Rock Property - Texas PDF

" In The Name Of God "
Petroleum
University Of Mehdi
Technology Imanian
Najafabadi
Course Notes
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for
Petroleum Engineering 311

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Reservoir Petrophysics
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Authors:
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1980 — Von Gonten, W.D.
1986 — McCain, W.D., Jr.
1990 — Wu, C.H.
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PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 311

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RESERVOIR PETROPHYSICS
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CLASS NOTES (1992)

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Instructor/Author:
Ching H. Wu
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DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

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TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE STATION, TEXAS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. ROCK POROSITY I-1

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I) Definition I-1
II) Classification I-1
III) Range of values of porosity I-2
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VI) Factors affecting porosity I-3
V) Measurement of porosity I-5
VI) Subsurface measurement of porosity I-13
VII) Compressibility of porous rocks I-25
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II. SINGLE PHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCK II-1
I) Darcy's equation II-11

II) Reservoir systems II-15
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III. BOUNDARY TENSION AND CAPILLARY PRESSURE III-11
I) Boundary tension III-1

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II) Wettability III-3
III) Capillary pressure III-5
IV) Relationship between capillary pressure and saturation III-13
V) Relationship between capillary pressure and saturation history III-14
VI) Capillary pressure in reservoir rock III-17
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VII) Laboratory measurement of capillary pressure III-19

VIII) Converting laboratory data to reservoir conditions III-25
IX) Determining water saturation in reservoir from capillary pressure data III-27
X) Capillary pressure variation III-29
XI) Averaging capillary pressure data III-31
IV. FLUID SATURATIONS IV-1

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I) Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation IV-1

II) Methods for determining fluid saturations IV-1
V. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK-FLUID SYSTEMS V-1

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I) Electrical conductivity of fluid saturated rock V-1

II) Use of electrical Formation Resistivity Factor, Cementation Factor, and
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Saturation Exponent V-8

III) Laboratory measurement of electrical properties of rock V-9
IV) Effect of clay on resistivity V-18
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VI. MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCK VI-1
I) Effective permeability VI-1

II) Relative permeability VI-2
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III) Typical relative permeability curves VI-2

IV) Permeability ratio (relative permeability ratio) VI-14
V) Measurement of relative permeability VI-14
VI) Uses of relative permeability data VI-33
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VII. STATISTICAL MEASURES VII-1
I) Introduction VII-1
II) Frequency Distributions VII-2
III) Histogram VII-3
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IV) Cumulative Frequency Distributions VII-6
V) Normal Distribution VII-8
VI) Log Normal Distribution VII-9
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VII) Measures of Central Tendency VII-10
VIII) Measures of Variability (dispersion) VII-11
IX) Normal Distribution VII-12
X) Log Normal Distribution VII-16
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I. ROCK POROSITY
I) Definition
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A measure of the pore space available for the storage of fluids in
rock
eh
In general form:
Vp Vb - Vm
Porosity = φ = =
di
Vb Vb
where:
φ is expressed in fraction
Im
Vb = Vp + Vm
Vb = bulk volume of reservoir rock, (L3)
Vp = pore volume, (L3)
an
Vm= matrix volume, (L3)

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II) Classification
A. Primary (original) Porosity
Developed at time of deposition

Na
B. Secondary Porosity
Developed as a result of geologic process

occurring after deposition
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C. Total Porosity
total pore space Vb - Vm

φt = =
fa
Vb Vb
D. Effective Porosity
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interconnected pore space

φe =
Vb
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1. Clean sandstones: φe = φt
2. Carbonate, cemented sandstones: φe < φt
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VI) Factors affecting porosity
A. Factors:
1. Particle shape
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2. Particle arrangement
3. Particle size distribution
4. Cementation
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5. Vugs and fractures
B. Particle shape
Porosity increases as particle uniformity decreases.

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C. Packing Arrangement
Porosity decreases as compaction increases

Im
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EFFECT OF NATURAL COMPACTION ON POROSITY
(FROM KRUMBEIN AND SLOSS.)
50
ian
40
SANDSTONES
Na
30
POROSITY, %
ja
20
fa
SHALES
10
ba
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
di
DEPTH OF BURIAL, ft
I-3
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D. Particle Size Distribution
Porosity decreases as the range of particle size increases

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SAND SILT CLAY
eh
100 CLEAN SAND
FRAMEWORK
FRACTION SHALY SAND
di
WEIGHT %
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INTERSTITIAL MATERIALS
AND MUD FRAGMENTS
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0
1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001
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GRAIN SIZE DIAMETER, MM
E. Interstitial and Cementing Material

