Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes

An International Quarterly

ISSN: 1460-1176 (Print) 1943-2186 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgah20

Gardens and orchards of Kampos’ historical

country mansions in Chios: an early trace of
landscape architecture in Greece

Evangellos Apostolides, Maria Papafotiou, Anna-Maria Vissilia & Angeliki

Paraskevopoulou

To cite this article: Evangellos Apostolides, Maria Papafotiou, Anna-Maria Vissilia & Angeliki
Paraskevopoulou (2015) Gardens and orchards of Kampos’ historical country mansions in
Chios: an early trace of landscape architecture in Greece, Studies in the History of Gardens &
Designed Landscapes, 35:4, 290-311, DOI: 10.1080/14601176.2015.1035553

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14601176.2015.1035553

Published online: 21 Apr 2015.

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 Gardens and orchards of Kampos’ historical country mansions in Chios:
an early trace of landscape architecture in Greece
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 09:17 15 March 2016

evangellos apostolides, maria papafotiou, anna-maria vissilia

& angeliki paraskevopoulou

The plain of Kampos fortress like manner to protect against marauders and prevent the smuggling
of masticha.4 Water found in the plain of Kampos (‘kampos’ meaning ‘plain’ in
The Greek island of Chios boasts a long and impressive history dating back to
Greek, derived from the Latin word campus) as opposed to the dry terrain of
the Phoenicians, who are said to have named the island, and is situated at the
the Mastichochoria appealed to many wealthy families who established them-
Northeastern Aegean Sea, very close to the Asia Minor coasts. Chios is known
selves in the area and built fortified stone mansions (pyrgos) and walls sur-
as Myrovolos (sweet-smelling), owing to its colorful walled orchards mainly of
rounding their gardens and orchards.5 These fully functional horticultural
citrus trees and gardens found in the area of Kampos, an elongated fertile plain
estates were linked to each other by a network of narrow lanes (figure 1).
about 2.5 km in width and 7–8 km in length, in the middle of the eastern
Apart from being a pleasant area in which to live, Kampos was also situated
coastline of the island and about 2 km to the south of Chios town.1 These
next to Chios town (Kastro), the administrative and military center of the
walled gardens and orchards are part of the historic mansions of the area
island.6
established during three distinct periods: Genoese occupation 1346–1566;
Before the Genoese occupation Kampos had a remarkable production of
Ottoman occupation 1566–1912; and post-liberation of Chios, 1912 to the
wheat, vegetables, pomegranates and wine, together with a significant cultiva-
present.2
tion of mulberries, thus providing food for the cultivation of silkworms, silk
The location of Chios was notable for its commercial and strategic signifi-
production being for many centuries an important source of income for Chios.
cance connecting the Middle East and Europe. In 1346 following three
The Genoese created the extensive citrus orchards in Kampos and the success
months of siege the Genoese successfully occupied the Byzantine island of
of the citrus tree cultivation transformed Kampos into a large citrus garden.
Chios.3 During the Genoese occupation many powerful and wealthy Genoese
Eventually, the mansions of Kampos became the homes of many families of
families settled on the island to control the trade-posts and warehouses, in
the Chians, Byzantine and Genoese aristocracy. According to foreign travelers,
particular the trade of mastic (masticha), silk, alum, salt and pitch. Worldwide,
these mansions of Kampos were reminiscent of buildings found in western
masticha, up to the present day, is produced exclusively in the southern part of
European cities, especially Italy, and served as summer residences. Some of
the island of Chios, the Mastichochoria (masticha villages). The Mastichochoria
these mansions still survive today.7
settlements were built between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries in a
290 issn 1460-1176 # 2015 taylor & francis vol. 35, no. 4
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 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
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figure 1. A typical street of Kampos, composed of a walled citrus orchard (on the right)
and the mansion of an estate with its entrance gate (on the left). Source: photograph by E.
Apostolides.
In 1566, Chios was occupied by the Ottoman Turks, but the government and
tax gathering remained in the hands of Greeks.8 The mainstay of the island’s
famous wealth was the masticha and the Ottoman government regarded Chios as
one of the most valuable provinces of the Empire. By the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries the fleets and trading interests of the Chians covered
almost the entire known world. In addition to their trade, they had their own
estates in Kampos that produced and exported oranges, lemons, figs, wine, linen
and turpentine. These famously rich merchants and ship owners imported
architectural and decorative styles to adorn both their town houses and their
rural estates in Kampos. During this time the area of Kampos maintained the
landscape character of an Italian country town, in particular that of Genoa.9
The German classical writer Ernst Poppo, in 1822 on the eve of Chios’
destruction, described Chios as: ‘ … the garden of the Ottoman empire … the
paradise of the Archipelago, or even of the whole Levant … ’. But in 1822 that
paradise on Chios abruptly came to an end. For after the unsuccessful revolu-
tion against Ottoman rule during the Greek war of independence, the Otto-
man troops slaughtered or enslaved more than three-quarters of the Greek
inhabitants on the island, and burned down the mansions of Kampos. The
‘Massacres of Chios’ contributed to the increase of philhellenism in Europe and
inspired artists, such as the leader of the French Romantic School Eugene
Delacroix, whose painting The Massacres of Chios (1824) is found in the Louvre
Museum. Residents who survived the fury of the conquerors fled abroad
leaving Kampos deserted. After 1840 the situation improved. Chian families
who had prospered in Greek colonies in Russia, Romania and Alexandria
(Egypt) gradually returned and renewed life in the region. They rebuilt the
mansions in Kampos, preserving the original architectural typology brought by
the Genoese while enhancing it with Ottoman morphological elements.10
These mansions mainly served as summer houses for wealthy Chians who
lived and worked in Egypt and spent six months each year in Chios between
April and September. During this period, Chios became a main fruit produc-
tion area. The export of fruits (mandarins, oranges, lemons, bergamots and
citrus), plus the trade in mastic, silk and other luxury items, contributed to the
development and prosperity of the island.11 At that time, Chian merchants
extended their commercial activity not only to the centers of the Ottoman
Empire but also to Italy, France, the Netherlands, and other sea and trade
centers. Hence, the original architectural style of the mansions in the area of
Kampos was influenced by various foreign prototypes, which were integrated,
creating a particular local style of architecture.12
The fertile valley of Kampos was tested once again in the winter of 1849,
when a severe frost destroyed almost all the citrus trees. A decade later Ioannis
Choremis, member of a noble Chian family, introduced the ‘Chian mandarin’
in the orchards of Kampos, a variety that dominated overseas markets for more
than a century while making a considerable profit for the Chians. The final
blow for Kampos came in 1881, caused by a devastating earthquake. Most
estates were destroyed and the inhabitants were forced once again to seek
homes abroad.13
In 1912 the island of Chios was liberated from Ottoman rule and joined
Greece. Many abandoned mansions, gardens and orchards of Kampos were
bought by wealthy Chians who lived in Egypt and the USA. The new
mansions that were built on the ruins of old residences retained the
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architectural characteristics of the area, while at the same time incorporating
neoclassical elements following the fashion of classicism popular at that time.14
After the Second World War the income from the orchards became
supplementary for their owners and the large estates of more than 30 acres
were divided into smaller areas.15 In 1990 the Greek Ministry of Culture
declared the area of Kampos as a Historical Site due to its natural and
architectural heritage along with its unique and harmonious coexistence of
residential and agricultural activities. There are approximately two hundred
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estates, surrounded by high stone courtyard walls, which are of historical and
architectural importance.16
The layout of a typical mansion: architecture and landscape
On the plain of Kampos there are very few preserved estates that date from the
period of the Genoese and Ottoman occupation. Most mansions were con-
structed after the earthquake of 1881. The way these neoclassical mansions and
estates are formed has been influenced by both Italian and Islamic prototypes.
This study is based on a review of existing representations of the Kampos
estates (such as drawings, prints, paintings, photographs, maps, etc.), on-site
visits and documentation, as well as the literature, with a focus on the func-
tional and morphological aspects of the landscape architectural elements for-
mulating them. Moreover, the influences and the horticultural material used
are highlighted and discussed in connection to the layout of the gardens. The
literature review focuses mainly on descriptions of the historic estates and their
