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42
Two-Phase Flow

42.1 Notation
42.2 Conservation Equations
Mass Conservation • Momentum Conservation • Energy
Conservation
42.3 Closure
Richard T. Lahey, Jr. 42.4 Two-Phase Instabilities
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 42.5 Conclusion

Multiphase flows occur in many cases of practical concern. In particular, important vapor/liquid and
solid/fluid two-phase flows may occur in thermal energy production and utilization, chemical and food
processing, environmental engineering, pharmaceutical manufacturing, petroleum production, and
waste incineration technologies.
This chapter summarizes the essential features of two-phase flow and focuses on the engineering
analysis of vapor/liquid systems. Readers interested in more in-depth treatment are referred to the work
of Lahey [1992] and Roco [1993].
Two-phase flows are inherently more complicated than single-phase flows because the phases may
separate and arrange themselves into distinct flow regimes. Moreover, the two phases normally do not
travel at the same velocity, nor, in some situations, even in the same direction. As a consequence,
important phenomena occur in two-phase flows that do not occur in single-phase flows.
The notation, conservation equations, and their associated closure relations will first be discussed.
Next, flooding will be considered, and then the conservation equations will be used to analyze some
situations of interest in two-phase flows.

42.1 Notation
The most important parameter that characterizes a two-phase flow is the so-called local volume fraction
of phase k, ak (x, t). This parameter is the time fraction that a probe at location x and time t will sense
phase k during a measurement time T. That is,

ak = Â Dt / T
i =1
i (42.1)

The global volume fraction of phase k is the integral of the local volume fraction over the cross-
sectional area (Axs) of the conduit:

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42-2 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

ak =
ÚÚ a da / A
Axs
k xs (42.2)

By convention, in vapor/liquid two-phase flows, the volume fraction of the vapor phase, av, is called the
void fraction, a.
Unlike single-phase flows, there are multiple velocities of interest in two-phase flows — in particular,
the superficial velocity,

jk = Qk / Axs (42.3)

and the phasic velocity,

uk = Qk / Ak = jk / a k (42.4)

Also, the two phases normally do not travel with the same velocity. Indeed, in vapor/liquid systems,
the vapor often travels faster than the liquid, giving rise to a local relative velocity (uR),

u R = u v - ul (42.5a)

or slip ratio (S),

S = u v / ul (42.5b)

The density of a two-phase mixture is given by

È ˘
r =Í r v dv ˙ /(Vl + Vv )
Í
ÍÎ
ÚÚÚ
Vl
rl dv +
ÚÚÚ
Vv
˙
˙˚
(42.6a)

Thus, from Equation (42.2),

r = rl (1 - a ) + r v a (42.6b)

42.2 Conservation Equations

Equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy are needed to describe a flowing two-
phase mixture. The appropriate one-dimensional, two-fluid (i.e., writing the conservation laws for each
phase separately), and mixture conservation equations are described in the following sections. Let us
consider the case of a vapor/liquid system, since this is the most complicated case.

Mass Conservation
For the vapor phase,

∂ ∂
[r a Axs ] + [r v a u v Axs ] = GAxs (42.7a)
∂t v ∂z

For the liquid phase,

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Two-Phase Flow 42-3

∂ ∂
[rl (1 - a )Axs ] + [rl (1 - a ) ul Axs ] = - GAxs (42.7b)
∂t ∂z

where G is the amount of liquid evaporated per unit volume per unit time.
Adding Equation (42.7a) and Equation (42.7b) together yields the one-dimensional mixture continuity
equation,

∂ ∂
[ r Axs ] + [GAxs ] = 0 (42.8)
∂t ∂z

where the mass flux is given by

D
G w / Axs = r v a u v + rl (1 - a ) ul (42.9)

Momentum Conservation
Let us now consider a typical flow regime in which the vapor phase does not wet the wall of the conduit.
For this case we have for the vapor phase,

È∂ ˘
1
gc
Í (r v a u v ) +
Î ∂ t A
1 ∂
xs ∂ z
(
rv a u v
2
)
Axs ˙
˚
(42.10a)
∂p g t P Gu
=- a - r v a sin q - i i + i
∂z g c Axs gc