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1. Porosity decreases as the amount of interstitial material increases
2. Porosity decreases as the amount of cementing material increases

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3. Clean sand - little interstitial material

Shaly sand - has more interstitial material
fa
F. Vugs, Fractures
1. Contribute substantially to the volume of pore spaces

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2. Highly variable in size and distribution
3. There could be two or more systems of pore openings - extremely complex

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V) Measurement of porosity
Vb - Vm Vp
φ= =
Vb Vb
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Table of matrix densities
ρ m (g/cm3)
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Lithology
___________ ___________
Quartz 2.65
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Limestone 2.71
Dolomite 2.87
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A. Laboratory measurement
1. Conventional core analysis

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a. measure any two
1) bulk volume, Vb
2) matrix volume, Vm
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3) pore volume, Vp
b. bulk volume
1) calculate from dimensions

2) displacement method
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a) volumetric (measure volume)
(1) drop into liquid and observe volume charge

of liquid
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(2) must prevent test liquid from entering pores

space of sample
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(a) coat with paraffin

(b) presaturate sample with test liquid
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(c) use mercury as test liquid
b) gravimetric (measure mass)
(1) Change in weight of immersed sample-

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prevent test liquid from entering pore space
(2) Change in weight of container and test fluid

when sample is introduced
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c. matrix volume
1) assume grain density
dry weight
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Vm =
matrix density
2) displacement method
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Reduce sample to particle size, then
a) volumetric
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b) gravimetric
3) Boyle's Law: P1V1 = P 2V2

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a)
P(1)
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V(1)
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VALVE CLOSED
b) Put core in second chamber, evacuate

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c) Open valve
P(2)
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CORE
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VALVE OPEN
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V2 = Volumetric of first chamber &

volume of second chamber-matrix
volume or core ( calculated)
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VT = Volume of first chamber +

volume second chamber (known)
4) Vm =V T - V2
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d. pore volume
1) gravimetric
saturated weight - dry weight

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Vp =
density of saturated fluid
2) Boyle's Law: P1V1 = P 2V2

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a)
di
P(1)
Im
V(1) CORE
VALVE CLOSED
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b) Put core in Hassler sleeve, evacuate

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c) Open valve
P(2)
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V(1) CORE
VALVE OPEN
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V2 = Volume of first chamber + pore

volume of core (calculated)
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3) Vp = V2 - V1
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2. Application to reservoir rocks
a. intergranular porosity
(sandstone, some carbonates)
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1) use representative plugs from whole core in
laboratory measurements
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2) don't use sidewall cores
b. secondary porosity
(most carbonates)
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1) use whole core in laboratory measurements
2) calculate bulk volume from measurements

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3) determine matrix or pore volume from
Boyle's Law procedure
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Example I-1
A core sample coated with paraffin was immersed in a Russell tube. The dry sample weighed 20.0
gm. The dry sample coated with paraffin weighed 20.9 gm. The paraffin coated sample displaced
10.9 cc of liquid. Assume the density of solid paraffin is 0.9 gm/cc. What is the bulk volume of
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the sample?
eh
Solution:
Weight of paraffin coating = 20.9 gm - 20.0 gm = 0.9 gm

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Volume of paraffin coating = 0.9 gm / (0.9 gm/cc) = 1.0 cc
Bulk volume of sample = 10.9 cc - 1.0 cc = 9.9 cc

Im
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Example I-2
The core sample of problem I-1 was stripped of the paraffin coat, crushed to grain size, and
immersed in a Russell tube. The volume of the grains was 7.7 cc. What was the porosity of the
sample? Is this effective or total porosity.
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Solution:
Bulk Volume = 9.9 cc

Na
Matrix Volume = 7.7 cc
V - Vm 9.9 cc- 7.7 cc

φ= b = = 0.22
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Vb 9.9 cc
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It is total porosity.
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Example I-3
Calculate the porosity of a core sample when the following information is available:
Dry weight of sample = 427.3 gm

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Weight of sample when saturated with water = 448.6 gm
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Density of water = 1.0 gm/cm3
Weight of water saturated sample immersed in

water = 269.6 gm
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Solution:
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Vp = sat. core wt. in air - dry core wt.

density of water
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Vp = 448.6 gm - 427.3 gm
1 gm/cm3
21.3 cm3
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Vp =
Vb = sat. core wt. in air - sat. core wt. in water

density of water
Vb = 448.6 gm - 269.6 gm
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1 gm/cm3
Vb = 179.0 cm3
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Vp
φ = = 21.3 cm3 = .119
Vb 179.0 cm3
fa
φ = 11.9%
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What is the lithology of the sample?
Vm = Vb - Vp
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Vm = 179.0 cm3 - 21.3 cm3 = 157.7 cm 3
eh
ρm = wt. of dry sample = 427.3 gm = 2.71 gm/(cm3)
matrix vol. 157.7 cm3
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The lithology is limestone.
Is the porosity effective or total? Why?

