Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the

Ethiopian aquifers
Tenalem Ayenew a,*, Molla Demlie b,*, Stefan Wohnlich c
a
Addis Ababa University, Department of Earth Sciences, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
b
University of Kwazulu-Natal, School of Geological Sciences, Private Bag X54001, Durban 4000, South Africa
c
Ruhr University of Bochum, Department of Applied Hydrogeology, D-44801 Bochum, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Comprehensive hydrogeological investigations have been carried out in the Ethiopian volcanic terrain
Received 29 September 2007 and associated quaternary sediments. The occurrence and distribution of groundwater are systematically
Received in revised form 6 June 2008 analysed in relation to the geomorphological and geological setting within one of the world’s thickest vol-
Accepted 16 June 2008
canic provinces. The study starts from regional conceptualization to a more focussed analysis of four
Available online 4 July 2008
selected areas with distinct hydrogeological features. The chosen areas represent highland trap volcanic
sequence characterized by multi-layer aquifers, intermountain sedimentary graben, fractured rift floor
Keywords:
volcanics boarded by steep high-altitude plateau, and vast rift floor flood plain covered with alluvial sed-
Ethiopia
Groundwater
iment with adjoining gently-sloping pediments. The result revealed extreme variations in aquifer
Hydrogeology hydraulic characteristics and recharge rates. The flow and occurrence of groundwater is strongly con-
Hydrochemistry trolled by the structure and geomorphological setup of the volcanic rocks and associated sediments.
Volcanic terrain Groundwater flow in the rift and escarpment areas is largely controlled by faults. The recharge varies
in a wide range between a few mm to 400 mm/yr. Despite the occurrence of permeable rocks and high
recharge rates in some highlands adjacent to steep escarpments, the groundwater reserve is low due
to the fast release of the recharged water to the rift plains through large open faults. Wide basic and
acidic volcanics, alluvio-colluvial and lacustrine deposits form shallow unconfined aquifers, with trans-
missivity varying between 27 and 135 m2/d. The thick trap series volcanics interbedded with river gravels
and sands form deep confined and semi-confined aquifers locally with artesian conditions. Intermountain
grabens and rift floor sediments associated with fractured volcanics form the largest aquifers under water
table and semi-confined conditions. High well yields in deeper volcanic aquifers are often associated with
regional fault lines and permeable sediments interbedded with the volcanics. Limited water quality anal-
ysis indicates that the groundwaters are Ca–MgHCO3 type in the highlands, Na–HCO3 type in the rift with
local SO4 and Cl enrichment. Hard waters are dominant in the basic volcanics. The highland waters have
relatively lower ionic concentration (TDS ranging from 50 to 1200 mg/l). The rift waters have high salinity
and fluoride, which is the major national water quality problem.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction hydrogeological information at the national level is the hydrogeo-

Ethiopia is characterized by high-altitude volcanic plateaux
tapering into rift valley and peripheral lowlands (Fig. 1). The coun-
try has huge groundwater potential, predominantly localized in the
volcanic terrain covered with quaternary deposits. The Ethiopian
volcanics has been the centre of geological investigations for the
last few decennia (Di Paola, 1972; Kazmin, 1979; Zanettin et al.,
1980; Woldegebriel et al., 1990). In spite of the vital role ground-
water is playing in the lives of the majority of the people little de-
tailed hydrogeological studies have been conducted in the volcanic
rocks and associated sediments. The only source of comprehensive
* Corresponding authors. Tel.: +251 112 239462
E-mail address: Tenalema@yahoo.com (M. Demlie).
logical map of Ethiopia at the scale of 1:2,000,000 and its memo
(EIGS, 1993, 1996). River basin master plan studies provided better
picture of the hydrology of major river basins leaving a big infor-
mation gap in the hydrogeology and groundwater resources. In re-
cent years better hydrogeological studies have been carried out in
few areas (Ayenew, 1998; Alemayehu et al., 2005; Kebede et al.,
2005; Demlie, 2006).
Hydrogeological data is extremely scarce in most of the regions.
Even the areas which have been studied in detail do not have sys-
tematic data base that can easily be used. In this study great effort
has been made to collect pertinent information from governmental
and non-governmental organizations and academic institutions.
Aside from secondary data collection and analysis, the chosen
areas were studied by the authors for more than a decade using

1464-343X/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006
98 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113

Fig. 1. Location map showing the volcanic regions and major river basins (Lakes: 1 = Chew Bahir, 2 = Chamo, 3 = Abaya, 4 = Awassa, 5 = Shala, 6 = Abiyata, 7 = Langano,
8 = Ziway, 9 = Koka, 10 = Beseka, 11 = Abhe, 12 = Afdera, 13 = Asale, 14 = Tana, 15 = Fincha; Towns: 1 = Addis Ababa, 2 = Jimma, 3 = Gore, 4 = Ambo, 5 = Debre Markos,
6 = Gonder, 7 = Mekele, 8 = Asaiyata, 9 = Dessie, 10 = Debre Berhan, 11 = Dire Dawa, 12 = Assela, 13 = Goba).

