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STEERING MECHANISM
Abstract
Nowadays, the every vehicle existed mostly still using the two wheel steering system to
control the movement of the vehicle whether it is front wheel drive, rear wheel drive or all
wheel drive. But due to the awareness of safety, four wheel steering vehicles are being used
increasingly due to high performance and stability that they bring to the vehicles. In this report,
the performance of four wheels steered vehicle model is considered which is optimally
controlled during a lane change maneuver in three type of condition which is low speed
maneuver, medium speed maneuver and high speed maneuver. Four-Wheel Steering – Rear
Wheels Control. For parking and low-speed maneuvers, the rear Wheel steer in the opposite
direction of the front wheels, allowing much sharper turns. At higher speeds, the rest wheels
steer in the same direction as the front wheels. The result is more stability and less body
lean during fast lane changes and turns because the front wheels don’t have to drag non-
steering rear wheels onto the path.
1. INTRODUCTION
Steering is the term applied to the collection of components, linkages, etc. which will allow a
vessel (ship, boat) or vehicle (car, motorcycle and bicycles) to follow the desired course. Four
wheel steering, 4WS, also called rear-wheel steering or all-wheel steering, provides a means to
actively steer the rear wheels during turning maneuvers. It should not be confused with four-wheel
drive in which all four wheels of vehicle are powered.
Four wheel steering is a method developed in automobile industry for the effective
turning of the vehicle, increase the maneuverability and reduce the drivers steering effort. In city
driving conditions, the vehicle with higher track width and wheelbase face problems of turning as
the space is confined the same problem is faced in low speed cornering. The turning radius is
reduced in the four wheel steering of the vehicle which is effective in confined space, in this project
turning radius is reduced without changing the dimension of the vehicles.
In situations like vehicle parking, low speed cornering and driving in city conditions
with heavy traffic in tight spaces, driving is very difficult due to vehicle’s larger track width and
wheelbase. When both the front and rear wheels steer toward the same direction, they are said to
be in-phase and this produces a kind of sideways movement of the car at low speeds. When the
front and rear wheels are steered in opposite direction, this is called anti-phase, counter-phase or
opposite-phase and it produces a sharper, tighter turn.
Hence, there is a requirement of a mechanism which result in less turning radius and
it can be achieved by implementing four wheel steering.
2. PRINCIPLE
The steering mechanism consists of rack and pinion arrangements which are used to turn the
wheels in the front. And a bevel gear arrangement is made just after the steering and power is
transmitted through the transfer shaft to the gear box assembly. Then power is transmitted to the
rear wheels. Layout/Operation of the system: Two subsystems: Rack and pinion for front and rear,
identical geometry and components. Steering column is fitted with 3 bevel gears meshes and
transmits power to front and rear rack and pinion. As steering wheel is turned the entire rotation is
transferred to front rack and pinion and only half of the rotation is transferred to rear rack and
pinion.
The steering ratio is the ratio of number of degrees of turn of the steering wheel to the number of
degrees the wheels turn. In cars, the ratio is between 12:1 and 20:1. For example, if one complete
turn of the steering wheel, 360 degrees, causes the wheels to turn 24 degrees, the ratio is then
360:24=15:1. A higher steering ratio means that the steering wheel is turned more to get the wheels
turning, but it will be easier to turn the steering wheel. A lower steering ratio means that the
steering wheel is turned less to get the wheels turning, but it will harder to turn the steering wheel.
Larger and heavier vehicles will often have a higher steering ratio.
3. Turning radius
The turning radius of a vehicle is the radius of the smallest circular turn (i.e. U-turn) that the
vehicle is capable of making. There is no hard and fast formula to calculate the turning circle but
an approximate value can be obtained using the formula:
Steering geometry is the geometric arrangement of the parts of a steering system and the value of
the lengths and angles within it. Steering geometry changes due to bumps in the road may cause
the front wheels to steer in a different direction together or independent of each other. Combined
with the cars improved steering geometry, a wide wheel and large footprint will notably improve
handling and grip.