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Effective, because fluid was forced into the pore space.
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Na
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Example I-4
A carbonate whole core (3 inches by 6 inches, 695 cc) is placed in cell two of a Boyles
Law device. Each of the cells has a volume of 1,000 cc. Cell one is pressured to 50.0 psig. Cell
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two is evacuated. The cells are connected and the resulting pressure is 28.1 psig. Calculate the
porosity of the core.
eh
Solution:
di
P V = P V
1 1 2 2
V = 1,000 cc
1
Im
P = 50 psig + 14.7 psia = 64.7 psia
1
P = 28.1 psig + 14.7 = 42.8 psia

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2
V = (64.7 psia) (1,000 cc) / (42.8 psia)

2
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V = 1,512 cc
2
V = VT - V2
m
V = 2,000 cc - 1,512 cc - 488 cc

m
Na
VT - Vm 695 cc - 488 cc
φ = = = .298 = 29.8%
VT 695 cc
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I - 12
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VI) Subsurface measurement of porosity
A. Types of logs from which porosity can be derived
1. Density log:
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ρ -ρ
φd = m L
ρm - ρf
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2. Sonic log:
∆tL - ∆tm
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φs =
∆tf - ∆tm
3. Neutron log:
Im
e-kφ = CNf
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Table of Matrix Properties
(Schlumberger, Log Interpretation Principles, Volume I)
∆tm µsec/ft ρ m gm/cc

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Lithology
Sandstone 55.6 2.65
Limestone 47.5 2.71
Dolomite 43.5 2.87

Na
Anhydrite 50.0 2.96
Salt 67.0 2.17

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Water 189.0 1.00

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I - 13
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B. Density Log
1. Measures bulk density of formation

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M UD CAKE
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FORM ATION
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GAM M A RAY
SOURCE
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SHORT SPACE
DETECTOR
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LONG SPACE
DETECTOR
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Na
2. Gamma rays are stopped by electrons - the denser the rock the fewer gamma
ja
rays reach the detector
3. Equation
fa
ρL = ρm 1 - φ + ρf φ
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ρ -ρ
φd = m L
ρm - ρf
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I - 14
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FORMATION DENSITY LOG
ρ, gm/cc
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GR, API depth, ft
4100
eh
4120
di
4140
Im
4160
an
4180
ian
4200
Na
4220
ja
4240
0 40 80 120 160 200 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
fa
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I - 15
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Example I-5
Use the density log to calculate the porosity for the following intervals assuming ρ matrix = 2.68
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gm/cc and ρ fluid = 1.0 gm/cc.
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Interval, ft ρ φd ,%
L, gm/cc
__________ _________ ______
4143-4157 2.375 18
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4170-4178 2.350 20
4178-4185 2.430 15
4185-4190 2.400 17
4197-4205 2.680 0
Im
4210-4217 2.450 14
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Example:
Interval 4,143 ft -4,157 ft :

ian
ρ = 2.375 gm/cc
L
ρ -ρ 2.68 gm/cc - 2.375 gm/cc

φd = m L = = 0.18
ρm - ρf 2.68 gm/cc - 1.0 gm/cc
Na
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I - 16
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C. Sonic Log
1. Measures time required for compressional sound waves to travel through

one foot of formation
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eh
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T A
B
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C
R1
D
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E
R2
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Na
2. Sound travels more slowly in fluids than in solids. Pore space is filled with
fluids. Travel time increases as porosity increases.
3. Equation
ja
∆tL = ∆tm 1 - φ + ∆tf φ (Wylie Time Average Equation)

fa
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di
I - 17
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SONIC LOG
GR, API depth, ft ∆T, µ seconds/ft

