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A group with only one generator x, is the cyclic group generated by x and can now be

written as gp{𝑥}. To illustrate these ideas, let us once more turn to the group G(≅ 𝑆3 ) of
order 6 which is exhibited in the table below

1 a b c d e
1 1 a b c d e
a a b 1 e c d
b b 1 a d e c
c c d e 1 a b
d d e c b 1 a
e e c d a b 1
table 1

we find that each of the six elements can be expressed in terms of a and c thus,
1 = 𝑐 2 = (𝑎3 ), 𝑎 = 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎2 , 𝑐 = 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑎, 𝑒 = 𝑐𝑎2
Hence in this case we can write
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎, 𝑐} (2.24)
Alternatively, it can be shown that
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑏, 𝑑} (2.2.5)
For a and c and hence the whole group, can be expressed in terms of b and d, namely
𝑎 = 𝑏 2 , 𝑐 = 𝑑𝑏
The generators in (2.24) or in (2.25) are certainly irredundant, because the group is
non-Abelian and cannot be generated by a single element, in which case it would be
cyclic and hence non-Abelian.
It is important to realize that irredundant generators may nevertheless be linked by
non-trivial relations. Thus, by referring to the table 1, we see that 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎2 (2.26)
Which is equivalent to
(𝑎𝑐)2 = 1, (2.26)′
Because (𝑎𝑐)2 = 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎1𝑎2 = 𝑎3 = 1. It is impossible to solve either of these
equations so as to express one of the generators in terms of the other. An equation like
(2.26) or (2.26)′ is called a defining equation. It is often convenient to specify a
particular group by a set of generators and a set of defining relations. We shall return to
this principle in more detail later but mention here that in the present case the equations
𝑎3 = 𝑎2 = (𝑎𝑐)2 = 1 (2.27)
Serve as a set of defining relations. Indeed, the information contained in (2.27) suffices
to construct the entire multiplication table. First, we remark that the six elements
1, 𝑎 , 𝑎2 , 𝑐. 𝑐𝑎, 𝑐𝑎2 (2.28)
are certainly distinct: for example, if a where equal to 𝑐𝑎2 ,it would follow that 𝑎 −1 =
𝑐,contradicting the fact that a and c are irredundant generators. Next, we check that the
system (2.28) is closed under multiplication by virtue of the relation (2.27); for example
(𝑐𝑎)(𝑐𝑎2 ) = 𝑐(𝑎𝑐)𝑎2 = 𝑐𝑐𝑎2 𝑎2 = 𝑐 2 𝑎4 = 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑎𝑐) = 𝑎𝑐𝑎2 = 𝑐𝑎4 = 𝑐𝑎, and so on, a factor c being systematically moved to the
left by virtue of (2.26), until the product is identical with one of the elements (2.27). In
this notation the complete multiplication table is as follows;

1 a 𝑎2 c ca c𝑎2
1 1 a 𝑎2 c ca c𝑎2
a a 𝑎2 1 c 𝑎2 c ca
𝑎2 𝑎2 1 a ca c𝑎2 c
c c ca c𝑎2 1 a 𝑎2
ca ca c𝑎2 c 𝑎2 1 a
c𝑎2 c𝑎2 c ca a 𝑎2 1
Table 2
and this provides yet another version of the group first presented in table 1. If A , B ,C…
are subsets of f,the group generated by them is denoted by
𝑔𝑝{𝐴 , 𝐵 , 𝐶, … }
And is defined as a collection of all finite products in which each factor is an element of
A or B or C … or the inverse of such an element, taken in any order with or without
repetition. This reduces to the previous concept of generators if we regard as
generators of all the elements of A∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ∪ … We might equally well right instead
𝑔𝑝{𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ∪ … }, of course, if A is a subgroup, we have that A=gp{A}
THE DIRECT PRODUCT
We shall now discuss a simple method of constructing a new group out of two given
groups. Let H and K be any groups and consider the set of all pairs
(u, v),
Where u and v range over H and K respectively.
The set of these pairs is denoted by
G= H x K
And is called the (exterior) direct product of H and K. The set G is turned into a group by
endowing it with the composition law
(u,v)(𝑢′ , 𝑣 ′ ) = (𝑢𝑢′ , 𝑣𝑣 ′ ). (2.29)
It is easy to verify that the associative law holds in G, because multiplication is
associative in H and in K. The unit element in G is the pair (1𝐻 , 1𝐾 )
Where 1𝐻 and 1𝐾 are the unit elements of H and K respectively.
Also (𝑢, 𝑣)−1 = (𝑢− , 𝑣 −1 ).
If H and K are finite groups of order h and k respectively, then H x K is a group of order
hk. More generally, if 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑟 are any groups, their direct product 𝐻1 × 𝐻2 × … × 𝐻𝑟
consists of all 𝑟 − 𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠
(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑟 ),
where 𝑢𝑖 ∈ 𝐻𝑖 (𝑖 = 1 ,2 , … , 𝑟) and multiplication is carried out in each component of the
𝑟 − 𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒. If each 𝐻𝑖 is finite, then clearly,
𝑟

|𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑟 | = ∏|𝐻𝑖 |
𝑖=1

it sometimes happens that a group G is isomorphic with the direct product of two of its
subgroups, H and K, thus
𝐺 ≅ 𝐻 × 𝐾, (2.30)
Or with a slight abuse of notation
𝐺 = 𝐻×𝐾 (2.30)′
This situation arises in the following circumstances:
(1) The subgroups H and K commute elementwise, that is, if u and v are arbitrary
elements of H and K respectively, then
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑣𝑢 (2.31)
(2) Every element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 can be expressed in the form 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣, or more briefly,
G= 𝐻𝐾 (2.32)
(3) The intersection of H and K is the unit element, that is
𝐻∩𝐾 =1 (2.33)

We remark that (2) and (3) are equivalent to the single condition:(2′ ).Every
element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 Can be uniquely decomposed as 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣, where 𝑢 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 ∈ 𝐾.
For assume (2) and (3) and suppose we have two decompositions
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 .
Then
𝑢1−1 𝑢 = 𝑣1 𝑣 −1 , (2.34)
and the element on either side of (2.34) belongs to H and to K, whence by (3), it must
be equal to 1. Thus 𝑢 = 𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣1 , which proves the uniqueness of the
decomposition, as required in (2′ ).
Conversely, assume (2′ ) and suppose that 𝑤 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾. Then 𝑤 = 1𝑤 = 𝑤1 are two
decompositions of w with factors in H and K respectively, and we deduce from the
uniqueness that 𝑤 = 1.
The foregoing conditions make it plain that each element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 uniquely determines a
pair (u,v) where 𝑢 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 ∈ 𝐾 and that each such pair occurs , because (u,v)
corresponds to the product 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑥. The correspondence 𝑥𝜃 = (𝑢𝑣)𝜃 = (𝑢, 𝑣)
establishes the isomorphism (2.30), because, by (1), (𝑢𝑣)(𝑢′ , 𝑣 ′ )𝜃 = (𝑢𝑢′ , 𝑣𝑣 ′ ).
Similarly, we have that
𝐺 ≅ 𝐻1 × 𝐻2 × … × 𝐻𝑟 ,
where 𝐻𝑖 (𝑖 = 1 ,2 , … , 𝑟) are subgroups of G, if the following conditions are satisfied:
(a)any two groups 𝐻𝑖 , 𝐻𝑗 commute elementwise

(b)Every element 𝑥 of G can be expressed in the form


𝑥 =, 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑟 (2.35)
Where 𝑢𝑖 ∈ 𝐻𝑖
(c) 𝐻𝑖 ∩ 𝐻1 𝐻2 … 𝐻𝑖−1 𝐻𝑖+1 … 𝐻𝑟 = {1},
or alternatively, in place of (2) and (3), (2′ ) The decomposition (2.35) is unique.
In particular, if
𝑢1 𝑢2 … 𝑢𝑟 = 1, it follows from (2′ ) that
𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = ⋯ = 𝑢𝑟 = 1,
Because 1 = 11 … 1 is the only decomposition of 1.
When a group has been expressed as the direct product of subgroups, we speak
of an interior direct product.