landscape elements, while that of the Kampos estates and on-site visits focus on
the identification and recording of landscape elements through pictures and
drawings. The registration and imprint of these elements is considered essential
for the historical recording and study of this early concept of landscape
architecture in Greece, as developed in the area of Kampos.17 Considering
the layout and function of these estates, seventeenth-century European trave-
lers recorded their personal impressions of the Kampos mansions and gardens
in their journals. These texts contain important information about the man-
sions, orchards and planting material. In 1747, the famous French traveler and
author Julien-Claude Galland wrote:
Mansions in the area of Kampos are the most beautiful residences. Their gate is
wide and impressive, made of stone alternating in shades of red and white.
292
ET AL.
Outside the gate there are seats so that the owners may rest and be refreshed.
Inside the estate one can find a cistern. Four columns of alternating red and
white stone are found on the corners of the cistern that support a large pergola
above which is covered by vine. Next to the cistern is placed a waterwheel well
that brings water from the well underneath to the nearby cistern and then
distributes it to the orchard through a network of channels. The orange and
lemon trees found in the orchard are maintained by gardeners in low height to
yield more fruit production. There are orchards planted with thousands of
orange or lemon trees. Orchards are protected by high stone walls. The Chian
families remained in their residences during a period of eight months, from
Easter to the end of November.18
The size of each estate covers an area of approximately two acres, with the
exception of estates built after 1912, which occupied smaller areas of approxi-
mately one acre. The ground plan of the historic estate of Kasteli, which was
built during the Genoese period, is selected as a representative case study to
describe the layout of the historic estates in the area of Kampos (figure 2). Each
estate consists of three main elements: the mansion, the courtyard and the
orchard.
The mansion
The mansion is always placed at the edge of the lot close to the main street
regardless of its shape and morphology (figure 3). The mansion’s main façade
overlooks the interior courtyard while its secondary façade defines the bound-
ary line between the street and the private domain of the estate. The mansions
are elevated, creating a sort of basement used for storage or servant facilities.
The main living rooms are placed on the first floor so that they receive
abundant winter sun and are constantly ventilated with fresh air. The arrange-
ment of the rooms in the mansion is simple. One enters through an imposing
door to the living room which is full of windows overlooking the courtyard
and the street. The kitchen is almost always at the back of the mansion,
towards the orchard.19 There are two composition elements of a typical
mansion’s main façade with a direct connection to the courtyard and garden:
the outdoor staircase and the tsardi (balcony).
The outdoor staircase is a dominant element, a recurrent landscape
decorative theme found in all the estates of Kampos. It is large and
imposing with wide steps and forms a basic functional element of the
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
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figure 2. The ground plan of a typical Kampos estate of the early Genoese period based
on the historic estate of Kasteli, depicting the main elements of landscape design. Key: (1)
entrance; (2) courtyard; (3) ‘tsardi’ (balcony); (4) mansion; (5) ‘ manganos well’ (water-
wheel well) and ‘manganogyros’ (circular path for working animals); (6) cistern; (7) seating
area; (8) entrance to orchard and pergola; and (9) orchard. Source: plan by authors based on
combined information from http://www.architecturalfiles.com (accessed 13 November 2013),
Aneroussis and Mylonadis (2009), and personal site surveys.
mansion (figure 4).20 It connects the courtyard with the balcony, which is
the main entrance to the mansion wherein the living spaces are arranged,
while the ground floor is used for warehouses, stables and servant rooms.21
The staircase blends harmoniously with the stone balustrade of the first
floor balcony. In this way, a more imposing entrance to the mansion is also
created. The form of the staircase is defined according to the layout of the
mansion and its placement within the courtyard. In most instances, it is
formed by two or three stairways which are joined together by landings.
An ornamental touch is often added by the treatment of the bottom steps,
which may be composed of various versatile shapes. Staircases are made
almost exclusively of local red stone called Thymianoussiki in either simple
or elaborate form. Thymiana is the small town near Kampos that provided
figure 3. The estate of Kalvokoresssis (Kalvokoressiko) established before 1881. The
mansion is placed on the border of the property adjacent to the main street. The surrounding
stone wall and the Mediterranean Cypress trees function as windbreaks creating a protected
microclimate in the enclosed garden and orchard. Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
this remarkable stone, ranging in color from ochre to purple, which was
invariably used in the constructions of Kampos estates. Special attention is
given to decorative details related to the morphology of the staircase. Some
staircases are supported by arched columns made of Pentelic marble (a
white, fine-grain marble that has been quarried at Mount Pentelikon
north of Athens since the first millennium BC) and decorated with
embossed capitals similar to those adorning the cisterns. Columns of a
relatively small size named pezestalia placed at the first two bottom steps
often decorate the sides of the staircase. The pezestalia form ornate and
carved decorative details. The relief carvings depict flowers, leaves or animal
forms. The handrail forms a delicate decorative detail made of either stone
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figure 4. The staircase of the Gkinis estate (Gkiniko) is large and imposing with wide steps
and forms a basic functional element of the mansion. It connects the courtyard with the tsardi
(balcony) through which the main mansion is entered. Vases decorate the pezestalia of this
staircase. Special attention is given to decorative details related to the morphology of the staircase.
Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
or metal. Earthenware vases decorate turning points of staircases found in
estates built after the eighteenth century. Often seats protrude from the
stone wall at the base of the staircase completing the overall architectural
detail.22
The tsardi (balcony) occupies an area of a few square meters. It is paved with
either hewn stone or rarely with marble and is furnished with built-in stone
seating around it and in some cases a trellis supported on columns, similar to
that covering the terrace of the sterna. This architectural feature allows the
owners to enjoy a unique view of the main courtyard, the orchard and the
surrounding landscape. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the
balcony was modified and converted to a smaller balcony that was also
294
ET AL.
figure 5. The Tetteris estate is accessed by a gate framed with embellished stone reliefs set into
the surrounding high stone wall. Note the stone staircase which leads to the balcony and the white
marble columns decorated with elegant capitals supporting the balcony. The courtyard offers the
wealthy owners a place to relax and enjoy a heavenly environment. Source: photograph by E.
Apostolides.
carefully decorated with comfortable seating and offered the same view as
the previous large balcony found mostly in the mansions built by the Genoese.
In some mansions may be found white marble columns supporting the
balconies. These are decorated with elegant capitals similar to the ones sup-
porting the staircase (figure 5).23
The courtyard
The estate is accessed by a gate framed with embellished stone reliefs in the
surrounding high stone wall. The mansion is situated adjacent to the street and
the façade overlooking the street is composed almost exclusively of windows.
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
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figure 6. The impressive entrance gate of the Argentis estate (Argentiko) reflects the
wealth and power of the owners. Note the two square stone blocks placed opposite each other
that served to facilitate the mounting of mules or horses by the owners. Source: photograph by
E. Apostolides.
A major design element is that access to the mansion is solely possible only
through the stone gate that leads to the main courtyard and hence to the
mansion’s main entrance. The gate forms an architectural element harmonized
with the structural and morphological elements of the mansion, especially the
masonry walls and fenestration. In all estates, the entrance gate is grandiose
and meant to be impressive, thus reflecting the wealth and power of the
owner. Often the family’s armorial crest is carved in marble on the portico of
the gate; in some estates a saint is carved instead. The width of the gate is
wide enough to allow easy entrance of both animals and horse-mounted
owners into the estate. A typical gate is accompanied by two square stone
blocks placed on opposite sides in order to facilitate the owners’ mounting of
their mules or horses (figure 6). The use of these stone blocks was particularly
essential in winter when the roads were wet and muddy. In those cases where
the gates look onto river banks there are ramps which lead to the entrance and
form small seating spaces outside the gates offering places for a short stop and