Similarly, for the liquid phase,

È∂ ˘
1
gc
Í [rl (1 - a ) ul ] +
Î ∂ t A
1 ∂
xs ∂ z
[
rl (1 - a ) ul
2
]
Axs ˙
˚
(42.10b)
∂p g t w Pf t i Pi Gui
= -(1 - a ) - r (1 - a )sin q - + -
∂z gc l Axs Axs gc

where the velocity of the vapor/liquid interface, ui, the interfacial perimeter, Pi, and the interfacial shear
stress, ti, must be constituted to achieve closure [Lahey and Drew, 1992].
Adding Equation (42.10a) and Equation (42.10b) and allowing for the possibility of N local losses,
the one-dimensional mixture momentum equation can be written as

1 È∂G 1 ∂ ˘ ∂p g t w Pf
Í + (G 2 Axs / r¢ )˙ = - - r sin q -
gc Î ∂ t Axs ∂ z ˚ ∂z gc Axs
(42.11)
N
G 2 d(z - z i )Pf
- ÂK
i =1
i
2g c rl Axs
F(z )

where d(z ) is the Dirac delta function r¢ in a two-phase “density” given by:

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42-4 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

-1
2
È (1 - x )2 x ˘
r¢ = Í + ˙ (42.12)
ÍÎ rl (1 - a ) r v a ˙˚

and x is the flow quality. It should be noted that closure models for the wall shear, tw, will be discussed
subsequently.
It is interesting to note that one can rearrange Equation (42.11) into drift-flux form [Lahey and Moody,
1993]:

1 È∂G 1 ∂ Ê G 2 Axs ˆ ˘ ∂p g t w Pf
Í + Á ˜ ˙=- - r sin q -
gc ÍÎ ∂ t Axs ∂ z Ë r ¯ ˙˚ ∂z gc Axs

1 ∂ È Ê rl - r ˆ rl r v 2 ˘ N
G 2 d(z - z i )Pf
- ÍA
g c Axs ∂z ÍÎ xs ÁË r - r v ˜¯ r
Vg¢j ( ) ˙˙ + Â K i
2g c rl Axs
F(z ) (42.13)
˚ i =1

where, as will be discussed subsequently, Vgj¢ = Vgj + (C 0 - 1) j is the generalized drift velocity.

Energy Conservation
For the vapor phase,

∂ ∂
[r a ( e v - p / Jr v )Axs ] + [r v u v a Axs e v ]
∂t v ∂z

∂ a
= GAxse v i - pi Axs + qv¢¢¢a Axs - qv¢¢i Pi (42.14a)
∂t

For the liquid phase,

∂ ∂
[r (1 - a )( el - p / Jrl )Axs ] + [rl ul (1 - a )Axs a ]
∂t l ∂z

∂ a
= - GAxsel i + pi Axs + qw¢¢PH + qv¢¢¢(1 - a )Axs + ql¢¢i P (42.14b)
∂t

where:

2
uk gz sinq
ek D
= hk + + (42.15)
2g c J g cJ

As noted before, appropriate closure laws are needed for the specific phasic interfacial energy, eki, heat
fluxes, qki¢¢, the interfacial perimeter, Pi, and the volumetric heating rate, qk¢¢¢ [Lahey and Drew, 1992].
Also, it is interesting to note that the interfacial jump condition gives

G = (qv¢¢i - ql¢¢i )Pi / Axsh fg (42.16)

If we add Equation (42.14a) and Equation (42.14b), we obtain the mixture energy equation in the form

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Two-Phase Flow 42-5

∂
[r (1- a )( el - p / Jrl ) + r v a ( e v - p / Jr v )]Axs
∂t l

∂
+ [w e + w v e v ] = qw¢¢Axs + q ¢¢¢Axs (42.17)
∂t l l

42.3 Closure
In order to be able to evaluate the conservation equations that describe two-phase flow we must first
achieve closure by constituting all parameters in these equations in terms of their state variables.
In order to demonstrate the process, let us consider the mixture conservation equations, Equation
(42.8), Equation (42.13), and Equation (42.17).
We can use the Zuber–Findly drift-flux model to relate the void fraction to the superficial velocities:

jv
a = (42.18)
C 0 j + Vgj

where j D = jv + jl ,C 0 is the void concentration parameter, and Vgj is the so-called drift velocity. Both
of these drift-flux parameters are normally given by correlations that come from appropriate data [Chexal
and Lellouche, 1986].
The wall shear, tw, is given by

t w Pf fG 2 fl20
= (42.19)
Axs 2g c DH rl

2
where f10 is the two-phase friction pressure drop multiplier. It is just the ratio of the single-phase (liquid)
to the two-phase density,

fl20 = rl / r 2f (42.20)

