International Dairy Journal 19 (2009) 50–55

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Dairy Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/idairyj

Graininess and roughness of stirred yoghurt as influenced by processing

A. Küçükçetin a, *, K. Weidendorfer b, J. Hinrichs b
a
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Dumlupinar Bulvari, 07059 Antalya, Turkey
b
Department of Animal Foodstuff Technology, Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology, University of Hohenheim, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this work was to study how heat treatment, the type of starter culture, incubation temper-
Received 30 December 2007 ature, and storage time can affect the physicochemical characteristics of stirred yoghurt. A four-factor
Received in revised form 6 July 2008 experimental design was used for data analysis. Yoghurt milk was heated at 95  C for 5 min or 130  C for
Accepted 13 July 2008
80 s. Yoghurts were produced with three different starter cultures that had been incubated at 37, 42 or
45  C and stored at 4  C for 15 days. Visual roughness, number of grains, perimeter of grains, storage
modulus, and yield stress all decreased when heating temperature was increased, when an exopoly-
saccharide-producing starter culture was used, or when incubation temperature was decreased. Storage
time did not affect any of the physicochemical properties of yoghurt, except for the pH.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Texture, one of the most essential components of the quality of
stirred yoghurt, represents all the rheological and structural attributes
perceptible by means of mechanical, tactile and visual receptors
(Sodini, Lucas, Oliveira, Remeuf, & Corrieu, 2002). The texture of stirred
yoghurt can be influenced by milk composition, dry matter content,
heating, homogenization, the type of starter culture, incubation
temperature, cooling, storage time, etc. (Beal, Skokanova, Latrille,
Martin, & Corrieu, 1999; Kessler, 2002; van Marle, 1998; Martin,
Skokanova, Latrille, Beal, & Corrieu, 1997; Tamime & Robinson, 1999).
However, textural defects of stirred yoghurt, such as graininess
(appearance of particles) and roughness (irregularities in the
yoghurt matrix), are sometimes observed. The use of a high incu-
bation temperature, an excessive whey protein to casein ratio,
certain types of starter cultures and the use of excessive amounts of
a starter culture are often associated with these types of defects
(Lucey, 2004; Lucey & Singh, 1998). Sodini, Lucas, Tissier, and Cor-
rieu (2005) reported that the graininess of stirred yoghurt
decreased when yoghurt milk was incubated at 38  C instead of at
42  C, or when a texturing starter culture was applied.
Remeuf, Mohammed, Sodini, and Tissier (2003) and Sodini,
Remeuf, Haddad, and Corrieu (2004) determined graininess using
image analysis. The authors considered grains having a perimeter
(diameter calculated from the measured boundary length) greater
than 1.0 mm per 1 g of yoghurt as depicting graininess.
Surface properties, such as surface topography, strongly influ-
ence the visual and sensorial quality of food products (Chen,
Moschakis, & Pugnaloni, 2006). Food surfaces show several char-
acteristics of textural perception (naked eye and sensorial percep-
tion) related to their nature, composition and processing (Quevedo,
Carlos, Aguilera, & Cadoche, 2002). A surface that looks smooth to
the naked eye may be quite rough at higher magnifications, meaning
that the roughness is scale-sensitive. Techniques used to measure
the roughness of different foods are classified as contact and non-
contact methods. Since most foods have soft or deformable surfaces,
non-contact techniques (among which optical techniques prevail)
are preferred, because they are non-invasive. Optical techniques
such as optical interferometry, confocal laser microscopy, light
microscopy and atomic force microscopy have been applied to
characterize the surface of foods (Quevedo & Aguilera, 2004).
However, a standard instrumental analysis method for determining
the roughness of stirred yoghurt has not been found.
Although a large amount of literature has been published about
the attempts to determine the effects that technological processing
steps have on the physicochemical properties of yoghurt (Beal et al.,
1999; Krasaekoopt, Bhandari, & Deeth, 2004; Lee & Lucey, 2004;
Sodini et al., 2002), interactions of technological conditions have
not been studied in detail in relation to texture. The objective of this
research was to study the combined effects of heat treatment, the
type of starter culture, incubation temperature, and storage time on
the physicochemical properties of stirred yoghurt, including its
graininess and its roughness.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Milk processing and yoghurt preparation