Example
The least positive residues prime to the modulus 15 is 1 , 2 ,4 ,7 , 8 ,11 , 13 ,14. (2.36)
They form an Abelian group of order 8 , which, as we shall see, is isomorphic with the
direct product of the cyclic groups generated by the elements 2 and 11 respectively. In
fact, the residue 2 generates a cyclic group of order 4, namely
𝐶4 : 1, 2,4 ,8 (24 = 16 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑15).
Similarly, 11 generates a cyclic group of order 2,
𝐶4 : 1, 11 (114 = 121 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑15))
Since the whole group is Abelian, we have only to check conditions (2) and (3). Taking
all possible products, we obtain
1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 11 , 22, 44 , 88,
Which on reduction mod.15 becomes
1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 11 , 7, 14 , 13.
As this is the complete group, condition (2) holds, and we see at once that
𝐶4 ∩ 𝐶4 = {1}.
This shows that the group is isomorphic with 𝐶4 × 𝐶4 . The following simple proposition,
which is of some independent interest, will be used in the next section.
PROPOSITION 6. Let G be a finite group in which all elements satisfy the equation
𝑥2 = 1 (2.37)
That is each element, other than the unit element, is of order 2. Then G is isomorphic
with an Abelian group of type 𝐶2 × 𝐶2 × … 𝐶2 ,
And the order of G is therefore a power of 2.
Proof
By the fact that A group of prime order has no proper subgroups and is necessarily
cyclic, the proposition is obviously true when G is the (only) group of order 2. Suppose
that G is of order greater than 2 and let a and b be distinct elements other than 1. By
hypothesis
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = 1,
So that
𝑎 = 𝑎−1 , 𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 .
Next, we consider the element ab. By (2.37), (𝑎𝑏)2 = 1,
whence 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑏𝑎.
This shows that G is Abelian. Let 𝑢1 𝑢2 … 𝑢𝑟 be a set of irredundant generators of G.
Since G is Abelian, products of the generators can be collected in such a way that every
element can be expressed in the “normal” form
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑢1 1 𝑢2 2 … 𝑢𝑟 𝑟 . (2.38)
But by virtue of (2.37) the exponents in (2.28) can be restricted to take only
the values of 0 and 1. Then all the products will be distinct;
For an equality between two such products would lead to a relation
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑢11 𝑢22 … 𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 1,
Where each 𝑙𝑖 is either zero or unity. This would enable us to express one
of the generators in terms of the others, contradicting the hypothesis that
the generators were irredundant. Thus, the normal form (2.38) is unique,
which amounts to saying that
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑢1 } × 𝑔𝑝{𝑢2 } × … × 𝑔𝑝{𝑢𝑟 },
and hence
𝐺 ≅ 𝐶2 × 𝐶2 × … × 𝐶2
(𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠).

SURVEY OF GROUPS UP TO ORDER OF 8


No successful method has yet been discovered for constructing all possible
abstract groups of preassigned order, nor do we know in advance how
many such groups exists, except in a few simple cases.
However, the elementary means which we have so far developed, suffice
to give a complete list of groups up to order 8. Since groups of prime order
have already been discussed, it remains only to discuss in more detail the
cases in which the order, g, is equal to 4 or 6 or 8.
There are two groups of order 4, both Abelian. For if g=4, an element, other
than 1, can be of order 4 or 2 (corollary 1, p. 35).
(1) If G contains an element a of order 4, this element generates G;
In fact, the four elements of G are
1 , 𝑎 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , (𝑎4 = 1)
and we have that G= 𝐺4 , the cyclic group of order 4. Then all the elements, other than
1, are of order 2 and we deduce from proposition 6 that 𝐺 = 𝐶2 × 𝐶2 .
Thus, G is generated by two elements a and b, and the four elements of G are
1 , 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏, (2.39)
Where
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = 1, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 (2.40)
This group is called the four-group (F. Klein’s ‘Vierergruppe’) and is often denoted by V
There being no other possibilities we conclude that any group of order 4 is isomorphic
either with 𝐶4 or with V(≅ 𝐶2 × 𝐶2 ). In a different notation the multiplication tables of
these groups are presented in (3)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4)

