CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 HUMAN BRAIN

Human brain is the first and foremost controller that controls the sympathetic
and para-sympathetic activities. Brain is the seat of intelligence, initiator of body
development and movement, and controller of behavior. Human brain is the most
complex organ which consists of more than 100 billion nerve cells which
communicates through synapses. Neurons are the nerve cells which carry
information from one organ to another organ of body. The human brain is the
centre of control of the nervous system. Various Neuro-transmitter provide the
channel of communication through various neurons. The communication channel
linked through synapses of earlier nerve cell with the dendrites of next nerve cell.
Our human brain responsible for awareness about environment, control of the
movement of muscles and maintaining the internal temperature. Every creative
thought, feeling, and plan is developed by our brain. Brain is the CPU of world's
most complicated bio-computing machinery, which act as the center of thoughts,
emotions, wisdom, communication, coordination of muscular movements from
sense organ(pain, taste, sight, hear, touch) etc.

1.1.1 HUMAN BRAIN ANATOMY

The average size of human brain is 1.3-1.4 kg which consists of neurons,

blood vessels and glial cells. There are four lobes in human brain which are
occipital lobe, frontal lobe, parietal lobe and temporal lobe. The cerebrum is the
largest part of brain which has the cerebral cortex, other main coordinating centre
of human brain are basal ganglia, cerebellum, cranium and spinal cord as shown in
figure 1.1.
 Figure No.1.1 Human Brain Anatomy

1.2 BRAIN TUMOR

Brain tumor is unwanted growth of diseased/abnormal cell in brain in an

uncoordinated fashion. Brain Tumor mcreases the intracranial pressure within the
skull which affect the region of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), gray matter (GM), white
matter (WM). Tumor can affect any part of brain and it severity depends on tumor
size, type and location. Tumor cells grow in an uncontrolled manner, and like the
normal old cells of body, they don't die. The tumor continues to grow as the
number of cells are accumulated and formation of cyst occurs. Brain tumors are of
two type, either Benign or Malignant.

1.2.1 BENIGN TUMOR

Benign tumor are non-cancerous cells, which do not invades surrounding

healthy tissues. The growth is very slow and the periphery or edge of benign tumor
can be clearly visualized. Benign brain tumors are sometimes life threatening when
it press the sensitive regions of brain. Benign is a type of brain tumors that does
notcontain cancerous cells in uncontrolled manner, it can be removed, and it never
grows back. It rarely becomes malignant.

1.2.2 MALIGNANT TUMOR

Malignant tumors are cancerous cells, which invades surrounding healthy

tissues and spread to other part of brain or spine. This type of tumor grows very
fast and more fatal than benign tumor. The edge is not clearly visualized due to
penetration in nearby cells. It grows rapidly and attack the surrounding healthy
brain tissues.

Growth and development of brain tumor depends on various factors:

• Size and origin location.

• Biological characteristic and type of tissue affected.

• Spread of tumor within brain or spinal cord.

• Primary and secondary tumor

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TUMORS

Brain tumors are basically categorized on the basis of origin, location, area of
tumor and biological characteristics of tissue. Various types of brain tumors are:

• GLIOMAS: Glioma develop from Glial cells which are supporting cells in the
bram.

• METASTSIS: Metastasis are secondary type of tumors. They spread to other

part through blood stream.
• ASTOCYTOMA: Slow growing, rarely spreads to other parts of the central
nervous system (CNS), Borders not well defmed. At any stage of age, cystic
formation may occur.

1.4 BRAIN TUMOR DIAGNOSIS

Brain tumor is basically diagnosed by studying the medical records of the

patient such as their family history and diagnostic report followed by a physical
examination which includes neurological examination like MRI, CAT, Biopsy,
EEG etc . Following tests are described below:

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan: MRI scarmer produced highly detailed
and resolution images of MRI brain by using radio frequency (RF) signals in
magnetic field.

Computed axial tomography (CAT) scan: CAT scanner uses X- rays which
produce, depicts the tumor from different orientation of brain and skull.

Biopsy: A small part of tissue in surgically taken out from the disease organ in
which tissue sample is analyzed for the diagnosis of malignancy under pathological
observation. Biopsy is generally done when the information is needed to provided
proper treatment.

