1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition:

The road is a public road, especially the main road connecting two or more destinations. Any
interconnected set of highways can be differently labeled as highway system, highway network
or highway transport system. The history of road engineering gives us an idea of the roads of
ancient times. Roads in Rome They were built on a large scale and radiated in many directions,
helping them in military operations; therefore they are considered pioneers in road construction.

Modern roads in general follow the method of construction of Makada the use of bituminous
concrete and cement concrete are the most important developments. Various advanced and
economical building technologies are used. The development of new equipment helps in the
faster construction of roads. Many easily and locally available materials are tested in laboratories
and then introduced on roads to create economical and durable pavements.

The scope of the transport system has developed to a large extent. The population of the country
is growing every day. The lifestyle of people began to change. The need to travel to different
places at higher speeds has increased. This growing demand has led to the emergence of other
modes of transport, such as railways and by air. While the above development in the public
transport sector has taken place, the development of private transport has been much faster,
mainly because of its advantages, such as accessibility, confidentiality, flexibility, convenience
and comfort. This led to an increase in traffic, especially in the private transport network. Thus,
the available space was insufficient to meet the growing demand for traffic and congestion. In
addition, the chances of accidents have also increased. This led to increased attention to the
management of vehicles in order to optimally use the transport infrastructure. Various control
measures have been implemented, such as traffic signals, providing circular motion and medians,
limiting the vehicle speed in certain zones etc.

With the improvement of roads and effective control, more and more investments were made in
the road sector, especially after the world wars. These were large projects that require a lot of
investment. For optimal use of funds, you need to know the structure of the trip and the behavior
of the trip. This led to the emergence of transportation planning and demand management.

2. Modern Soil Stabilization Techniques

Stability of natural or native soil has been fulfilled for thousands of years. Mesopotamia and the
Romans separately found that the ability of ways to transfer movement can be improved by
mixing weak soils with a stabilizing agent, such as crushed calcareous stone or calcium. This
was the first chemical stabilization of weak soils to increase their bearing capacity. Successful
modern methods of soil stabilization are necessary to ensure adequate stability of the soil,
especially for weaker and wetter soils. It is widely accepted that the choice of cement for
cementing stabilizing agents and lime is based on an improvement in the plasticity index (P I) of
the primary soil type.

2.1 Stabilization with Cement CTB (Cement Treated Base)

According to the ATP (Portland Cement Association), CTB (Cement-Treated Base) provided an
economical, durable foundation for the sidewalk. These structures combine the soil and / or
aggregate with cement and water, which are compacted to a high density. The advantages of
stabilizing cement are:

 Stabilization of cement increases the strength and stiffness of the base material, which
reduces the deviation due to the load on the traffic. This delays surface problems, such as
fatigue, cracking and prolongation of the life of the pavement.
 Stabilization of cement provides uniform and strong support, which leads to a reduction
in stresses to the subclass. Testing indicates that a thinner layer stabilized with cement
can more effectively reduce stresses than a thicker uninstalled aggregate layer. This
reduces the destruction of the subclass, the formation of mountain wells and the rough
surface of the pavement.
 The base, stabilized with cement, has a high moisture resistance to retain water; this
supports a higher strength of the structure.
 Stabilization of cement reduces the probability of pumping small fractions.
 Cement stabilizes the base scattered loads and reduces the stress of the subclass.
2.2Composition and Construction

The mixture must consist of existing sub-classes, base and surface course materials and / or
imported soil aggregate, Portland cement and added water. The mixture should contain not less
than 4% of cement by volume of the pressed mixture, 1420 kg (94 lb) of cement, considered
being 1 cu. M (1 cubic feet).