For example, for homogeneous two-phase flow (in which the slip ratio, S, is unity) we have

v fg
fl20 = rl / rh = 1 + x (42.21)
vf

For slip flows, empirical correlations, such as that of Martinelli–Nelson, shown in Figure 42.1, are often used.
For local losses (e.g., orifices, spacers, etc.) it is normal practice to assume a homogeneous multiplier;
thus, as in Equation (42.21),

v fg
F = 1+ x (42.22)
vf

Figure 42.2 shows a typical pressure drop profile, which includes both local and distributed two-phase
losses.
One of the interesting features of two-phase flows is that countercurrent flows may occur, in which
the phases flow in different directions. In a vapor/liquid system this can lead to a countercurrent flow
limitation (CCFL) or flooding condition.

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42-6 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

1000
8
CONSTANT PRESSURE = 14.7 psia

 dz  2φ  dz 
0
6

 dp 
4

/
 dp 
MARTINELLI-NELSON, TWO-PHASE FRICTION MULTIPLIER: φ2 =

0
2 100

200
100
300
8
6 400
500
4 600
800
1000
2

1500
10
8 2000
6
2500
4

3000
2

1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
QUALITY, < x > (%)

FIGURE 42.1 Martinelli–Nelson two-phase friction multiplier for steam/water as a function of quality and pressure.

When flooding occurs in a vertical conduit, in which the liquid is flowing downward and the vapor
upward, the liquid downflow will be limited by excessive friction at the vapor/liquid interface. A popular
CCFL correlation is that of Wallis [1969],

1/2
(j ) + ( j )
1/2
* *
g f =C (42.23)

where the square root of the phasic Froude number is given by

jk rk1/2
jk* = (42.24)
[gDH (rl - r v )]1/2

This CCFL correlation is known to work well in small-diameter conduits.

For large-diameter conduits the Kutateladze CCFL correlation works much better:

1/2
K 1v/2 + K l = 1.79 (42.25)

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Two-Phase Flow 42-7

5 6
4 7
3 8
PRESSURE TAP
LOCATIONS 2 9
1 10

INLET OUTLET

∆p DUE TO THE ELBOW

ACTUAL PRESSURE
TRACE

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Z
MEASUREMENT STATION

FIGURE 42.2 Two-phase pressure drop in an elbow.

where

jk rk1/2
Kk = (42.26)
[sgg c (rl - r v )]1/4

A strategy for switching from one CCFL correlation to the other has been given by Henry et al. [1993]
for various size conduits.
Figure 42.3 shows that both Equation (42.23) and Equation (42.25) imply that there will be no liquid
downflow when the vapor upflow velocity (jv) is large enough (i.e., at or above point 4).
Let us now use the conservation equations to analyze some two-phase flow phenomena of interest.
For example, let us consider critical flow (i.e., the sonic discharge of a two-phase mixture).
For steady state conditions in which there are no local losses, Equation (42.11) can be expanded and
rearranged to yield, for choked flow conditions,

-G c2 dAxs g t w Pf
+ r +
dp g c Axs r¢ dx gc Axs
- = (42.27)
dz È G2 d Ê 1 ˆ˘
Í1 + c Á ˜˙
ÍÎ g c dp Ë r¢ ¯ ˙˚

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42-8 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

jg

(Gg > |Gf|)

3

2
CCFL FLOODING LINE
Gg = |Gf|
1

jf

FIGURE 42.3 Typical CCFL flooding locus.