conventional hydrogeological mapping, hydrochemical and envi-
ronmental isotope data analysis and remote sensing techniques.
The authors have also been involved in water well drilling and log-
ging campaigns in different groundwater basins.
Conventional hydrogeological mapping, well lithologic and geo-
physical logging and pumping test analysis were made. Major
structures were mapped directly in the field and using aerial pho-
tographs and satellite images. Hydrochemical data was used to
understand the movement of groundwater and assess its quality
for drinking. The integrated approach enabled to develop the con-
ceptual hydrogeological model of the different groundwater basins
in relation to the highland-rift geomorphological setting.
With large-scale groundwater development plans now under
consideration by the Ethiopian Government (MWR, 2002), collec-
tion and analysis of hydrogeological information are vital for water
resources developers and the scientific community. This work is
expected to contribute a lot in this regard. More emphasis is given
to the highly productive aquifer systems, which are likely to be uti-
lized in the near future. Although groundwater development and
management may vary from one country to another in East Africa,
the basic facts would probably be similar, given that the countries
in the region share a great deal with respect to their geology, cli-
mate, water use and socio-economic development. Therefore, it is
our hope that the data presented and the issues raised in this paper
will help for similar studies in the entire East African rift that ex-
tends from Ethiopia to Mozambique.
2. General description of the region
Most of the Ethiopian land mass is covered with volcanic rocks
forming spectacular interconnected highlands and rift basins.
Although the complex relief of Ethiopia defies easy classification,
five topographic features are discernible. These are the western
highlands, western lowlands, eastern highlands, eastern lowlands,
and the rift valley (Fig. 1). The western and eastern highlands, the
transitional escarpments together with the rift represent the main
focal areas. The rift is a major structural feature 40–60 km wide
and in places 1000 m below the flanking highlands. In the study area
the rift has two main distinct sections; the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER)
and the Afar which includes the Danakil Depression in the northeast,
which is as low as 120 m below sea level in the Kobar Sink.
Ethiopia has three principal drainage systems, which start from
the central highlands. The first and largest is the western system,
which includes the watersheds of the Blue Nile (Abay), Tekeze
and Baro-Akobo, all flowing west to the White Nile in the Sudan.
The second is the rift valley internal drainage system, which in-
cludes the Awash, the Lakes District and the Omo-Ghibe basins.
The Awash river drains to the northeast through the rift floor and
ends up in Lake Abhe. The Lakes District basin is a closed system
in central Ethiopia. The Omo and Ghibe rivers flow to Lake Turkana.
The third system is the Wabishebele and Genale-Dawa rivers,
which drain to the Indian Ocean. The selected areas are confined
within the MER and the Awash basin.
 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113
The climate ranges from equatorial hot desert to tropical rain
forest and cool highland. Mean annual temperature varies from
over 30 °C in the lowlands and in the Afar and Danakil depressions
to less than 10 °C in the high-altitude plateaux. Annual rainfall var-
ies from less than 100 mm in most of the Afar and Danakil depres-
sions to more than 2000 mm in the western and southwestern
highlands. The national annual average is 744 mm (FAO, 1995).
Mean annual rainfall gradually decreases towards the east and
northeast. In central and north-central Ethiopia it is around
1100 mm (EMA, 1999). In the southeast, the mean annual rainfall
is around 700 mm. In the south and eastern highlands it varies be-
tween 1200 and 2000 mm (Ayenew and Masresha, 2005).
3. Geological setting
Ethiopia’s topography is built on five geological formations dat-
ing back to the Precambrian. The Precambrian rocks are overlain by
younger volcanic and sedimentary formations in most places ex-
cept in peripheral lowlands. Mesozoic marine transgression depos-
ited thick sedimentary sequences of dominantly limestone and
sandstone, most of which have been either eroded or covered by
volcanic rocks. Younger sedimentary rocks are found in the periph-
eral lowlands and the rift floor. Tertiary and quaternary lava flows
covered more than half of the country with thickness reaching up
to 3000 m (Kazmin, 1979). These rocks were affected by several
structural episodes in the geological past. Especially, the rift forma-
tion defined the present day geomorphology.
Except patchy Precambrian rocks, the rift is covered with Ceno-
zoic volcanics and Tertiary and quaternary sediments (Mohr, 1967;
Woldegebriel et al., 1990). The volcanic rocks are dominantly fis-
sural basaltic lava flows, rhyolites and ignimbrites associated with
volcano-clastic tuff and ash deposits. The basalt extrusions were
interspersed with large accumulations of rhyolite and trachyte,
breccia, ignimbrite and shallow basic intrusions (Kazmin, 1979).
In the rift floor continental type volcanism has developed, giving
rise to large sialic rocks from central type eruptions accompanied
by fissural basic lava flows in places covered by thick lacustrine
and alluvio-colluvial quaternary deposits (Zanettin et al., 1980).
The volcanic rocks were studied by various authors. Zanettin
et al. (1980) described the stratigraphy of the trap volcanic terrain
comprehensively. A more detailed account of flood basalts of the
northwestern plateau was presented by Pik et al. (1998). Generally
the volcanics can be divided into trap series volcanics (Early Ter-
tiary) dominantly localized in the highlands and Late Tertiary vol-
canics (Rift Series) mostly confined within the rift floor (Fig. 2).
After the formation of the rift, fissural volcanism began with the
emission of rhyolitic ignimbrites and voluminous flood basalts. La-
ter basic lava prevailed in Afar and the MER (Barbieri et al., 1975).
The rift and intermountain grabens in the northeastern high-
lands are filled with alluvial, colluvial and lacustrine sediments.
The alluvial deposits filled lowland troughs during the pluvial per-
iod. Thin strips of alluvium along rivers occur elsewhere. Lacus-
trine and marine sediments associated with evaporates including
gypsum, anhydrite and common salt in the Afar and Danakil
Depressions. Extensive lacustrine sediments exist around rift lakes.
The rift floor and escarpments are highly faulted. The faults in
the MER are parallel and sub-parallel to the NE–SW trending rift
axis (Woldegebriel et al., 1990). There are at least three sets of
faults in the Afar associated with the triple junction representing
the Ethiopian Rift, Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. In the highlands
there are different sets of faults representing older structural
trends. The rift is separated from the plateaux by a series of normal
step faults. Numerous geothermal fields and caldera volcanoes
characterize the rift floor. Volcanism has persisted up to the pres-
ent day in the Afar within small eruptive centres.
99
4. Results and discussion
The result indicates that the aquifer types, the amount and dis-
tribution of recharge and the hydrochemical signature of the dif-
ferent physiographic regions are highly variable. There is distinct
difference between the highland and rift valley hydrogeological
systems. The movement and occurrence of groundwater is strongly
controlled by large fault systems. This is particularly the case in the
rift and adjacent escarpments. At regional scale the groundwater
movement is discontinuous due to barrier marginal faults, which
direct groundwater flow in different directions; in places against
the topographic slope (Fig. 6B). The variability of the hydrogeolog-
ical regimen of the different selected regions is presented below
with pertinent maps, charts, hydrogeological sections and tables.
The discussion is made by presenting first the regional hydrogeol-
ogy and then zooming in to the four selected areas in detail (see
Table 1).
4.1. Aquifer types and hydraulic parameters
Comprehensive hydrogeological field survey, compilation of
pertinent data from different sources, pumping test, well litholog-
ical logs, and indirect information from hydrochemical and isotope
data enabled to classify the aquifers and their hydraulic character-
istics including groundwater recharge and discharge conditions
(Fig. 3). Table 2 shows the potential aquifers in the different phys-
iographic regions.
The most important aquifers are localized in the fractured and
weathered volcanics, alluvio-colluvial sediments filling intermoun-
tain grabens, alluvial deposits dominated by volcano-clastics and
gravels along major river courses and paleaosoils within the trap
series volcanics and in interbedded loose pyroclastic materials
and reworked agglomerates or breccias within the mafic and acidic
lava flows (Tadesse, 1983; Chernet, 1993; Ayenew, 1998). Thick
pyroclastic deposits, buried paleo-valleys, volcanic rocks within
structural discontinuities in the rift and escarpments are known
to provide the best aquifers (Chernet, 1993; EIGS, 1993; Hailemich-
ael, 2004; Hagos, 2006).
According to EIGS (1993) two major aquifer classes were iden-
tified based on the mode of origin and rock types. These are (1)
extensive aquifers with intergranular permeability (unconsoli-
dated sediments: alluvium, eluvium, colluvium and lacustrine sed-
iments), and (2) extensively fractured and weathered volcanics
(basalts, rhyolites, trachytes and ignimbrites). Each of these is di-
vided into high, moderate and low productive aquifers with aver-
age well specific capacity of 3.3, 0.5 and 0.1 l/s/m respectively
(Chernet, 1993). The northwestern highlands have relatively lower
fracturing and many interbedded clay layers and they, therefore,
are classified as low productive aquifers with well yields varying
from 0.45 to 9.9 liters per second (l/s). In contrast, in the north-
western highlands (Gonder area) and northern highlands (Mekele
areas) wells with yields more than 20 l/s are reported (Yitbarek,
2002; Yihdego, 2002). Correlation of apparent resistivity and well
yield from the northwestern highlands revealed aquifers with dif-
ferent thickness and productivity in the trap series volcanics (Keb-
ede, 2004). This is related to the variation in the degree of
weathering and interbedded paleosoils and river gravel. In contrast
to this, the productivity in the rift aquifers is almost exclusively re-
lated to the presence of faults and pyroclastic and alluvial deposits.
Some times exceptionally thick volcanic rocks with no interbedded
layers of river gravels and sand in high rainfall areas were found to
be non-productive. The typical examples are Assela area in the east
central highlands and Debre Markos in the western highlands
where deep wells drilled in thick aphiantic basalts were found to
be dry (Wenner, 1973; Kebede, 2004). The highland volcanics
100 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113
Fig. 2. Simplified hydrogeological map of the studied region.
interbedded with river gravels and paleosoils form multi-layer
aquifers. Typical examples of multi-layer aquifers are those located
in Dessie, Mekele, Ambo and Addis Ababa areas with yields reach-
ing more than 40 l/s (Shale, 2001; Demlie, 2006). In Addis Ababa
area well yields up to 80 l/s were reported.
Erratic data from over 1250 wells indicate that the productivity
of the multi-layer aquifers considerably varies. The yield of the
aquifers from the northwestern plateau basalts (Debre Markos
and Gonder area) ranges from 1 to 12.4 l/s. For the Lake Tana basin,
the southeastern plateau and the northern intermountain grabens
yield is 0.4–13, 1.2–16 and 2–13.5 l/s, respectively. The highly per-
meable volcano-clastic deposits and fractured basalts of Addis Aba-
ba and Debre Berehan areas the yield is as high as 20 and 27 l/s,
respectively (Demlie, 2006).
The productivity of the shallow aquifers is mostly low. In the
highlands they are alluvial deposits and weathered volcanics with
limited interbedded river gravels and sands. The alluvial deposits
are of two types: those spread out in alluvial plains and strips
along river courses, which both form unconfined aquifers.
The majority of the rural community depends on hand-dug wells
dug from these deposits. In general the well yield and depth to
water is less than 2.5 l/s and 10 m, respectively.
The rift is characterized by fractured basaltic and ignimbritic
aquifers. They are mainly unconfined and leaky types. In the MER
and middle Awash valley the weathered tuffs and paleosoils form
local perched aquifers. Permeable alluvial and colluvial deposits
associated with lacustrine soils form the main shallow aquifers
in the lowlands of central Ethiopia. The lacustrine deposits are
known to provide more than 10 l/s (Chernet, 1993). Colluvial, talus
and sheet flood deposits are relatively thin. The thickness varying
from a few meters to 50 m.
The majority of the aquifers in the quaternary sediments and
fractured basalts are under water table conditions. In the highlands
multi-layer confined, semi-confined (leaky) and unconfined aqui-
fers are very common. Recent water well drilling in the Addis Aba-
ba area revealed the existence of highly productive aquifers at a
depth of more than 250 m. This system is believed to be confined
and isolated from the fresh shallow unconfined aquifers. Some of
 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113 101

Table 1
Broad categories of aquifers and the corresponding yields

Zone Name Area (km2) Runoff (m3/s) Annual runoff (106 m3) Average recharge (mm)
River basins Abay 198510 1680 53000 100
Baro-Akobo 75720 415 13100 120
Tekeze (Atbara) 87770 - 50
Wabishebelle 205410 80 2500 30
Genale-Dawa 168140 125 4000 30
Omo 77210 520 16400 100
Rift valley 54900 1100 50
Awash 113320 80 2500 30
Danakil 69520 10
Physiographic zones (range of values) Highlands of western and southwestern Ethiopia 250–400
Eastern (high peaks) and central Ethiopian highlands 150–250
Much of Northern and northwestern highlands, central Main Ethiopian Rift, southern and far eastern 50–150
highlands
Southern Afar and the extreme northern end of the western lowlands and much of far eastern and <50
southern lowlands

Fig. 3. Groundwater recharge and availability map. Note: A = wide spread good quality groundwater at a relatively shallow depth (dominantly highland volcanic aquifers
recharged by high rainfall); B = large groundwater reserve with fair to bad quality often localized in lower elevation areas (rift valley and volcanics in pediment covered with
thick sediments and intermountain grabens); C = low to moderate groundwater reserve with fair quality (highland trap series volcanic aquifer with less sediment cover and
recharge); D = medium to high groundwater reserve in the volcanics and sediments recharged by rainfall and rivers in places with serious salinity problem; E = Low
groundwater reserve with moderate quality recharged by seasonal floods and streams.