At least 30 days prior to the commencement of the stabilizing operations, sufficient quantities of
soil and cement must be delivered to the Materials Division to determine the cement
requirements. The engineer will determine on the basis of laboratory tests the exact percentage of
cement that will be used. Samples of soil aggregate, cement and water should develop a
compressive strength of at least 2.7 M Pa (400 psi) in 7 days.
2.3Materials

The materials used shall comply with the following requirements.

a) Water

Water used in mixing or curing should be clean and free from harmful amounts of oil, salt or
other harmful substances. If the source of water is relatively shallow, it should be maintained at
such a depth, and the inlet is so closed to exclude grass, plant matter or other foreign matter.

b) Cement

Fly ash can be used as a partial replacement of cement. Spare quantities not exceeding 25% by
weight, Determined by trial serial studies using specific materials proposed for the project.
Mixtures with fly ash should meet the same requirements as mixtures without fly ash. All trial
lots required by this specification shall be performed by the Contractor, as observed by the
Engineer, and approved by the Materials Engineer. Fly ash is not allowed as a substitute for
high-strength or mixed cements. To stabilize in situ, fly ash and cement should be mixed to form
a homogeneous mixture before application to the roadway.

The use of cement, saved from used or discarded bags, is not allowed. The cement deposited
must be properly protected. Any loss of quality that occurs during the storage period will cause a
deviation.

If the proposed cement exhibits unstable field behavior associated with the mixing and
placement of the mixture, or during initial or final recruitment, the contractor immediately
without notice from the Engineer ceases to use this Cement brand and the finishing material of
such properties to ensure the quality work corresponding to these Requirements.
3.Construction Requirements

The operations should be such as to prevent the drift of cement or dust from the right side.

3.1 Preparation of the Roadbed

Prior to other construction works, the existing roadway, including the shoulders, must be
adjusted and drawn up in accordance with the typical cross-section of the completed roadway
and compacted to a sufficient density to prevent the track during normal operation of the
construction equipment. All soft areas should be adjusted to ensure uniform stability.

3.2 Pulverizing

After forming and compacting the roadway, the material to be treated is subjected to scarification
and spraying prior to application of the cement. Pulverization should continue during mixing
operations until at least 80% by weight of the material, except for the coarse aggregate, passes a
4.75 mm sieve (No. 4). The material retained on the 75 mm sieve and other unsuitable material
must be removed.

3.3 Application and Mixing of Cement

The use and mixing of cement with aggregate material must be carried out in one of the
following ways:

3.3.1 Travel Plant Method

The specified amount of cement should be evenly applied to the material being processed and
should not exceed that which can be processed on the same working day. When bulk cement is
used, the equipment must process and distribute the cement in the required quantity. The
moisture content of the material to be treated must be low enough to ensure a uniform and close
mixture of aggregate and cement. Mixing should be carried out using a self-propelled or self-
propelled machine equipped with a mechanical rotor or other approved type of mixer that will
thoroughly mix the unit with cement. Mixing equipment should be designed in such a way as to
provide positive depth control.
Care should be taken to prevent mixing of cement below the specified depth. Machines intended
for processing are less than the total width of the base in one pass, should work so that the total
width of the base can be sealed and finished in one operation. Water should be evenly added and
incorporated into the mixture. Equipment for water supply and distribution should provide the
full required amount of water for the treated area within 3 hours. If more than one mixer pass is
required, at least one pass must be made before adding water. Mixing should continue after all
water has been applied until a homogeneous mixture of aggregate, cement and water is obtained
for the full depth of the course.

The combined and cement mixture, which has not been compacted and remains undisturbed for
more than 30 minutes, must be reworked. In the case of rain, which adds excessive moisture to
unbound materials, the entire section should be reworked. If the Contractor cannot finish the site
on the same day, the site will be reconstructed, and the cost equal to 50% of the initial amount of
cement added to the mixture is free of charge for the Department.

3.3.2 Central Plant Method

When a central plant is used, the soil aggregate, cement and water must be mixed in a mops mill
either of a serial or continuous type of flow. The plant must be equipped with feeding and
measuring devices that will add soil aggregate, cement and water to the mixer in exactly the
proportional quantities determined in the laboratory design. The aggregate and cement must be
mixed in a dry state to prevent the formation of cement balls when adding water.

Mixing should continue until a homogeneous mixture of aggregate, cement and water is
obtained. The mixture is pushed to the carriageway in trucks equipped with protective caps.
Immediately before the spread of the mixture, the subclass or foundation course should be
moistened and left moist, but not excessively wet until they are covered with the mixture. The
mixture should be placed on the roadway in a homogeneous layer with the help of an approved
spreader or spreaders.

