GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINALS REVIEWER | © DANE DE MATA

FINAL EXAM COVERAGE - Electron configuration ends with either ns1 or

1. The Periodic Table of Elements ns2
2. Parts of the Periodic Table - n = period # = energy level
3. Periodic Trends - Group 1 & 2
4. Noble Gas Electron Configuration P BLOCK
5. Valence Electrons & Octet Rule - The p orbital can hold a maximum of 6
6. Lewis Dot Diagrams electrons
7. Ionic Bonds → 6 groups in the p block
8. Covalent Bonds - Electron configuration ends with np1 until np6
9. VSEPR Theory - n = period # = energy level
10. Electron and Molecular Geometry - Group 13-18
11. and Hybridization D BLOCK
12. Molecular and Bond Polarity - The d orbital can hold a maximum of 10
electrons
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS → 10 groups in the p block
Periods - Electron configuration ends with (n-1)d1 until
- Horizontal rows (n-1)d10
- Seven periods - n = period #
- Period # indicates the energy level - Outer transition metals
- PERIODICITY: the repeating characteristics F BLOCK
of elements - The f orbital can hold a maximum of 14
Groups/Families electrons
- Vertical columns → 14 groups in the p block
- Group # indicates the no. of electrons in the - Electron configuration ends with (n-2)f1 until
outermost shell (n-2)f14
● GROUP 1A & 7A through 0 - n = period #
○ Representative elements - Inner transition metals
○ Readily form compounds due to their
number of valence electrons
● GROUP B
○ Transitions metals
○ Inner and outer
○ Quite rare; compounds containing
them are limited

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)

- Listed the elements in several vertical columns
in order of increasing ATOMIC MASS Father
of the Periodic Table
- Immortalized in element 101
Henry Moseley (1887-1915)
- Determined the nuclear charge of elements
- Arranged the elements in a table by order of
ATOMIC NUMBER
- Conceived the structure of the modern
periodic table
Periodic Law
- When the elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, there is a periodic
pattern in their physical and chemical
properties

PARTS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Blocks
1. S BLOCK
- The s orbital can hold a maximum of 2
electrons
→ 2 groups in the s block

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Representative Elements
GROUP 1
- Alkali metals
- Very reactive
- Ionic charge of +1
GROUP 2
- Alkaline Earth metals
- Less reactive than Group 1
- Ionic charge of +2 ● DOWNWARD
GROUP 18 ○ Higher energy levels of valence
- Noble gases electrons
- Inert or non-reactive ○ Higher energy level, electrons are
- All shells are completely filled FARTHER from the nucleus
- 8 valence electrons ● LEFT to RIGHT
- Xenon and Krypton have compounds, but they ○ Outer shell is at the same level, but as
are unstable you go right there are more protons
GROUP 17 added
- Halogens Ionic Size
- Very reactive - CATION (+)
- Ionic charge of -1 ANION (-)
GROUP 16 - Ions are formed by losing or gaining electrons
- Chalcogens - Metallic elements readily form cations (LEFT
- Oxygen family SIDE)
- Less reactive than Group 17 - Non-metallic form anions (RIGHT SIDE)
- Charge is -2 - Cations are smaller than the parent atom
GROUP 15 - N family; +3, -5 ● The pull of the protons increases
GROUP 14 - C family; +4, -4 (divided between less electrons)
GROUP 13 - B family; -3, +5 - Anions are bigger than the parent atom
- ISOELECTRONIC SERIES
*METALLOIDS ● The more positive an ion, the smaller
- B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po it will be
- Has properties of both metals and nonmetals ● Conversely, the more negative, the
larger it will be
Transition Elements
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS Ionization Energy
- Generally radioactive - Energy required to remove an electron from an
- Composed of the Lanthanides and Actinides element (to make it positive or more positive)
OUTER TRANSITION ELEMENTS - First ionization energy: IE1 is the energy to
- Most are hard with high densities remove the FIRST ELECTRON
- Often magnetic ● Elements with small IE1 tend to form
- High melting and boiling points cations; and those with large IE1 form
anions
PERIODIC TRENDS ● Opposite with atomic radii
- Trends exist in some periodic properties Example:
- Physical and chemical behavior based on the Na or K → Na has a higher ionization energy
electron configurations
- electron configurations are used to explain
many of the repeating periodic properties of
the elements
- PERIODIC LAW: properties of element are a
function of their atomic number (also their
electron configurations)