3. BACKGROUND THEORY
The most effective type of steering, this type has all the four wheels of the vehicle used for steering
purpose. In a typical front wheel steering system the rear wheels do not turn in the direction of the
curve and thus curb on the efficiency of the steering. Normally this system is not been the preferred
choice due to complexity of conventional mechanical four wheel steering systems. However, a
few cars like the Honda Prelude, Nissan Skyline GT-R have been available with four wheel
steering systems, where the rear wheels turn by an angle to aid the front wheels in steering.
However, these systems had the rear wheels steered by only 2 or 3 degrees, as their main aim was
to assist the front wheels rather than steer by themselves. With advances in technology, modern
four wheel steering systems boast of fully electronic steer-by-wire systems, equal steer angles for
front and rear wheels, and sensors to monitor the vehicle dynamics and adjust the steer angles in
real time. Although such a complex four wheel steering model has not been created for production
purposes, a number of experimental concepts with some of these technologies have been built and
tested successfully.
Usually in vehicles during turning, the tires are subject to the forces of grip, momentum, and
steering input when making a movement other than straight ahead driving. These forces compete
with each other during steering manoeuvres. With a front-steered vehicle, the rear end is always
trying to catch up to the directional changes of the front wheels. This causes the vehicle to sway.
When turning, the driver is putting into motion a complex series of forces. Each of these must be
balanced against the others. The tires are subjected to road grip and slip angle. Grip holds the car’s
wheels to the road, and momentum moves the car straight ahead. Steering input causes the front
wheels to turn. The car momentarily resists the turning motion, causing a tire slip angle to form.
Once the vehicle begins to respond to the steering input, cornering forces are generated. The
vehicle sways as the rear wheels attempt to keep up with the cornering forces already generated
by the front tires. This is referred to as rear-end lag because there is a time delay between steering
input and vehicle reaction. When the front wheels are turned back to a straight-ahead position, the
vehicle must again try to adjust by reversing the same forces developed by the turn. As the steering
is turned, the vehicle body sways as the rear wheels again try to keep up with the cornering forces
generated by the front wheels.
4. THE CONCEPTS
The Four Wheel Steering System consists of rack and pinion mechanism assisted by bevel gears
of which is connected to front pinion, steering rod in which input is given by the driver and another
will be connected to rear pinion. Rear wheel system consists of two racks with two pinions. One
of the racks will be in front of the rear wheel axis and the other will be at the front axis. Also at
any point in the system, one of the rack & pinion assembly will be engaged with the other being
disengaged. At lower speeds, the pinion will be in contact with rear rack so as to keep the wheels
motion out of phase while for higher speeds pinion will be in contact with front rack of rear steering
system, giving in phase motion to wheels. This position of the rear pinion on the rack is controlled
by a steering mechanism. The angle turned by rear wheels will not be as high as that of front wheels
because the function of rear steering system is to assist the motion of front wheels and not provide
its own direction. This change of angle is obtained by changing gear ratio of rack and pinion.
New generation of active steering systems distinguishes a need of steering of rear wheels for
the reason of directional stability from a need of steering of rear wheels for the reason of
cornering at slow speed.
Cot Ø – cot θ = c / b
At Slow Speeds rear wheels turn in direction opposite to that of front wheels. This mode is
used for navigating through hilly areas and in congested city where better cornering is
required for U turn and tight streets with low turning circle which can be reduced as shown in
Fig 2.
At High Speeds, turning the rear wheels through an angle opposite to front wheels might lead to
vehicle instability and is thus unsuitable. Hence the rear wheels are turned in the same direction of
front wheels in four-wheel steering systems. This is shown in Fig 3.
