his resistance.
Massoud declined for he did not fight to obtain a position of power. He explained in one interview:
"The Taliban say: "Come and accept the post of prime minister and be with us", and they
would keep the highest office in the country, the presidentship. But for what price?! The
difference between us concerns mainly our way of thinking about the very principles of the
society and the state. We can not accept their conditions of compromise, or else we would
have to give up the principles of modern democracy. We are fundamentally against the
system called "the Emirate of Afghanistan"."[133]
"There should be an Afghanistan where every Afghan finds himself or herself happy. And I
think that can only be assured by democracy based on consensus."[134]
Massoud wanted to convince the Taliban to join a political process leading towards
democratic elections in a foreseeable future.[133] His proposals for peace can be seen here:
Proposal for Peace, promoted by Commander Massoud. Massoud also stated:
"The Taliban are not a force to be considered invincible. They are distanced from the people
now. They are weaker than in the past. There is only the assistance given by Pakistan,
Osama bin Laden and other extremist groups that keep the Taliban on their feet. With a halt
to that assistance, it is extremely difficult to survive."[134] In early 2001 Massoud employed a
new strategy of local military pressure and global political appeals.[135] Resentment was
increasingly gathering against Taliban rule from the bottom of Afghan society including the
Pashtun areas.[135] Massoud publicized their cause "popular consensus, general elections
and democracy" worldwide. At the same time he was very wary not to revive the failed Kabul
government of the early 1990s.[135] Already in 1999 he started the training of police forces
which he trained specifically to keep order and protect the civilian population in case the
United Front would be successful.[113]
In early 2001 Massoud addressed the European Parliament in Brussels asking the
international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of
Afghanistan.[136] He stated that the Taliban and Al Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong
perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan the Taliban would not be
able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year.[136] On this visit to Europe he also
warned that his intelligence had gathered information about a large-scale attack on U.S.
soil being imminent.[137][note: this reference does not support claim made by article].
NATO presence and the Karzai administration[edit]
Further information: Presidency of Hamid Karzai, Taliban insurgency, Operation
Enduring Freedom and War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
 Afghan President Hamid Karzai speaking before U.S. Congress in June 2004

On 9 September 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide
attackers inside Afghanistan. Two days later about 3,000 people became victims of
the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, when Afghan-based Al-Qaeda
suicide bombers hijacked planes and flew them intoNew York City skyscrapers. Then
US President George W. Bush accused Osama bin Laden and Khalid Sheikh
Mohammed as the faces behind the attacks. When the Taliban refused to hand over bin
Laden to US authorities and to disband al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan, Operation
Enduring Freedom was launched in which teams of American and British special forces
worked with commanders of the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the
Taliban.[138] At the same time the US-led forces were bombing Taliban and al-Qaeda
targets everywhere inside Afghanistan with cruise missiles. These actions led to the fall
of Mazar-i-Sharif in the north followed by all the other cities, as the Taliban and al-
Qaeda crossed over the porous Durand Line border into Pakistan. In December 2001,
after the Taliban government was toppled and the new Afghan
government under Hamid Karzai was formed, the International Security Assistance
Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai
administration and provide basic security to the Afghan people.[139][140]

Soldiers of the Afghan National Army in 2010, including the ANA Commando Battalion standing in
the front.

While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, more coalition troops entered the
escalating US-led war. Meanwhile, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in
2002.[141][142] The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years,
and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health,
education, transport, and agriculture. NATO is training the Afghan armed forces as well
its national police. ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban but
failed to fully defeat them. By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in
many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court.[143] After
U.S. President Barack Obama announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in
2010 for a period of two years, Der Spiegel published images of the US soldiers who
killed unarmed Afghan civilians.[144]
In FY 2009, the United States resettled just 328 refugees from Afghanistan.[145] By
contrast, the U.S. admitted more than 100,000 Vietnamese refugees for resettlement
during the Vietnam War.[146] On the other hand, over five million Afghan
refugees were repatriated in the last decade, including many who were
forcefully deported from NATO countries.[147][148] This large return of Afghans may have
helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world
due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption
and the Pakistani-backed Taliban insurgency.[149][150] The United States also accuses
neighboring Iran of providing small level of support to the Taliban
insurgents.[151][152][153] According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other
militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009,[154] 75% in 2010[155] and
80% in 2011.[156]