Between the mixing time and the beginning of compaction between the spacing between the
spreaders and not more than 60 minutes should pass no more than 60 minutes. The layer should
be uniform in depth and in such quantity that the filled base corresponds to the required class and
cross-section. The prohibition of dumping of the mixture into piles or rolls is not permitted.

3.3.3 Compaction and Surface finish

The moisture content of the mixture during compaction should not exceed ± 5% of the optimum
moisture content. The surface of the treated roadway must be changed to the required lines,
grades and cross section after the mixture is consolidated. It should be slightly drilled to loosen
any prints left by the sealing or molding equipment and carefully rolled.

The work of final rolling should include the use of pneumatic fatigue rollers. Rolling should be
carried out in such a way as to provide a smooth, tightly knitting surface free from cracks, ridges
or loose materials, and in accordance with the crown, mark and line shown on the plans.

Density, surface seal and finish should not exceed two hours.
If necessary, water is added during the finishing operation to maintain the mixture with the
proper moisture content to secure the desired surface. Areas that are inaccessible to rollers or
finishing and molding equipment must be carefully compacted to the required density by other
approved sealing methods and be shaped and finished as specified.

3.3.4 Joints

Once the final compaction and finish of the section is completed, the base must be cut
perpendicular to the center line to the point at which uniform cement content with a proper
density is achieved and where the vertical surface corresponds to the typical section shown on
the plans. When the mixture method is used, the heading must be placed on the vertical surface
of the finished section and securely fixed in place.

This header should be left in place until all mixing operations in the adjacent section have been
completed, after which the header should be deleted and the trench covered with treated material.
This material should be sealed in such a way that a well sealed joint is formed and a smooth
riding surface is obtained.
As an alternative to using the header, the next day operation can be started by cutting the
previously traversed course in the volume necessary to obtain a uniform grade and compaction.

3.3.5 Surface Test

The finished surface of the treated base course must correspond to the general surface provided
by the plans. It should not vary by more than 6 mm (1/4 inch) from a 3-meter (10 ‘) ruler
attached to a surface parallel to the center line of the carriageway, and not more than 12 mm (½
“) from the template corresponding to the cross Section , As shown in the plans, and the excess
material must be disposed of in accordance with the instructions.

3.3.6 Protection and Cover

Immediately after completion of rolling and molding, the surface of the treated base course
should be covered with a protective coating of asphalt to prevent loss of moisture during the
curing period and serve as the main ground for subsequent wearing. Asphalt must meet the
requirements listed in this document and should be applied with an approved pressure distributor
at a rate of 0.4-1.1 l / sq. M. M to ensure complete coverage without excessive drainage.

The actual speed of application will be determined by the Engineer. When using emulsified
asphalt before application, dilute with an equal amount of water. During the application, the
substrate should be in a moist state. The protective coating of asphalt must be maintained until a
wear-resistant surface is installed. If the condition of the protective coating is satisfactory, no
additional base coat will be required during the placement of the wear-resistant surface.
Furnishing and placement of asphalt will not be paid separately, but full compensation, therefore,
will be considered included in the price of the unit price for processing the cement base course.

The finished parts of the carriageway adjacent to the construction, which are moved by the
equipment used in the construction of the adjacent section, must be protected by means
satisfactory to the Engineer. If the primer is used on fresh grounds, straw, hay, construction
paper or similar material must be placed underground so that the coating can be removed without
damaging the substrate.
4. Stabilization with Bitumen

The main principles of bitumen stabilization are water tightness and bonding. Thanks to water
tightness, it is possible to preserve the inherent strength and other properties of the soil. In the
case of the merging of fewer soils, binding is also important. As a rule, both soil and watertight
actions are applied to the soil.

In granular soil, coarse grains can be individually coated and glued with a thin film of
bituminous materials. But in fine-grained soils, bituminous material mucks voids between small
clods of soil, thus waterproofing of compacted bitumen soil.

The mechanics of stabilizing asphalt soil are discussed on the basis of the main four factors for
any given soil material: (1) soil condition, (2) asphalt material, (3) mixing and (4) compaction
and curing.