rest. The door panels are always double and usually made of wood. The estates
built in the nineteenth century required less security and privacy so the wooden
door panels were replaced with wrought-iron ones, which instead of concealing
the courtyard’s architecture behind a solid gate allowed viewers to look in and
admire it (figure 7). The iron handles and locks of these doors also have elaborate
details.24 Excellent examples of this craftsmanship can be seen, still in good
condition, in most mansions in the area of Kampos.
The courtyard shapes are determined by the topography of each lot rather
than by precise geometric or orthogonal principles. The floor is paved with
hewn local stone (Thymianoussiki) usually consisting of red and yellow slabs,
alternating in color and diagonally placed, or black and white pebbles utilizing
various naturalistic or classical geometric shapes and patterns such as meanders,
Byzantine tendrils, a double-headed eagle or and cypress trees. More often
pebbles, lilathakia, are used. There are two varieties of these in frequent use —
black and white, forming many elaborate and contrasting patterns. More rarely
colored pebbles are used exclusively for circular themes such as the eyes of
various animals or petals of flowers.25 The Chian craftsmen borrowed their
decorative themes for the lilathota (pebble-paved courtyards) from Austrian and
Northern Italian earthenware, an inspiration source also used by the Genoese
craftsmen. Their use as decorative elements offered a sense of luxury and
solicited admiration. Pebble-paved courtyards in Genoa are almost completely
identical in the use of decorative themes and manner of construction. The
borrowing of Western themes and artistic design for the paving material of the
courtyards took place after 1827 (figure 8).26 These paved courtyards were
designed in such ways as to organize the movement of the visitor from the
open public space to the enclosed private space, manifested by the high stone
wall and the entrance gateway. Visitors within the courtyard walk through a
series of alternate areas where the decorative themes either encourage or retard
their speed of movement within the private garden.27 The earthquake of 1881
destroyed a great number of pebbled courtyards. We can argue that the
pebbled courtyards constructed before and after the earthquake differ in their
morphological and constructional characteristics; the courtyards before 1881
are simple in their decorative detailing and used mostly black pebbles, sized
7–9 cm, whereas the courtyards built after that date are made of smaller-sized
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figure 7. The Vouris estate built in the nineteenth century required less security and privacy
so the wooden door panels of the entrance gate were replaced with wrought-iron ones, which
allowed viewers to look in and admire the courtyard’s architecture, Source: photograph by E.
Apostolides.
296
ET AL.
figure 8. Classical geometric shapes and patterns used in the early years of Kampos history
are imprinted in the black and white pebbled courtyard floor (lilathoto) of the Mavrokordatos
estate (Mavrokordatiko). Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
pebbles, while the decorative themes used are more complex, vibrant, geome-
trical and closely associated with patterns used in the late Baroque period.28
The courtyard hosts the main functional elements that constitute the irriga-
tion system of the orchard beyond, the water-wheel well (manganos) and the
cistern (figure 9). The operation of the manganos brings water from the well
underneath to the nearby cistern, where it is stored for domestic use and
distribution to the orchard through an extensive network of channels. Both
these features also act as important decorative architectural elements of the
courtyard where the wealthy owners relaxed.29
The manganos well
The manganos well (water-wheel well), an elaborate architectural feature found at
a prominent location in the courtyard adjacent to the cistern, is used for pumping
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
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figure 9. The manganos well (water-wheel well) and the cistern, in the courtyard of the
Argentis estate constitute the main functional elements which supply water both for domestic use
and the irrigation system of the orchard beyond. Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
water. Around the opening of the well is set, as a frame on which the big wheel
may rest, a solid stone or marble wellhead, called the sentouki, which also means a
chest. This is generally rectangular in plan but sometimes more elaborate forms are
used. It is generally raised on one or two steps and often has an ornamental base
and cornice molding. Occasionally decorative carving is used to further embellish
it. Also, around it is a circular earthen walkway called manganogyros in which
animals walked in order to operate the manganos. Stone or marble columns are
located at the four corners of the water-wheel well supporting a pergola made of
iron. The trellis is covered by a vine, which provides shade and thus prevents both
evaporation of water and algal growth (figures 10 and 11).30 The first wells had
wooden water wheels but by the eighteenth century they had been replaced by
iron ones, which raised the manufacturing cost significantly.31
figure 10. The water-wheel well and the elaborate circular walkway, the
manganogyros, found in the courtyard of the Argentis estate. Source: photograph by M.
Papafotiou.
The manganos is a large double iron or wooden wheel about 3.00 m in
diameter with the two sides set at a distance of 0.40–0.50 m apart. Both
sides have double diametrical cross struts with a central axle, both ends of
which rest on two stone bases, the lips. Both wheels are connected to one
another other by horizontal poles. Two thick wire ropes are connected to
the poles around the wheels. At regular intervals the ropes fetch up small
buckets, the siklia, of clay, copper or iron. The waterwheel well is put into
motion by a handle shaped like the Greek capital letter gamma (Γ) attached
to an animal (which may be a cow, mule, horse or donkey) that rotates
along the circular path around the water-wheel well, the manganogyros. The
movement of the manganos is slow due to the animal’s heavy load. The
animals used to wear a collar around their necks while their eyes were
covered with a piece of cloth, the tiflopani, so that they rotated
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figure 11. The water-wheel well and the earthen circular walkway, the manganogyros,
found in the courtyard of the Karalis estate. Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
uninterrupted by any distraction. As the well’s wheel rotated, the buckets
appeared filled with water on the one side while ascending and empty on
the other side while descending. Each bucket had a hole in its bottom
enabling it to drain automatically when the manganos was not in operation.
The bucket’s hole also served to improve the function of the water-wheel
as without it air would get caught in the bucket while filling up with clean
water, causing insurmountable difficulties in the movement of the manganos.
As the manganos rotated the buckets filled up with water, reached the top of
the wheel and turned gradually into a horizontal position allowing the
water to pour into a long wooden or marble skafidi (trough). The water
from the trough then ran into a small, decorated stone or marble basin
finally being directed to the main cistern through underground stone pipes
(figure 12).32
298
ET AL.
figure 12. The water-wheel well at the Tetteris estate. The earthen buckets pour the water
into a long wooden trough. The water from the trough runs into a small, decorated, stone cistern
and is finally directed to the main cistern through underground stone pipes. Source: photograph by
E. Apostolides.
The cistern and adjacent seating area
Water from the water-wheel well goes through underground stone pipes into
a large irrigation reservoir, a cistern (sterna), before finally reaching the orchard.
The sterna is square in plan and usually made of stone, or more rarely marble,
retaining walls. It is situated in the main courtyard and constitutes one of its
most significant architectural elements. In some instances, the cistern is built
into the fabric of the mansion, forming an integral part of its volume. The
exterior walls of the cistern have a height of about 1.00 m from ground level.
The inner walls of the cistern incline inwards. This construction detail
enhances the visibility of the water level. The interior walls and floor of the
cistern are coated with lime mortar and crushed terracotta tile dust in order to
provide better waterproofing. The bottom of the sterna, which is paved with
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
stone, is sunk a little below ground level. Columns stand at the four corners on
the walls, usually two of them are cylindrical in shape and made of marble with
elaborate bases and capitals and two of them are square stone piers built up in
drums with only a small molding at the top. These columns are used to
support heavy wooden beams which in turn carry lighter rafters forming the
trellis above the cistern. Two, or seldomly all four, of the corners of the sterna
are decorated with carved marble, or more rarely stone basins into which the
water first falls. These basins are part of the irrigation system while they also
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perform an ornamental role (figure 13). Their primary role is to be used for
filling up jugs for household purposes and subsequently for watering cattle;
figure 13. The cistern at the Argentis estate is a square of marble. The corners of the cistern
are decorated with basins etched with carved designs. The basins are part of the irrigation system