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 242 3106569; fax: þ90 242 2274564. Fresh raw milk (12.7% total solids, 3.6% total protein, 3.5% total
E-mail address: kucukcetin@akdeniz.edu.tr (A. Küçükçetin). fat, pH 6.7) was provided by the research station Meiereihof

0958-6946/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2008.07.006
 A. Küçükçetin et al. / International Dairy Journal 19 (2009) 50–55
(University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany). The milk was
skimmed to 0.1% fat using a cream separator (SA 10, Frautech S.r.l.,
Schio, Italy) at about 55  C. For the yoghurt preparation, skimmed
milk powder (BY 409 EG, Bayerische Milchindustrie eG, Landshut,
Germany) was added to the milk to give final total solids and total
protein levels of 11 and 4.3%, respectively. The standardized milk
was heated at 95  C for 5 min or at 130  C for 80 s and subsequently
cooled to 37, 42 or 45  C in the tubular heating equipment
(throughput rate 200 L h1; ASEPTO-Therm UHT-Pilotanlage,
Asepto GmbH, Dinkelscherben, Germany) of the Dairy for Research
and Training Department, University of Hohenheim.
Three commercial starter cultures (A: Yo-Mix 621, B: Yo-Mix 215
and C: Yo-Mix 101) supplied by Danisco A/S (Copenhagen, Den-
mark) were used for the manufacture of 3 L of yoghurt for each
treatment applied. According to the company’s product descrip-
tions, the starter cultures A, B and C can form exopolysaccharides at
high, medium and low levels, respectively. An amount of 0.1 g L1 of
frozen pellets of starter culture A (Streptococcus thermophilus and
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus), B (S. thermophilus, L.
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, L. acidophilus and Bifidobacterium
lactis) or C (S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus and B. lactis) were added,
and the yoghurt milk was incubated at 37, 42 or 45  C until the pH
had decreased to 4.40. Fermentation was then stopped by rapid
cooling to 4  C in an ice-water bath.
While cooling, the yoghurt was manually stirred using the up
and down movements of a stainless-steel bored disk for approxi-
mately 1 min. Special care was taken to avoid stirring process-
related differences between samples. After setting the stirred
product into 100 mL cups, the stirred yoghurt samples were stored
at 4  C for 15 days. The physicochemical characteristics of the
samples were analysed on day 1 and day 15 of storage.
2.2. Physicochemical property measurements
2.2.1. pH measurement
The pH was measured using a Knick 765 pH meter (Knick
Elektronische Messgeräte GmbH & Co., Berlin, Germany). All
measurements were performed in duplicate.
2.2.2. Graininess
As a measure for graininess, the number and mean perimeter of
grains were measured using image analysis. A glass plate
(140  250  5 mm) was placed into a polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
frame, and two metal bars with a height of 0.60 mm were fixed
100
Greyscale value in 100%
75
1 2
50
random line 1-2
25
0 0
Image with 768 x 576 Pixels
and 256 greyscale values
Fig. 1. Steps to evaluate the visual roughness (Rvis). The intensity distribution, given in grey scale values of a randomly chosen line, is extracted from the digital image. The absolute
deviation is calculated as the deviation between the intensity distribution and the median smoothed value. Reprinted from Kücükcetin, A. (2008). Effect of heat treatment and
casein to whey protein ratio of skim milk on graininess and roughness of stirred yoghurt. Food Research International 41, 165–171, with permission from Elsevier.
51
aside the plate. The yoghurt sample was poured onto the glass plate
and spread evenly by hand using a PVC plate to form a yoghurt layer
with a 0.60 mm thickness, as defined by the metal bars. The glass
plate with the yoghurt layer was put into a dark chamber on an
illuminated plate. An image of the transmitted sample was taken
with an in-built CCD camera (TFP-M/WL, LTF-Labortechnik, Was-
serburg, Germany) with a resolution of 768  576 pixel and 256
grey scale colour depth, effectively corresponding to 74 pixel cm1.
The image analysis was performed with Optimas 6.1 software
(Media Cybergenetics, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA). The software
was set for the evaluation of a 3 mL sample. The number of grains
indicating a perimeter greater than 1.0 mm per 3 mL of yoghurt and
the mean perimeter of grains were evaluated. All measurements
were performed in duplicate.
2.2.3. Visual roughness
Yoghurt samples were prepared for visual roughness measure-
ment according to the same procedure described above for the
measurement of graininess. Visual roughness (Rvis) of a spread
yoghurt sample was taken as an additional descriptive parameter of
the digital image made for graininess. The mean absolute intensity
deviation of each pixel from a median smoothed intensity line
through the picture was defined as the Rvis of the yoghurt sample.
The intensity distributions of five lines (each having 450 pixels)
given as grey scale values were extracted from the digital image and
were evaluated corresponding to Eqs. (1) and (2). In order to
integrate the deviation of the background brightness, the mean
grey scale value (Ai ) was calculated as the median of 74 pixels
around each pixel, i (Eq. (1)). The Rvis was calculated using Eq. (2).
The results are given as the mean of three individually prepared
images (Fig. 1). J is the number of evaluated pixels in Eq. (2).
Ai ¼ medianfAi74 ; Aiþ74 g (1)
J
1 X 
Rvis ¼ Ai  Ai  (2)
J i¼1
2.2.4. Storage modulus and yield stress
Storage modulus (G0 ) and yield stress of yoghurt samples were
determined using vane methodology as described by Baravian,
Lalante, and Parker (2002). It has been asserted that vane geometry
25
greyscale value Ai median smoothed value Ai
Deviation value in %
20
1 2 15
deviation I Ai - Ai I 10
5
0 100 200 300 400 500
Pixel number j
52 A. Küçükçetin et al. / International Dairy Journal 19 (2009) 50–55