The method of bitumen stabilization of soils is presented, which is related to soils showing
appreciable degrees of cohesion when wet and which can be stabilized on the principle of
waterproofing. This method is based on the theory that soil, water and bituminous material,
including asphalt, can be placed in such independent relative positions in the compacted mass of
the mixture so that a particular system exists or tends to predominate. The system consists
mainly of soil-water mixtures that are waterproofed with bituminous films that are retained or
absorbed on their surfaces. Waterproofing stabilization can be performed with: (1) relatively
small amounts of bitumen, (2) minimum mixer operating time and time, (3) using economies
derived from the intermediate moisture content in the soil during mixing and compaction, and (4)
Fuller The use of soils on site is due to the greater range of soils that can be successfully treated.
Bitumen stabilization of the soil with the use of additional impurities was investigated using
portland cement, lime and aqueous solutions of certain salts of heavy metals. The data presented
indicate that soil stabilization with cement materials consists of two separable and
distinguishable functions, one is a change in the nature of the soil, reducing the sensitivity of the
soil to physical changes caused by water, and the other is cementation of the changed soil
particles into a Waterproof Coherent Mass. The first function can be obtained by small amounts
of cement, and the second by bitumen, which gives a double or composite form of stabilization,
which has high strength, flexibility and high resistance to water and temperature. These
principles were applied in two processes: one – pre-treatment of the soil with cement, which
included mixing, wetting, curing and repulsifying, while the other method consisted of mixing in
succession the materials of soil, cement, water and bitumen, Forming a mixture capable at once
The same lay and compact. The effects of various types of cement on the changes caused in the
soil were discussed. The nature of the reactions caused in the soil by both cement and lime was
discussed. The effectiveness of lime as an impurity material for bituminous stabilization has been
studied. The economic usability of the use of cement and lime as additives for bituminous
stabilization was discussed with attention to the soil dilution method by the aggregate as an
alternative.

5. New Techniques

5.1 Asphalt Chip Seals

Chip seals are used in a three-component process. Asphalt-concrete binder is first sprayed onto
the sidewalk. This is immediately followed by the use of rock powders. Finally, the stones are
pressed into an asphalt binder using a heavy roller. This process is more suitable for use on roads
than in car parks. The service life is usually 5-7 years. The road takes on more color of the rock
used in the chip layer because it does not mix with the asphalt binder, so using a lighter filler
here can have a big difference in cooling the road surface.

5.2 Asphalt Emulsion Sealcoats

Emulsion seals are familiar pre-mixed products, often found in car park parking centers or on
driveways. They consist of a small aggregate (of a small size) in an emulsion (suspended in
water) with an asphalt binder. Emulsion seals are applied over existing pavements to compact
small cracks and protect the surface. When used correctly, they should last from 3 to 5 years.
These products are usually black, but sometimes they are made in gray or tan with the addition of
zinc oxide, although it can cost a little more.
5.3 Asphalt Slurry Seals

Slurry seals combine an asphalt emulsion with a graded aggregate (rocks of special, even sizes).
Then this mixture is applied to the existing pavement using a squeegee-shaped resistance. It is
expected that the slurry will last from 3 to 5 years. Like the emulsion seal, slime seals are usually
black, but can be made gray or tan with the addition of zinc oxide.

5.4 Asphalt Surface Coatings

Asphalt coatings are painted or sprayed directly over clean asphalt. These coatings are
decorative, and also serve to protect the asphalt under it. They come in different colors, but the
lightest colors have the highest solar reflectance and remain the steepest.

6.Pavement Texturing

Cover texturing is a process that uses standard asphalt to create a decorative sidewalk in various
colors and patterns. These pavements are used in street pavement, sedative movements,
pedestrian areas, median and boulevards, car parks, playgrounds and other applications. These
sidewalks are less labor intensive for installation, with the added benefit of no joints, where
water can penetrate, and weeds can grow. The construction process is to first lay the asphalt,
compact it into a patterned shape, and then finish it with a polymerized cement coating. The
resulting coating can withstand extreme weather and transport loads, combining the strength of
concrete with the flexibility of asphalt. Choosing a lighter coating is necessary to make the
surface more reflective and keep it cooler.

