Log Evaluation and QA/QC Seminar

Log Interpretation Methods

Lukas Wihardjo
Apr-2014
QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION - QUICKLOOK
 Qualitative Interpretation - Quicklook

• Three quick look (qualitative) methods exist for rapidly locating pay (oil
or gas) from logs without performing calculations (next section).
• The three quick look methods are:
– Side by side technique
– Overlay technique
– Neutron-Density Crossover

• All are effective in experienced hands and are widely used. It is

recommended to use them to have a general idea of the presence of
hydrocarbons in the well
Side by Side Technique (1)

• Logs are scaled so both the resistivity and porosity curves move in the
same direction (left or right) in water filled zones.
• Resistivity increases to the right.
• Porosity decreases to the right (decreasing porosity causes increasing
resistivity).
• As the porosity varies, both the porosity and resistivity curves will move
in the same direction (right or left) as long as the rock is water filled.
• If the rock contains hydrocarbons, the resistivity and porosity curves will
go in opposite directions.
• These last two statements are the basis for qualitative hydrocarbon
detection.
• Shale reduces the amount of separation, but the effect still holds true.
Side by Side Technique (2)

• Lay the resistivity and porosity logs side by side with depths aligned.
• Only three things cause the resistivity to go to high values:
– Low porosity
– Hydrocarbons
– Fresh Water (discarded by local area knowledge)
• Look for any place where the resistivity increases. Check to see if the
porosity decreases there. If the porosity decreases, the zone is most
likely water bearing (resistivity increase due to decreasing porosity). If
the porosity increases (or remains the same), this is a potential
hydrocarbon bearing zone.
• The zone one wants to find has high resistivity AND high porosity
(hydrocarbon bearing).
• This side by side technique is a good, first, fast-look method.
 Exercise - Side by Side Technique

Find the pay zone,

what kind of
hydrocarbon is
there?

Is there a water
zone, where is the
OWC?
Other Techniques

• Overlay Technique
– The overlay technique consists of laying the resistivity log on top the porosity
log on a light table, with depths aligned. Slide the resistivity log left or right
(sideward) to align the deep resistivity curve on top the porosity curves in a
clean high porosity zone.
– Maintain this same relative position and examine the overlaid logs over the
entire log.
– The logs (deep resistivity and porosity) should track each other fairly well,
except in hydrocarbon bearing zones. In hydrocarbon bearing zones the
resistivity will lie significantly to the right of the porosity curves. Look for this
separation of resistivity curve to the right of the porosity curves, making sure
the two curves remain on top each other in water sands.

• Neutron-Density Crossover
– It consists of looking at only the neutron-density curves for crossover and
mirror imaging. Such crossover with mirror imaging means gas is present.
Nothing else causes such a response. Be sure the mirror imaging is
present, as washouts or lithology can cause mere crossover .
Low Resistivity Pay

• A certain type of pay sand exists fairly commonly in certain type

environments that is not as obvious on the resistivity logs as
conventional pay sands.
• This type sand is called a Low Resistivity Pay sand. It is marked by a
much lower resistivity than would be expected for a pay sand.
• Basically, shales or very fine pores reduce the resistivity to much lower
than normal values for hydrocarbon bearing sands.
• Low resistivity Pay sands can be quite prolific producers.
• The key to spotting them is a very careful study for even a small
resistivity increase over what should be there for a water sand. The use
of image logs and cores are also a good help to identify these sanda.
Detecting these sands requires experience, and preferable specific
experience in the area of question
SATURATION
 Saturation
• The saturation of a formation represents the amount of a given fluid present in the
pore space.

S w = S w irr + S w "free"

water S o = S oresidual + S o"free"

oil

Matrix

• The porosity logs react to the pore space.

• The resistivity logs react to the fluids in the pore space.

• The combination of the two measurements gives the saturation

Saturation Basics (1)
• Rw = resistivity of water in the pore space.

• Define Ro = resistivity of a rock totally filled with water.

R0
F
Rw
– F: Formation Factor.

– At constant porosity F is constant.

– As porosity increases, Ro decreases and F decreases.

• Experiments have shown that F is inversely proportional to m.

a
F m

– m: is called the "cementation exponent".

– a: is called the "lithology" constant.

Saturation Basics (2)
Saturation can be expressed as a ratio of the resistivities:

R0
Snw 
Rt

where n is the "saturation exponent", an empirical constant.

Substituting for Ro:
FR w
Snw 
Rt
Substituting for F:

a Rw
S
n
w 
 m
Rt
 Archie’s Saturation Equation

a Rw
S
n
w 
 m
Rt

• The Archie equation is hence very simple. It links porosity and resistivity
with the amount of water present, Sw.