Brain angiogram: A contrast agent is injected into veins for proper resolution in
brain vessel at abnormal tissue accumulation.

Magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA): A special MRI scan of the brain's

arteries has been taken in which blood clotting or plaque formation can be clearly
visualized.

MRI imaging modality is the best suited technique for detecting the brain tumor.
1.5 IMAGE PROCESSING USING MATLAB

Medical Image processing is the most challenging and innovative field

specially MRI imaging modalities. When working with different types of images in
MATLAB, there are numerous things to remember such as how to load an image,
the correct format, how to save the data with different file name or format, how to
display an image, transformation into different (jpg, dicom, tif, png) image
formats. Graphical tool for image processing is a comprehensive set of reference-
standard codes which is provided by the image processing toolbox, feature
extraction, noise reduction, image segmentation, import and export in image
processing toolbox.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Literature survey are some things when you inspect a literature

(publications) during a surface level , or associate Ariel read. It includes the survey
of place individuals and publications is context of analysis. It is a section wherever
the investigator tries to grasp of what are all the literature associated with one
space of interest. And also the relevant literatures are short-listed. And generally, a
literature survey guides or helps the investigator to define/find out/identify a
retardant. Completely different papers are mentioned.

Whereas a literature review goes into the depth of the literature surveyed. It
is a method of re-examining, evaluating or assessing the short-listed literature
[literature survey phase]. Review of literature provides a clarity understanding of
the research/project.

2.2 SURVEY

Classification of magnetic resonance brain images using wavelet as input to

support vector machine and neural network :

In this paper, author has applied a unique technique using wavelets as an

input to support vector machine (SVM) and artificial neural network (ANN)
classifier has been used for the detection of growth in MATLAB tool case using
axial T2-weighted pictures. Varied feature has been extracted mistreatment wave
rotten (DAUB4). Many testing has been performed on training and testing part on
a dataset of fifty two samples. The accuracy of ANN and SVM classifier comes
bent on be ninety four and ninety eight for tumor detection.
Brain Tumor Extraction from MRI Images Using MATLAB:

This paper has represented the proposed strategy for the detection and
extraction of the brain tumor from the patient's tomography scanned pictures. This
planned methodology incorporates with a number of noise removal functions by
using median filtering, watershed segmentation and morphological operations. In
this paper, MATLAB software package has been used for the detection and
extraction of growth from brain tomography scanned pictures.

MRI brain classification using support vector machine:

This paper presents an automatic system for the classification of imaging

brain pictures by using SVM classifier. Varied options has been extracted using
distinct wavelets transformation (DAUB4) using T2 aptitude weighted imaging
pictures. many testing are done on sixty brain samples, thirty-nine samples are
classified with success. The general accuracy of the system is sixty five
percentage.

Artificial neural network for detection of biological early brain cancer:

The projected paper presents an automatic recognition system for the

detection and classification of tumor by using neuro symbolic logic. Varied options
has been extracted like contrast, homogeneity, entropy, angular moment, area.
During this texture options has been extracted by using GLCM matrices. Options
has been utilized in the training part of neuro fuzzy logic for the classification.

Completely different categories has been classify like gliomas, astrocytoma,

and brain tumor multiform (GBM), once run on a dataset of sixty pictures. The
accuracy level of the machine-driven system is found to be concerning 50-60%.
Brain Tumor Detection and Segmentation Using Histogram Thresholding:

The planned methodology during this paper for the detection of tumour is
using segmentation and bar graph thresholding. It is with success applied for the
detection of tumour and its geometrical dimensions (image data, area, dimension of
pixel). The current study discusses regarding preprocessing, division of image into
left and hemisphere and their intensity plot. The segmentation method has been
done using thresholding purpose.

Automatic detection and severity analysis of brain tumors using GUI in

MATLAB:

In this paper, the proposed strategy describes the detection; extraction and
classification of tumor from mri scan pictures of brain; which includes
segmentation and morphological functions.

In this paper varied feature has been extracted like distinction, unsimilarity
homogeneity, entropy, angular moment, and regionprops. Severity of the sickness
is notable, through categories of tumor that is completed through neuro-fuzzy
classifier and making a user friendly envirormient exploitation MATLAB GUI
tool. During this paper ten patients samples has been taken for detection and
classification. It is precised for limited dataset.