Fig.5.3: High Speed
In-Phase and Counter-Phase Steering
The 4WS system performs two distinct operations: in- phase steering, whereby the rear
wheels are turned in the same direction as the front wheels, and counter phase steering,
whereby the rear wheels are turned in the opposite direction. The 4WS system is effective
in the following situations:
Lane Changes
Gentle Curves
Junctions
Narrow Roads
U-Turns
Parallel Parking
Another driving maneuver that frequently becomes cumbersome and even dangerous is
changing lanes at fairly high speeds. Although this is less steering intensive, this does not require
a lot concentration from the driver since he has to judge the space and vehicles behind him. Here
is how crab mode can simplify this action.
Parallel Parking
Zero steer can significantly ease the parking process, due to its extremely short turning
footprint. This is exemplified by the parallel parking scenario, which is common in foreign
countries and is pretty relevant to our cities. Here, a car has to park it between two other cars
parked on the service lane. This maneuver requires a three-way movement of the vehicle and
consequently heavy steering inputs. Moreover, to successfully park the vehicle without incurring
any damage, at least 1.75 times the length of the car must be available for parking for a two-wheel
steered car.
6. METHODOLOGY OF FOUR WHEEL STEERING
In a straight-mechanical type of 4WS, two steering gears are used-one for the front and the other
for the rear wheels. A steel shaft connects the two steering gearboxes and terminates at an eccentric
shaft that is fitted with an offset pin. This pin engages a second offset pin that fits into a planetary
gear. The planetary gear meshes with the matching teeth of an internal gear that is secured in a
fixed position to the gearbox housing. This means that the planetary gear can rotate but the internal
gear cannot.
The eccentric pin of the planetary gear fits into a hole in a slider for the steering gear. A 120-
degree turn of the steering wheel rotates the planetary gear to move the slider in the same direction
that the front wheels are headed. Proportionately, the rear wheels turn the steering wheel about 1.5
to 10 degrees. Further rotation of the steering wheel, past the 120degree point, causes the rear
wheels to start straightening out due to the double-crank action (two eccentric pins) and rotation
of the planetary gear. Turning the steering wheel to a greater angle about 230 degrees, finds the
rear wheels in a neutral position regarding the front wheels. Further rotation of the steering wheel
results in the rear wheels going counter phase with regard to the front wheels. About 5.3 degrees
maximum counter phase rear steering is possible. Mechanical 4WS is steering angle sensitive.
Fig.6.1:Mechanical4WSsystem
In the hydraulic four-wheel-steering system, the rear wheel turns only in the same direction as the
front wheels. This system limits rear wheel movement to 5.5 degrees in either the left or right
direction. A two-way hydraulic cylinder mounted on the rear stub frame turn the wheels. Fluid for
this cylinder is supplied by a rear steering pump that is driven by the differential. The pump only
operates when the front wheels are turning. When the steering wheel is turned, the front steering
pump sends fluid under pressure to the rotary valve in the front rack and pinion unit. This forces
fluid into the front power cylinder, and the front wheels turn in the direction steered. The fluid
pressure varies with the turning of the steering wheel. The faster and farther the steering wheel is
turned, the greater the fluid pressure. The fluid is also fed under the same pressure to the control
valve where it opens a spool valve in the control valve housing. As the spool valve moves, it allows
fluid from the rear steering pump to move through and operate the rear power cylinder. The higher
the pressure on the spool, the farther it moves. The farther it moves, the more fluid it allows through
to move the rear wheels.