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4100
eh
4120
di
4140
Im
4160
an
4180
ian
4200
Na
4220
4240
ja
0 100 200 140 120 100 80 60 40

fa
ba
di
I - 18
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Example I-6
Use the Sonic log and assume sandstone lithology to calculate the porosity for the following
intervals.
M
φs ,%
Interval ∆tL
eh
(ft) µ second/ft
4,144-4,150 86.5 25
di
4,150-4,157 84.0 24
4,171-4,177 84.5 24
Im
4,177-4,187 81.0 21
4,199-4,204 53.5 1
an
4,208-4,213 75.0 17
Example:
ian
Interval 4144 ft - 4150 ft :
∆tL = 86.5 µ-sec/ft
∆tL - ∆tm 86.5 µ sec/ft- 51.6 µ sec/ft

φs = = = 0.25
∆tf - ∆tm 189.0 µ sec/ft- 51.6 µ sec/ft
Na
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I - 19
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D. Neutron Log
1. Measures the amount of hydrogen in the formation (hydrogen index)

M
Maximum
Average Energy
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Number Loss/ Atomic Atomic
Element Collisions Collision, % Collision Number
Calcium 371 8 40.1 20

di
Chlorine 316 10 35.5 17
Silicone 261 12 28.1 14
Oxygen 150 21 16.0 8
Carbon 115 28 12.0 6
Hydrogen 18 100 1.0 1
Im
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CLEAN SAND POROSITY = 15% CLEAN SAND POROSITY = 15%

SLOWING DOWN POWER
RELATIVE PROBABILITY
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103 1
O
FOR COLLISION
102 10-1
Si H
10 10-2
O
H
Si
1 10-3
Na
.1 1 10 102 10 3 10 4 105 106 107 .1 1 10 102 10 3 10 4 105 106 107

NEUTRON ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTS NEUTRON ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTS
ja
2. In clean, liquid filled formations, hydrogen index is directly proportional to

porosity. Neutron log gives porosity directly.
fa
3. If the log is not calibrated, it is not very reliable for determining porosity.
Run density log to evaluate porosity, lithology, and gas content.
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I - 20
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NEUTRON DENSITY LOG
GR, API φ (CDL)

M
depth, ft
4100
eh
4120
di
4140
Im
4160
an
4180
ian
4200
Na
4220
ja
4240
0 200 30 -10
fa
ba
di
I - 21
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Example I-7
Use the neutron log to determine porosity for the following intervals.
M
Solution:
eh
Interval φ
n
(ft) (%) .
di
4,143-4,149 23
4,149-4,160 20
Im
4,170-4,184 21
4,198-4,204 9
an
4,208-4,214 19
ian
Na
ja fa
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I - 22
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Example I-8
Calculate the porosity and lithology of the Polar No. 1 drilled in Lake Maracaibo. The depth of
interest is 13,743 feet. A density log and a sonic log were run in the well in addition to the
standard Induction Electric Survey (IES) survey.
M
The readings at 13,743 feet are:
eh
bulk density = 2.522 gm/cc
travel time = 62.73 µ-sec/ft
di
Solution:
Assume fresh water in pores.

Im
Assume sandstone:
ρ m = 2.65 gm/cc
an
∆tm = 55.5 µ-sec/ft
ρ -ρ
ian
2.65 gm/cc - 2.522 gm/cc
φd = m L = = 7.76%
∆tL - ∆tm 62.73 µ sec/ft- 55.5 µ sec/ft

φs = = = 5.42%
∆tf - ∆tm 189.0 µ sec/ft - 55.5 µ sec/ft
Na
Assume limestone:
ρm = 2.71 gm/cc
ja

fa
ρ -ρ 2.71 gm/cc - 2.522 gm/cc

φd = m L = = 10.99%
ba
∆tL - ∆tm 62.73 µ sec/ft - 47.5 µ sec/ft

φs = = = 10.76%
di
I - 23
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Assume dolomite:
ρm = 2.87 gm/cc
M
eh
ρ -ρ 2.87 gm/cc - 2.522 gm/cc
φd = m L= = 18.619%
di
∆tL - ∆tm 62.73 µ sec/ft - 43.5 µ sec/ft
φs = = = 13.22%
Im
φlimestone = 11%
Since both logs "read" nearly the same porosity when a limestone lithology was
assumed then the hypothesis that the lithology is limestone is accepted.
an
Are the tools measuring total or effective porosity? Why?
The density log measures total compressibility because is "sees" the entire rock
ian
volume,including all pores. The sonic log tends to measure the velocity of
compressional waves that travel through interconnected pore structures as well as the
rock matrix. The general consensus is that the sonic log measures effective porosity
when we use the Wyllie "time-average" equation.
It is expected that the effective porosity is always less than ,or equal to,the total
porosity.
Na
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I - 24
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VII) Compressibility of porous rocks
Compressibility, c is the fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure:
∆V
M
∂V V T
c=- 1 ≅ -
V ∂P T ∆P
eh
A. Normally pressured reservoirs
1. Downward force by the overburden must be balanced by upward force of

the matrix and the fluid
di
Fo
Im
an
Fm Ff
ian
2. Thus,
Fo = Fm + Ff
Na
it follows that
Po = pm + pf
ja
3. Po ≅ 1.0 psi/ft
fa
Pf ≅ 0.465 psi/ft
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I - 25
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4. As fluid is produced from a reservoir, the fluid pressure,