1 a b c 1 a b c
1 1 a b c 1 1 a b c
a a 1 c b a a b c 1
b b c 1 a b b c 1 a
c c b a 1 c c 1 a b
table 3 table 4
There are two groups of order 6, one cyclic and one-Abelian.
(1) If G possesses an element of order 6, then
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎} = 𝐶6
(2) Next, suppose there is no element of order 6. The order of every element, other
than 1, is therefore 2 or 3 (corollary 1, p.35). Since the order of G is not a power
of 2, not all its elements can satisfy (2.37). Hence there exists at least one
element, a, of order 3, so that 1 , 𝑎 , 𝑎2 (2.41)
are three distinct elements of G and 𝑎3 = 1, (2.42)
If c is a further element of G, the six elements
1 , 𝑎 , 𝑎2 , 𝑐 , 𝑐𝑎, 𝑐𝑎2 (2.43)
are distinct, as we pointed out on P.40, in connection with the elements listed in (2.28)
If the elements (2.43) are to form a group of order 6, the axiom of closure must be
fulfilled. In particular, 𝐶 2 must be one of these elements. We cannot have an element
of the form 𝐶 2 = 𝑐𝑎𝑖 (𝑖 = 0, 1 , 2), as this would imply that c belongs to the set (2.41).
There remain only the following three possibilities:
(𝛼)𝑐 2 = 1, (𝛽)𝑐 2 = 𝑎 (𝛾)𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 . (2.44)
Under the assumption (𝛽) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝛾), The element c cannot be of order 2 and must
therefore be of order 3. But on multiplying (𝛽) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝛾) on the left by c we should
obtain 1 = 𝑐𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 = 𝑐𝑎2 respectively, neither of which can be true. Hence, we
conclude that (𝛼) must hold, that is
𝑐2 = 1 (2.45)
Next, consider ac. It must be amongst the elements (2.43). As it cannot be equal to c or
to a power of a, we are left with the alternatives
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎, or 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎2 . (2.46)
The first of these renders the group Abelian. Let us find the order of ac in this case.
Thus
(𝑎𝑐)2 = 𝑎2 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 ≠ 1, (𝑎𝑐)3 = 𝑎3 𝑐 3 = 𝑐 3 = 𝑐 ≠ 1,
and the element ac would have to be of order 6, contrary to our initial assumption.
Hence the second equation (2.46) must hold, that is
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎2 or equivalently, (𝑎𝑐)2 = 1,
See (2.26) and (2.26)′ . To summarize we can state that if there is a group G of order 6
other 𝐶6 , then
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎, 𝑐}
Subject to the relations
𝑎3 = 𝑐 2 = (𝑎𝑐)2 = 1.
This does not prove that such a group exists. But we happen to know that this is the
case; indeed, its multiplication table is exhibited on table 2. Thus, there are precisely
two groups of order 6. There are five groups of order 8, of which three are Abelian and
two are non-Abelian.
Three Abelian groups of order 8 are written down, namely
1) 𝐶8 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎}, where 𝑎8 = 1(𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 5)
2) 𝐶4 × 𝐶2 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎} × 𝑔𝑝{𝑏}, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎4 = 𝑏 2 = 1, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 (𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 6)
3) 𝐶2 × 𝐶2 × 𝐶2 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎} × 𝑔𝑝{𝑏} × 𝑔𝑝{𝑐}, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 = 1, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎, 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑐𝑏,
𝑐𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐(𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 7)
From the general theory, which we shall develop later, it will follow that these are all
positive Abelian groups of order 8, but we shall here derive this result from first
principles. If the group contains an element of order 8, it must be the group 𝐶8 , and if all
elements, other than 1, are of order 2, then it is isomorphic with the group (3).
Henceforth we shall assume that each element, other than 1, is either of order 4 or of
order 2 and that there is at least one element of order 4, say a, where
𝑎4 = 1, 𝑎2 ≠ 1. (2.47)
If b is an element not contained in 𝑔𝑝{𝑎}, then the eight elements
1, 𝑎 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑏 , 𝑎2 𝑏, 𝑎3 𝑏 (2.48)
Are distinct and therefore constitute the whole group, if such a group exists.
Now 𝑏 2 must be one of these elements and in fact must be one of the first four, since b
is not a power of a. The equation 𝑏 2 = 𝑎 or 𝑏 2 = 𝑎3 have to be ruled out, since they
would imply that the order of b is eight. Thus, there remain the possibilities
(𝛼)𝑏 2 = 1 or (𝛽)𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 (2.49)
(𝛼): Assume that 𝑏 2 = 1. The product ba must be one of the last three elements in
(2.48).
(𝛼, 𝑖): If ba=ab, the group is Abelian and is the group listed under (2).
(𝛼, 𝑖𝑖): If ba=𝑎2 𝑏, we could deduce that 𝑏 −1 𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎, whence
(𝑏 −1 𝑎2 𝑏)2 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎4 𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎2 = 𝑎, which is impossible.
Hence, we must conclude that
(𝛼, 𝑖𝑖𝑖): ab=𝑎3 𝑏 or equivalently, (𝑎𝑏)2 = 1.
The group defined by the relations
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 1 (2.50)
Does in fact exist. It is denoted by 𝐷4 and is called the dihedral group of order 8
(𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 8)
It belongs to a class of groups which will be discussed later, when the associative law
will be confirmed.
(𝛽). assume that 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 . In this case both a and b are of order 4.
Again, ba must be one of the last three elements of (2.48), which we shall consider in
turn:
(𝛽, 𝑖): If ba=ab, the group is Abelian. The element 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 −1 is of order 2 because
(𝑎𝑏 −1 )2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 −1 = 1, and since 𝑏 = 𝑐 −1 𝑎, the generator b may be replaced by c. The
eight elements may therefore be written as in (2.48), but with c in place of b. Once
again, we arrive at the group (2).
(𝛽, 𝑖𝑖):The relation ba= 𝑎2 𝑏 is impossible as it would imply that ba=𝑏 2 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 = 𝑏 2 ,
which is inadmissible.
(𝛽, 𝑖𝑖𝑖): The only remaining alternative, namely ba=𝑎3 𝑏, is feasible and, as we shall see,
leads to a group defined by the relations
𝑎4 = 1, 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 , ba=𝑎3 𝑏. (2.51)
In order to demonstrate that such a group does not in fact exist, we construct a faithful
matrix representation. Let