the newly discovered deep aquifers are artesian. Artesian aquifers
were also reported in Mekele, Ambo, Jimma, Dessie, Debre Markos,
Gonder and Diredawa areas. Perched aquifers are present in the
dolerite dykes of Mekele area intruding the Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks and the thick sediment of Raya and Kobo-Girana intermoun-
tain grabens (Hussien, 2000; Yihdego, 2002; Aytenfsu and Zemeda-
gegnhu, 2003). Aquifers in the unconsolidated sediments of the
intermountain grabens are not homogeneous systems. They are
typically layered with permeable horizons separated by aquitards
producing complex flow patterns. The transmissivity of the alluvial
aquifers in the grabens vary between 0.5 and 500 m2/day. The
aquifers of the adjacent volcanic highlands have lower transmissiv-
ity (1–100 m2/day). In recent years many water wells were drilled
in the Raya and Kobo valleys for large-scale irrigation (Aytenfsu
and Zemedagegnhu, 2003).
Table 2 summarizes the hydraulic parameters of the major
aquifers in the different regions. The basic aquifer parameters are
calculated using the common pumping test analysis methods.
These procedures are well explained in Kruseman and de Ridder
(1989) The transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity of the aqui-
fers is controlled by the degree of fracturing and weathering, the
existence of intrebedded paleosoils and alluvial deposits within
102
Table 2
Summary of well hydraulic parameters (numbers in bracket indicate total wells used
for the analysis)
Regional classification of
aquifers
Early Tertiary volcanics
(multi-layer systems with
interbedded soils and river
gravels)
Quaternary volcanics (often
fractured and semi-
confined with limited soil
layers)
Unconsolidated sediments
In situ developed soils and
river gravels (the major
water supply from hand-
dug wells for the rural
community)
T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113
the trap series volcanics and the geomorphological setting. Fig. 4
illustrates how hydraulic parameters vary in the different physio-
graphic zones (highland, escarpment and rift).
Common Specific Location Generally, the hydraulic conductivity and yield of wells in-
depth to yield creases from the highlands to the rift due to faulting. However,
water (m) range
(l/s)
exceptions exist in the transitional escarpments (around Addis Aba-
ba) where volcanic pyroclastic deposits form highly productive
30–250 2– 6 Central, eastern and
western highlands
aquifers in the absence of dense fault network (AAWSA, 2000; Dem-
lie, 2006). On the contrary, wells drilled up to a depth of 120–175 m
in the fractured basalts of the Arsi Highlands (Etaya plain) were
50–250 2–5 Rift valley floor found to be dry (Wenner, 1973). Because, soon after the rainfall
the recharged water is drained fast into the rift floor through open
faults (Figs. 4–6). In the Raya-Kobo valley the hydraulic conductiv-
20–80 1–5 Mostly in the rift and ity decreases towards the middle of the valley floor far from the
intermountain valleys marginal faults (Fig. 3). The permeability of the sediment decreases
5–20 0.1–1 Throughout the country as one goes towards the centre of the graben. Because, the grain size
(especially in the
of the alluvial deposits decreases towards the centre.
highlands and mid
altitudes (escarpment)) Depth to water varies in a wide range. In some places of the
MER depth to static water level is as low as 250 m. In most of
the highland plains depth to water do not exceed more than
Fig. 4. Scatter plots showing spatial and temporal variations of water level and hydraulic parameters.
 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113 103

Fig. 5. Selected representative areas and schematic sections (numbers and black small windows indicate regions and sites of sections respectively, X–X0 cross-section
direction shown in Fig. 7).

50 m. In shallow aquifers close to rivers depth to water is not more often less than 2 m. Over pumping in Addis Ababa, Gonder and
than 10 m. Generally seasonal water table change is very low; it is Mekele areas led to substantial groundwater level decline (Fig. 4).
104 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113

Fig. 6. Map illustrating well yields, groundwater flow pattern and faults (A: wells and groundwater contours; B = dry and productive wells at different elevation).

4.2. Groundwater recharge approach in a semi-distributed manner. In such a case groundwa-

Generally two approaches were followed to estimate the
groundwater recharge; (1) conventional water balance and (2) dis-
charge analysis (Ayenew, 1998; Hagos, 2006; Demlie et al., 2008).
In few areas chloride mass balance and soil-water balance methods
were used (Ayenew, 1998; Demlie et al., 2008). In some cases
indirect recharge from rivers was estimated based on systematic
discharge measurements with the help of current meters.
For most of the major river and lake basins groundwater
recharge was estimated based on conventional water balance
ter recharge is estimated as a residual of other known water
balance components. In other words the method requires quantifi-
cation of the major water balance components such as rainfall,
actual evapotranspiration, runoff and groundwater outflow
through surfacial and subsurface routes.
In the highlands where boundary conditions are well-defined
and good hydrological data is available, recharge was estimated
on the basis of river discharge records by separating surface runoff
and base flow as shown in Fig. 4 (Chernet, 1993; Ayenew and
Masresha, 2005). In this case the annual base flow of the rivers is
 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113 105

assumed to be the groundwater recharge upstream of the gauging
station. These basins are considered to be closed or there is no
groundwater outflow in any of the catchment boundaries and
there is no diversion or damming of the river under consideration.
The results indicate that groundwater recharge varies consider-
ably in space and time. The rate of recharge is strongly influenced
by the distribution and amount of rainfall, the permeability of the
rocks, the geomorphological setup and the availability of surface
water bodies close to major unconfined and semi-confined aqui-
fers. In general, the main source of recharge is rainfall and river
channel losses. The average yearly groundwater recharge for the
entire country is around 2.8 billion cubic meters (Taddese, 2004).
With the exception of the arid Afar and Danakil Depressions, the
recharge of the major basins was estimated as shown in Table 3.
The main groundwater recharge occurs in the highlands where
annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm (Fig. 4). The rift floor acts as
regional discharge area, which contains perennial rivers, springs
and lakes. However, indirect recharge from rivers and lakes occur
in the highly faulted MER and southern Afar (Ayenew et al.,
2007). There are large differences in recharge between the rift
floor, escarpments and highlands (EIGS, 1993). In most cases the
escarpments act as discharge areas. This is manifested by
the occurrence of high-discharge springs along marginal faults. In
the central and northwestern highlands direct recharge ranges
from 90 to 150 mm annually. This accounts 10–20% of the annual
rainfall of the region. In the southwestern highlands recharge my
reach as high as 400 mm. In the Ziway-Shala basin (ZSB) of central
Ethiopia average direct annual recharge in the rift floor, escarp-
ment and highlands is estimated at 10, 90 and 100 mm, respec-
tively (Ayenew, 1998).
In the arid and semi-arid intermountain valleys, considerable
recharge occurs near mountain fronts. The volcanic rocks in the
sloppy areas tap the infiltrating water and convey it to the graben
floors which are characterized by fractured rocks covered by thick
alluvio-colluvial deposits. The subsurface hydraulic link between
the arid rift volcanic aquifers and the groundwater that infiltrates
near the humid highland mountains is subtle. Because of disrup-
tion of the volcanic rocks by faults, aquifers are laterally discontin-
uous. The presence of variable groundwater chemistry, depth and
occurrence suggests a complex groundwater dynamics in the
northern MER and Afar (Kebede et al., 2005). In the rift floor aqui-
fers far from large rivers and escarpments bounded by intermoun-
tain grabens the transfer of highland recharge directly to the rift is
not straight forward. Highland recharge may preferentially move
to the rift within large regional faults. These faults are parallel
and sub-parallel to the axis of the rift. Large open faults play very
important role in the indirect recharge that comes from rivers
channel losses. At regional scale, for the ZSB the main and even
in some cases the sole source of recharge comes from the adjacent
highlands.
4.3. Characterization of the movement and occurrence of groundwater
The hydrogeological framework of the Ethiopian volcanic ter-
rain and the associated sedimentary deposits is quite complex.
Ethiopia’s three major physiographic regions (the rift valley, adja-
cent escarpments and highlands) add up to the complexity of the
hydrogeological setup. In general the hydrogeological regimen of
this vast region can be represented by four peculiar groundwater
basins. In the course of selecting the representative areas these
peculiarities are accounted Four localities (regions) are chosen to
describe the occurrence and movement of groundwater (Fig. 5).
The geological and geomorphological setup of the four regions
strongly control the movement and occurrence of groundwater.
The vast volcanic highlands, intervening deep canyons and the rift
valley are the most important structural features that govern the
flow and localization of groundwater at regional and sub-regional
scale. This is apparent from the brief description of the chosen four
regions.
Region 1 – This region is known by the name Ziway-Shala basin
representing a symmetrical rift where groundwater flows from the
highlands to the rift across well-defined marginal faults forming
escarpments followed by fractured rift floor dotted by volcanic
cones. Groundwater flow is controlled by a series of normal faults
mainly oriented parallel and sub-parallel to the NE–SW trending
rift axis (Fig. 6). Some of these faults act as local groundwater bar-
riers which form a series of swamps and seepage zones. The high-
lands have wide plains and mountains composed of basalts,
rhyolites and ignimbrites. The hydrogeology of the region is very
complex as evidenced from the presence of variable groundwater
flow and discharge patterns, hydrochemical signatures and depth
to static water levels (Craig et al., 1977; Ayenew, 1998; Chernet
et al., 2001).
In the closed Ziway-Shala basin, groundwater flows radially
from the highlands to the rift from. The groundwater contours
are a subdued replica of the topographic contours. This does not
hold true in the rift floor where faults act as barriers of groundwa-
ter flow along topographic slopes. Instead the groundwater flows
parallel to the axis of the rift ultimately joining the lakes located
at the centre of the basin (Fig. 6) as revealed from groundwater

Table 3
Estimated annual recharge and runoff (runoff obtained from MCE, 2002)