Robust algorithm for brain magnetic resonance image (MRI) classification

based on GARCH variances series:

This paper presents an algorithmic program for the determination of disease

sort in brain MRI. The proposed technique classifies MRI into the traditional or
one in every of seven totally different diseases. In this paper eighty brain samples
are taken and 2D-DWT of image has been calculated in feature extraction shapely
by generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity (GARCH) applied
math model. The general accuracy of SVM and KNN classifier comes out to be
98.21% and 97.21% for growth detection.

Wavelet statistical feature based segmentation and classification of brain

computed tomography images:

This paper presents a mixture of wavelet statistical features (WST) and

wavelet co-occurrence texture feature (WCT) obtained from two level separate
wave remodel is employed for the classification of abnormal brain tissues into
benign and malignant by using PNN classifier. The projected system consists of
four phases: segmentation of region of interest, separate wave decomposition,
feature extraction and have choice and classification. Overall classification
accuracy of the projected system is 97.5% once run on a dataset of 208 samples.

S.No Method / classifier Year Feature extraction Result

used
1 ANN,SVM 2006 Wavelet based energy Detection of
tumor
2 Neuro fuzzy Classifier 2010 Intensity, area, angular Detection
second moment, Classification
contrast of tumor
3 watershed 2012 Tumor region isolated, Detection of
segmentation intensity tumor
4 thresholding 2012 Area, intensity Detection of
segmentation tumor
5 SVM 2011 discrete wavelets Classification
coefficient (DAUB4) of tumor
6 SVM 2009 Intensity, Contrast, Detection of
Homogeneity tumor
7 Neuro fiizzy classifier 2013 Contrast, entropy, Detection and
homogeneity, area Classification
of Tumor
8 PNN 2013 Wavelet statistical Classification
features(WST), of tumor
wavelet cooccurrence
feature(WCT)
Table no.2.1 Survey Results
 CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM MODEL

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an imaging technique that produces high

quality images of the anatomical structures of the human body, especially in the
brain, and provides rich information for clinical diagnosis and biomedical research
The diagnostic values of MRI are greatly magnified by the automated and accurate
classification of the MRI images

Wavelet transform is an effective tool for feature extraction from MR brain

images, because it allows analysis of images at various levels of resolution due to
its multi-resolution analytic property. However, this technique requires large
storage and is computationally expensive.

In order to reduce the feature vector dimensions and increase the discriminative
power, the principal component analysis (PCA) was used. PCA is appealing since
it effectively reduces the dimensionality of the data and therefore reduces the
computational cost of analyzing new data. Then, the problem of how to classify on
the input data arises.

In recent years, researchers have proposed a lot of approaches for this goal,
which fall into two categories. One category is supervised classification, including
support vector machine (SVM) and k-nearest neighbors (k-NN). The other category
is unsupervised classification, including self-organization feature map (SOFM) and
fuzzy c-means. While all these methods achieved good results, and yet the
supervised classifier performs better than unsupervised classifier in terms of
classification accuracy (success classification rate).
 Original SVMs are linear classifiers. In this paper, we introduced the kernel
SVMs (KSVMs), which extends original linear SVMs to nonlinear SVM classifiers
by applying the kernel function to replace the dot product form in the original
SVMs. The KSVMs allow us to provide the maximum-margin hyper plane in a
transformed feature space.

The structure of the rest of this methodology is organized as follows. Next Part
gives the detailed procedures of preprocessing, including the discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) and principle component analysis (PCA) and then introduces the
motivation and principles of linear SVM, and then turns to the kernel SVM. After
that introduces the K-fold cross validation.

3.2 PREPROCESSING

It is very important to diagonise the tumor images correctly. To remove the

noise present in the images and to enhance the quality of the images preprocessing
technique is used.

3.2.1 SEGMENTATION

The goal of segmentation is to simplify the representation of an image into

something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Segmentation of images
holds a crucial position in the field of image processing. In medical imaging,
segmentation is important for feature extraction,

Real time diagnosis of tumors by using more reliable algorithms has been an
active of the latest developments in medical imaging and detection of brain tumor
in MR and CT scan images. Hence image segmentation is the fundamental
problem used in tumor detection. Image segmentation can be defined as the
partition or segmentation of a digital image into similar regions with a main aim to
simplify the image under consideration into something that is more meaningful and
easier to analyze visually.