Fig.6.2: Hydraulic 4WS system
6.3 Electro- hydraulic 4WS system
In this system, a speed sensor and steering wheel angle sensor feed information to the electronic
control unit (ECU). By processing the information received, the ECU commands the hydraulic
system to steer the rear wheels. At low speed, the rear wheels of this system are not considered a
dynamic factor in the steering process. At moderate speeds, the rear wheels are steered
momentarily counter 45 phase, through neutral, then in phase with the front wheels. At high
speeds, the rear wheel turns only in phase with the front wheels. The ECU must know not only
road speed, but also how much and quickly the steering wheel is turned. These three factors - road
speed, amount of steering wheel turn, and the quickness of the steering wheel turn - are interpreted
by the ECU to maintain continuous and desired steer angle of the rear wheels. The yoke is a major
mechanical component of this electro-hydraulic design. The position of the control yoke varies
with vehicle road speed. The stepper motor moves the control yoke. A swing arm is attached to
the control yoke. The position of the yoke determines the arc of the swing rod. The arc of the swing
arm is transmitted through a control arm that passes through a large bevel gear. Stepper motor
action eventually causes a push-or-pull movement of its output shaft to steer the rear wheels up to
a maximum of 5 degrees in either direction. The electronically controlled, 4WS system regulates
the angle and direction of the rear wheels in response to speed and driver's steering. This speed-
sensing system optimizes the vehicle's dynamic characteristics, thereby producing enhanced
stability.
Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two shafts intersect and the tooth-bearing faces of the
gears themselves are conically shaped. Bevel gears are most often mounted on shafts that are 90
degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other angles as well. The pitch surface of bevel gears
is a cone.
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and
reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for
free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent
a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings
facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction
A tire (British tyre) is a ring of material that covers the rim of a wheel. Most road vehicles and
many other vehicles use rubber tires. Tires help vehicles to move smoothly. Tires need to be
changed after their treads wear away. Driving with worn tires is very dangerous. It can cause the
tire to explode and the driver to lose control. Tires are made of different types of rubber. Tires
made of harder rubber are made for long lasting performance, like long-distance truck carriers.
They come in different sizes and have different tread patterns. There are many different sizes of
tires. On car and truck tires, they are marked with 3 numbers and might look like: 225/60R16.
Example
Fig.7.3: Tire
7.4 Wheel hub or Spindle:
A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used in
conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten multiple parts together. The two
partners are kept together by a combination of their threads' friction (with slight
elastic deformation), a slight stretching of the bolt, and compression of the
parts to be held together. A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external
male thread.
A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting
torque and rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drive train that cannot be
connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them.
As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference
between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to bear the stress,
whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.
Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allows any vehicle (car, motorcycle,
bicycle) to follow the desired course. The primary purpose of the steering system is to allow the
driver to guide the vehicle. Four-wheel steering is a system employed by some vehicles to improve
steering response, increase vehicle stability while maneuvering at high speed, or to decrease
turning radius at low speed.
fig.7.7: Steering
7.8 Chain:
A chain is typically made of metal. A chain may consist of two or more links. Those designed for
transferring power in machines have links designed to mesh with the teeth of the sprockets of the
machine, and are flexible in only one dimension. They are known as roller chains, though there
are also non-roller chains such as block chain.
Fig.7.8: chains
8. PHASES OF QUADRA STEERING SYSTEM
In this type of steering system, we can steer a front wheel, as well as the rear wheel of the vehicles
simultaneously. This steering mainly includes two types of steering:
Front wheels and rear wheels are steered in the same direction and are parallel to each other. This
type of system is very useful during lane changing. Front wheels are steered in the direction
opposite to that of the rear wheel. This steering system reduces the space required by the vehicle
during turning as compared to that of the two wheel steering system. The present “Four Wheel
Steering” works mechanically with help of linkages. The system utilizes a manual manipulator to
control and direct the articulation (left and right turning) of rear wheels. The system operates in
three phases: Negative, Neutral and Positive.
At lower speeds, rear wheel turns in opposite direction from the front wheel. This is
negative phase. At moderate speed, the rear wheel remains straight or neutral.
At higher speed, the rear wheel are in the positive phase turning in the same direction
as the front wheels.
In this drive the axles both the front and the rear move in opposite direction relative to each other.
This drive is mainly used during parking of the vehicle. As both the axle move in different
directions the radius of curvature while turning reduces. This means the vehicle will require less
space for parking and this will be helpful in places where traffic and parking is a major problem.
In this drive only the front axle moves either in clockwise or anticlockwise direction and the rear
wheel being unmoved. This is the drive that we see in day to day life in all the four wheelers. It is
generally used at moderate speed.