while they also perform an ornamental role. The cistern is decorated in the center with a marble
column with a dragon. Four marble columns are found at the corners of the cistern that support a
large pergola above with Wisteria sinensis. Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
water for drinking purposes is generally taken from the gutters which supply
these basins. The water falls from the gutters into the basins and from there
into the cistern. The gutters are made of marble and are often shaped in the
forms of a lion’s head or a fish. The basins are usually rectangular, 1.00–1.50 m
in length, 0.70–0.80 m in width and 0.25–0.30 m in depth and rarely circular.
Basins are embossed on both their outer and inner surfaces. The decorative
carved designs that adorn them are of various elegant motifs: floral; woven
baskets; fruit bowls full of various fruits; or patterned knitted laces (figures 14
and 15). Often the cistern is further decorated in the center with a stone or
marble column supporting a garden urn at the height of the water level usually
containing a herbaceous plant. Water lilies and other aquatic plants are grown
in the cistern.33
figure 14. The cistern at Perleas estate is made of red and beige stone, while one of its corners
is decorated with two elaborate marble basins, forming part of the irrigation system. Waterlilies and
papyrus plants grow in the cistern. Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
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figure 15. Detail of the cistern at the Karalis estate, with the manganos well and the citrus
orchard beyond. Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
300
ET AL.
figure 16. The small seating area next to the cistern at the Karalis estate, just a
few steps above the ground. Columns made of marble support a pergola. The seating
area formed an ideal place for the owners to enjoy the views into the courtyard and the
orchard, but also enabled the caretaker of the estate to oversee the operation of the water-wheel
well and the proper function of the whole irrigation system. Source: photograph by
E. Apostolides.
In numerous courtyards a small seating area (5–10 m2) can be found next to
the cistern, just a few steps above the ground floor (figure 16). The outdoor
furniture of the seating area is most often in the form of benches built into the
walls of the cistern. The floor and walls are made of stone while the seats have
stone or marble slabs. Large evergreen trees offer shade in the seating area or
alternately columns made of stone or marble support a pergola covered with
vines. The seating area formed an ideal place for the owners to enjoy the views
into the courtyard and the surrounding landscape while at the same time it
served as a vantage point that enabled the caretaker of the estate to observe and
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
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figure 17. View of the courtyard of the Karalis estate. Note the manganos well, the cistern
and the adjacent seating area, while the orchard extends beyond them. Source: photograph by
E. Apostolides.
control the water-wheel well when it was in operation as well as the proper
function of the whole irrigation system (figure 17).34
The orchard
At some point in the courtyard may be found a gate, similar to the gate at the
main entrance, which leads into the orchard beyond (figure 18). It is usually
made of Thymianoussiki local stone in alternating red and yellow colored
patterns. Usually there is no fence on either side of the gate but in some
estates, a low stone wall with a wrought-iron railing on top is placed next to
the gate so that the boundary line between the courtyard and the orchard is
more clearly defined, while at the same time the orchard remains visible from
figure 18. The gate leading to the orchard at the Karavas estate. Source: photograph by E.
Apostolides.
the courtyard. On entering the orchard an alley is encountered, often covered
by a pergola supported on a series of piers or columns (figures 19 and 20). The
orchard, which is composed mainly of orange, lemon and mandarin trees, may
stretch over an area of several acres.35
A network of stone irrigation channels, the kefalopotistes, runs throughout
the orchard. These channels are arranged parallel to the main walking path of
the orchard. They are slightly elevated above ground level and lead the water
from the cistern to the trees. They are interrupted at short intervals, about
every 12–15 m, so that the farmers can temporarily place a wooden plank to
divert the water flow and guide it to specific parts of the orchard that they
want to irrigate (figure 21). The water flows from the stone channels into the
furrows alongside the tree rows (figure 22). The number of furrows depends
upon the age and planting distance of the cultivated trees. The farmers may
create a relatively large number of furrows to meet the irrigation needs of
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 studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: apostolides
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figure 19. The citrus orchard of the Argentis estate. The alley is paved with local thymia-
nousiki stone in red and beige colored patterns. Source: photograph by M. Papafotiou.
cultivated trees, as the orchards of Kampos consist of rather aged trees and the
summer months are dry.36
Citrus crops, mandarin oranges in particular, were for centuries the most
valuable arboricultural product of the island, along with the cultivation of
mastic. The fruits of the cultivated trees found in the orchards of Kampos were
meticulously packed and subsequently exported to a variety of destinations
abroad. Kampos was the production center of mandarins worldwide and the
biggest exporter to the Russian Empire. This agricultural activity brought to
the owners of the Kampos estates wealth and prosperity until the Second
World War.37 The processes of harvesting, transporting and packaging the
cultivated citrus fruits were considered of extreme importance, as proved by
the written documentation of that time. The harvesting, the koma, began in
late October and the workers involved, the koftades, had to be very careful
302
ET AL.
figure 20. The main alley of the orchard at the Paspatis estate. Source: photograph by
E. Apostolides.
while cutting the fruits in order not to damage them. The fruits collected
were placed in baskets, the fores, which were carried by the foratzides to the
warehouses where experienced men hired by the producer, the dialextades,
sorted the fruits according to their size and quality.38 Next, the fruits were
transported by horse carriages to the trader’s warehouses where a second
more elaborate sorting process took place, which divided defective fruits to
be sold at a lower price from the perfect ones. In the warehouses of the
trader (often the same person as the producer), young workwomen, the
chartotries, were seated in front of the collected fruits and they wrapped each
high-quality fruit separately in a special wrapping paper, the psilocharto, so
that each individual fruit would be protected against the pressure from the
other fruits packed together with it during transportation. Specialized
workers, the pasadoroi, brought the wrapped fruits to the counter where
another group of young workwomen, the stevadores, worked. These women
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
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figure 21. Stone irrigation channels, the kefalopotistes, run throughout the orchard. The
kefalopotistes are interrupted at small intervals every 12–15 m. At these intervals the farmers
temporarily placed a wooden plank to divert the water flow and guide it to specific parts of the
orchard that they wanted to irrigate. Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
were real craftswomen since they undertook the extremely meticulous work
of arranging the fruits to be exported in series, depending on their size, and placed
them in wooden crates of 60, 80 or 100 accordingly. When each crate was filled
with fruits, the stevadores covered the top of it with a large piece of paper engraved
with the name of the exporter and sealed it. Next, they placed tin labels on the side
of each crate, manufactured by skilled craftsmen, who printed the initials or the
full name of the exporter, the destination city, the number of fruits contained in
each crate (60, 80, 100), the grade of fruit (A, AA), and, finally, depending on the
country importing the fruits, the name of the fruits (oranges, lemons or mandarins)
in that country’s native language. Every three crates were tied together and
formed one parcel. Transactions for representatives abroad were numbered by
parcels.39
figure 22. Irrigation of the citrus orchard at the Tetteris estate. The water flows from
the stone channel into the furrow alongside the tree rows. Source: photograph by
E. Apostolides.
The planting material
The available data for the planting material found in the estates situated in the
area of Kampos during past centuries is limited. An extensive review into the
photographic archives, and literature, of Kampos, as well as site surveys at
existing estates was undertaken. From these sources it can be concluded that
the estates were places full of citrus trees that concomitantly offered shade and
coolness. The gardens were influenced by the planting arrangement and design
found in the historic gardens of Liguria characterized by an articulated network
of pathways. These pathways are paved with pebbles or thymianousiki stone and
are defined by trimmed rows of evergreen shrubs. They are often covered by
pergolas (figure 23). The environment created was intended to provide a
heavenly, sweet smelling garden with a variety of areas for visitors either to
stroll through or sit in.
303
 studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: apostolides ET AL.