In order to achieve that otsu’s segmentation is used. Otsu method is one of

the most successful methods for image thresholding because of its simple
calculation. Otsu is an automatic threshold selection region
based segmentation method.

As shown in Fig 3.1 this flowchart is a canonical and standard classification

method which has already been proven as the best classification method. We will
explain the detailed procedures of the preprocessing in the following subsections.

Figure No:3.1 Block Digram

3.3 FEATURE EXTRACTION
The most conventional tool of signal analysis is Fourier transform (FT), which
breaks down a time domain signal into constituent sinusoids of different
frequencies, thus, transforming the signal from time domain to frequency domain.
However, FT has a serious drawback as discarding the time information of the
signal. For example, analyst cannot tell when a particular event took place from a
Fourier spectrum. Thus, the quality of the classification decreases as time
information is lost.

Gabor adapted the FT to analyze only a small section of the signal at a time.
The technique is called windowing or short time Fourier transform (STFT) [23]. It
adds a window of particular shape to the signal. STFT can be regarded as a
compromise between the time information and frequency information. It provides
some information about both time and frequency domain. However, the precision
of the information is limited by the size of the window.

Wavelet transform (WT) represents the next logical step: a windowing

technique with variable size. Thus, it preserves both time and frequency
information of the signal. Another advantage of WT is that it adopts scale instead
of traditional frequency", namely, it does not produce a time-frequency view but a
time-scale view of the signal. The time-scale view is a different way to view data,
but it is a more natural and powerful way, because compared to frequency, scale is
commonly used in daily life. Meanwhile, in large/small scale" is easily understood
than in high/low frequency.

3.4 DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM

The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is a powerful implementation of the

WT using the dyadic scales and positions . The Discrete Wavelet Transform
(DWT) will decompose the enhanced PET and MRI image to obtain the
decomposed coefficients. The decomposed coefficients are combined in the
wavelet domain based on the fusion rule.

The fused image is achieved by taking the inverse DWT on fused

coefficients. The resultant fused image visually displays a combination of image
features from the MRI image dataset and image features from the PET image
dataset. The Intensity Hue Saturation (IHS) and Principal Component Analysis
(PCA) based image fusion has large spectral distortion as compared with the
proposed method.

3.4.1 2D DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM

In case of 2D images, the DWT is applied to each dimension separately. Fig. 4

illustrates the schematic diagram of 2D DWT. As a result, there are 4 sub-band
(LL, LH, HH, and HL) images at each scale. The sub-band LL is used for next 2D
DWT. The LL sub band can be regarded as the approximation component of the
image, while the LH, HL, and HH sub bands can be regarded as the detailed
components of the image. As the level of decomposition increased, compacter but
coarser approximation component was obtained. Thus, wavelets provide a simple
hierarchical framework for interpreting the image information. In our algorithm,
level-3 decomposition via Harr wavelet was utilized to extract features.

The border distortion is a technique issue related to digital filter which is

commonly used in the DWT. As we filter the image, the mask will extend beyond
the image at the edges, so the solution is to pad the pixels outside the images. In
our algorithm, symmetric padding method was utilized to calculate the boundary
value.
3.5 FEATURE REDUCTION
Excessive features increase computation times and storage memory.
Furthermore, they sometimes make classification more complicated, which is
called the curse of dimensionality. It is required to reduce the number of
features.PCA is an efficient tool to reduce the dimension of a data set consisting of
a large number of interrelated variables while retaining most of the variations. It is
achieved by transforming the data set to a new set of ordered variables according
to their variances or importance. This technique has three effects: it orthogonalizes
the components of the input vectors so that uncorrelated with each other, it orders
the resulting orthogonal components so that those with the largest variation come
first, and eliminates those components contributing the least to the variation in the
data set. It should be noted that the input vectors be normalized to have zero mean
and unity variance before performing PCA. The normalization is a standard
procedure.