• Increasing porosity,, will reduce the saturation for the same Rt.

• Increasing Rt for the same porosity will have the same effect.
 Invaded Zone

• The same method can be applied to the invaded zone. The porosity is
identical, the lithology is assumed to be the same, hence the constants
a, n, m are the same.

• The changes are the resistivities which are now Rxo and Rmf measured
by the MSFL tool.

• The equation is then:

n aR mf
Sxo  m
 R xo
Other Relationships
• Dividing for Sxo and Sw, with n set to 2
1
Sw  R xo R t 2
  
Sxo R mf R w 

• Observations suggest: 1
Sxo  Sw 5

5
• Hence:  R xo R t 8
Sw   
R mf R w 

• providing a quick look saturation answer when porosity is not available.

Archie parameters
• Rw = resistivity of connate water.

• m = "cementation factor", set to 2 in the simple case.

• n = "saturation exponent", set to 2 in the simple case.

• a = constant, set to 1 in the simple case.

• Two common sets of numbers for these constants are:

– In a simple carbonate, the parameters are simplified to:

• m = 2,

• n = 2,

• a=1

– In a sandstone the following values are often quoted:

• m = 2.15,
a Rw
S
n
• n = 2,
w 
• a = 0.62  m
Rt
Rw determination

• Rw is an important parameter.

– Sources include:
• Client.

• Local tables / knowledge.

• SP.

• Resistivity plus porosity in water zone.

• RFT sample.

• From Rxo and Rt tools.

Rw from Rwa

• If Sw = 1, the saturation equation can become:

Rw   Rt 2

• Assuming simple values for a, m, n.

• Procedure is to:

– Compute an Rwa (Rw apparent) using this relationship.

– Read the lowest value over a porous zone which contains water

– This is the method employed by most computer based interpretation

systems.
 Rw from resistivity

1
Sw  R xo R t 2
  
Sxo R mf R w 

• In a water zone Sw = 1, thus the alternative saturation equation

becomes:

• The value of Rmf is measured; Rxo and Rt are measured, the value of
Rw can be calculated.
 Other Archie Parameters

• The constants a, m, n are an integral part of Archie's

saturation equation. They can, and do, vary. They are
usually taken from local knowledge if at all possible.

– n is dependent on the wettability of the rocks; in the

common water wet case it is usually close to 2.

– a and m are dependent on the lithology and pore

systems of the rock.
F Relation chart
Computing Saturation

 The standard saturation equation can be used with special

attention taken to obtain the correct value for the cement
exponent ‘m’:

 In vuggy formations this will be greater than 2. The

resistivity logs see read higher as the “pathway” is more
tortuous. Saturations calculated with an ‘m’ of 2 will show
too much hydrocarbon

 In fractured formations ‘m’ will be less than one as the

resistivity pathways are straight. In this case saturations
computed with ‘m’ = 2 will show too much water.
Variation of m

 m reflects the tortuosity

of the formation, the
pathway for electrical
current flow Carbonates
have complex porosities
and hence current
pathways an values of m
Variable m

 Hence in a carbonate the major problem is the determination

of ‘m’
 A good method of determining m is as follows:

 In a water zone, rearranging Archies formula

 Log Rt = - m log  + log (a Rw)

 Plotting on a log-log scale, slope will give ‘m’, and the intercept
‘a’ . The assumption is that m is constant through the entire
reservoir.
M relationship to secondary porosity

This chart gives the value of the fracture or vug porosity

as a function of the total porosity and the cementation
factor, m.
DUAL WATER MODEL
 Shale and Saturation

• The Archie equation has to be changed to take account of

the shale effect.

• The shale looks like low resistivity so another term is added

to the equations.

• The result is an equation which will can be used to compute

water saturation in shaly sands.

• All these equations return to Archies equation if there is no

shale present.
Saturation Equations (1)
• Indonesia Equation

1 1
Sw    Vc l   *
1 

Vcl
 
2 
  Rt
Rc l
 Rw
e

• Nigeria Equation
2
1  V 1.4 e  n
m
2

  cl   Sw
Rt  Rcl aRw 

• Waxman-Smits Equation

2
1 Sw B Qv Sw
 *  *
Rt F Rw F

• Dual Water Equation

Ct 
 t
m n
Swt 
Cw 
Swb 
Cwb  Cw 
a 
 Swt 
Saturation Equations (2)

• One of the difficulties is the number of equations available

for shaly sands.

• They are often “country” oriented, Nigeria, Venuzeula..

• The choice of equation is dictated by local practice.

• Waxman-Smits (WS) and Dual Water (DW) approach the

problem from experiments on the clay properties and are thus
more realistic and universal.
Dual water
• The Dual Water Model takes the basic work of Waxman
Smits and expands it for use with logged information

• It divides the formation into solids and fluids.