0 ], 0 −1
𝐴 = [√−1 𝐵=[ ]
0 −√−1 1 0
The reader will have no difficulty in verifying that these matrices satisfy the relations
(2.51) with the appropriate change of notation and the eight matrices
𝐼, 𝐴 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , 𝐵, 𝐴𝐵 , 𝐴2 𝐵 , 𝐴3 𝐵
are distinct and therefore constitute a multiplicative matrix group, which is isomorphic
with the group envisaged under (𝛽, 𝑖𝑖𝑖). This group is known as the quaternion group
(table 9). We recall that a quaternion is a hypercomplex number.
𝑎0 1 + 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘
Where the coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 are real numbers and the symbols
1 , 𝑖 , 𝑗 , 𝑘 satisfy the equations
𝑖 2 = 𝑗 2 = −1, 𝑖𝑗 = −𝑗𝑖 = 𝑘 or equivalently, 𝑖 4 = 1, 𝑖 2 = 𝑗 2 , 𝑗𝑖 = 𝑖 3 𝑗,
Which agrees with (2.51) apart from the notation.
To summarize our discussion of groups of order 8 we append the complete
multiplication tables of the five possible abstract groups of this order:
𝐶8 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎}, 𝑎8 = 1
1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7
1 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7
a a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7 1
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7 1 a
𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7 1 a 𝑎2
𝑎4 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑎5 𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4
𝑎6 𝑎6 𝑎7 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5
𝑎7 𝑎7 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6
Table 5

𝐶4 × 𝐶2 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎} × 𝑔𝑝{𝑏}, 𝑎4 = 𝑏 2 = 1.