As the name suggest, in this drive both the axle viz. front and rear move in same direction relative
to the each other. This motion of both the front and the rear axle helps Quadra steering system
enabled vehicle to change the lane during highway driving. It is generally applied at higher speed.
Balancing of vehicle is very important and it can be achieved in different ways i.e. under-steer,
over-steer and neutral-steer.
9.1 Under-Steer
Under steer is so called because when the slip angle of front wheels is greater than slip angle
of rear wheels. The diagram for the under steer is given below, from the diagram the explanation
is made out clear very well.
9.2 Over-Steer
Over steer is defined when the slip angle of front wheels lesser than the slip angle of rear
wheels.
Counter-steering can defined as when the slip angle of front wheels is equal to slip angle of
rear wheels.
10. OPERATIONS
10.1 Welding:
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics,
by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as
brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to melting the base metal, a
filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that
cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the base material. Pressure may also be used in
conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce a weld. We used GMAW for welding operation
purpose. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
– commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable
speed and flows an argon-based shielding gas or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over
the weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric contamination.
Fig.10.1: Operations of Welding
10.2 Cutting:
Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through
the application of an acutely directed force. Cutting is a compressive and shearing
phenomenon, and occurs only when the total stress generated by the cutting
implement exceeds the ultimate strength of the material of the object being cut.
Cutting has been at the core of manufacturing throughout history. For metals
many methods are used and can be grouped by the physical phenomenon used.
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross -
section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work piece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled. In
rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting motion,
though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by hammering
a drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The hammering
action can be performed from outside of the hole (top-hammer drill) or within the
hole (down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are called
drifter drills.
For building of prototype model, the designed model is considered along with
that a frame is built to support the steering, suspension and seat.
The frame is designed considering the wheelbase and track width of Maruti
Suzuki 800 and also it has to support for the suspension part as the suspension is
welded to the frame, seat is also welded to the frame, the support structure for
steering column and rack body is welded to the frame. The frame also takes the
road load and load of the driver, so considering all the factors the frame is
designed and developed.
35 cm
65c
140cm
Length:10.5 8 80
Diameter:1.1
Outer diameter:2.0 8 40
Inner diameter: 1.1
Bevel gears Outer diameter:9 2 400
Inner diameter:3.2
No. Of teeth:10
Module:0.6
Face width:5
Pedals 4 600
Drive shaft Length:25 2 3000
Diameter:2.2
Rear shaft Outer diameter:3.2 1 400
Inner diameter:2.6
Face width:96
Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a shaft's rotation needs to be changed. They are
usually mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other angles
as well.
The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or hypoid. Straight bevel gear teeth actually
have the same problem as straight spur gear teeth -- as each tooth engages, it impacts the
corresponding tooth all at once.
Just like with spur gears, the solution to this problem is to curve the gear teeth. These spiral teeth
engage just like helical teeth: the contact starts at one end of the gear and progressively spreads
across the whole tooth.
Photo courtesy Emerson Power Transmission Corp.
Figure 6. Spiral bevel gears
On straight and spiral bevel gears, the shafts must be perpendicular to each other, but they must
also be in the same plane. If you were to extend the two shafts past the gears, they would
intersect. The hypoid gear, on the other hand, can engage with the axes in different planes.
Figure 7. Hypoid bevel gears in a car differential
This feature is used in many car differentials. The ring gear of the differential and the input
pinion gear are both hypoid. This allows the input pinion to be mounted lower than the axis of
the ring gear. Figure 7 shows the input pinion engaging the ring gear of the differential. Since
the driveshaft of the car is connected to the input pinion, this also lowers the driveshaft. This
means that the driveshaft doesn't intrude into the passenger compartment of the car as much,
making more room for people and cargo.
Spur Gears
PHOTO COURTESY EMERSON POWER TRANSMISSION CORP.
Figure 2. Spur gears
Spur gears are the most common type of gears. They have straight teeth, and are mounted on
parallel shafts. Sometimes, many spur gears are used at once to create very large gear reductions.