NATO's military terminal at Kabul International Airport

In October 2008 U.S. Defense Secretary Gates had asserted that a political settlement
with the Taliban was the endgame for the Afghanistan war. "There has to be ultimately –
and I'll underscore ultimately – reconciliation as part of a political outcome to this,"
Gates stated.[157] By 2010 peace efforts began. In early January, Taliban commanders
held secret exploratory talks with a United Nations special envoy to discuss peace
terms. Regional commanders on the Taliban's leadership council, the Quetta Shura,
sought a meeting with the UN special representative in Afghanistan, Kai Eide, and it
took place in Dubai on January 8. It was the first such meeting between the UN and
senior members of the Taliban.[158] On 26 January 2010, at a major conference in
London which brought together some 70 countries and organizations,[159] Afghan
President Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership
(including Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar). Supported by
NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting to
initiate peace talks. These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings,
assassinations and ambushes.[160] Some Afghan groups (including the former
intelligence chief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. Abdullah Abdullah) believe
that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the
democratic constitution, the democratic process and progress in the field of human
rights especially women's rights.[161] Dr. Abdullah stated:
I should say that Taliban are not fighting in order to be accommodated. They are fighting
in order to bring the state down. So it's a futile exercise, and it's just misleading. ...
There are groups that will fight to the death. Whether we like to talk to them or we don't
like to talk to them, they will continue to fight. So, for them, I don't think that we have a
way forward with talks or negotiations or contacts or anything as such. Then we have to
be prepared to tackle and deal with them militarily. In terms of the Taliban on the
ground, there are lots of possibilities and opportunities that with the help of the people in
different parts of the country, we can attract them to the peace process; provided, we
create a favorable environment on this side of the line. At the moment, the people are
leaving support for the government because of corruption. So that expectation is also
not realistic at this stage.[162]

From left to right: Abdullah Abdullah,John Kerry and Ashraf Ghani during the2014 Afghan
presidential election

Afghan President Hamid Karzai told world leaders during the London conference that he
intends to reach out to the top echelons of the Taliban within a few weeks with a peace
initiative.[163] Karzai set the framework for dialogue with Taliban leaders when he called
on the group's leadership to take part in a "loya jirga" – or large assembly of elders – to
initiate peace talks.[164] Karzai also asked for creation of a new peacemaking
organization, to be called the National Council for Peace, Reconciliation and
Reintegration.[163] Karzai's top adviser on the reconciliation process with the insurgents
said that the country must learn to forgive the Taliban.[165] In March 2010, the Karzai
government held preliminary talks with Hezb-i-Islami, who presented a plan which
included the withdrawal of all foreign troops by the end of 2010. The Taliban declined to
participate, saying "The Islamic Emirate has a clear position. We have said this many,
many times. There will be no talks when there are foreign troops on Afghanistan's soil
killing innocent Afghans on daily basis."[166] In June 2010 the Afghan Peace Jirga 2010
took place. In September 2010 General David Petraeus commented on the progress of
peace talks to date, stating, "The prospect for reconciliation with senior Taliban leaders
certainly looms out there...and there have been approaches at (a) very senior level that
hold some promise."[167]
After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan
figures began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmad Wali
Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and
others.[168] Also in the same year, the Pakistani-Afghan border skirmishes intensified and
many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based Haqqani network took place across
Afghanistan. This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action
against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.[169] The U.S. blamed
Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistani Army and its ISI spy network as the
masterminds behind all of this.[170]
In choosing to use violent extremism as an instrument of policy, the government of
Pakistan, and most especially the Pakistani army and ISI, jeopardizes not only the
prospect of our strategic partnership but Pakistan's opportunity to be a respected nation
with legitimate regional influence. They may believe that by using these proxies, they
are hedging their bets or redressing what they feel is an imbalance in regional power.
But in reality, they have already lost that bet.[171]

— Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that "The attack
that took place in Kabul a few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani network.
There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is
something that must stop."[172] Other top U.S. officials such as Hillary Clinton and Leon
Panetta made similar statements.[170][173] On October 16, 2011, "Operation Knife Edge"
was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani network in south-
eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister, Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the
operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the
troubled frontier".[174] In November 2011, NATO forceskilled 24 Pakistani Army soldiers
around the border region with Pakistan.