Physiographic regions Stat. Ground altitude Depth Depth to SWL Specific capacity Yield Hydraulic Transmissivity
(masl) (m) (m) (l/s/m) (l/s) conductivity (m/d) (m2/d)
Central highlands (356) Min 1630 60.0 Artesian 0.0 0 1.0 30.7
Max 23400 252.0 137.6 18.6 2.5 89.8 2156.6
Mean 2303 129.9 40.6 2.4 35 19.8 378.6
Raya-Kobo valley (48) Min 65 2.0 0.2 2 – 0.7
Max 250 97.0 10.3 25 – 3765.0
Mean 98 33.4 2.4 4.2 – 327.9
Northwestern highlands (Gonder- Min 1937 56.0 0.8 – 0.8 0.0 1.0
Mekele area) (49) Max 373354 182.0 73.0 – 30.0 85.4 2630.0
Mean 160924 123.3 15.5 – 5.2 23.2 468.1
MER (463) Min 1440 13.0 2.0 – 0.0 0.1 132.0
Max 3044 293.0 207.6 – 5.8 138.0 1430.0
Mean 2037 111.8 51.9 – 0.9 6.0 290.0
Eastern and northeastern highlands Min 1659 51.0 31.5 – 0.0 0.1 32.0
(14) Max 2705 180.0 168.0 – 2.5 18.0 240.0
Mean 2248 132.0 82.8 – 1.8 3.2 18.0
106 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113
models and field hydrogeological observations (Ayenew, 2001;
Deribessa, 2006). The faults also influence the subsurface hydraulic
connection of the lakes. Beyond barrier faults volcanic rocks do not
form extended aquifers, even if they are highly permeable and
have exceptionally deep static groundwater levels. In some places
depths to groundwater levels is as high as 274 m (Halcrow, 1989).
Recharge and groundwater flow in the weathered upper zone of
the highlands are the driving force of much of the hydrology of Re-
gion 1 rather than deep upwelling flow systems with long resi-
dence time. The existence of large marginal faults favoured the
formation of high-discharge and fault-controlled springs. One of
the peculiar features of this region is that in the highlands close
to the boundary faults drilled boreholes were found to be dry, de-
spite the presence of permeable rocks and high recharge rates. The
sharp elevation drop favours fast drainage of the groundwater in
the form of springs. The springs located along the steep boundary
of the rift and escarpment have very high seasonal variation in dis-
charge. The same situation exists in highland areas close to deeply
incised and large river valleys. A good example to this are Gore,
Gonder and Dessie areas.
Region 2 – This region is part of the upper Awash basin, which
includes the mountainous areas around Addis Ababa forming the
water divide of the Blue Nile and Awash river basins. It is covered
with thick volcanic rocks with limited soil cover. The area has rel-
atively higher rainfall. Unlike Region 1, there is no clear boundary
between the rift and the highland. The highlands descend gradu-
ally to the rift plains. Towards the rift, thick volcano-clastic depos-
its southeast of Addis Ababa form one of the major volcanic
aquifers of Ethiopia. Basalts and volcano-clastic deposits form very
deep aquifers; in places forming artesian conditions. In the high-
land plains multi-layer medium to high yielding aquifers are
common.
The highlands do not have large faults. The only exception is the
N–S tending fault that extends from Ambo to Addis Ababa along
which hot wells and springs exist. In few areas it appears that high-
land groundwater flows preferentially following regional faults at
deeper levels (Kebede et al., 2005). In contrast to Region 1, rift-
in-rift structures do not hinder groundwater flow following the
topographic slope. Focused subsurface flow via dense fractures
networks seems to be the most dominant source of recharge for
deeper aquifers of the rift floor and marginal volcanic aquifers of
the middle Awash valley (UNDP, 1973; Ayenew et al., 2006). Gen-
erally groundwater flows towards the rift following the topo-
Fig. 7. Schematic illustration showing groundwater flow from the central highlands to the Afar Depression (modified from Mohr, 1967; approximate section direction (X–X0 )
is shown on Fig. 6).
graphic slope in the region. The alluvial deposits along the main
course of perennial rivers form productive shallow aquifers else-
where in the Awash basin. The occurrence of alternating pervious
and impervious layers and sedimentary deposits determines the
predominance of shallow groundwater circulation over deep ones.
The large topographic difference between the rift and the high-
lands favour the formation of local, intermediate and regional flow
systems represented by springs and seepage zones at different ele-
vations. Fig. 7 shows the schematic conceptualization of the move-
ment and occurrence of groundwater across and along the rift
valley all the way from the highlands of Addis Ababa area to the
lowest point in the southern Afar rift. The direction of the cross-
section is chosen in such a way that it illustrates the role of regio-
nal faults in localizing groundwater. It also shows the major aqui-
fers in relation to the movement of groundwater at different
depths and physiographic regions.
Hot springs emanate along large faults tapping water from dee-
per aquifers. With depth the groundwater flow can be schematized
into three zones: fast flow at shallow depth, intermediate zone
with relatively slower and deep flow system with long residence
time in places associated with thermal systems. The shallow sys-
tems are confined in the upper permeable soil, sediment and
weathered rock zone (usually less than 50 m). This zone forms
the phreatic shallow aquifers with high permeability and storage
coefficient. Immediately below this zone, there exists an interme-
diate zone of fractured rocks and volcano-clastic deposits (up to
200 m thick). Groundwater in this zone is the source of consistent
base flow to many rivers, large springs and swamps. The deeper
zone is a massive volcanic sequence, locally fractured by regional
faults. This zone is characterized by confined and artesian aquifers
with waters of high ionic concentrations. In some instances the
temperature of the groundwater is very high indicating the exis-
tence of geothermal fields associated with regional active faults
and sub-active volcanoes. Close to the deep hot wells there are
fault-controlled thermal springs and fumaroles.
Region 3 – This region represents the vast rift plain in the Middle
Awash basin characterized by alluvial and lacustrine deposits over-
lying highly fractured volcanic rocks bordered by thick pediment
deposits (Fig. 5, Section B). The hydrogeological behaviour of this
region is representative of rift floor lacustrine and alluvial deposits
with underlying thick fractured volcanics in direct contact with
perennial rivers. The water bearing formations are quaternary
deposits and underlying fractured volcanics, dominantly basalts
 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113
and ignimbrites (Aytenfsu and Zemedagegnhu, 2003). The recharge
to these aquifers comes from seasonal floods and river channel
losses. The river–aquifer hydraulic relations are variable depending
up on the thickness of the sediments, the morphology of the under-
lying volcanic rocks and the orientation and density of faults. In
places rivers feed aquifers and vies versa (Curry, 1973; Halcrow,
1989). The recharge from the western highlands forms wide
swamps; while in the eastern escarpment, much of the highland
rainfall recharges the thick pediment and rift floor aquifers. The
hydrogeological conditions along the western highland catchments
is similar to the eastern half of the basin. However, there are differ-
ences in the distribution and pattern of groundwater recharge. In
the western half of the basin surface runoff reaches the Awash riv-
er and some of the overland flow that comes from the highlands is
lost at the topographic break between the pediments and the rift
plains through evapotranspiration (Halcrow, 1989). In the eastern
pediments in Driedawa area the flash seasonal floods and ephem-
eral rivers are the major source of recharge. The groundwater re-
serve is higher as Mesozoic limestones, dolomites and sandstones
play a role in localizing groundwater at greater depths (Meskale,
1982).
The Alidghe plain aquifers (Fig. 5, Section B) in the middle
Awash valley can be a good representative of shallow and interme-
diate aquifer system being feed by rivers and seasonal floods. It is a
wide flat plain with alluvial and pediment alluvio-colluvial depos-
its of volcano-clastic origin (Tadesse, 1983). The main aquifer is
coarse grain sands, gravel and pebbles with a maximum thickness
of more than 200 m. Depth to water ranges from 60 to 120 m. Close
to the Awash river the static water level in the shallow aquifer is
slightly lower than the level of the Awash river. The aquifers are re-
charged by the Awash river.
In contrast to Region 1, the normal marginal faults do not hin-
der groundwater flow. The faults facilitate re-emergence of deep
groundwaters to the surface in alluvial deposits The central and
western highland waters travel long distance through large faults
at deeper levels and emerge in the middle Awash valley as illus-
trated in Fig. 7. This kind of flows were reported from isotopic
studies in the Awash basin (Kebede et al., 2005; Ayenew et al.,
2006) and hydrochemical and isotope surveys including river dis-
charge measurements in the ZSB (Ayenew, 1998; Deribessa,
2006). Paleochannels play also important role in localizing ground-
water (Ayenew, 2001).
Region 4 – This region represents intermountain graben located
at higher altitudes. It is believed that the hydrogeological behav-
iour of the aquifers in this region represents the valley fills of inter-
mountain grabens located close to the edge of the rift escarpments.
The selected area is the Raya-Kobo graben, which is filled by thick
alluvio-colluvial deposits and bounded by volcanic mountain
ranges to the west and east (Fig. 5, Section C). This kind of inter-
mountain grabens are common in the northwestern highlands
and adjacent escarpments all the way from Debre Berhan to Mek-
ele. The main valleys filled with thick alluvial deposits of volcano-
clastic origin include Raya, Kobo-Girana, Borkena, Gerado and She-
wa Robit. These valleys have large groundwater reserve (CSAERAR,
1999; Shale, 2001). The aquifers are dominantly shallow and
unconfined. The recharge comes as subsurface flow from the adja-
cent highlands through highly weathered volcanics and overland
flow from deforested mountainous slopes (Chernet, 1993; REST,
1998). Thick sediments are also present in local lake catchments
covered with lacustrine and alluvial deposits. They form uncon-
fined aquifers in the plains surrounding the lakes. Some of the typ-
ical examples are Hayq, Ardibo and Ashenge catchments in the
north and the lake Tana basin in northwestern Ethiopia.
The Raya-Kobo valley is a structural valley that forms one of the
largest intermountain graben in Ethiopia. The valley floor is
bounded by well defend marginal faults. During faulting, the valley
107
floor on the western side drops 1000 m below the highlands. The
sediments derived from the mountains areas filled the trough mak-
ing the floor of the graben flat. Along the edge of the mountains,
gently-sloping alluvial fans were formed and coalesced creating
pediment alluvio-colluvial deposits. The maximum thickness of
the graben floor sediment recorded from water wells is 250 m (Ha-
gos, 2006).
The highland areas experience high rainfall. They have deeply-
cut river gorges, gulley and canyons. Seasonal streams flow into
the valley floor and disappear in the sediments. The middle part
of the graben is flat; on the eastern side there are slightly elevated
ridges immediately bordering the Afar rift. The eastern boundary
faults are barriers to groundwater flow virtually hindering high-
land groundwater reaching the Afar rift (Gershanovich, 2000).
The main groundwater is localized in the sediments and underly-
ing fractured volcanics not far from the marginal faults. Water level
measurements from 40 wells revealed that groundwater flows
from the elevated areas to the valley bottoms and axially to the
south at the middle of the graben. There is no strong evidence that
supports groundwater outflow in to the bordering Afar depression.
However, in the presence of E–W trending faults the intermoun-
tain grabens leak groundwater to the rift aquifers. This was proved
from isotopic and hydrochemical studies carried out in the Hayq-
Ardibo lakes catchment located south of the Raya-Kobo valley
(Ayenew et al., 2006).
4.4. Hydrochemistry
The rationale of using hydrochemistry here is to understand the
movement and occurrence of groundwater on the basis of major
ion compositions. It is not intended to present the quality of the
water for different uses here. Many researchers conducted scat-
tered comprehensive hydrochemical studies in the Ethiopian vol-
canic terrain and associated sedimentary rocks. Among others
the most important once are Talling and Talling (1965), UNDP
(1973), Chernet (1982), Wood and Talling (1988), Halcrow
(1989), Gizaw (1996), Alemayehu et al. (2005), Ayenew (2006)
and Kebede et al. (2005). Table 4 summarizes the hydrochemical
data collected from the selected regions. Fig. 8 is Piper plot show-
ing strong spatially variations corresponding to different hydro-
geological regimen.
In general there are distinct differences in hydrochemistry be-
tween the highlands and the rift valley and the deep and shallow
aquifer systems. This is apparent if the salinity and electrical con-
ductivity (EC) is compared between the two physiographic regions.
There is a general zonation of salinity with altitude. As the alti-
tude decreases the salinity increases. Highland waters are of low
salinity. In the rift floor deep aquifers the salinity and ionic concen-
tration is high (Ayenew, 2006). This variation was interpreted in
terms of groundwater chemical evolution along the groundwater
flow paths. However, this trend is locally interspersed due to dif-
ferences in the source of recharge and complex faults acting as bar-
riers or conduits of groundwater movement preferentially. In
several localities, large pockets of anomalously saline groundwa-
ters were observed suggesting the lack of continuity in the ground-
water flow or in terms of mixing with deep thermal waters
(Kebede et al., 2005). In the Afar the high groundwater salinity is
attributed to the leaching of evaporite and lacustrine deposits
(Ayenew et al., 2006). The geochemical zonation in the ZSB was
interpreted partly in terms of lakes and groundwater interactions
(Chernet et al., 2001; Ayenew, 2003).
The differences in hydrochemistry are also reflected in the rel-
ative importance of the major ions. In the basic highland volcanics
calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are the dominant cations which
form hard waters. In the rift where acidic volcanics are common
sodium (Na) becomes more important. In rocks associated with
108 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113