6.1 Roller Compacted Concrete and Soil-Cement Pavement

Roller compacted concrete (RCC) combines cement with natural or graded aggregate to create a
sidewalk suitable for heavy loads at low speeds, such as warehouses or taxiways at the airport.
Soil-cement pavements combine cement with sand or alluvium to construct a road surface
suitable for use at low speeds, in small volumes, such as hiking trails and bike paths. Both RCC
and primer-cement coatings have a natural appearance, acquiring the color of added aggregate or
sand. Choosing lighter colors can lead to cooling the sidewalk.
6.2 White-Topping

This is a method of covering existing asphalt covering with a layer of concrete. A traditional
white top with concrete added a layer of concrete 4 to 8 inches thick over the existing asphalt
base. The new fiber-reinforced concrete mix, called ultra-fine white glaze, means that now you
only need to use a 2-4 inch concrete pad to withstand normal loads on residential and low-
volume roads. Special mixtures with a higher cement content can also be used on surfaces that
need to be cured and ready for movement within 24 hours.

The process of building the white top consists of four stages: 1) drilling of existing asphalt to
determine its depth, type and condition; 2) preparing the road surface with water or abrasive
blasting; or grinding and cleaning; 3) placing concrete; and 4) decorating and texturing the
surface; Also curing and sawing of its joints. The correct distance between joints is critical to
controlling the cracking of the concrete surface.

Concrete pavements have a longer service life of 1.5 to 2 times than asphalt pavements. Concrete
coatings, naturally, are light gray and do not need further illumination. Concrete pavements can
be periodically applied under pressure to remove dirt and stains and to preserve its reflective
properties.

6.3 Prestressed Concrete Pavement

The prestressing technique has been applied to road surfaces in recent years. The prestressed
pavement can be constructed with a continuous length of up to 120 m without joints. Eliminating
joints without cracking in the sidewalk can be considered beneficial given the maintenance
problems associated with joints. To ensure higher loads, there is an obvious tendency to increase
the thickness. It can be assumed that an increase in thickness leads to a large temperature drop in
the plate, as well as to greater resistance to friction. Therefore, a thick plate is undesirable and
expensive. By providing a residual compressive stress on the plate using tendons, etc. It is
possible to completely neutralize the total tensile stress and thus the same specific thickness of
the prestressed concrete coating can support heavier loads than the concrete coating and can be
constructed Longer without joints.
Following are few observations for the design:

 Length: A length up to about 120 m can be prestressed for the pavement.

 Width: A width of 3.6 m for prestressed pavement is desirable and a longitudinal a joint
therefore should be provided.
 Thickness: Because of the need to provide a required cover for tendons, the minimum
recommended thickness is 15 cm.
 Stress magnitude: A minimum value of 22 kg/cm2 of prestress is recommended for 120
m long prestressed pavement slabs. A transverse prestress if required should be of 3 to 4
kg/cm2

The pre-tension is applied either by pre-tensioning, or by tension. For the road surface, a post-
tension system was used. In most systems, a wire of 7.0 mm in diameter is used with a tensile
strength of 142-173 kg / cm2.

The construction of a prestressed concrete pavement is a difficult job and needs a qualified team.
Because of the long length of the tendons, it stores a large amount of energy, and any anchor
failure can be very serious.
7. SOIL STABILIZATION

Soil stabilization is the permanent physical and chemical alteration of soils to enhance their
physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the
shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the load-bearing capacity of a sub-grade to
support pavements and foundations. Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-grade
materials from expansive clays to granular materials. Stabilization can be achieved with a variety
of chemical additives including lime, fly ash, and Portland cement. Proper design and testing is
an important component of any stabilization project. This allows for the establishment of design
criteria, and determination of the proper chemical additive and admixture rate that achieves the
desired engineering properties. Stabilization process benefits can include: Higher resistance (R)
values, Reduction in plasticity, Lower permeability, Reduction of pavement thickness,
Elimination of excavation - material hauling/handling - and base importation, Aids compaction,
Provides "all-weather" access onto and within projects sites. Another form of soil treatment
closely related to soil stabilization is soil modification, sometimes referred to as "mud drying" or
soil conditioning. Although some stabilization inherently occurs in soil modification, the
distinction is that soil modification is merely a means to reduce the moisture content of a soil to
expedite construction, whereas stabilization can substantially increase the shear strength of a
material such that it can be incorporated into the project's structural design. The determining
factors associated with soil modification vs soil stabilization may be the existing moisture
content, the end use of the soil structure and ultimately the cost benefit provided. Equipment for
the stabilization and modification processes include: chemical additive spreaders, soil mixers
(reclaimers), portable pneumatic storage containers, water trucks, deep lift compactors, motor
graders.
7.1 FLOWABLE FILL