is more appropriate than traditional geometries for shear sensitive Table 1

foods such as yoghurt, because the latter damage the food structure Effect of the heat treatment (HT), starter culture (SC), incubation temperature (IT)
and storage time (ST) on some selected characteristics of stirred skim milk yoghurt
to be analyzed before the measurement. In addition, problems of
wall slip (common with many traditional techniques) are avoided ANOVA G0 (Pa) Yield Number of PGa Rvis
using vane geometry (Martin, Parker, Hort, Hollowood, & Taylor, stress (Pa) grains 3 mL1 (mm) (unit of AIDm)b

2005). The vane assembly consisted of four blades arranged at HT ***c *** *** *** ***
SC *** *** *** *** ***
equal angles around a thin vertical shaft and was connected to
IT *** *** *** *** ***
a rheometer (type AR 2000, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA). ST n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
For measurements, vane assembly was placed in the undisturbed HT  SC n.s. n.s. *** *** ***
sample with the top edge of the blades parallel to the sample HT  IT n.s. *** *** n.s. n.s.
surface. The blade radius was 14.0 mm, and the height of the HT  ST *** n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
SC  IT *** *** ** *** ***
cylindrical part was 40.0 mm. The lower end was formed into a 20 SC  ST * n.s. n.s. * n.s.
cone with the lower edge of each blade being sharpened; the IT  ST n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
diameter of the 100 mL sample glass was 44.6 mm. Due to the a
PG, perimeter of grains.
distribution of the shear stress and the shear rate, the vane b
Rvis, visual roughness; AIDm, mean absolute intensity deviation.
assembly was calibrated to calculate the shear stress from the c
The use of asterisks *, **, ***, denote significantly different at P < 0.05, P < 0.01,
measured torque and to calculate the shear rate from the angular and P < 0.001, respectively; n.s., not significant.
velocity. The shear stress factor at the inner effective cylinder and
the shear rate factor were calculated to be 2.42  104 Pa N1 m1
and 1.834 1 rad1, respectively (Baravian et al., 2002). Kessler (1988) reported that severe heating intensities led to
The storage modulus was determined at 1 Hz and at a temper- a slight reduction in the firmness of the yoghurt gel. This is prob-
ature of 7  C using the above factors. Subsequently, the yield stress ably related to differences in the kinetics of denaturation between
(s0 was determined by increasing the angular velocity of the rotor the whey proteins, according to Mottar, Bassier, Joniau, and Baert
logarithmically from 5  104 rad s1 to 100 rad s1 in 4 min with (1989). Dannenberg and Kessler (1988) suggested that the aggre-
the same sample. The yield stress was calculated at the break from gation of casein micelles into large particles or the disaggregation
the linear stress increase in the strain–torque plot in accordance of casein particles during heating at high temperature could lead to
with Steffe (1996). All measurements were performed in duplicate. weaker gel.
The G0 value in the yoghurt made using the low-level exopoly-
2.3. Statistical analyses saccharide-producing starter culture (starter culture C) was
significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those made using the medium-
In this study, the production and storage of yoghurt was per- (starter culture B) or high-level (starter culture A) exopoly-
formed in duplicate. All statistical calculations were performed saccharide-producing starter cultures. The G0 value in yoghurt
using SAS Statistical Software (release for Windows, SAS Institute increased by approximately 40%, when the yoghurt was made with
Inc., Cary, NC, USA). A four-factor ANOVA with two interactions was a low-level exopolysaccharide-producing starter culture instead of
conducted to determine the effects of heat treatment, the type of a high-level exopolysaccharide-producing starter culture (other
starter culture, incubation temperature and storage time on grain- conditions being unchanged).
iness, the perimeter of grains, visual roughness and the rheological These results agree with those of Hassan, Corredig, and Frank,
properties of the stirred yoghurt. Duncan’s multiple range test was (2001) and Hess, Roberts, and Ziegler (1997), who reported that
conducted to detect the differences among the treatment means for yoghurt samples made using non-exopolysaccharide-producing
the physicochemical characteristics measured.