Vanishing of the numerator determines where the choking plane will be (i.e., where the Mach number
is unity), whereas vanishing of the denominator defines the local critical mass flux as

1/2
È dp ˘
G c = Í- g c ˙ (42.28)
ÍÎ (
d 1 / r¢ ) ˙˚

In order to proceed, we must know the local properties and the slip ratio (S). It can be shown [Lahey
and Moody, 1993] that if the specific kinetic energy of the two-phase mixture is minimized we obtain
S = (rl / r v )1/3 . Moreover, if an isotropic thermodynamic process is assumed through a converging
nozzle, Figure 42.4 is obtained. This figure is very easy to use. For example, if the stagnation pressure
( p0) and enthalpy (h0) upstream of the nozzle are 1000 psia and 800 Btu/lbm, respectively, the critical
mass flux will be about Gc = 3995 lbm/sec-ft2.

42.4 Two-Phase Instabilities

It is also significant to note that important static and dynamic instabilities may occur in two-phase flows.
It can be shown [Lahey and Moody, 1993] that the criterion for the occurrence of an excursive instability is

∂(Dpsystem) ∂(Dpext )
> (42.29)
∂w ∂w

where the external (ext) pressure increase (Dpext) is normally due to a pump. Figure 42.5 shows that a
two-phase system having a positive displacement pump (case 1) and a centrifugal pump with a steep
pump/head curve (case 4) will be stable, whereas the cases of parallel channels (case 2) and a centrifugal
pump with a relatively flat pump/head curve (case 3) are unstable and have multiple operating points.
If the state variables in the mixture conservation equations are perturbed (i.e., linearized) about a
steady state,

∂j
dj( h(t )) D
= j(h(t )) - j 0 = dh (42.30)
∂h 0

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Two-Phase Flow 42-9

12,000

11,000 Po = 3206.2 Psia Critical Pressure

Po
MAXIMUM STEAM/WATER FLOW RATE, Gc (lbM /sec-ft 2)

10,000

=3
00
0
9000

Po
P o 600 400
=2 =2
=2
Po

P o 00

80
=2

0
8000

2
Po
SATURATED LIQUID

=1
Po
SATURATED VAPOR

Po
60
BOUNDARY

=1

=2
Po
7000 BOUNDARY

40

Po

00 00
=1
Po

0
20

18
=1

0
00
6000

0
P sia 0 0
P o o=
=

S
P

TA
9
5000

G
Po
Po

NA
80
=6

Po
=

TI
N

O
50

00

=
PR
0

70
4000 ES

0
Po

SU
RE
=
40
0
Po

3000
=
Po

3
=

00
20
0

2000 P
P o =1
o = 00
P 50
1000 o =2
5P
sia

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

STAGNATION ENTHALPY ho(Btu/lbM)

FIGURE 42.4 Maximum steam/water flow rate and local stagnation properties (Moody model).

and the resultant linear equations are combined and integrated in the axial (z) direction, then the so-
called characteristics equation of a boiling (or condensing) system becomes [Lahey and Podowski, 1989]:

d(Dp1j ) + d(Dp2j ) = 0 (42.31)

After Laplace-transforming Equation (42.31) — to convert it from the time domain to the frequency
domain — we can apply Nyquist’s stability technique to determine whether or not density-wave oscilla-
tions (DWO) are expected. Significantly, DWO are the most important and prevalent dynamic oscillations
that may occur in two-phase flows. For the parallel channel case shown schematically in Figure 42.6, we
see that the system is marginally stable (i.e., the Nyquist locus of d(Dp2j ) / d(Dp1j ) goes through the -1
point) and thus DWO are anticipated.
A stability map of boiling/condensing systems is often given in terms of the subcooling number (Nsub)
and the phase change number (Npch). A typical plot for a typical boiling water nuclear reactor (BWR/4)
is given in Figure 42.7. It can be seen that, as the inlet subcooling is increased at a given power-to-flow
ratio (i.e., for Npch fixed), the system may go in and out of DWO.

42.5 Conclusion
This chapter summarizes some of the methods used in the analysis of two-phase flows. The emphasis
has been on two-phase fluid mechanics, although phase change heat transfer is often also very important.

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42-10 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

0)
D(q′′ =
QUI
LI
POR

ALL
ALL VA
q′′ > 0
∆P

∆P (w)
∆P (w)
EXTERNAL
SYSTEM
(CASE-1)
2′

1 3 ∆P (w)
2 EXTERNAL
(CASE-2)
3′
∆P (w)
EXTERNAL
∆P (w) (CASE-3)
EXTERNAL
(CASE-4)

FIGURE 42.5 Excursive instability.