Atomic Radii
- Radius of an atom cannot be measured directly *EXCEPTIONS
- Atom doesn’t have a defined boundary - Be (s2) to B (s2 p1) because s shields p
because the electrons are in a cloud ● Outer electrons can easily escape (low
IE)
● Trend goes the opposite
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- N (s2 p3) to O (s2 p4) because repulsions exist
between the first paired electrons
● There are breaks in the trend of
ionization energy
Electronegativity
- Ability of an element to attract electrons when
bonded with another atom
- Arbitrary scale: highest score is 4.0 for
Fluorine
- ENx < ENY
X-Y
OCTET RULE
- Octa = 8
- Elements aim to form a noble gas electron
configuration in order to achieve stability
- This is true for representative elements
- Transition metals are prone to have multiple
charges
- s + p orbitals: COMPLETELY FILLED
EQUALS 8
*EXCEPTIONS
- The ff elements: He, H, Li, Be, B want to form
a 1s2 configuration
- INCOMPLETE octet and SUPER octet (more
on these later)

LEWIS DOT DIAGRAMS

- Dots represent the electrons
- X = added electrons
- Convention: if there is a charge, use brackets
and label the charge on the outside (upper
NOBLE GAS ELECTRON CONFIGURATION right)
- Shorter notation that uses Group 18
- Useful for when the electron configuration is
long

He 2 1s2

Ne 10 2p6
IONIC BONDS
Ar 18 3p6
- Electron TRANSFER between a metal and
Kr 36 4p6 nonmetal
- Electronegativity difference (ED) determines
Xe 54 5p6 the type of chemical bond
> 1.7 = IONIC
Rn 80 6p6 < 1.7 = COVALENT
- Ignore the # of atoms when looking for ED
- After writing the noble gas in brackets, start
with the succeeding s orbital NaCl 2.1 Ionic
- For writing the NGEC a noble gases, use the
preceding one H2O 1.4 Covalent
Examples:
- N (7) BeCl2 1.5 Covalent
EC: Is2 2s2 2p3
NGEC: [He] 2s2 2p3
- Hg (80): [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10
- Ar (18): [Ne] 3s2 3p6

VALENCE ELECTRONS
- Outermost electrons
- Electrons on the s and p sublevels
- Group # gives the number of valence electrons
Ionic Compounds
- Ionic bond is found between the ions
(electrostatic attraction)
- Not between the transfer of electrons

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- Never call them molecules → FORMULA
UNITS
- NaCl → Sodium Chloride

- CATIONS: no need to draw the valence

electrons because the outer shell already either
has O or 8
ANIONS: still draw the electrons, including - CRYSTAL LATTICE STRUCTURE
the ones that are added ● Network of ions bound together
Examples: - Name of the compound is the CATION +
POTASSIUM SULFIDE ANION (ide)
- When writing the formula of ionic compounds,
do NOT include the charges
Examples:
K2O → Potassium Oxide
MAGNESIUM OXIDE Al2S3 → Aluminum Sulfide
Na3N → Sodium Nitride
Na2(CO3) → Sodium Carbonate

Stock System
- For metalloids with multiple charges, roman
SODIUM CHLORIDE
numerals represent the charge
- Initially, the ratio might be in lowest terms so
CHECK THE ANION to determine if the
charge is correct
Examples:
Criss Cross Method IRON (II) CHLORIDE: FeCl2 → Fe+2 Cl-1
CHROMIUM (II) OXIDE: CrO→ Cr+2 O+2

Polyatomic Ions
- Contain compounds, usually anions
- Such as oxides of nitrogen, sulfur and
phosphorous
C+m + A-n
- Combine to form the compound N S P
CnAm
- The ratio of n:m must be in lowest terms in Suffix (- NO2-1 SO3-2 PO3-3
order to ensure the # of atoms are correct ite)

Group Fixed Charge (Suffix - NO3-1 SO4-2 PO4-3

ate)
IA +1

IIA +2 - Also including oxyhalides (chlorate, borate,

iodate) with the formula where n is 1-4
IIIA +3 XOn-1
ClO-1 hypochlorite
IVA +4, -4