3. Results and discussion

Table 2
The pH at the end of the incubation period was similar for the Rheological properties of stirred skim milk yoghurta

different yoghurts with an average pH of 4.4, regardless of the Starter Incubation Storage G0 (Pa) Yield stress (Pa)
applied treatment. The pH values had decreased significantly culturesb temperature time
95  C, 130  C, 95  C, 130  C,
( C) (day)
(p < 0.05) in each of the yoghurt samples after having been stored 5 min 80 s 5 min 80 s
at 4  C for 15 days. The four-factor ANOVA results (Table 1) showed A 37 1 227.2  8.6 166  21 33.4  3.1 32.1  4.9
that heat treatment, the type of starter culture and incubation 15 238.9  9.5 180  27 36.1  2.9 27.4  2.6
temperature had a significant effect on the physicochemical prop- 42 1 370  22 216  26 51.3  2.7 41.4  4.2
15 351  29 202  13 50.7  5.8 33.6  0.3
erties of the stirred yoghurt (p < 0.001). Statistical analysis showed
45 1 391  14 264  28 64.4  4.0 46.7  3.3
that the number of grains was positively correlated with the mean 15 440  18 231  32 80.7  3.5 36.0  1.8
perimeter of grains of the samples (r ¼ 0.58, p < 0.001). Positive
B 37 1 341.4  8.5 229.4  7.9 50.2  1.1 36.7  2.2
correlation coefficients were also found between the G0 value, the
15 359  23 188  14 44.7  7.5 24.2  2.2
number of grains and the perimeter of grains of the samples 42 1 463  22 423  33 65.6  3.8 53.2  3.6
(r ¼ 0.79 and 0.70, p < 0.001). 15 464  23 390  22 75.6  5.6 59.1  8.2
45 1 554  38 370  20 78.9  3.5 54.5  0.6
3.1. Rheological properties 15 524  15 343  21 65.3  0.7 56.0  6.5

C 37 1 385.7  3.9 292  28 53.1  1.5 39.9  3.9

The storage modulus and yield stress are presented as rheo- 15 480  27 229  11 52.4  0.6 32.5  8.8
42 1 536  59 405  37 70.8  3.1 56.9  2.7
logical parameters of the stirred yoghurt samples in Table 2. The G0
15 597  47 428  19 77.6  5.4 56.0  5.4
and the yield stress of the yoghurt varied from 160 to 550 Pa and 45 1 551  105 531  11 94.7  7.0 69.5  2.1
from 32 to 95 Pa, respectively, according to technological 15 679  54 504  44 92.9  2.5 75.1  5.1
conditions. a
Values (means  S.D.) of the rheological properties of stirred yoghurt.
The G0 value decreased significantly (p < 0.05, Table 1), when the b
A, B and C: exopolysaccharide-producing starter cultures at levels of high,
heating temperature was increased (Table 2). Dannenberg and medium and low, respectively.
 A. Küçükçetin et al. / International Dairy Journal 19 (2009) 50–55 53