Fly ash is also used as a component in the production of flowable fill (also called controlled low
strength material, or CLSM), which is used as self-leveling, self-compact backfill material in lieu
of compacted earth or granular fill. The strength of flowable fill mixes can range from 50 to
1,200 lbf/in² (0.3 to 8.3 MPa), depending on the design requirements of the project in question.
Flowable fill includes mixtures of Portland cement and filler material, and can contain mineral
admixtures. Fly ash can replace either the Portland cement or fine aggregate (in most cases, river
sand) as a filler material. High fly ash content mixes contain nearly all fly ash, with a small
percentage of Portland cement and enough water to make the mix flowable. Low fly ash content
mixes contain a high percentage of filler material, and a low percentage of fly ash, Portland
cement, and water. Class F fly ash is best suited for high fly ash content mixes, whereas Class C
fly ash is almost always used in low fly ash content mixes.

7.2 Asphalt concrete

Asphalt concrete is a composite material consisting of an asphalt binder and mineral aggregate
commonly used to surface roads. Both Class F and Class C fly ash can typically be used as a
mineral filler to fill the voids and provide contact points between larger aggregate particles in
asphalt concrete mixes. This application is used in conjunction, or as a replacement for, other
binders (such as Portland cement or hydrated lime). For use in asphalt pavement, the fly ash must
meet mineral filler specifications outlined in ASTM D242. The hydrophobic nature of fly ash
gives pavements better resistance to stripping. Fly ash has also been shown to increase the
stiffness of the asphalt matrix, improving rutting resistance and increasing mix durability.

7.3 Geopolymers

More recently, fly ash has been used as a component in geopolymers, where the reactivity of the
fly ash glasses can be used to create a binder similar to a hydrated Portland cement in
appearance, but with potentially superior properties, including reduced CO2 emissions,
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil, when
there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.
A basement wall is thus one kind of retaining wall. But the term usually refers to a cantilever
retaining wall, which is a freestanding structure without lateral support at its top.[2] These are
cantilevered from a footing and rise above the grade on one side to retain a higher level grade on
the opposite side. The walls must resist the lateral pressures generated by loose soils or, in some
cases, water pressures.

Every retaining wall supports a "wedge" of soil. The wedge is defined as the soil which extends
beyond the failure plane of the soil type present at the wall site, and can be calculated once the
soil friction angle is known. As the setback of the wall increases, the size of the sliding wedge is
reduced. This reduction lowers the pressure on the retaining wall.

The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to
recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained material to move downslope due to
gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on the angle of internal
friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained material, as well as the direction and
magnitude of movement the retaining structure undergoes.

Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall and – in homogenous ground – increase
proportionally to a maximum value at the lowest depth. Earth pressures will push the wall
forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is
not dissipated by a drainage system causes hydrostatic pressure on the wall. The total pressure or
thrust may be assumed to act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of
uniform height.
Unless the wall is designed to retain water, It is important to have proper drainage behind the
wall in order to limit the pressure to the wall's design value. Drainage materials will reduce or
eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and improve the stability of the material behind the wall.
Drystone retaining walls are normally self-draining.

As an example, the International Building Code requires retaining walls to be designed to ensure
stability against overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water uplift; and that
they be designed for a safety factor of 1.5 against lateral sliding and overturning.

Types

Various types of retaining walls

7.5 Gravity

Construction types of gravity retaining walls

Gravity walls depend on their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy material) to resist pressure
from behind and may have a 'batter' setback to improve stability by leaning back toward the
retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are often made from mortarless stone or
segmental concrete units (masonry units). Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat flexible and
do not require a rigid footing.

Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large
masses of concrete or stone. Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite
gravity walls such as: geosynthetics such as geocell cellular confinement earth retention or with
precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks); crib walls (cells built up log
cabin style from precast concrete or timber and filled with granular material); or soil-nailed walls
(soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete rods).