VA -3 ClO2-1 chlorite

VIA -2 ClO3-1 chlorate

VIIA -1 ClO4-1 perchlorate

Nomenclature for Acids

Naming & Formula Writing
IONIC BINARY ACIDS
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- Similar to ionic binary compounds, but the COVALENT BONDS
metal is replaced by Hydrogen (H) - Involves the SHARING of valence electrons
- HYDRO + ANION (ic acid) between two nonmetals
Examples: - Sharing is done simultaneously within the
Cl-1 (anion name: chloride) electron cloud
→ hydrochloric acid - A “transfer” is happening a million times per
Br-1 (anion name: bromide) second
→ hydrobromic acid - Each atom contributes one electron to form a
shared pair
IONIC TERNARY ACID ENDING WITH SUFFIX - - 0 < ED < 0.4 = NONPOLAR COV
IDE - 0.5 < ED < 1.7 = POLAR COV
- HYDRO + POLYATOMIC ION
- Drop the -ide, replace with
-ic acid
Examples:
CN-1 (anion name: cyanide)
→ hydrocyanic acid

IONIC TERNARY COMPOUNDS ENDING WITH

SUFFIX -ITE
- POLYATOMIC ION
- Drop the -ite, replace with -ous acid Types of Bonds
Examples: - # of shared pairs is equal to the # of bonds
ClO-1 (anion name: hypochlorite) ● SINGLE BOND
→ hypochlorous acid ● DOUBLE BOND
NO2-1 (anion name: nitrite) ● TRIPLE BOND
→ nitrous acid - There is a maximum of 3 shared pairs or 6
electrons
IONIC TERNARY COMPOUNDS ENDING WITH - Single bonds are LONGER than double and
SUFFIX -ATE triple bonds
- POLYATOMIC ION - The triple bond is the SHORTEST BOND
- Drop the -ate, replace with which is the least stable or most reactive
-ic acid - When drawing, one line = one bond = two
Examples: electrons
ClO3-1 (anion name: chlorate) - Attempts to follow the OCTET RULE to
→ chloric acid achieve a more stable state
ClO4-1 (anion name: perchlorate)
→ perchloric acid

Ionic Compound Properties

1) High melting point
● Due to the crystal lattice structure
● Difficult to vibrate all the atoms
2) Dissolves easily
● Aqueous or molten but does not melt
● Good electrical conductor Lewis Structures
● Can carry the charge in a circuit since
Group Bonding Pairs Non-bonding Pairs
the atoms can now move freely within
the solution C 4 0
3) High brittleness
● Ions of different charges next to each N 3 1
other separate easily
O 2 2

F 1 3

H 1 0

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*Examples:
Common IUPAC Name
Name

H2O water Dihydrogen monoxide

CH4 methane Carbon tetrahydride

N2O Nitrous Dinitrogen monoxide

oxide

NH3 ammonia Nitrogen trihydride

N2H4 hydrazine Dinitrogen tetrahydride

*Examples

Covalent Compound Properties

Exceptions to the Octet Rule
1) Hydrogen is an exception to the octet rule
since it tries to mimic Helium (only two
valence electrons) to achieve stability
2) Incomplete Octet
● Less than 8 electrons
● Result is that it is very reactive
● For example, B can only pair 3
electrons even if its needs 2 more
3) Super Octet
● More than 8 electrons
● Possible due to the d orbital
Naming & Formula Writing
- Name is the (PREFIX) CENTRAL ATOM +
(PREFIX) BONDED ATOM (-ide)
- The prefix mono- is not included for the
central atom
Number Greek Prefix
1) Low melting and boiling point
● Due to relatively weak intermolecular
forces
● Covalent compounds are usually
found at room temperature in 3 states
of matter
2) Inability to conduct electricity
● There are no charged particles that are
capable of transporting electrons
VSEPR THEORY
- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
- Outermost electrons consist of bonding and
nonbonding or lone pairs
- The ELECTRON REPULSION of lone pairs
is greater than that of bonding pairs
- Thus, atoms within a molecule will form a
specific geometry that MINIMIZES the
repulsion between them
- They can achieve this by positioning
themselves as far from each other as possible
- Take note that this is within THREE
DIMENSIONS