Table 4
Summary of major ion chemistry of groundwaters in the four selected regions and surrounding areas (concentration in mg/l)
Region Location Type Ca Mg Na K HCO3 CO3 F Cl SO4 NO3
1 Tora BH 51.0 9.0 160.0 17.0 570.0 0.0 2.8 29.0 26.0 0.0
1 South of Assela BH 16.2 2.2 10.8 1.9 79.3 0.0 0.1 7.1 0.0 0.0
1 South of Kulumsa BH 46.0 8.8 21.5 6.0 231.8 0.0 1.2 7.1 0.0 0.0
1 Arba (CADU) BH 62.0 2.0 312.0 20.0 1012.6 0.0 4.9 13.0 0.0 5.6
1 Adamitulu BH 4.0 1.8 250.0 11.8 463.6 96.8 1.9 14.2 0.0 6.0
1 Shashemene Municipality BH 10.0 2.0 14.0 5.0 54.0 0.0 0.8 7.0 4.0 0.0
1 Zeway Bekele Mola BH 14.0 9.0 200.0 15.0 473.0 12.0 3.2 18.0 5.0 0.0
1 Arsi Negele BH 14.0 4.0 25.0 3.0 140.0 0.0 1.0 2.5 8.0 0.0
1 Langano Bekele Mola BH 0.5 0.5 459.0 29.0 610.0 90.0 13.0 284.0 4.0 0.0
1 Meki Bekele Mola BH 14.0 9.0 200.0 15.0 573.0 12.0 3.2 18.0 5.0 0.0
1 Between Abiyata and Shala BH 3.0 1.0 200.0 41.0 2708.0 480.0 64.0 959.0 106.0 0.0
1 Wondogenet BH 10.0 3.0 19.0 6.0 83.0 0.0 0.5 8.0 1.0 0.0
1 Meki Municipality BH 46.0 6.0 73.0 4.0 355.0 0.0 1.3 14.0 3.0 0.0
1 Shallo Farm Unit BH 15.0 4.0 235.0 10.0 610.0 0.0 10.0 24.0 10.0 0.0
1 Ngele Arsi (Military Camp) BH 17.0 3.0 15.0 4.0 90.0 0.0 0.5 5.7 11.0 0.0
1 Hitsanat Amba BH 2.0 1.0 270.0 16.0 670.0 0.0 12.0 8.5 10.0 0.0
1 Awassa Textile No. 8 BH 36.0 14.3 197.0 8.0 561.0 48.0 4.1 25.0 15.0 1.1
1 Awassa Tobacco Factory BH 16.0 4.8 27.1 3.0 170.8 1.3 10.0 5.0
1 Water Resources Compound BH 6.0 10.0 175.0 14.0 468.0 4.3 21.0 10.0
1 Awassa Unit 2 Farm BH 25.0 15.0 190.0 15.0 615.0 6.0 23.0
1 Wondogenet BH 10.0 3.0 19.0 16.0 83.0 0.5 8.0 1.0
1 Kersa Mission DW 10.0 3.0 5.0 1.0 34.0 0.0 0.0 16.0 1.0 0.0
1 Koffele DW 10.0 4.0 10.0 20.0 62.0 0.0 0.1 18.0 7.0 0.0
1 Butajira DW 61.0 14.0 38.0 12.0 334.0 0.0 0.1 23.0 7.0 0.0
1 Inseno DW 50.0 21.0 150.0 23.0 628.0 0.0 4.1 11.0 9.0 0.0
1 Dalocha DW 11.0 6.0 34.0 22.0 182.0 0.0 0.6 4.0 1.0 0.0
1 Gale School (south of Awassa) DW 42.0 17.0 150.0 15.0 145.0 18.0 5.8 57.0 29.0
1 Wondogenet DW 15.0 5.0 19.0 16.0 100.0 1.1 14.0 5.0
1 Tikurwuha DW 32.0 9.5 270.0 16.0 580.0 10.0 62.0 110.0
1 Awassa DW 15.0 2.0 200.0 23.0 523.0 18.0 10.1 36.0 10.0 0.0
1 Abura DW 23.0 4.0 50.0 6.0 237.0 0.0 2.6 4.0 3.0 0.0
1 Bulbula DW 29.0 6.0 130.0 12.0 460.0 0.0 4.5 23.0 7.0 0.0
1 Bulbula Shell Station DW 2.0 1.0 780.0 20.0 1460.0 36.0 37.0 160.0 220.0 81.0
1 Meki DW 39.0 5.0 37.0 7.0 223.0 0.0 1.0 11.0 20.0 0.0
1 Tikurwuha DW 32.0 9.5 270.0 16.0 580.0 0.0 10.0 62.0 110.0 0.0
1 Alemtena (Datamo) DW 9.0 2.0 345.0 16.0 675.0 0.0 15.2 86.0 60.0 25.0
1 Burkitu (west of Assela) CS 14.0 5.0 8.0 3.0 89.0 0.0 0.3 3.0 6.0 0.0
1 Teklehaimanot (Butajira) CS 41.0 15.0 23.0 12.0 244.0 0.0 0.6 7.0 8.0 0.0
1 Amanuel Tebel (west of Silte) CS 18.0 5.0 20.0 9.0 146.0 0.0 0.4 2.0 3.0 0.0
1 Chefa (west of Kela) CS 18.0 11.0 4.0 5.0 135.0 0.0 0.3 3.0 5.0 0.0
1 Alemtna (Bura Mariam) CS 1.0 1.0 32.0 5.0 96.0 3.0 14.0 0.4
1 Alemetena (Bole Boka) CS 28.0 5.0 38.0 13.0 211.0 4.0 24.0
1 Loke spring (August 1999) CS 9.0 3.0 37.0 4.4 139.0 1.0 4.0 11.0 7.3
1 Wondicho Gale CS 13.0 7.0 24.0 5.0 146.0 0.6 6.0 5.0
1 East of Wesha CS 6.0 3.0 11.0 3.9 2.1 18.1 1.9
1 Loke CS 12.0 3.9 7.3 0.8 5.0 5.3
1 Gewe (Mechmenakella) CS 18.0 7.0 15.0 6.0 146.0 0.0 0.4 5.0 3.0 0.0
1 Butajera CS 8.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 57.0 0.0 0.1 1.0 3.0 0.0
1 Burka Tebel TS 16.0 3.0 55.0 8.0 228.0 0.0 1.8 6.0 1.0 0.0
1 East of lake Shalla TS 1.0 1.0 2325.0 37.0 2964.0 264.0 78.0 1612.0 40.0 0.0
1 Wondo Genet (1971) TS 23.0 7.0 655.0 67.0 1530.0 0.0 2.0 128.0 166.0 0.0
1 Near Abaya swamp TS 8.0 2.0 225.0 23.0 600.0 0.0 5.2 22.0 2.0 0.0
1 Southwestern shore of Shalla TS 1.0 1.0 1300.0 80.0 2379.0 0.0 29.0 486.0 64.0
1 Oitu (Langano) TS 3.0 1.0 875.0 46.0 1586.0 0.0 51.0 342.0 19.0
1 Bricho (Aroresa) TS 1.0 1.0 575.0 21.0 445.0 0.0 12.0 305.0 394.0
1 Edu geyser (Langano) TS 4.5 0.1 750.0 27.2 720.0 0.0 16.5 570.0 360.0 3.4
1 Bele TS 35.1 4.0 670.0 48.1 7.4 153.9 184.9
1 Gara Quhe TS 13.0 1.0 390.0 32.0 885.0 14.6 12.0 68.0 91.0
1 SW of Shallo (Gens) TS 38.1 9.1 215.0 19.9 60.2 94.6
1 Wodogenet TS 21.0 9.1 197.9 53.2 40.4 4.3
1 Wondogenet TS 23.1 7.1 654.8 67.3 2.1 128.0 166.2
2 Debrezeit (Flour Mills) BH 54.0 34.0 19.0 14.0 380.0 0.0 0.6 9.0 13.0 6.0
2 Mojo Municipality BH 48.0 15.0 52.0 15.0 366.0 0.0 0.8 9.0 14.0 0.0
2 Mojo (UWSA) BH 47.0 11.0 69.7 13.2 341.6 18.0 0.8 14.2 0.0 0.9
2 Mojo BH 49.0 14.0 76.5 14.9 409.0 0.0 0.9 12.4 0.0 2.5
2 Denkore BH 11.2 5.8 162.5 15.8 445.0 0.0 2.5 11.4 48.1 0.0
2 Kaliti BH 45.7 20.0 36.0 4.9 317.2 0.0 0.5 14.0 0.0 0.0
2 Akaki Metal Works BH 71.0 23.3 79.9 7.4 439.0 0.0 0.0 28.4 35.0 0.8
2 Akaki Dewera BH 45.0 11.0 12.0 15.0 250.0 0.0 0.7 36.0 8.2 0.0
2 Addis Ababa (Coca Cola) BH 68.9 48.9 18.7 2.3 616.0 0.0 0.4 35.4 0.0 50.7
2 Addis Ababa (Dairy Farm) BH 35.0 5.8 19.6 1.8 170.8 0.0 0.2 9.9 0.0 0.0
2 Addia Ababa Hilton BH 16.0 3.9 864.0 64.8 2000.0 144.0 26.0 0.1 156.0 0.0
2 Addis Brewery BH 71.0 24.0 13.0 2.0 240.0 0.0 0.5 39.0 1.0 61.0
2 Shola Dairy Farm BH 21.0 4.0 7.0 2.0 ND 0.0 0.9 104.0 4.0 ND
2 US Embassy BH 12.0 4.9 71.0 3.0 112.0 24.0 0.0 14.0 0.0 0.9
2 Awash Wine Factory BH 35.3 9.7 23.8 2.0 145.0 0.0 0.0 11.3 0.0 10.8
 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113 109