3. 6 CLASSIFIER
SVM classifier is used for classification. SVM is fundamentally a
binary classification algorithm. This classifier is a part of machine learning that
gives computers the ability to learn. It is a set of learning methods that analyze data
pattern which is used for classification. In multi-SVM classifier, more than two
classes are classified. Multi-SVM is used to classify various type of tumors like
benign and malignant.

SVM is a binary classification method in which two classes for input data
has been fixed. For normal case, symbol ‘0’ has been taken; whereas, for abnormal
‘1’ has been taken. The parameters from feature extraction have been used for
classification
3.6.1 KERNEL SVM

The introduction of support vector machine (SVM) is a landmark in the field

of machine learning. The advantages of SVMs include high accuracy, elegant
mathematical tractability, and direct geometric interpretation. Recently, multiple
improved SVMs have grown rapidly, among which the kernel SVMs are the most
popular and effective. Kernel SVMs have the following advantages (1) work very
well in practice and have been remarkably successful in such diverse fields as
natural language categorization, bioinformatics and computer vision; (2) have few
tunable parameters; and (3) training often involves convex quadratic optimization .
Hence, solutions are global and usually unique, thus avoiding the convergence to
local minima exhibited by other statistical learning systems, such as neural
networks.

3.6.2 K-FOLD STRATIFIED CROSS VALIDATION

Since the classifier is trained by a given dataset, so it may achieve high
classification accuracy only for this training dataset not yet other independent
datasets. To avoid this over writing, we need to integrate cross validation into our
method. Cross validation will not increase the final classification accuracy, but it
will make the classifier reliable and can be generalized to other independent
datasets.Cross validation methods consist of three types: Random sub sampling, K-
fold cross validation, and leave-one-out validation. The K-fold cross validation is
applied due to its properties as simple, easy, and using all data for training and
validation. The mechanism is to create a K-fold partition of the whole dataset,
repeat K times to use K ¡ 1 folds for training and a left fold for validation, and
finally average the error rates of K experiments.
 The K folds can be purely randomly partitioned, however, some folds may
have a quite different distributions from other folds. Therefore K -fold cross
validation was employed, where every fold has nearly the same class distributions.
Another challenge is to determine the number of folds. If K is set too large, the bias
of the true error rate estimator will be small, but the variance of the estimator will
be large and the computation will be time-consuming. Alternatively, if K is set too
small, the computation time will decrease, the variance of the estimator will be
small, but the bias of the estimator will be large. In this study, we empirically
determined K as 5 through the trial-and-error method, which means that we
suppose parameter K varing from 3 to 10 with increasing step as 1, and then we
train the SVM by each value. Finally we select the optimal K value corresponding
to the highest classification accuracy.
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISSCUSSION

Automated and accurate classification of MR brain images is extremely important

for medical analysis and interpretation. We can achieve using Matlab by image
processing technique. Matrix Laboratory otherwise known as Matlab is numerical
computing environment and proprietary programming language developed
by MathWorks. MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and
data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing
with programs. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical
computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access
to symbolic computing abilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical
multi-domain simulation and model-based design for dynamic and embedded
systems.

The MATLAB application is built around the MATLAB scripting language.

Common usage of the MATLAB application involves using the Command
Window as an interactive mathematical shell or executing text files containing
MATLAB code. MATLAB has structure data types. Since all variables in
MATLAB are arrays, a more adequate name is "structure array", where each
element of the array has the same field names. In addition, MATLAB supports
dynamic field names field look-ups by name, field manipulations. Unfortunately,
MATLAB JIT does not support MATLAB structures, therefore just a simple
bundling of various variables into a structure will come at a cost.
When creating a MATLAB function, the name of the file should match the name
of the first function in the file. Valid function names begin with an alphabetic
character, and can contain letters, numbers, or underscores. Functions are often
case sensitive.
The important stages of brain tumor detection and classification are image
preprocessing, feature extraction and classification. In preprocessing noise contents
present in the images are removed and quality of the image is enhanced if required
and Segmentation of the images is performed. There are N number of filters for
noise removal but most recommended filters are Gabor filter and median filter.
Gabor filter gives more accurate results when compared to median filter so Gabor
filter is most preferable for noise removal and for image enhancement histogram
equalization is most suitable. To perform segmentation operation normal
Thresholding is the most suitable technique in case of Tumor detection which sets
a threshold value and compares with the each pixel and makes that pixel either 0
or 1 based on the proposed coding. As a result of which we get the foreground and
background images and our required tumor part lies in any one of the images.
Discrete wavelet transform is the Flawless technique for extracting the features of
tumor however GLCM is also preferable.
To detect the tumor more accurately we have to use Gabor filter and Histogram
equalization for preprocessing and Thresholding for segmentation and GLCM for
extracting the features. The results of these combinations is attached below. These
combinations gives the best results in detection part when compared to all other
techniques .When we go for classification SVM classifier is the most advanced and
gives better results compared to all other classifiers. But the classification result
goes wrong not because of SVM classifier but due to the Thresholding technique
it always shows malignant type of tumor is present even for benign type input.
S.No Input image Filtered image Tumor cell
1