1 Mono- ELECTRON & MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

Electron Geometry
2 Di- - Generalized shape of the compound
- A → central atom
3 Tri- X → # of ELECTRON DOMAINS
- Electron domains include bonds and lone pairs
4 Tetra- AX2-6
Molecular Geometry
5 Penta- - Actual shape of the compound, taking into
consideration REPULSIVE FORCES
6 Hexa- - A → central atom
B → bonds
7 Hepta- E → lone pairs
8 Octa- AB2-6E0-3
Types
9 Nona- AX2
10 Deca-
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Mol. Shape Angle AB2E3 Linear 180
Geom

AB2 Linear 180

AX3

Mol. Geom Shape Angle

AB3 Trigonal Planar 120

AX6
AB2E Bent/V-shape <120
Mol. Geom Shape Angle

AB6 Octahedral 90

AB5E Square Pyramidal <90

AB4E2 Square Planar 90

AX4

Mol. Geom Shape Angle

AB4 Tetrahedral 109.5

AB3E Trigonal Pyramidal <109.5

HYBRIDIZATION
- Hybridization explains a compound’s
AB2E2 Bent/V-shape <109.5 molecular geometry based on its electron
configuration (valence)

Types of Bonds
SIGMA BOND (σ)
- Represents single bonds in the compound
- Head to head overlap of electron clouds
PI BOND (π)
- Represents double and triple bonds
- Side to side overlap of reserved electrons
AX5
Hybridized Orbitals
Mol. Geom Shape Angle
Electron Hybridization of Electron
AB5 Trigonal 90, 120 Domains the Geom
Bipyramidal Central Atom

AB4E See-Saw <90, <120 2 sp AX2

3 sp2 AX3
AB3E2 T-Shape <90

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4 sp3 AX4

5 sp3d AX5

6 sp3d2 AX6
Steps for Hybridization
1) Draw the Lewis Structure of the molecule and
count the # of electron domains of the
CENTRAL ATOM
2) Based on the # of electron domains, determine
the HYBRIDIZATION (ref. to table above)
3) Draw the ORBITAL DIAGRAM of the
valence electrons of the central atom
4) Encircle the orbitals to be hybridized and
reserve electrons as needed. Remember: Example:
● S subshell → 1 orbital Hybridization of Water
● P subshell → 3 orbitals
● D subshell → 5 orbitals
5) Draw the new HYBRIDIZED ORBITAL with
properly distributed electrons. Filled orbitals
indicate the # of lone pairs, while unpaired
electrons represent the sigma bonds.
*Note: In step 4, reserve electrons based on the # of π
bonds present in the compound
Example: Hybridization of an sp3 orbital
Step-by-Step
1) Formula is H2O
2) Oxygen is the central atom in the Lewis
structure and has 4 electron domains.

3) Thus, its hybridization is sp3.

Electron Cloud Notation 4) The orbital diagram of oxygen’s valence
- Shapes are similar to electron geometry electrons is:
- This notation shows the head to head and side
to side overlaps that occur during
hybridization
5) When hybridized, this becomes:

which shows that there are 2 lone pairs and 2

electrons available for bonding in its
molecular geometry.

MOLECULAR & BOND POLARITY

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- Bond polarity is determined by the
electronegativity difference (ED) of the
various atoms
-
0 < ED < 0.4 = NONPOLAR COV
0.5 < ED < 1.7 = POLAR COV
1.7 < ED = IONIC

- Molecular polarity is based on the VSEPR

Theory and a molecule’s geometry

Non-Polar Molecules
- Even distribution of electrons
- Atoms have no partial charge
- The net dipole moment is equal to ZERO.

Polar Molecules
- Electrons are attracted to a particular atom
- Uneven distribution of electrons
- Net dipole moment is NOT ZERO.

What is a DIPOLE MOMENT?

- It is the VECTOR that shows the tendency of
electrons to move towards the more
electronegative atom.
- Notation is an arrow with a plus sign at the
end.
Examples:

- For a molecule to be non-polar, the sum of all

these vectors MUST EQUAL ZERO.
- Dipole moments cancel out in 2 situations:
1) Two vectors in the opposite direction
are exactly 180° apart
2) All vectors are of equal distance from
each other.
Examples:
BF3 CO2

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