Table 4 (continued)
Region Location Type Ca Mg Na K HCO3 CO3 F Cl SO4 NO3
2 Gebremariam School BH 16.8 1.2 7.0 44.0 0.9 Nil Nil
2 Filwuha Hotel BH 2.4 1.5 0.5 1870.0 29.3 40.0 3.5
2 Ghion Hotel BH 8.8 1.2 1.0 1610.0 21.5 55.0 2.6
2 St. Joseph School BH 0.8 6.4 0.5 1680.0 13.7 3.0 2.2
2 Cambo Asmera Garage BH 15.2 18.0 14.0 150.0 1.2 14.5 Nil
2 Genet Hotel BH 38.8 27.6 22.0 182.0 0.1 1.0 19.8
2 Ras Hotel BH 106.0 10.5 33.0 300.0 0.8 45.0 25.1
2 Ghandi Hospital BH 18.4 5.2 1.0 764.0 13.8 28.0 1.3
2 Addis Ababa University BH 62.0 11.3 6.0 188.0 0.1 20.0 0.9
2 Addis Ababa Soft Drinks BH 88.8 44.1 100.0 210.0 0.3 4.0 26.4
2 Army Hospital BH 12.8 3.5 285.0 40.0 0.3 Nil 2.8
2 Cgaratte Factory BH 12.8 1.7 35.0 46.0 0.1 Nil 5.7
2 Addis Ababa Winery BH 76.8 22.0 100.0 118.0 0.4 22.0 39.6
2 Abay Mesk Soft Drinks BH 57.6 15.1 18.5 182.0 0.9 16.5 13.2
2 Cement Factory BH 54.4 12.8 5.0 186.0 0.9 20.0 4.4
2 Total Nefas Silk BH 93.6 7.5 55.0 246.0 0.7 2.0 7.7
2 Addis Tyre Factory BH 70.4 9.9 78.5 226.0 0.7 26.2 2.6
2 Ethiopian Marble Industry BH 10.4 2.9 2.5 110.0 0.3 Nil 4.0
2 Stadium Total BH 8.4 2.6 6.5 28.0 0.2 Nil 3.1
2 General Winget School BH 25.6 12.2 0.1 126.0 0.1 Nil 3.1
2 Hilton Hotel BH 4.8 0.2 49.6 1720.0 28.8 54.7 3.5
2 Minstry of PublicWorks BH 36.8 14.2 10.5 146.0 0.2 Nil 23.8
2 Alert BH 56.8 12.1 15.0 186.0 0.5 Nil 16.2
2 Awash Tannary BH 60.8 10.4 70.0 212.0 0.7 15.0 4.8
2 Minelik School BH 140.0 32.6 82.5 310.0 0.4 37.0 41.8
2 Pilsner Beer Factory BH 92.8 34.6 60.0 230.0 0.3 16.5 74.4
2 Defence Industry BH 76.0 37.5 55.0 240.0 0.1 17.5 68.2
2 Ethiopian Thread Factory BH 72.0 9.5 85.0 258.0 0.5 4.0 6.2
2 Kaliti Military Camp BH 46.4 12.5 30.0 190.0 0.5 Nil 3.1
2 Ethiopian Metal Mill01 BH 71.2 25.0 25.0 320.0 0.6 20.0 2.7
2 Metal Production Kaliti BH 51.2 19.7 20.0 292.0 0.4 Nil 2.2
2 Meskerem Soft Drinks BH 228.0 71.1 253.0 320.0 0.2 45.0 176.0
2 Awash Winary BH 80.0 24.0 103.0 200.0 0.2 19.0 40.5
2 SEDE (Point 0A) BH 97.6 Nil 80.0 210.0 0.4 42.0 25.1
2 Misrak Flour and Oil Mills BH 60.8 8.6 4.5 208.0 0.5 Nil 5.7
2 Shola Dairy BH 14.4 3.4 160.0 50.0 0.7 Nil 2.2
2 Total Ras Hotel BH 84.0 11.0 12.5 224.0 0.5 31.0 13.2
2 Mekeneyesus Compond BH 58.4 8.6 16.5 182.0 0.7 13.5 3.3
2 ETHARSO01 BH 18.4 4.8 4.0 70.0 0.5 Nil 3.1
2 Menelik Hospital BH 152.0 2.4 12.5 50.0 0.3 Nil 2.6
2 Africa Hotel BH 96.0 36.0 67.5 242.0 0.4 16.0 75.0
2 Repi Soap Factory BH 35.2 10.1 2.0 140.0 0.2 Nil 7.9
2 Private (H.4, K.27) BH 92.0 22.6 175.0 180.0 0.3 36.0 53.0
2 Private (H.4, K.49) BH 204.0 46.6 220.0 240.0 0.6 26.0 209.0
2 Private (H.4, K.27) BH 93.6 18.2 160.0 164.0 0.7 33.0 49.3
2 Tikur Abay Shoe BH 43.2 13.4 70.0 130.0 5.0 22.0
2 Ras Biry Sefer BH 50.4 7.2 4.0 162.0 12.0 5.7
2 Cotton Mill BH 9.6 2.4 62.0 26.0 Nil 0.4
2 Royal mineral water BH 89.6 22.4 17.1 1.4 323.4 0.0 14.7 55.1
2 Royal mineral water BH 44.0 24.0 23.0 1.0 287.0 0.0 5.0 3.0
2 Royal mineral water BH 78.0 24.0 5.0 1.0 357.0 0.0 4.5 10.0
2 Royal mineral water BH 9.4 6.1 9.4 5.7 65.3 0.0 8.4 6.5
2 Dukem BH 41.0 15.0 29.0 11.0 290.0 0.0 0.7 6.0 5.0 0.0
2 Akaki DW 93.0 20.0 11.0 1.8 379.0 1.4 9.0 25.0
2 Holeta DW 30.0 9.0 7.0 2.0 57.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 57.0 0.0
2 Tulu Bolo DW 55.0 9.0 10.0 5.0 230.0 4.0 5.0
2 Teji DW 54.0 10.0 8.0 5.0 160.0 26.0 13.0
2 Tefki DW 120.0 27.0 40.0 5.0 179.0 204.0 87.0 63.0 204.0
2 Sebeta DW 41.0 8.5 31.0 6.5 60.0 74.0 71.0 17.0 74.0
2 Sebeta (Meka Bede) CS 22.0 3.0 8.0 2.9 110.0 2.1 5.0 0.3
2 Akaki Fanta CS 52.0 25.0 37.0 4.0 250.0 0.0 0.4 13.0 26.0 0.0
2 Ginchi (Goji Ambo) CS 38.9 8.0 14.0 1.0 170.0 0.1 7.0 5.0
2 Debre Birhan CS 8.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 45.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 5.0
2 Dukem CS 60.0 20.0 22.0 5.0 343.0 11.0 9.0 0.4
2 Wonji Bulbula CS 8.7 1.1 205.0 13.6 505.0 0.0 9.8 35.0 14.5 1.7
2 Addis Ababa Fliwuha TS 4.0 Nil 1182.0 60.0 2440.0 0.0 71.0 54.0
2 Wolliso (1962) TS 4.8 1.5 280.0 12.0 698.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 9.0 0.0
2 Ambo TS 78.6 52.5 153.0 38.7 1173.0 0.0 0.0 28.4 Nil 0.0
2 Sodere TS 12.0 7.0 670.0 33.0 1455.0 0.0 7.4 176.0 140.0 12.0
2 Gargadi TS 4.0 1.0 210.0 12.0 458.0 6.0 13.0 27.0 29.0 1.1
3 Methara BH 0.0 2.0 513.0 12.0 793.0 102.0 7.9 104.0 204.0 0.0
3 Methara BH 2.4 6.0 575.0 12.5 1177.0 30.0 8.3 146.0 139.0 0.0
3 Merti Farm (Maesso) BH 100.0 37.0 1.0 0.0 440.0 78.0 0.6 110.0 0.0 69.0
3 Melka Sede Agriculture BH 23.0 24.0 328.0 0.0 439.0 246.0 2.2 184.0 0.0 11.0
3 Asebot BH 232.0 47.0 92.0 0.0 260.0 195.0 0.3 85.0 0.0 511.0
3 Alaidegh BH 40.0 15.0 91.0 0.0 309.0 53.0 1.2 57.0 0.0 10.0
(continued on next page)
110 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113