IMAG
3

1
1.26
ω – (RAD/S)
2.94
REAL
−3 −2 −1 4.2 0 1 2 3 0.0 4
0.84 2.52

−1

−2
0.42

−3

FIGURE 42.6 Nyquist plot for abnormal BWR/4 operating conditions (parallel channels).

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Two-Phase Flow 42-11

4
2

6
0.
0.

0.
=
=

=
>
>

>
Fr = 10−2 10−1 TO 10−4

e
e
<X
<X

e
<X
25

20
(ρf − ρg) (hf −hIN)

STABLE
15
ρg hfg

UNSTABLE

10
Nsub =

0
20 25 30 35 40 45
−
q′′ PH LH (ρf − ρg)
Npch =
GAx−s hfg ρg

FIGURE 42.7 Typical BWR/4 stability map (Kin = 27.8, Kexit = 0.14).

The literature associated with two-phase thermal hydraulics is vast; nevertheless, it is hoped that this
chapter will provide a useful road map to this literature.

Defining Terms
Critical flow — A condition in which the two-phase mixture is flowing at the local sonic velocity.
Density — The mass per unit volume of the material in question (r).
Enthalpy — The internal energy per unit volume plus the related flow work (h).
Flooding — A countercurrent flow limitation due to the resistance induced by cocurrent vapor/liquid
flow streams.
Flow area — The cross-sectional area through which the fluid flows (Axs).
Flow rate — The mass flowing per unit time (w).
Phase — The various phases of a fluid are solid, liquid, and gas.
Void fraction — The local volume fraction of the dispersed vapor phase.
Volumetric flow rate — The volume flowing per unit time of phase k (Qk).

Nomenclature

a = void fraction q ¢¢ = heat flux

d(z) = Dirac delta function q ¢¢¢ = volumetric heat generation rate
G = mass of vapor generated per unit Q = volumetric flow rate
volume per unit time S = slip ratio
q = angle from the horizontal plane uk = velocity of phase k
r = density w = flow rate
t = shear stress x = flow quality

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42-12 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Axs = cross-sectional area Subscripts

DH = hydraulic diameter c = critical
ek = specific total convected energy f = friction
f = Moody friction factor i = interface
gc = gravitational constant k = phase identification
G = mass flux l = liquid
jk = superficial velocity of phase k v = vapor
J = mechanical equivalent of heat w = wall
Kk = Kutateladze number of phase k 2f = two-phase
p = static pressure
P = perimeter
z = axial position

References
Chexal, B. and Lellouche, G. 1986. A Full Range Drift-Flux Correlation for Vertical Flows, Proc. Nat.
Heat Trans. Conf., 343–357.
Henry, C., Henry, R., Bankoff, S. G., and Lahey, R. T., Jr. 1993. Buoyantly-driven two-phase countercurrent
flow in liquid discharge from a vessel with an unvented gas space. J. Nucl. Eng. Design. 141(1 and
2):237–248.
Lahey, R. T., Jr., Ed. 1992. Boiling Heat Transfer — Modern Development and Advances, Elsevier, New York.
Lahey, R. T., Jr., and Drew, D. A. 1992. On the development of multidimensional two-fluid models for
vapor/liquid two-phase flows. J. Chem. Eng. Commun. 118:125–142.
Lahey, R. T., Jr., and Moody, F. J. 1993. The Thermal-Hydraulics of a Boiling Water Nuclear Reactor. ANS
Monograph. American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, IL.
Lahey, R. T., Jr., and Podowski, M. Z. 1989. On the analysis of instabilities in two-phase flows. Multiphase
Sci. Tech. 4:183–342.
Roco, M., Ed. 1993. Particulate Two-Phase Flow. Hemisphere, New York.
Wallis, G. B. 1969. One-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Further Information
Butterworth, D. and Hewitt, G. F. 1977. Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transfer, Harwell Series, Oxford
University Press.
Collier, J. G. 1972. Convective Boiling and Condensation, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Drew, D. A. and Passman, S. L. 1998. Theory of Multicomponent Fluids, Appl. Math. Sci.-135, Springer.
Ishii, M. 1975. Thermo-Fluid Dynamic Theory of Two-Phase Flow, Eyrolles, Paris.

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