The main species used were ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers and fruit
trees.

1. Ornamental trees
Evergreen trees such as Pinus pinea (stone pine), Pinus halepensis (Aleppo
pine), Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island pine), Pistacia lentiscus (mastic
tree; Greek: masticha), Cupressus sempervirens (Mediterranean cypress) var.
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horizontalis and Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island palm) often appear in the
courtyards as individual specimens close to the mansion offering beneficial
shade (figure 24), whereas Cupressus sempervirens var. pyramidalis (Mediterra-
nean cypress) is massively used in linear plantings near the stone courtyard

figure 23. A typical garden path at the Argentis estate influenced by the garden figure 24. Pinus pinea appears as a specimen in the courtyard of the Gkizis
design practiced in Liguria. A main characteristic is the width of the paved pathways. estate (Gkiziko) close to the mansion, offering beneficial shade and coolness. Note also the
Wider paths for family and guests and narrower for servants. Source: photograph by M. ramp leading from the gate to the bed of the Kalamas river. Source: photograph by
Papafotiou. E. Apostolides.

304
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
wall to protect the orchards from strong winds as well as screening against the
prying eyes of passers-by. Single specimens recorded in the existing estates
reach heights of 20 to 30 m. Together with Cupressus sempervirens var.
pyramidalis, the surrounding stone courtyard walls also function as windbreaks
creating a protected microclimate in the enclosed gardens.

2. Shrubs
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Apart from evergreen trees, shrubs are also used in the planting schemes of the
estates. Evergreen shrubs such as Nerium oleander (oleander) and Pittosporum
tobira (Japanese pittosporum) are planted along linear paths leading to different
parts of the estate. The boundaries of these corridors are clearly defined by
massively planted trimmed rows of evergreen shrubs. Deciduous shrubs such as
Rosa spp. (roses) of different colors decorate the flower beds in many gardens
of the existing estates (figure 25).

3. Climbers
Climbers such as Vitis vinifera (grape vine), Jasminum grandiflorum (Spanish
jasmin, royal jasmine; Greek: Chian jasmine), Bougainvillea sp. (bougainvillea),
and Wisteria sinensis (Chinese wisteria) cover the pergolas above the manganos,
the cistern, the seating area and the alleys, as well as many parts of the stone
courtyard wall.
Many aquatic plants, such as Nymphaea alba (European white waterlily), are
cultivated in the cisterns.

4. Fruit trees
Within each estate the orchard covers an area of several acres and is planted
with orange, lemon and mandarin trees. Over many centuries, the fruit from
these trees once served as the most important agricultural product of Chios
(figure 26). Citrus sinensis (orange) and C. reticulata (mandarin) are the greatest
in number, followed by C. limon (lemon) and C. aurantium (bitter orange).40
More rarely grown species are C. bergamia (bergamot orange), C. paradisi
(grapefruit) and C. medica (citron). Growers prefer to plant densely so that in figure 25. Argentis estate garden. The boundary of the corridor is defined by a trimmed row
each acre they can cultivate 80 to 100 trees. Trees are planted close to one of evergreen shrubs, while roses of different colors decorate the flower beds. Source: photograph by
another not only to make space to grow as many species as possible but also for A. Paraskevopoulou.

305
 studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: apostolides
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figure 26. Citrus reticulata (mandarin orange) found in the orchard of the Karalis estate.
Source: photograph by E. Apostolides.
a practical reason, to keep the planted species warm during severe winter
weather. In the center of the orchard C. limon, the species most sensitive to
cold, is usually planted, while all the other species surround it. C. reticulata is
more resistant to cold than both C. sinensis and C. limon. It was introduced in
Chios in 1849, by Ioannis Choremis after the severe frost of 1849, which
destroyed almost all the lemon trees of Kampos.41 Since then the cultivation of
C. reticulata intensified and it is known as Chian mandarin in markets all over
the world because of its fine quality and aroma. Many specimens are estimated
to be 80 to 100 years old. In 2012 the European Union characterized the
Chian mandarin as a product of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and
Protected Geographical Indication (PGI).
Other species encountered in the orchards include Punica granatum (pome-
granate), Prunus amygdalis (almond), Ficus carica (fig), Prunus domestica (common
plum) and Olea europaea (olive).
306
ET AL.
Conclusion
The distribution of products from the island of Chios, mastic and citrus,
mainly mandarins, to international markets, and the involvement of Chians
in international trade over a long period (fourteenth to twenty-first cen-
turies), created wealth that was expressed throughout the area of Kampos,
where rich Chians, often living abroad, maintained horticultural estates
with their summer mansions. The way in which the historical country
mansions and estates of Kampos were formed was influenced by both
Italian and Islamic prototypes of the fourteenth century and beyond. The
Italian architectural influence on Kampos was brought by the Genoese who
after establishing themselves in Chios introduced their concept of design
and construction to the mansions and surrounding landscape and created a
harmonious environment that closely resembled the morphological detail-
ing of the Genoese province.42 The testimonies of foreign travelers, such as
Maihows and Choiseul-Gouffier, confirm the above conclusion. Maihows
notes on his visit to Chios in 1750: ‘The Genoese and Venetians introduced
at various times the Italian methods of construction in the area of
Kampos’,43 whereas Choiseul-Gouffier also argues in 1776 that ‘Chios is
the most well-built city of the East and the houses were built by the
Genoese and the Venetians’.44 The first mansions built in the area of
Kambos resemble towers found in parts of Northern Italy such as Genoa,
in Liguria, and Verona, in Veneto. They are made entirely of heavy
masonry in alternating red and beige colors, i.e. a style that the Italians
copied from the Moors, laid out over two or more levels. In many cases
much of the construction detailing around the doors and windows is of a
similar design. In addition, architecture and garden form an inseparable
entity mainly used as a pleasure retreat from the city but also including
agricultural activities.45 The courtyards and the orchards also exhibit certain
influences from Italy since the estates are surrounded by high stone walls
with a large impressive entrance gate, contain mansions with large balconies
offering extensive views to the courtyard and the orchard beyond, are made
of local materials in order to enhance their fitting into the surrounding
landscape,46 and use water as an important feature in various places and
forms. The technique of water supply for both domestic use and orchard
irrigation by means of the use of a water-wheel well and cistern was also
imported to Kampos by the Genoese.47 In the estates water plays an
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
important role as a means of both agricultural irrigation and aesthetic alternating red and beige stones, and the overall scene of a garden hidden
enjoyment that in some ways resembles the value placed on water in behind high stone walls.48
Moorish gardens.
The Chians also had special ties with Byzantium and then the Ottoman
Empire, which in turn affected the landscape gardening in the area of Kampos. Disclosure statement
The Ottoman influence on the architecture of Kampos may be observed No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
particularly in the decorative details of the period after the sixteenth century:
the pebbled courtyards with black and white pebbles, the marble basins and Agricultural University of Athens, School of Agriculture,
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cisterns, marbled arched columns with decorative details that are typical of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop Science,
Islamic enclosed gardens, the construction of stone walls (mansion and gate) by Laboratory of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture

1. Dora Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios: Society,
Town Planning, Architecture (Chios: Gavala Editions,
1994), p. 130; Arnold C. Smith, The Architecture of
Chios, Subsidiary Buildings, Implements and Crafts,
edited by P. P. Argenti (London: Alec Tiranti,
1962), p. 13.
2. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, p. 126; Dora
Monioudi-Gavala, The Castle of Chios: Fortifications
and the Surrounded Town Nowadays Since the Middle
Ages (Athens: Papyros Editions, 2001), p. 16. Mon-
ioudi-Gavala records the various frequent written
testimonies that refer to the invasions and the attacks
against the island of Chios, the Genoese efforts to
conquer it until 1346, the failed efforts of the Vene-
tians to invade it in 1431–1432, the struggle of the
Genoese to confront the Turkish threat that was
growing bigger and bigger, the effortless occupation
by the Turks in 1566, the raid and temporary dom-
ination of the Venetians in 1694–1695 and the
Greek revolution in 1821. Antonios Damalas, The
Economic Life of the Island of Chios: 992–1566 (Athens:
Damalas Publishing, 1998), pp. 1036–1038.
3. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, pp. 126, 130.
The city of Chios has been inhabited uninterrupt-
edly since ancient times. During the Byzantine era
the island was first dominated by the Francs, then the
notes
empire of Nicaea abolished their authority, the
Prince Paleologo Zaccaria of Genoese Byzantine
origin subsequently ruled until the liberation of
Chios again by Byzantium. The period from
1346–1546 is called the Genoese occupation. During
this time the great society of Mahona di Scio of the
Justiniani family prevailed over the island.
4. Damalas, The Economic Life of the Island of Chios,
p. 1038.
5. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p. 13. According to
Smith: ‘[T]he Genoese inhabited the area of Kampos
side by side with the island nobility who had already
made it their home for many generations before.
Many of their estates have retained their original
boundaries, though others have since been split up
between the various members of large families.
These estates seem to have been laid out on no
sort of plan. Each person appears to have been
allotted what was thought to be a suitable piece of
land and between them the mule tracks found their
way as best they could … A large proportion of the
roads are bounded by stone walls too high to see
over. These walls serve two purposes: they prevent
people from stealing the oranges, and they protect
the trees against the bitter salt-laden winds that blow
so frequently in the winter.’
6. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, p. 13.
7. Monioudi-Gavala, ibid., pp. 132–133. According
to Monioudi-Gavala, ‘The Genoese occupation
was the great age for the planning and architecture
of the city of Chios, the age that introduced to
the island a monumental and grandiose architec-
tural style, relevant to that of Genoa, the sea-
ruling city of these times. The built-up environ-
ment during that time completely differentiated
Chios from other island towns’. Towns of the
Aegean Islands were mainly built up using cheap
materials and methods of construction. Monioudi-
Gavala also points out that, ‘the Genoese tried to
give the city of Chios the urban planning of the
great municipalities of Italy … The similarities
between the cities of Chios and Genoa is most
impressive’; Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p. 22.
According to Smith: ‘The buildings of Chios can
never have been as magnificent as those of Genoa,
but were miniature adaptations without the full
splendour of their models. Chios was a colony of
Genoa, and the colony had by no means the
wealth of its parent. The buildings quite modest
in size, typically contrasting with that of the other
islands and of the mainland of Greece, impressed
the travellers.’