Table 4 (continued)
Region Location Type Ca Mg Na K HCO3 CO3 F Cl SO4 NO3
3 Dubti (NWRC) BH 13.6 19.7 383.0 0.0 464.0 277.0 1.8 171.2 0.0 0.2
3 Dubti (Tendho Agriculture) BH 41.0 24.0 559.6 12.0 402.6 432.5 1.5 445.0 12.0 1.2
3 Dubti (NWRC) BH 6.4 3.4 352.0 0.0 585.6 131.0 5.6 112.0 0.0 0.0
3 Gewane (Cotton 01) BH 4.0 1.0 268.0 0.0 433.0 111.7 2.5 87.0 0.0 5.0
3 Adigala BH 35.0 68.0 275.0 0.0 390.0 268.0 0.3 262.0 0.0 0.0
3 Loggia BH 40.0 9.0 115.0 0.0 366.0 31.0 0.3 88.0 0.0 0.0
3 Deredawa BH 170.0 46.0 40.0 0.0 240.0 180.0 0.5 68.0 0.0 320.0
3 Asebe Teferi BH 144.0 12.0 154.0 Nil 0.5 124.0 55.5 0.0
3 Kersa Mission BH 7.0 2.0 16.0 7.0 73.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 10.0 0.0
3 Degaga BH 11.0 3.0 12.0 4.0 82.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 8.0 0.0
3 Diredawa Cement Factory BH 93.0 35.0 43.0 0.0 350.0 70.0 40.0 86.0 0.0 40.0
3 Diredawa Coca Cola BH 140.0 37.0 41.0 0.0 350.0 70.0 0.5 44.0 0.0 160.0
3 Diredawa Cement Plant BH 128.0 4.0 40.0 0.0 459.0 73.0 0.5 40.0 0.0 46.0
3 Diredawa Municipality BH 117.0 26.3 61.4 0.0 317.2 50.0 0.2 119.0 0.0 0.0
3 Diredawa Cement Plant* BH 128.0 4.0 40.0 0.0 459.0 73.0 0.5 40.0 0.0 46.0
3 Adaytu Eth.Roads Authority BH 27.0 14.0 141.0 8.0 342.0 0.0 27.0 0.0 0.0 27.0
3 Adigala DW 32.3 68.0 275.0 0.0 390.0 268.0 0.3 262.0 0.0 0.0
3 Adigala DW 38.0 10.0 35.0 0.0 160.0 11.0 0.3 74.0 0.0 0.0
3 Ayaha DW 300.0 138.0 950.0 0.0 134.0 34.0 5.0 3152.0 0.0 0.0
3 Ayasha DW 90.0 10.0 50.0 0.0 304.0 24.0 68.0 1.6 0.0 0.0
3 Aysha DW 63.0 25.0 263.0 0.0 276.0 348.0 1.0 155.0 0.0 0.0
3 Aysha DW 115.0 51.0 250.0 0.0 317.0 355.0 1.5 288.0 0.0 0.0
3 Deredawa DW 365.5 98.3 45.0 0.0 427.0 294.0 0.6 880.0 0.0 0.0
3 Dere dawa DW 120.0 48.0 52.0 0.0 470.0 110.0 0.6 72.0 0.0 49.0
3 Deredawa CS 90.0 18.0 15.0 0.0 354.0 23.0 0.2 5.0 0.0 13.0
3 Deredawa CS 48.0 25.0 11.0 0.0 261.0 9.0 0.3 18.0 0.0 2.0
3 Herta Alle TS 9.0 5.0 224.0 10.0 339.0 111.0 2.0 85.0 10.0 0.0
3 Hora (Alemaya) TS 44.0 26.0 630.0 0.0 1592.0 88.0 5.0 237.0 0.0 0.6
3 Meteka TS 16.0 4.0 1198.0 0.0 611.0 1086.0 6.0 680.0 0.0 0.0
3 Allallobed TS 25.0 0.8 545.0 17.0 119.0 710.0 0.7 260.0 17.0 0.0
3 Denbo TS 31.0 2.0 540.0 6.0 110.0 728.0 1.6 180.0 6.0 0.0
3 Spring near lake Afrera TS 278.0 61.0 895.0 0.0 122.0 1974.0 2.0 190.0 0.0 0.0
3 Deredawa TS 4.0 29.1 17.0 14.0 399.0 134.0 2.0 99.0 14.0 0.0
4 Mekele area BH 395 30 65 4.2 171 0.6 16 988 <0.04
4 Mekele area BH 178 18 32 3 248 0.43 20 306 <0.04
4 Mekele area BH 214 30 30 1.4 421 0.39 35 283 44.3
4 Mekele area BH 560 80 130 8 277 0.62 89 1482 <0.04
4 Mekele area BH 215 65 105 8 198 1.02 29 693 2.66
4 Mekele area BH 280 90 830 8.1 167 1.62 163 2267 1.33
4 Mekele area BH 116 12 21 1.4 304 0.34 12 72 20.38
4 Mekele area BH 148 7.3 20 1.3 403 0.15 13 39 21.7
4 Mekele area BH 110 10 14 2 309 0.25 15 17 20.85
4 Mekele area BH 115 17 16 1 376 0.29 17 20 19.05
4 Mekele area BH 275 25 50 4 183 0.49 19 683 <0.04
4 Mekele area BH 168 26 26 1 298 0.3 23 324 22.59
4 Mekele area BH 190 22 30 3 263 0.36 19 381 1.77
4 Mekele area BH 176 19 31 3 259 0.3 22 331 3.99
4 Mekele area BH 315 35 35 2 392 0.37 25 569 26.6
4 Mekele area BH 242 30 26 1.5 408 0.3 37 368 44.3
4 Nefas Mewcha BH 18.0 4.0 27.0 1.7 144.0 1.3 5.0 4.0 1.3
4 Nefas Mewcha BH 1.4 0.2 63.0 26.0 112.0 0.4 30.0 21.0 0.4
4 Debre Tabor BH 17.6 26.3 26.4 5.3 146.4 2.0 0.8 2.0 0.0 0.8
4 Dessie Kurkur BH 46.0 13.0 19.0 0.0 250.0 11.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0
4 Dessie Kidame Gebeya BH 52.0 14.0 22.5 0.0 261.0 26.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0
4 Dessie Dinewale BH 65.4 26.2 52.5 0.0 371.0 32.6 0.0 28.3 0.0 0.0
4 Dessie Hospital BH 80.0 14.0 22.0 0.0 409.0 7.1 0.0 Nil 0.0 0.0
4 Minjar Kombolcha BH 49.1 9.3 57.5 0.0 352.0 7.1 1.0 33.3 0.0 0.0
4 Kombolcha Textile Factory BH 10.0 1.0 65.0 0.0 1007.0 4.8 10.0 33.0 0.0 0.0
4 Kombolcha Textile Factory BH 10.0 65.0 0.0 194.0 9.0 0.4 3.0 0.0 5.0
4 Mekele area DW 630 140 320 5.1 427 0.47 277 1835 256.9
4 Mekele area DW 450 80 100 3 414 0.3 355 518 310
4 Mekele area DW 270 55 45 1.3 381 0.35 145 142 363.3
4 Wukro DW 228 188 43.7 1.2 388 1.96 1.5 42.6 3.1
4 Wkro area DW 156 538 7.8 0.8 504 0.99 6 140 Nil
4 Senkata DW 296 112 45.9 5.7 254 0.22 18 106 3.3
4 Senkata DW 244 116 51 3.6 389 0.25 4 37.7 Nil
4 Senkata DW 56 28 14.8 0.5 48 0.2 12 20.3 3.8
4 Hawzen DW 168 78 15 1.1 128 0.6 39 59.4 2.3
4 Hawzen DW 246 34 17.7 1.9 232 0.47 2.5 25.1 0.3
4 Mekele area CS 180 20 26 0.9 437 0.54 26 120 31.01
4 Mekele area CS 285 30 60 3.1 333 0.45 29 515 37.66
4 Mekele area CS 172 0.1 25 1.3 349.9 0.49 43.7 179.3 44.4

BH = borehole; DW = Hand-dug wells; CS = cold springs and TS = thermal springs.