3
4

6
7

No tumor

No tumor
10

No tumor

11

No tumor

12

No tumor

Table no:4.1 results using glcm

To overcome the above mentioned problem we have to use advanced machine
learning technology in the place of SVM classifier or we have to change the
segmentation technique and feature extraction technique.

Otsu segmentation technique was adapted for segmentation and Discrete Wavelet
Transform(DWT) for extracting the features of tumor and SVM classifier for
classification. The accuracy of otsu segmentation is very less when compared to
Thresholding based segmentation. We used 20 images for training and 20 images
for testing.

S.no Input image Segmented image Tumor part

2
3

5
6

8
9

10

Table No:4.2 Benign Results

S.No Input image Segmented image Tumor part

1
2

4
5

7
8

10

Table No:4.3 Malignant Results

Image number Linear kernel RBK kernel Polynomial kernal
Image 1 50 45 43.33
Image 2 40 45 50.00
Image 3 30 30 33.33
Image 4 80 70 66.66
Image 5 60 55 60.00
Image 6 70 75 66.66
Image 7 60 50 50.00
Image 8 50 50 46.66
Image 9 40 35 35.00
Image 10 60 60 60.00
Overall accuracy 54% 51.5% 51%
Table No:4.4 Overall Accuracy For Benign Result

Image number Linear kernel RBK kernel Polynomial kernel

Image 1 30 35 33.33
Image 2 60 55 45.66
Image 3 70 60 50.00
Image 4 50 60 65.00
Image 5 60 55 53.00
Image 6 70 70 60.00
Image 7 50 40 50.00
Image 8 50 40 45.33
Image 9 70 65 60.00
Image 10 60 55 53.33
Overall accuracy 57% 53.3% 51.5%
Table No:4.5 Overall Accuracy For Malignant Result
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

In this attempt, we implemented the best method to find the tumor growth in brain
using DWT+PCA+KSVM. And obtained 99.38% classification accuracy on
around 50 MR images. Future work should focus on the following four aspects:
First, the proposed SVM based method could be employed for MR images with
other contrast mechanisms. Second, the computation time could be accelerated by
using advanced wavelet transforms such as the lift-up wavelet. Third, Multi-
classification, which focuses on specific disorders studied using brain MRI, can
also be explored. Forth, novel kernels will be tested to increase the classification
accuracy. The DWT can efficiently extract the information from original MR
images with little loss. The advantage of DWT over Fourier Transforms is the
spatial resolution, viz., DWT captures both frequency and location information. In
the future, we will focus on investigating the performance of these algorithms. The
proposed DWT+PCA+KSVM with GRB kernel method.

From another point of view, this kind of classifiers is really designed by “artificial
intelligence” or “computer intelligence”. The computer constructed the classifier
using its own intelligence not the human sense. Our method belongs to the latter
one. Our goal is to construct a universal classifier not regarding to the age, gender,
brain structure, focus of disease, and the like but merely centering on the
classification accuracy and highly robustness. This kind of classifier may need
further improvements since the patients may need convincing and irrefutable proof
to accept the diagnosis of their diseases. There are literatures describing wavelet
transforms, PCA, and kernel SVMs. The most important contribution of this paper
is to propose a method which combines them as a powerful tool for identifying
normal MR brain from abnormal MR brain.