• It splits the clay into dry clay and its associated water, called
bound water

• The standard definitions for porosity and saturation to

describe the fractions of fluids in the formation are expanded
to include the new model.
 Dual water model definitions

hy drocarbon hy
ef f ectiv e
porosity
f ar
e wf +  hy
wf
water =
total
porosity
t bound
wb
f luids water

Vcl
unit dry
Vdcl wet clay
v olume clay
solids

clean
matrix
Clean to Shale
t
M atrix Far Wate r

t
M atrix

t
M atrix Dry Colloid

t
Dry Colloid Bound wate r
 Dual Water definitions
The total porosity is given by

 t   e   wb   t 1  Swb   t Swb
the porosities are combined to give the saturations of the fluids present
 wb
Swb 
t saturation of bound water

 wf
Swf  saturation of free water (this is Sw)
t
 hy
Sh y  Hydrocarbon saturation
t

Swt  Swf  Swb Total water saturation is the sum

of the saturations of the two waters

Swt  Shy  1 total water saturation plus hydrocarbon saturation

must be one

V cl  V dcl   t Swb wet clay volume includes the

volume of bound water
Simplified DWM (1)

Archie Equation can be generalized into the following form;

Rw
2
S wt 
t2 Rt
where;
Swt - total water saturation
t - total porosity
Rt - true formation resistivity
Rw - resistivity of the water(s)

The equation can be solved if Rf is known.

 Simplified DWM (2)

• 1) Clean water bearing zone

– Swt = 1

 t2 * Rt = Rw

– This is Rw, the resistivity of Free water

• 2) Clean 100% shale zone

– Swt = 1

 t2 * Rt = Rw

– This is Rwb, the resistivity of Bound water

• These are the two end points. To give a universal solution they are combined
linearly using the volume of shale.
 Practical DWM

The standard equation for the water saturation is expressed in terms of the
conductivity, as it is linear.

n  
m S S
C t  t w t Cw f  w b Cw b  C w f 
a  Sw t 

This equation is in terms of measured quantities, porosity and

resistivity and parameters that can be found, the far and bound
water conductivities.
DWM Saturation solution

The solution to the equation is

2 Ct F0
Swt  x  x 
Cw

where

Swb Cw  Cwb 

x 
2Cw
and
a
Fo 
 m
Practical outputs

The equations give total water saturation Swt and total porosity
t. These have to be transformed into effective saturation, Sw
and effective porosity, wf (or e)

Swt  Swb
Sw 
1  Swb

 wf   t Swt  Swb 
Dual water equation solution

This derivation of the Dual Water equations is valid for any rock
with any mixture of fluids

It is possible to use the Dual Water Model to make a manual

computation of a shaly zone.

However computer programs are best equipped to handle the

calculations.

The selection of key parameters is essential to obtain the correct

answers,
 Cwf - free water conductivity

 Cwb - bound water conductivity

 Swb - bound water saturation

 t - total porosity

SHALES
Shale Deposition Types

Matrix Shale Porosity

Clean formation Structural shale

Porosity Porosity

Shale
Matrix Matrix

Laminar shale Dispersed shale

Porosity Porosity Shale

Shale

Matrix Matrix
Clay Minerals
b N (thermal) Pe

• Kaolinite 2.54 59.6 1.85

• Illite 2.52 47.9 3.97
• Smectite 2.02 87 1.70
• Chlorite 2.73 59.6 4.07

• Most shales are comprised of these clay minerals.

• Clay minerals frequently occur together in "mixed layers", e.g. Illite -
Montmorillonite.

• Kaolinite Al, Si, little K

• Illite K, Fe, Mg, Si
• Smectite Very high porosity.
• Chlorite Fe, Mg, no K
 Shale and Logs (1)
• Shales have properties that have important influences on
log readings:
– They have porosity.
– The porosity is filled with salted water.
– They are often radioactive.
– Resistivity logs exhibit shales as low resistivity zones.
Shale and Logs (2)
• Neutron porosity logs exhibit shales as high porosity.

• Density and sonic logs react to the porosity and matrix changes.

• Gamma ray logs react to shale radioactivity.

Shale Corrections

• The electrical properties of shales greatly influence the calculation

of fluid saturations.

• A layer of water close to the clay surface is electrically charged.

• Archie's equation assumes that the formation water is the only

electrically-conductive material in the formation.

• The clay layer requires an additional term in the saturation

equation.

• Porosity tools can be corrected for the shale effect. An "effective

porosity" can be computed as compared to a "total porosity" which
includes the shale effect.
 Shale Volume (1)

• The volume of shale must be computed to correct the tool readings.