307
 studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: apostolides
8. William St. Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free, the
Philhellenes in the War of Independence (London:
Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 79.
9. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, p. 136.
10. Monioudi-Gavala, ibid., pp. 138–139. According to
Monioudi-Gavala: ‘The city after the earthquake
bears considerable similarity to that of the former
years under Turkish occupation. The element that is
radically changed is the buildings. In total, the struc-
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tures ruined by the earthquake are replaced by
newer owners.’ More specifically, the Ottoman
occupation period may be divided into: the period
from 1566 to 1766, during which the architectural
tradition of the Genoese occupation was maintained,
and the period after 1800 when architecture appears
to adopt new methods of construction and a rather
distinct morphology.
11. Damalas, The Economic Life of the Island of Chios, pp.
1040–1042.
12. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, p. 139.
13. George Moutsatsos, The Signs of Cultivated Trees
(Chios: Pelinnaio Editions, 2005), p. 7.
14. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, pp. 139–140.
Monioudi-Gavala argues that: ‘The combination of
elements originating in previous architectural styles
with new elements such as wider use of wood,
neoclassical details and selectively picked elements
has finally resulted in the new somewhat confused
but quite singular style of the new local architecture,
the city in the twentieth century.’ It is important to
note that significant architectural elements of the
two periods which witnessed Kampos’ peak historic
period have been preserved in the modern appear-
ance of the area of Kampos. Although most build-
ings have been replaced by newer ones almost
entirely, the total building network certifies conti-
nuation to a considerable degree throughout all
these centuries.
15. Fani Aneroussis and Leonidas Mylonadis, Kambos of
Chios: Houses and Surroundings (Chios: Aigeas Pub-
lishing, 2009), p. 18.
16. Damalas, The Economic Life of the Island of Chios, pp.
1040–1042.
308
17. Ioannis Tsalikidis, ‘Gardens of Eclectic Villas in
Thessaloniki: A Concept of Landscaping in the
Southern Balkans in the Late-nineteenth Century’,
Landscape Journal, ix/1, 1990, p. 28. In this article,
Tsalikidis claims that since 1990 no research has been
done in Greece on the history of gardens, while
documented studies on the landscape of ancient
Greece form a recurring theme of research in land-
scape design.
18. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p. 18.
19. Smith, ibid., p. 30.
20. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, p. 101.
21. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p. 30. Smith also
argues that: ‘A similar plan on a far larger scale is
followed in many of the palaces of Genoa in the via
Garibaldi, but while the entrance there is on the the
ground floor and the staircase inside the palace, in
the Kampos the staircase is outside and the entrance
to the principal rooms is on the top floor. This
exterior staircase forms a remarkable and decorative
feature of most of the Kampos houses; it rises from
the courtyard, sometimes passing over the entrance
in its ascent, but more usually going up between the
gate and the house.’ Charalambos Bouras, ‘Chios’, in
Greek Traditional Architecture (Athens: Melissa Pub-
lishing House, 1989), p. 68; Aneroussis and Mylo-
nadis, Kambos of Chios, p. 131.
22. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, pp. 37–39; Dimitris
Pikionis, The Architecture of Chios (Athens: Indiktos
Publishing, 2000), pp. 17–18, 24–25, 28.
23. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, pp. 37–38; Pikionis,
The Architecture of Chios, p. 26.
24. Smith, ibid., pp. 41–42. According to Smith, all
larger gates are arched, and in most cases the top of
the archway is more than ten feet above the ground.
The gates are generally Flush with the garden wall of
the estate. Alternate red and yellow voussoirs are
almost universal, while in many gates each alternate
course of stonework is red. The wooden doors of
these gateways have mostly perished. The doors are
always double. The iron knockers, locks, etc., on the
doors are also sometimes of a certain interest and
beauty. George Moutsatsos, The Gateways of Chios
ET AL.
(Chios: Philoproodou Omilos Editions, 1986), p. 8.
According to Moutsatsos, the gates of the estates
found in Kampos constitute a separate elaborate
architectural element indirectly related to the man-
sion itself which serve to direct visitors from the
street to the courtyard and in some cases lead from
the courtyard into the orchard. Pikionis, The Archi-
tecture of Chios, pp. 12–14, 39.
25. Maria Xydas, The Pebbled Courtyards of Chios (Chios:
Pyxida Publishing, 2009), pp. 28–30, 31–32. The
white pebbles used come from Kamari bay of Agia
Fotia village while the black pebbles came from
Mavra Volia beach near Neochori village located
near an extinct volcano. According to Xydas, the
pebbled courtyards of Chios may be divided into
five categories depending on the size of the pebbles
used: (1) pebbles 4 to 5.5 cm; (2) pebbles 5.5 to
7 cm; (3) pebbles 7 to 8 cm; (4) pebbles 8 to 9 cm;
and (5) pebbles over 9 cm. Smith, The Architecture of
Chios, p. 46. Smith provides us with a detailed
description concerning the method of construction
for the lilathota: ‘[T]he method of laying these pave-
ments is as follows: the area to be paved is, today,
covered with concrete, though formerly with mortar
using coarse sand with small stones — a mixture
called asbestosailo. This is left to dry, allowing one
day for every centimeter of thickness. To this is
applied a mixture of mortar, brouselana and sand; it
is called chamouri and is five centimeters thick. Since
this dries relatively quickly (in about two hours) only
one square meter, marked between lengths of wood,
is done at a time. The complete design is drawn out
to full size on thick paper, the design in black and
the background white. The design is then cut out
and placed on a sheet of tin or zinc and put in its
correct position on the top of the mixture. The
background is now filled in with white pebbles,
then the metal templets are removed and the black
filled in.’
26. Xydas, The Pebbled Courtyards of Chios, pp. 12–13,
27–28, 59–61. Craftsmen who constructed the peb-
ble paved courtyards in Chios were mainly from the
villages of Thymiana and Neochori located nearby
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
the plain of Kampos. According to Xydas, they were
workmen who simultaneously were sculptors, archi-
tects, painters, builders and contractors. Different
groups of craftsmen, even if they came from the
same village, had significant differences in the ways
they perceived the spatial organization of the court-
yards and the themes selected to be used.
27. Xydas, ibid., pp. 37, 50, 53, 56–57. The craftsman
addresses the yard like an empty space being called
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upon to organize the design taking into considera-
tion the intended movements within the courtyard,
that is walking axes and sitting areas. In almost all
courtyards, upon entering one may observe a
pebbled decorative theme within which the initials
of the owner of the estate and the date of construc-
tion are inscribed. Next, one encounters a large
circular paved theme, which reminds us to pause,
succeeded by two or three circular paved themes of
smaller size indicative of another less important stasis
from which stemmed the paved pathways leading to
the house, the service entrance and the orchard
beyond. The circular paved theme close to the land-
ing area of the staircase is designed to both gather the
visitors and direct them to ascend. The themes used
may be divided into three distinct categories: (1) the
tendril, which is unique in the pebbled courtyards of
Chios and is the most repeated theme found in
them, having the shape of an S which repeats with
a variety of decorative themes such as flowers, etc.,
placed in the space between its arms; (2) circular
themes, designed to denote stasis; and (3) neutral
themes to fill in the empty spaces when required
to complete the design.
28. Xydas, ibid., pp. 34–36, 43–49, 65–66, 78–80.
29. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p. 45. Smith also
provides us with a wonderful description which
gives us the feeling of the place at that time when
he argues that: ‘The music of the manganos and the
sterna is one of the most familiar sounds of the
Kampos. The tick tack of iron ratchet, the creaking
of the wooden machinery, the splash and fall of the
water into the little manganos basin, then into the
sterna basins and at last into the sterna these sounds
harmonize in the pleasantest way possible. No won-
der the landowners built terraces from which they
could listen to these sounds and watch the water
glistening in the evening sun as they shipped the
masticha before dinner.’ George Moutsatsos, Kambos
of Chios: A photographic wandering (Chios: Xaviaras
Publishing, 2007), pp. 10–13.
30. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, pp. 42–43. Smith
argues that ‘The manganos, for which there is no
adequate translation in English unless it be wheel-
well, is almost the most interesting feature of the
Kampos estate. Although it exists in a simple form in
other parts of Greece, there are no such elaborately
ornamented examples as are to be found in Chios. It
is as a rule to be placed close to the sterna.’ Pikionis,
The Architecture of Chios, p. 29.
31. Afe Zagni, ‘Trends in irrigation development’, ICE
Proceedings, September 1971, 50/1, p. 70.
32. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, pp. 42–43. Smith
also provides us with some technical details concern-
ing the construction of manganos: ‘The manganos is
made of almond, terebinth, mulberry or oak wood.
The vertical axis is made of oak or chestnut. The
wood is cut in September and, if required quickly, is
kept a month or two to dry and is then used. If there
is no hurry it is kept in water, sometimes for several
years. The siklia measure about 6 inches in diameter
and a foot in depth and are placed at about 18
inched intervals.’ Pikionis, The Architecture of Chios,
pp. 31–32.
33. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, pp. 43–44; Pikionis,
The Architecture of Chios, p. 33.
34. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, pp. 44–45. Smith
argues that: ‘The sterna is embellished with a terrace
supported on arches giving the impression of a small
bridge where it is possible to sit in the shade of the
trellis instead of watching the wheelwell rotate. The
arrangement of columns is the same over the sterna
and the trellis and extends over the terrace as well.’
35. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p. 45. Smith argues
that: ‘[T]he estates sometimes have rather well laid
out formal paths with rows of columns down both
sides designed to carry a trellis covered with vines.
This makes a pleasant shady walk. There is also a
continuous row of seats so that one may sit down at
any point. Seats, besides being almost universal on
the terraces, often appear in the gardens. In one
estate, at the end of a path, there is a delightful
pair of semicircular seats with four columns support-
ing a trellis.’
36. Smith, ibid., pp. 46–47. Smith also informs us that
the trees were planted in quincunxes, in order to
ensure that eventually the foliage of the trees would
meet and, in this way, the fruits would be protected
from the threat of frost.
37. Moutsatsos, The Signs of Cultivated Trees, pp. 11,
15–26. The first written evidence for exports appears
in a contract of 11 January 1474, found in the
archives of Genoa. The period 1500–1822 is a
boom period for the export trade in citrus fruits. In
1822 the complete destruction of the island due to
the Turkish slaughter and the terrible frost of 1850
destroyed the orchards of Chios. The period 1860–
1917 is the second golden age of the plain of Kam-
pos and citrus fruits became again the first export
product of the island. The October Revolution of
1917 deprived Chios of all its major markets. During
the period 1924–1925 the actual performance of the
product covered only 80% of the cost of cultivation.
This situation continued until 1938, when the Greek
state adopted stricter export laws. Shortly before
1940 producers established themselves in cooperative
units. During the occupation and the Second World
War all exports stopped.
38. Moutsatsos, The Signs of Cultivated Trees, pp. 28–30.
The harvesting began in the morning, usually
around 9 to 10 a.m., and sometimes later to avoid
the morning dew, and was prohibited shortly after
rain since the fruits were still wet. During the first
harvesting session the mandarin fruits collected were
17 cm in diameter whereas the orange fruits were
19 cm in diameter. During the second harvesting
session, the collected fruits were sized one centi-
meter smaller than the previous ones, respectively.
The fruits collected were placed in a special basket,
which was made of cane and wicker and lined with
309
 studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: apostolides ET AL.