800

Number of grains of 3 mL yoghurt

600

400

200

0
37°C 42°C 45°C 37°C 42°C 45°C 37°C 42°C 45°C
Starter culture A Starter culture B Starter culture C
Fig. 2. Number of grains of a 3 mL skim milk yoghurt samples after 1 day of storage as influenced by the type of starter culture (A, B or C), incubation temperature (37, 42 or 45  C),
and heat treatment of the yoghurt milk (-, 95  C for 5 min; ,, 130  C for 80 s). Bars represent mean values (n ¼ 4); error bars represent the standard deviation of the mean.

starter cultures had higher G0 values than those made using exopoly-
saccharide-producing starter cultures. If a direct relation exists
between the number of molecules participating in the three-dimen-
sional network and the gel strength, it can be speculated that exopo-
lysaccharide-producing starter cultures interfere with the number and
strength of the bonds between the casein particles and the spatial
distribution of the aggregates. These factors determine the dynamic
moduli of the gel and may be responsible for low G0 values of gels made
using exopolysaccharide-producing starter cultures.
The G0 values of the samples increased significantly (p < 0.05)
with incubation temperature (Table 2); a similar trend was reported
by Lankes, Ozer, and Robinson (1998), who showed that the number
and distribution of the strong bonds increased with incubation
temperature. These authors assumed that the stronger protein
bonds contributed to the elastic character of viscoelastic gels.
The effect of the heat treatment, the type of starter culture and
the incubation temperature on the yield stress of the yoghurt
samples was similar to that expressed upon the G0 . The yield stress
value of yoghurt obtained from milk heated at 95  C for 5 min was
37% higher than that obtained for milk heated at 130  C for 80 s
(Table 2). Dannenberg and Kessler (1988) reported that the yield
stress of yoghurt was related to intensity of the heat treatment,
thus, the extent of whey protein denaturation. These authors
observed that the area of hysteresis loop of flow curves increased
with increased rate of b-lactoglobulin denaturation up to 90%. The
higher the level of denaturation, the higher the number of labile
bounds in the gel structure, according to Dannenberg and Kessler
(1988). The yield stress of yoghurt samples incubated at 37  C was
lower than for those incubated at 42 or 45  C. Regardless of the type
of starter culture and the storage time, the yield stress significantly

12

10
Mean perimeter of grains (mm)

0
37°C 42°C 45°C 37°C 42°C 45°C 37°C 42°C 45°C
Starter culture A Starter culture B Starter culture C
Fig. 3. Mean perimeter of grains in skim milk yoghurt (after 1 day of storage) depending upon the type of starter culture (A, B or C) and incubation temperature (37, 42 or 45  C) for
differently preheated yoghurt milk (-, 95  C for 5 min; ,, 130  C for 80 s). Bars represent mean values (n ¼ 4); error bars represent the standard deviation of the mean.
54 A. Küçükçetin et al. / International Dairy Journal 19 (2009) 50–55

Visual roughness (mean absolute intensity deviation)

30

25

20

15

10

0
37°C 42°C 45°C 37°C 42°C 45°C 37°C 42°C 45°C
Starter culture A Starter culture B Starter culture C

Fig. 4. Effect of heat treatment (-, 95  C for 5 min; ,, 130  C for 80 s), the type of starter culture (A, B or C) and incubation temperature (37, 42 or 45  C) on the visual roughness of
skim milk yoghurt after 1 day of storage. Bars represent mean values (n ¼ 6); error bars represent the standard deviation of the mean.