Spur gears are used in many devices that you can see all over HowStuffWorks, like the electric
screwdriver, dancing monster, oscillating sprinkler, windup alarm clock, washing
machine and clothes dryer. But you won't find many in your car.
This is because the spur gear can be really loud. Each time a gear tooth engages a tooth on the
other gear, the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise. It also increases the stress on the gear
teeth.
To reduce the noise and stress in the gears, most of the gears in your car are helical.
Basics
One of the most primitive types of gears we could look at would be a wheel with wooden pegs
sticking out of it.
The problem with this type of gear is that the distance from the center of each gear to the point of
contact changes as the gears rotate. This means that the gear ratio changes as the gear turns,
meaning that the output speed also changes. If you used a gear like this in your car, it would be
impossible to maintain a constant speed -- you would be accelerating and decelerating
constantly.
Many modern gears use a special tooth profile called an involute. This profile has the very
important property of maintaining a constant speed ratio between the two gears. Like the peg
wheel above, the contact point moves; but the shape of the involute gear tooth compensates for
this movement. See this section for details.
These systems are well-established linear drive mechanisms, providing high-speed travel over
extremely long lengths. They are frequently used in large gantry systems for material handling,
machining, welding and assembly, especially in the automotive, machine tool, and packaging
industries.
An example of a typical straight-toothed rack and pinion showing the linear rack and the
pinion gear. (Image via Cross and Morse)
Rack and pinions can be constructed in nearly unlimited lengths. Rack sections can be joined
endlessly, although the guide mechanism (a profiled rail or cam roller, for example) can be the
limiting factor in maximum stroke length. Rack and pinion systems can operate in one of two
ways: with the pinion (including gearbox and motor) moving and the rack stationary, or with the
pinion assembly stationary and the rack moving.
Rack and pinion drive systems do have backlash, due to the meshing of gear teeth. But high
precision helical rack and pinion systems have tooth pitch errors in the single-micron range. It’s
also possible to preload a rack and pinion system to prevent backlash.
Lubrication is critical for rack-and-pinion systems due to the metal-on-metal contact combined
with the tight clearances between gear teeth. Automatic lubrication systems are recommended for
use with rack and pinions to ensure proper lubrication and avoid reduced performance or even
failure.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING:
3. The system is not stable at high speed gets overpowered and topple in
some cases.
An innovative feature of this steering linkage design is its ability to drive all four
Wheels using a single steering actuator. Having studied how 4WS has an effect
on the vehicles stability and driver maneuverability, we now look at what the
future will present us with. It’s successful implementation will allow for the
development of a four-wheel, steered power base with maximum
maneuverability, uncompromised static stability, front- and rear-wheel tracking,
and optimum obstacle climbing capability. The advanced system of “Four wheel
steering” will work electronically with the help or microprocessors. The system
will utilize an onboard computer to control and direct the turning left and right of
the rear wheels.
APPLICATION
This paper focused on a steering mechanism which offers feasible solutions to a number
of current maneuvering limitations. Different mechanisms were adopted by trial and
error method in order to facilitate the engagement of the wheels in the required
direction, and the most convenient method was adopted. Thus the four-wheel steering
system is a relatively new technology that imposes cornering capability, steering
response, straight-line stability, lane changing and low-speed maneuverability in cars,
trucks and trailers.
The aim of 4WS system is a better stability during overtaking manoeuvres, reduction
of vehicle oscillation around its vertical axis, reduced sensibility to lateral wind, neutral
behaviour during cornering, improvement of active safety. Even though it is
advantageous over the conventional two-wheel steering system, 4WS is complex and
expensive. Currently the cost of a vehicle with four wheel steering is more than that for
a vehicle with the conventional two wheel steering. Four wheel steering is growing in
popularity and it is likely to have with all vehicles. As the systems takes over market
the cost of four wheel steering will fall down.
REFERENCES