canvas. Then they were transferred to the warehouse
where the floor and walls were lined with sacks to
prevent damaging the fruits while depositing them
there.
39. Moutsatsos, The Signs of Cultivated Trees, pp. 9, 31,
33–38. Citrus fruits were packed and exported
wrapped in illustrated paper often engraved with
the stamp name of the exporter, the psilocharta, to
protect them during transportation and ensure their
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Chios and wrote among other things that Chios
town is surrounded by land with fruit trees.
41. Moutsatsos, The Signs of Cultivated Trees, p. 12.
42. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, pp. 51–53. Smith
argues that the façades of the Kampos’ estates clo-
sely resemble those of Genoa. However, their mor-
phological configuration is modified by local
conditions containing the element of an exterior
staircase that leads to a large balcony. Other local
46. Monioudi-Gavala, The City of Chios, p. 96. Mon-
ioudi-Gavala informs us that the main construction
material used was the local stone named Thymianous-
siki from the village of Thymiana. Its main charac-
teristic is its vibrant color from yellow to dark red.
Therefore, it was particularly suitable for creating
carved architectural members and striking color
compositions although it was rather sensitive to cor-
rosion due to weather conditions. Other local mate-

safe arrival at their destination. These illustrated psi-
locharta are of an exceptional visual interest and artis-
tic value and simultaneously were designed to
advertise the famous oranges, lemons, and mandarins
of Chios abroad. At first the paper used for the
psilocharta was plain in different shades, especially
white. Later exports began printing their logos on
each paper. The Italians were the first to apply this
technique of logo printing on the paper during the
mid-nineteenth century. The paper wrapper used in
Chios was almost all of Italian origin apart from
some papers printed in Smyrna. The printing of
this paper finally stopped in Chios with the Second
World War in 1940. In 1964, when exports
resumed, exporters used the old papers from the
stock they had and when those finished they ordered
new ones from printers in Athens. The 1993 fire at
the building complex of the Kardassilaris Export
Company destroyed all the remaining piles of them.
40. Moutsatsos, ibid., pp. 12–14. Cultivated fruit trees
were introduced in Chios around the twelfth cen-
tury by the Genoese, about one century later than
they were originally introduced in other parts of
Greece. The traveler Browser J. M. Tancoigne,
who visited Chios in 1811, confirms that the orange
trees of Kampos looked 500 years of age, a testimony
which verifies that the orange trees were introduced
during the Genoese occupation. However, by read-
ing the notebooks of travelers who visited Chios, it
can be found that nobody writes anything about
lemon and orange trees before 1400. The first refer-
ence regarding the appearance of orchards and fruit
trees is that of the Spanish traveler Ruy Conzales de
Clavijo, which dates from 1403, when he visited
modifications include the great stone gateways, the
sternas and the manganos. Monioudi-Gavala, The
City of Chios, p. 134. Monioudi-Gavala argues that
the architectural style of the mansions of Kampos at
the time of the Genoese occupation resembled the
Genoese prototypes of architectural layout and
morphology since the buildings were two or three
stories with roofs that were flat terraces; the façades
of the mansions incorporated a very particular
design of elements, that of the gateway with large
doors which led to the courtyard; symmetrical lay-
out of the façades of the mansions; rich and
detailed ornamentation; the upper floors were not
articulated with projecting balconies but rather
incorporated large terraces overlooking the sea
into the bulk of the buildings; a luxurious selection
of expensive materials was chosen for the construc-
tion along with high-quality execution and crafts-
manship; extensive layout of courtyards and
gardens; monumental staircases formed a major ele-
ment of the courtyards.
43. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p. 17.
44. Smith, ibid., p. 19.
45. George Gorse, ‘Genoese Renaissance Villas: A
Typological Introduction’, Studies in the History of
Gardens and Designed Landscapes, iii/4, 1983, pp.
255–280. One can find a number of typological
and morphological similarities between Genoese
Renaissance villas from the mid fifteenth through
the late sixteenth century and mansions built in the
area of Kampos. The Italians copied this style of
masonry in alternating red and beige colors from
the Moors and applied it at Chios and specifically
the area of Kampos.
rials used include gray marble, tiles, lime, special
types of sand, and pebbles on white or black pebbled
floors. Imported materials were fewer and include
marble from Paros, white Pentelic marble, and dark
red stone from the coast of Asia Minor. Smith, The
Architecture of Chios, pp. 33–36. Smith also informs us
that the most used construction material was stone
from the village of Thymiana, one of the Kampo-
choria: ‘The stone is found in two colors, a brownish
red and soft yellowish fawn. These colors blend
delightfully together, especially after the stone is a
little weathered, and many decorative effects are
produced by the combination. The stone has a reg-
ular grain and is easy to carve, being rather soft, but
does not weather well in positions exposed to the sea
… The quarries from which the stones for building
come are at a place called Meloi (an area in which
the strata are 18–25 cm in depth) to the south-east of
Thymiana; stones for slabs come from Korakes (only
8 cm, the thickness required for slabs) to the north-
east of the village. In both places red and white stone
is found.’ Smith also informs us that timber has never
been very plentiful in the area of Kampos, and that
other imported construction materials include Pen-
telic marble and hard grey limestone from Erythrae,
on the opposite coast of Asia Minor.’ Pikionis, The
Architecture of Chios, p. 10.
47. The undershot and overshot water-wheel wells,
both animal and water driven, were invented by
Hellenistic engineers between the third and second
centuries BC. Around AD 300, the Romans replaced
the wooden compartments with separate, attached
ceramic pots that were tied on the outside of an
open-framed wheel, thereby creating the noria.

310
 gardens and orchards of kampos’ historical country mansions in chios
Norias were adopted from the Classical World by
Muslim engineers, who made some improvements
to them. Donald Routledge Hill, ‘Engineering’, in
Roshdi Rashed (ed.), Encyclopedia of the History of
Arabic Science (London: Routledge, 1996), Vol. 3,
pp. 751–795; Thomas Glick, ‘Noria Pots in Spain’,
Technology and Culture, 18/4, 1977, pp. 644–650.
48. Nilgun Ergun and Ozge Skenderi, ‘Gardens of the
Topkapi Palace: An Example of Turkish Garden
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Art’, Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed
Landscapes, xxiii/1, 2003, pp. 57–71. It can be seen
that since 1071, when Ottoman Turks settled in
Anatolia, the gardening principles of the Eastern
and Western art of gardening were adopted and
then re-created by Turks for palaces, castles and
mansions in order to provide small architectural gar-
dens enclosed by high walls closely connected with
the architecture that offered coolness and shade. The
creation of geometrical spaces inclusive of various
architectural elements and details was preferred to
naturalistic ones. Smith, The Architecture of Chios, p.
93. The architect Arnold Smith indicates that such
pebbled floor courtyards as the ones in the mansions
of Kampos are also found in Turkey and throughout
the East. Xydas, The Pebbled Courtyards of Chios, p.
65. It can be seen that in the medieval villages of
Liguria, Italy, pebbled floors in courtyard areas of
residences similar to those found in Kampos are also
encountered. Also, water features forming important
elements are also encountered in Islamic courtyards,
a fact that contributes to the creation of microcli-
matic qualities that enhances their use as pleasure
gardens, as discussed by Yasser Tabbaa, ‘Towards an
Interpretation of the Use of Water in Islamic Court-
yards and Courtyard Gardens’, Studies in the History of
Gardens and Designed Landscapes, viii/3, 1987, p. 197.
311