𝐶8 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎}, 𝑎8 = 1
1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
1 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
a a 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 a 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab
𝑎3 𝑎3 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏
b b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3
ab ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b a 𝑎2 𝑎3 1
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 a
𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 1 a 𝑎2
Table 6
𝐶2 × 𝐶2 × 𝐶2 = 𝑔𝑝{𝑎} × 𝑔𝑝{𝑏} × 𝑔𝑝{𝑐}, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 = 1

1 a b c ab ac bc abc
1 1 a b c ab ac bc abc
a a 1 ab ac b c abc bc
b b ab 1 bc a abc c ac
c c ac bc 1 abc a b ab
ab ab b a abc 1 bc ac c
ac ac c abc a bc 1 ab b
𝑏𝑐 bc abc c b ac ab 1 a
abc abc bc ac 𝑎𝑏 c b a 1
Table 7

Dihedral group: 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = 1

1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
1 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
a a 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 a 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab
𝑎3 𝑎3 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏
b b 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ab 1 𝑎3 𝑎2 a
ab ab b 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 a 1 𝑎3 𝑎2
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ab b 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 a 1 𝑎3
𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ab b 𝑎3 𝑎2 a 1
Table 8
Quaternion group: 𝑎4 = 1, 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 , ba=𝑎3 𝑏

1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
1 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏
a a 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 ab 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 a 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab
𝑎3 𝑎3 1 a 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏 b ab 𝑎2 𝑏
b b 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ab 𝑎2 a 1 𝑎3
ab ab b 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑎2 a 1
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ab b 𝑎3 𝑏 1 𝑎3 𝑎2 a
𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏 ab b a 1 𝑎3 𝑎2
Table 9

THE PRODUCT THEOREM


At the beginning of this chapter, we defined the product of two subsets. We shall now
examine the case in which both these subsets are subgroups of a group. It will appear
that the product of two subgroups is not always a subgroup, but that explicit information
can be obtained in the finite case about the number of elements in the product.
THEOREM 5 (Product theorem). (i) Let A and B be subgroups. Then the subsets AB is
a group if and only if
AB=BA (2.52)
(ii) In the case of finite subgroups, let |𝐴| = 𝑎, |𝐵| = 𝑏, |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| = 𝑑.Then, irrespective of
whether (2.52) holds;
|𝐴𝐵| = |𝐵𝐴| = 𝑎𝑏/𝑑.
Proof. (i) Since A and B are groups, we have that 𝐴2 = 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 2 = 𝐵. First, suppose
that (2.52) is satisfied and put H=AB. Then
𝐻 2 = 𝐴𝐵𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴2 𝐵 2 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐻,
Which proves the closure of H. Obviously 1∈ 𝐻, since 1∈ 𝐴 and 1∈ 𝐵. Finally if a and b
are arbitrary elements of A and B respectively, then 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐵𝐴; and hence, by
(2.52) 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐻;that is (𝑎𝑏)−1 ∈ 𝐻,which completes the proof that H is a group.
Conversely, suppose that H=AB is a group. Hence if a and b are arbitrary elements of A
and B respectively, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻, and also (𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻, that is 𝑏𝑎 ∈ 𝐻. This
means
𝐵𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴𝐵.
In particular, 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 = 𝑎1 𝑏1, where 𝑎1 and 𝑏1 are certain elements of A and B
respectively. Hence (𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏1−1 𝑎1−1 , that is
𝐴𝐵 ⊏ 𝐵𝐴
Hence, we conclude that AB=BA.
(ii) Let D=𝐴 ∩ 𝐵. Since D is a subgroup of B, we may decompose B into cosets with
respect to D, say
𝐵 = 𝐷𝑡1 ∪ 𝐷𝑡2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐷𝑡𝑛, (2.53)
Where
𝐷𝑡𝑖 ≠ 𝐷𝑡𝑖 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 (2.54)
And
n=b/d (2.55)
multiplying (2.53) on the left by A and observing that AD=A because D⊂ 𝐴, we obtain
that
AB= 𝐴𝑡1 ∪ 𝐴𝑡2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐴𝑡𝑛 . (2.56)
We claim that no two of the cosets on the right of (2.56) have an element in common;
for if not, we should have an equation of the form
𝑢1 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑢2 𝑡𝑗

Where 𝑢1 , 𝑢1 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. Thus


𝑡𝑖 𝑡𝑗 −1 = 𝑢1 −1 𝑢2.