Mesozoic carbonates of northern Ethiopian and in the valleys of more important (Hussien, 2000; Hagos, 2004). In terms of anions,
large rivers overlain by trap volcanics sulphate (SO4) becomes almost all highland waters are dominated by bicarbonate. In Afar
 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113
Fig. 8. Piper plots of groundwaters chemistry in the four selected regions and surrounding areas.
evaporate deposits enriched the water with chloride (Cl) and
sulphate.
The piper plots were used to classify the water types and corre-
late with the different physiographic regions. At least four main
water groups can be identified: (1) The rift soda springs, alkaline
deep boreholes located close to lakes. These waters plot not far
from the Na + K apex, indicating low Ca and Mg concentrations;
(2) The highland waters are almost exclusively Ca–Mg–HCO3 type
with very low salinity and higher hardness; (3) The escarpment
and rift floor mixed waters (mainly in the MER) are characterized
by intermediate salinity and mixed cations, and (4) The highly sal-
ine waters of the Afar Depression and the groundwaters in direct
contact with alkaline lakes in the ZSB are Na–HCO3 type with rel-
atively higher chloride content.
In terms of total dissolved solids (TDS), there is a clear zonation
following the direction of groundwater flow from the highlands to
the rift. This zonation corresponds with the spatial variations of re-
charge, climate and geological setting. Almost all highland surface
waters and groundwaters are fresh with TDS ranging from 50 to
1200 mg/l. Local exceptions with high TDS exist in the Akaki river
catchment (Addis Ababa area) and few urban centres where the
water is polluted by anthropogenic sources (Tale, 2000; Ale-
mayehu et al., 2005). High salinity exists in the dolerites of Mekele
111
area associated with Mesozoic sedimentary rocks interbedded
with thin gypsum beds (Hussien, 2000).
Springs and boreholes in the highlands are cold. The groundwa-
ter temperature is close to the ambient air temperature. The pH
varies within a narrow range, but there is a wide range in TDS
(20–2500 mg/l), especially in the eastern escarpment of central
and northern MER. Some springs are less mineralized and are
acidic (at times pH is as low as 5.5). The thermal waters (hot
springs and wells and fumaroles) in the MER have very high TDS,
with a peculiar Na–HCO3 type water. Isotopic studies indicate that
the major geothermal systems are dominated by deep groundwa-
ter circulating with little or no direct contact with the shallow
meteoric water (Craig et al., 1977; Panichi, 1993; Ayenew, 2003).
The pH of the rift groundwaters and non-saline lakes range from
7 to 9. However, deep thermal waters and alkaline lakes have val-
ues as high as 11.
Local irrigation and dairy farming have introduced high nitrate
(NO3) (up to 115 mg/l) in the groundwaters of the middle Awash
valley and in few urban centres (Dechassa, 1999; Gizaw, 2002).
In Addis Ababa and provincial towns groundwater is polluted with
coli bacteria, heavy metals and nitrate (Yitayew, 2004; Alemayehu
et al., 2005; Demlie et al., 2008). Trace metals were reported in the
thermal waters of ZSB (UNDP, 1973). In western and southern
112 T. Ayenew et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 52 (2008) 97–113
Ethiopia higher magnesium and iron are present. Natural emis-
sions of hydrogen sulphide from anaerobic environments in wet-
lands of central and northwestern highlands and Afar cause local
water quality problems.
The most popular water quality problem of the country is the high
fluoride (F) content in the MER exclusively confined in the volcanic
terrain covered with lacustrine deposits. Concentrations of fluoride
greater than the WHO guideline value (1.5 mg/l) was reported in
several volcanic regions of Ethiopia (Kloos and Teklehaimano,
1999). Concentrations of fluoride greater than 10 mg/l are found in
the groundwaters of the MER and local highland thermal waters
(Chernet et al., 2001). The highest fluoride (200–250 mg/l) was ob-
served Shala and Abiyata lakes (Ayenew, 2003). The most important
sources of fluoride are acidic volcanic rocks such as tuff, pumice and
obsidian and emanations from geothermal systems (Ashley and Bur-
ley, 1994; Peccerillo and Yigu, 1996; Chernet et al., 2001).
5. Conclusions
The Ethiopian volcanic terrain and associated quaternary
deposits represent complex aquifer systems where groundwater
occurrence and distribution is controlled by the geomorphological
architecture of the plateaux, escarpments and the rift valley. The
complex spatial and temporal distribution of the volcanic rocks,
their different intricate stratigraphic and structural relationships,
wide compositional variability, different degree of weathering
and topographic position complicate the hydrogeological behav-
iour of the volcanic aquifers and the hydrochemical signature.
The most important groundwater resources are confined in
fractured and weathered trap series volcanics interbedded with
paleosoils and river gravels in the highlands and fractured volca-
nics covered with thick quaternary sediments in the rift. The rift
and intermountain valley fills have the best aquifers as a result
of faulting and the occurrence of relatively permeable unconsoli-
dated sediments. On the contrary, the highland older trap series
volcanics have lower fracturing and higher clay filling and they,
therefore, have moderate to low productivity. The productivity in-
creases with depth. Locally impermeable volcanic ashes and paleo-
soils form multi-layer artesian aquifers.
The lateral continuity of aquifers and groundwater flow is dis-
rupted by major faults, which divert groundwater to flow parallel
and sub-parallel to the axis of the rift. However in large part of
the Awash basin and the MER the groundwater contours are sub-
dued replica of the topographic contours. Across the rift valley
the availability of high groundwater in the volcanics is linked to
the density and orientation of faults. The boundary faults play a
major role in the occurrence of springs and draining the highland
groundwater in to rift aquifers preferentially.
The mechanism of groundwater recharge and flow pattern is
quite complex. The single most important factor that controls the
groundwater flow continuity between the highlands and the rift
floor aquifers is the geological setup (faults and volcanic layering)
of the transitional escarpment. In the cases where the rift margin is
cross-cut by transverse faults the highland fresh waters are chan-
nelled into the rift valley and therefore recharge of the rift aquifers
is likely to be very high. In the case where the rift floor is bounded
by marginal grabens, the waters infiltrating in the highlands
emerge in the alluvial sediments or rejoin the mountain streams
rather than directly reaching the rift floor. Therefore, the compo-
nent of mountain recharge in the rift floor aquifers is reduced
and local infiltration from surface runoff and river channel losses
become the dominant recharge in the rift. In areas where the dis-
tance between the mountain and the rift valley floor is short and
the rocks making up the escarpment are permeable, there is no
clear distinction between the plateau type waters and deeper or
shallower aquifers of the rift floor suggesting clear connection be-
tween them.
The hydrochemical signature indicates wide spatial variation in
the ionic concentration (TDS) due to differences in rock–water
interactions related to lithology and groundwater residence time,
climate and geomorphological setting (Darling et al., 1996; Aye-
new, 1998). Generally the TDS increases towards the rift following
the regional groundwater flow directions from areas of high rain-
fall and low evaporation to the semi-arid rift floor. In contrast to
the rift, the highland waters are more homogeneous in their chem-
ical composition and are characterized by low TDS.
The highland waters are dominantly Ca–Mg bicarbonate type
except few waters with high sulphate where Mesozoic sedimen-
tary rocks are outcropping associated with Tertiary volcanics. The
rift valley waters are dominantly sodium-bicarbonate type with
high TDS and fluoride. The escarpment waters are mixed type with
moderate TDS. The high salinity and fluoride are the major water
quality problems including scattered urban anthropogenic
pollutions.
Future groundwater exploration and development demands a
good understanding of the complex hydrogeological conditions
with particular reference to the effect of geological structures in
the movement and occurrence of groundwater. This study has
clearly demonstrated the wide spatial variations of the aquifer
hydraulic parameters and water quality. It is believed that this
work will play a positive role in future groundwater resources
exploration and development, which at the moment is at its
infancy.
Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful to the Department of Applied
Geology of Ruher University of Bochum (Germany) for providing
the necessary facilities to conduct the research. Thanks also go to
the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation research fellowship grant
for the first Author. The German Academic Exchange Service
(DAAD) is acknowledged for a Ph.D. research grant to the second
author. We appreciate the Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage
Authority and the Mekele Water Supply Bureau for providing
water level data. While writing this manuscript, we have also
incorporated additional data from other scholars. We took great
care to acknowledge them by properly referring their work.
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