(p < 0.05, Table 1) decreased as the heating temperature increased stirred yoghurts made with texturing starter cultures was higher
or the incubation temperature decreased (Table 2). The yield stress than that of those with acidifying starter cultures.
value of yoghurt samples made using a high-level (starter culture The use of high incubation temperatures in cultured products
A) exopolysaccharide-producing starter culture was significantly promotes the formation of grains (Lucey, 2004). At a low fermen-
(p < 0.05) lower than those made using a medium- (starter culture tation temperature, the aggregation of proteins occurs more slowly,
B) or low-level (starter culture C) exopolysaccharide-producing and a large number of protein–protein interactions between the
starter culture. casein particles takes place. Thereby, less rearrangement of the
These data demonstrate that rheological properties are related particles during gel formation occurs. This forces the formation of
to the processing parameters applied and the starter culture used. a more continuous network and contributes to an increase in the
To improve the processing of yoghurt, it is also important to take rigidity of the network. This may also explain why products
graininess and visual roughness into consideration. obtained at low temperatures are smoother, as a lower extent of
particle rearrangement would imply less graininess (Sodini et al.,
2004).
Finally, the visual roughness was influenced by heat treatment,
3.2. Graininess and visual roughness
the type of starter culture and incubation temperature (p < 0.001)
(Table 1). No effect due to storage was detected (p > 0.05). The
The number of grains and the mean perimeter of grains of the
visual roughness decreased significantly (p < 0.05) as either heat-
day 1 yoghurt varied from 1 to 718 per 3 mL of the sample and from
ing temperature was increased or incubation temperature was
1.6 to 9.9 mm, respectively, according to the heat treatment, the
decreased (Fig. 4). In addition, the visual roughness of the samples
type of starter culture and the incubation temperature (Figs. 2
made using a high-level exopolysaccharide-producing starter
and 3). Regardless of the heat treatment and the type of starter
culture (starter culture A) was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than of
culture, the number of grains in the yoghurt incubated at 45  C was
those made using a medium- (starter culture B) or low-level
higher than that of the yoghurt incubated at 37 or 42  C (Fig. 2).
(starter culture C) exopolysaccharide-producing starter culture.
The number and the perimeter of grains determined for yoghurt
obtained from milk heated at 95  C for 5 min was significantly
(p < 0.05) higher than that determined for yoghurts obtained from 4. Conclusions
milk heated at 130  C for 80 s (Fig. 2). According to the hypothesis
already described by Mottar et al. (1989), at higher heat load The study demonstrated that heat treatment, the type of starter
(130  C) the precipitation of a-lactalbumin onto a micelle fills the culture, and incubation temperature are significant processing
gap formed by b-lactoglobulin filaments, resulting in a reduction of parameters that affect the physicochemical properties of stirred
the surface hydrophobicity and a smoother micellar surface. This yoghurt. For practical applications, processing parameters can be
seems to reduce the tendency of grains forming during optimized to improve quality or modified to create fermented milk
fermentation. products with different physicochemical properties. As heating
The number of grains (Fig. 2) and the mean perimeter of grains temperature was increased, or incubation temperature decreased,
(Fig. 3) of the samples made using a high-level (starter culture A) and with the high-level exopolysaccharide-producing starter
exopolysaccharide-producing starter culture was significantly culture, the number of grains, perimeter of grains, visual roughness,
(p < 0.05) lower than those made using a medium- (starter culture G0 and yield stress decreased. The combination of a high heating
B) or low-level (starter culture C) exopolysaccharide-producing temperature (130  C for 80 s), the use of a medium-level exopoly-
starter culture. Sodini et al. (2004) reported that the type of starter saccharide-producing starter culture and a medium incubation
culture influenced the sensory attributes of yoghurt. These authors temperature (42  C) reduce the tendency of graininess and
found that the smoothness character (i.e., the lack of graininess) of roughness and causes an increase in two rheological parameters, G0
 A. Küçükçetin et al. / International Dairy Journal 19 (2009) 50–55
and yield stress, of stirred yoghurt. However, more work needs to
be done, particularly on the quantification and characterization of
exopolysaccharide, to better understand the effect of exopoly-
saccharide on physicochemical properties of stirred yoghurt.
Acknowledgements
A. Küçükçetin acknowledges the financial support obtained