7.6 Cantilevered

Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place
concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever loads
(like a beam) to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures from behind the wall
to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes cantilevered walls are buttressed on the
front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads.
Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These walls require
rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than
a traditional gravity wall.
8. SHEET PILING

Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soil and tight spaces. Sheet pile walls are made
out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are driven into the ground. For a quick estimate the
material is usually driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be altered depending
on the environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back anchor, or "dead-man" placed in
the soil a distance behind the face of the wall, that is tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod.
Anchors are then placed behind the potential failure plane in the soil.

8.1 Bored pile

Bored pile retaining walls are built by assembling a sequence of bored piles, proceeded by
excavating away the excess soil. Depending on the project, the bored pile retaining wall may
include a series of earth anchors, reinforcing beams, soil improvement operations and shotcrete
reinforcement layer. This construction technique tends to be employed in scenarios where sheet
piling is a valid construction solution, but where the vibration or noise levels generated by a pile
driver are not acceptable.

8.2 Anchored

Anchored wall in the mountainous region of Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil

An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but also
includes additional strength using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind it.
Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors are then expanded at the end of the cable,
either by mechanical means or often by injecting pressurized concrete, which expands to form a
bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this method is very useful where high loads are expected,
or where the wall itself has to be slender and would otherwise be too weak.

Alternative retaining techniques

8.3 Soil nailing

Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are reinforced by
the insertion of relatively slender elements – normally steel reinforcing bars. The bars are usually
installed into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted into place or drilled and grouted simultaneously.
They are usually installed untensioned at a slight downward inclination. A rigid or flexible
facing (often sprayed concrete) or isolated soil nail heads may be used at the surface.

8.4 Soil-strengthened

A number of systems exist that do not consist of just the wall, but reduce the earth pressure
acting directly on the wall. These are usually used in combination with one of the other wall
types, though some may only use it as facing, i.e., for visual purposes.

This type of soil strengthening, often also used without an outside wall, consists of wire mesh
"boxes", which are filled with roughly cut stone or other material. The mesh cages reduce some
internal movement and forces, and also reduce erosive forces. Gabion walls are free-draining
retaining structures and as such are often built in locations where ground water is present.
However, management and control of the ground water in and around all retaining walls is
important.
9. Mechanical stabilization

Mechanically stabilized earth, also called MSE, is soil constructed with artificial reinforcing via
layered horizontal mats (geosynthetics) fixed at their ends. These mats provide added internal
shear resistance beyond that of simple gravity wall structures. Other options include steel straps,
also layered. This type of soil strengthening usually needs outer facing walls (S.R.W.'s –
Segmental Retaining Walls) to affix the layers to and vice versa.

The wall face is often of precast concrete units that can tolerate some differential movement. The
reinforced soil's mass, along with the facing, then acts as an improved gravity wall. The
reinforced mass must be built large enough to retain the pressures from the soil behind it. Gravity
walls usually must be a minimum of 50 to 60 percent as deep or thick as the height of the wall,
and may have to be larger if there is a slope or surcharge on the wall.

Cellular confinement systems (geocells) are also used for steep earth stabilization in gravity and
reinforced retaining walls with geogrids. Geocell retaining walls are structurally stable under
self- weight and externally imposed loads, while the flexibility of the structure offers very high
seismic resistance. The outer fascia cells of the wall can be planted with vegetation to create a
green wall.
10. Conclusions

Traditionally, highways have been used by people on foot or on horseback. Later, they also
placed wagons, bicycles and eventually cars, which contributed to the success in road
construction. In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries began actively investing in progressively
more modern highway systems to stimulate trade and strengthen national defense.

India has an extensive network of roads stretching over 3 million km, which is the second largest
in the world. Roads account for about 60% of freight traffic and almost 85% of passenger traffic,
highway / expressways are about 66 000 km. The Government of India annually spends about
18,000 rupees (4 billion US dollars) on the development of roads. These new trends are an
initiative in improving roads. Now the roads are well-stabilized and safer. Reduces the cost of
construction, as well as maintenance. These new trends are environmentally friendly, since the
use of fly ash is used as an important material, and these are the remains of thermal power plants
in the Free State, it is very harmful to the environment. Therefore, there is great hope for further
improvement of these methods.
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