Now the element on the left belongs to B by (2.53), and the element on the right lies in
A. Hence either side denotes an element of D.
But 𝑡𝑖 𝑡𝑗 −1 ∈ 𝐷 implies that 𝐷𝑡𝑖 = 𝐷𝑡𝑖 , which contradicts (2.54). Thus, the cosets in (2.56)
are disjoint, and since each consists of a elements, we have that
|𝐴𝐵| = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑏/𝑑.
The argument is clearly symmetric in A and B, so that also
|𝐵𝐴| = 𝑎𝑏/𝑑.
DOUBLE COSET
We saw earlier that the decomposition of a group into cosets relative to a subgroup
maybe regarded as an instance of dividing a set into equivalent classes with respect to
a suitably defined equivalence relation.
Following Frobenius we shall now discuss a different equivalence relation, which
involves two subgroups. Let A and B be subgroups of G, which need not be distinct, and
term two elements 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 equivalent, written x∼ 𝑦, if there exist elements 𝑢 ∈ 𝐴 and
𝑣 ∈ 𝐵 such that
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥𝑣 (2.57)
It is easy to check that this is an equivalence relation on G. For
(i) x∼ 𝑦, since we may take u=1 , 𝑣 = 1,
(ii) if 𝑥 ∼ 𝑦,then 𝑦 ∼ 𝑥, because (2.57) implies that 𝑥 = 𝑢−1 𝑦𝑣 −1 ,
(iii) if 𝑥 ∼ 𝑦, 𝑦 ∼ 𝑧,that is 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥𝑣, 𝑧 = 𝑢′ 𝑦𝑣 ′ , where 𝑢′ ∈ 𝐴, 𝑣 ′ ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑧 = (𝑢′ 𝑢)𝑥(𝑣𝑣 ′ ),
so that 𝑥 ∼ 𝑧.
Thus, the set G may be divided into the equivalence classes which stem from this
definition of equivalence. The equivalence class containing 𝑥 is the complex A 𝑥𝐵, which
is called a double coset of G with respect to A and B. We choose a representative from
each class and obtain the decomposition

𝐺 = ⋃ 𝐴𝑡𝑖
(2.58)
𝑖∈𝐼

Where 𝛪 is a, possibly infinite, index set in one-to one correspondence with the set of
double cosets. It is clear that (2.58) is a generalization of the left or right coset
decomposition, as is seen by taking A or B to be the trivial group {1}. In contrast to
single coset decompositions, the double cosets in (2.58) are not, in general, of the same
cardinal.
We will pursue the matter further when G is a finite group. Let |𝐺| = 𝑔, |𝐴| = 𝑎, |𝐵| = 𝑏.
First, we observe that the subsets 𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐵 and (𝑡𝑖−1 𝐴𝑡𝑖 )𝐵 have the same cardinal, because
their elements may be put into one-to-one correspondence by matching 𝑢𝑡𝑖 𝑣 with
𝑡𝑖−1 (𝑢𝑡𝑖 𝑣). Thus

|𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐵 | = |(𝑡𝑖−1 𝐴𝑡𝑖 )𝐵 |.


Now 𝑡𝑖−1 𝐴𝑡𝑖 is a subgroup and

|𝑡𝑖−1 𝐴𝑡𝑖 | = 𝐴 = 𝑎

On applying theorem 5 to the subgroups 𝑡𝑖−1 𝐴𝑡𝑖 and B we find that |𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐵| = 𝑎𝑏/𝑑𝑖 ,

Where 𝑑𝑖 = |𝑡𝑖−1 𝐴𝑡𝑖 ∩ 𝐵|. Collecting these results, we obtain the following theorem.

THEOREM 6 (Frobenius). Let G be a finite group of order g and let A and B be


subgroups of order a and b respectively. Then there exist elements 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , … , 𝑡𝑟 such
that G is the disjoint union of double cosets, namely
G= 𝐴𝑡1 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴𝑡2 𝐵 ∪ … 𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐵.
The number of elements in 𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐵 is ab/𝑑𝑖 ,

Where 𝑑𝑖 = |𝑡𝑖−1 𝐴𝑡𝑖 ∩ 𝐵|,

And consequently
𝑟

𝑔 = 𝑎𝑏 ∑ 𝑑𝑖−1 (2.59)
𝑖=1

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