from the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung (Germany) via a Post-
Doc fellowship and The Scientific Research Projects Administration
Unit of Akdeniz University (Turkey). In addition, parts of the
research project were supported by the FEI (Forschungskreis der
Ernährungsindustrie e.V., Bonn, Germany), the AiF and the Ministry
of Economics and Technology. AiF-Project No.: 14088N.
References
Baravian, C., Lalante, A., & Parker, A. (2002). Vane rheometry with a large, finite gap.
Applied Rheology, 12, 81–87.
Beal, C., Skokanova, J., Latrille, E., Martin, N., & Corrieu, G. (1999). Combined effects
of culture conditions and storage time on acidification and viscosity of stirred
yogurt. Journal of Dairy Science, 82, 673–681.
Chen, J., Moschakis, T., & Pugnaloni, L. A. (2006). Surface topography of heat-set whey
protein gels by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Food Hydrocolloids, 20, 468–474.
Dannenberg, F., & Kessler, H. G. (1988). Effect of denaturation of b-lactoglobuline on
texture properties of set-style non fat yogurt. 2. Firmness and flow properties.
Milchwissenschaft, 43, 700–704.
Hassan, A. N., Corredig, M., & Frank, J. F. (2001). Viscoelastic properties of yogurt
with ropy and non-ropy exopolysaccharides producing cultures. Milchwissen-
schaft, 56, 684–687.
Hess, S. J., Roberts, R. F., & Ziegler, G. R. (1997). Rheological properties of nonfat
yogurt stabilized using Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus producing exo-
polysaccharide or using commercial stabilizer system. Journal of Dairy Science,
80, 252–263.
Kessler, H. G. (2002). Food and bio process engineering – Dairy technology (5th ed.).
München, Germany: Verlag A. Kessler. p. 694.
Krasaekoopt, W., Bhandari, B., & Deeth, H. (2004). Comparison of texture of yogurt
made from conventionally treated milk and UHT milk fortified with low-heat
skim milk powder. Journal of Food Science, 69, 276–280.
55
Lankes, H., Ozer, H. B., & Robinson, R. K. (1998). The effect of elevated milk solids
and incubation temperature on the physical properties of natural yoghurt.
Milchwissenschaft, 53, 510–513.
Lee, W. J., & Lucey, J. A. (2004). Structure and physical properties of yoghurt gels:
effect of inoculation rate and incubation temperature. Journal of Dairy Science,
87, 3153–3164.
Lucey, J. A. (2004). Cultured dairy products: an overview of their gelation and
texture properties. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 57, 77–84.
Lucey, J. A., & Singh, H. (1998). Formation and physical properties of acid milk gels:
a review. Food Research International, 30, 529–542.
van Marle, M. E. (1998). Structure and rheological properties of yoghurt gels and
stirred yoghurts. Enschede, The Netherlands. PhD thesis, University of Twente.
Martin, L. F., Parker, A., Hort, J., Hollowood, T. A., & Taylor, A. J. (2005). Using vane
geometry for measuring the texture of stirred yogurt. Journal of Texture Studies,
36, 421–438.
Martin, N., Skokanova, J., Latrille, E., Beal, C., & Corrieu, G. (1997). Sensory and
instrumental characterization of the texture of stirred yoghurt. In Texture of
fermented milk products and dairy desserts. Proceedings of the International Dairy
Federation Symposium, Vicenza, Italy (pp. 24–33). Brussels, Belgium: Interna-
tional Dairy Federation.
Mottar, J., Bassier, A., Joniau, M., & Baert, J. (1989). Effect of heat-induced association
of whey proteins and casein micelles on yogurt texture. Journal of Dairy Science,
72, 2247–2256.
Quevedo, R., & Aguilera, J. M. (2004). Characterization of food surface roughness
using the glistening points method. Journal of Food Engineering, 65, 1–7.
Quevedo, R., Carlos, L. G., Aguilera, J. M., & Cadoche, L. (2002). Description of food
surfaces and microstructural changes using fractal image texture analysis.
Journal of Food Engineering, 53, 361–371.
Remeuf, F., Mohammed, S., Sodini, I., & Tissier, J. P. (2003). Preliminary observations
on the effects of milk fortification and heating on microstructure and physical
properties of stirred yogurt. International Dairy Journal, 13, 773–782.
Sodini, I., Lucas, A., Oliveira, M. N., Remeuf, F., & Corrieu, G. (2002). Effect of milk
base and starter culture on acidification, texture, and probiotic cell counts in
fermented milk processing. Journal of Dairy Science, 85, 2479–2488.
Sodini, I., Lucas, A., Tissier, J. P., & Corrieu, G. (2005). Physical properties and
microstructure of yoghurts supplemented with milk protein hydrolysates.
International Dairy Journal, 15, 29–35.
Sodini, I., Remeuf, F., Haddad, S., & Corrieu, G. (2004). The relative effect of milk
base, starter, and process on yogurt texture: a review. Critical Reviews in Food
Sciences and Nutrition, 44, 113–137.
Steffe, J. F. (1996). Rheological methods in food process engineering, East Lansing. USA:
Freeman Press.
Tamime, A. Y., & Robinson, R. K. (1999). Yoghurt science and technology (2nd ed.).
Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Limited.