• This is achieved using simple equations such as:

GRlog  GRmin
Vcl 
GRmax  GRmin

• or

SPlog  SPmin
Vcl 
SPmax  SPmin
 Shale Volume (2)

• However, as every tool reacts to shale, each tool is a shale indicator.

For example:

b   wSw   h 1  Sw    ma 1    Vcl   clVcl

• Shale volume can be computed from different sources and from

crossplots of different kinds of log data.

• The ideal method of computing shale volume is to use the Neutron

Density plot.
LITHOLOGY AND POROSITY
 Lithology and Porosity

• The next major step in the procedure is lithology identification. Lithology data
gives information on porosity and other parameters.

• Lithology of a formation can be:

• Simple

• Dirty

• Complex
 Lithology Determination

• The lithology can be obtained in several ways:

– From the cuttings (depth problems).
– From local knowledge (good during development).
– From the known depositional environment (good in general basis).
– From a log Quicklook (good starting point).
– From individual log readings (difficult if there are no areas of zero porosity).
– From crossplots (the best method).
 Lithology and Porosity Tools

• All tools react to lithology - usually in conjunction with the

porosity.

• Major lithology tools are:

– Neutron - reacts to fluid and matrix.
– Density - reacts to matrix and fluid.
– Sonic - reacts to a mixture of matrix and fluid,
complicated by seeing only primary porosity.
– SGT - identifies shale types and special minerals.
– NMR - magnetic resonance reacts to the porosity with a
small element if lithology.
Crossplots

• Combines properties
from both
measurements, thus
eliminating ambiguities.
The most common
crossplot is the Density
Neutron.
Volume
• Formation model:
• Water-bearing, mono-mineral.

• This formation can be described by the density tool and the neutron tool.

 b   mf    ma 1   
 n   mf    ma 1   
• 2 equations for 1 unknown:
• system is over-determined.
– for limestone: Nma = 0
– for sand: Nma = 0.04
Crossplot Solution
• The plot is a straight line from the matrix point to the 100% porosity,
water point. It is scaled in porosity.
 Neutron-density X-plot (1)

• This crossplot has

b plotted against
the corrected
neutron porosity.
Fluid density in
this plot is
1.0g/cm3.
 Neutron-density X-plot (2)

• This plot is the

same as the
previous one
except that the
fluid density here
is 1.19 g/cm3.
Dual Mineral model

B = Ø mf + Vm1 m1 + V m2 m2

Ø = Ø Ø N mf + V Ø + V Ø
N m1 N m1 m2 N m2

1 = Ø + Vm1 + V m2
(Material Balance Equation)

• 3 unknown : Ø, Vm1 , V m2 , 3 equations

system is just determined
 Dual Mineral plot

The plot now has two lines, one from each matrix point. The equi-porosity lines join the lines, any
point falling between can be assigned its porosity the zero porosity line is scaled in ratio (or percent)
of the two minerals. This can be extended to the water point. Points falling inside the lines can be
subdivided in mineral percent
Dual mineral plot expanded
 Crossplot example

This is a typical
frequency
crossplot. The
lines are the
limestone,
sandstone and
dolomite lithology
lines
Z-axis Plot
 Other Crossplots

•There are numerous other crossplots to identify minerals using

combinations of tools.

• ma - Uma
• b - Pe
• MID plot (n, b, t)
• MN plot (n, b, t)

•The z -axis is used for clarification.

Pe - b Crossplot

• This plot is ideal to

identify the lithology in
conjunction with the
neutron density plot.
ma - Uma (1)
ma - Uma (2)
Uma determination
 Matrix Identification Plot

• The Matrix Identification Plot

uses neutron, density and sonic
data as inputs. An apparent
crossplot porosity is found on a
density-neutron and a sonic
neutron crossplot. The values
are entered into the relevant
section of the following chart
and the values of tmaa and maa
read;
MN plot

• The MN plot uses data

from the neutron,
density and sonic logs
to solve complex
lithology. Used when
Pef is not available or
as extra information.
 Hydrocarbon Effect
• The presence of light hydrocarbons especially gas, in the invaded zone seriously affects the
main porosity tools, the density and neutron.
• Both tools are calibrated to read correctly in water-filled rock.
• Light hydrocarbon has a lower hydrogen index, hence the neutron reads low and the low
density of the fluid makes the density low.
• Points exhibiting this problem plot above and to the right of the lithology line on the crossplot.
Hydrocarbon Effect Correction
 Complete Well Evaluation
Perform a complete well evaluation, determining VSH, f, RT, RW, SW, lithology type, fluid
contents on the attached log, assume all environmental corrections have already been made