Pf will usually decrease:
a. the force on the matrix increases

M
b. causing a decrease in bulk volume
c. and a decrease in pore volume
eh
B. Types of compressibility
1. Matrix Compressibility, cm
di
cm ≅ 0
2. Bulk Compressibility cb
Im
used in subsidence studies
3. Formation Compressibility, cf - also called pore volume compressibility

an
a. important to reservoir engineers
1) depletion of fluid from pore spaces

2) internal rock stress changes
ian
3) change in stress results in change in
Vp, Vm, Vb
4) by definition
∂Vp
cf = - 1
Na
Vp ∂pm
b. since overburden pressure, Po, is constant
dPm = - dP f
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1) Thus,
∂Vp
cf = - 1
Vp ∂pm
M
2) where the subscript of f on cf means
"formation" and the subscript of f on Pf
eh
means "fluid"
3) procedure
di
(a) measure volume of liquid expelled as a
function of "external" pressure
(b) "external" pressure may be taken to

represent overburden pressure, Po
Im
(c) fluid pressure, pf, is essentially constant, thus,
dPo = dP m
an
(d) expelled volume increases as pore

volume, vp, decreases, thus,
ian
dVp = - dVexpelled
(e) from definition
∂Vp
cf = - 1
Vp ∂pm
Na
it follows that
∆ Vp expelled
cf = + 1
ja
Vp ∆Po
fa
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di
I - 27
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(f) plot
M
eh
VOLUME EXPELLED
di
PORE VOLUME
CUMULATIVE
Im
an
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE, psi

ian
Na
slope = cf.
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C. Measurement of compressibility
1) Laboratory core sample
a) apply variable internal and external pressures

M
b) internal rock volume changes
eh
2) Equipment
Internal
di
Pressure
Gauge
Im
Hydraulic
Pump
an
Mercury Sight Gauge

ian
Overburden
Pressure
Gauge
Na
Hydraulic
Pump
ja
Copper - Jacketed
Core
fa
ba
Apparatus for measuring pore volume compressibility (hydrostatic)

di
I - 29
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Example I-9
Given the following lab data, calculate the pore volume compressibility for a sandstone sample at
4,000 and 6,000 psi.
M
pore volume = 50.0 cc
eh
pressure, psi vol. fluid expelled, cc
1000 0.244
2000 0.324
3000 0.392
di
4000 0.448
5000 0.500
6000 0.546
7000 0.596
Im
8000 0.630
Solution:
an
from graph
@ 4,000 psi:
Slope = 0.009
ian
4000 psi
cf = 2.25 X 10-6 1
psi
@ 6000 psi:
Na
Slope = 0.011
6000 psi
= 1.83 X 10-6 1
ja
cf
psi
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I - 30
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0.015
M
VOLUME EXPELLED, cc
PORE VOLUME, cc
0.010
eh
di
0.005
Im
0.000
an
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
COMPACTION PRESSURE, psi

ian
Na
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I - 31
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PORE-VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY AT 75 %
LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE VS INITIAL SAMPLE
POROSITY FOR CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES.
PORE VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY X 10-6 psi-1

100
M
CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES
eh
di
10
Im
HALL'S CORRELATION
an
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
INITIAL POROSITY AT ZERO NET PRESSURE, %

ian
PORE-VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY AT 75 %
LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE VS INITIAL SAMPLE
POROSITY FOR UNCONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES.
PORE VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY X 10-6 psi-1
100
Na
UNCONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES
ja
10
fa
HALL'S CORRELATION
ba
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
di
INITIAL POROSITY AT ZERO NET PRESSURE, %
I - 32
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Petroleum
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E. Abnormally pressured reservoirs
"abnormal pressure": fluid pressures greater than or less than the hydrostatic fluid
pressure expected from an assumed linear pressure gradient
M
PRESSURE
eh
di
NORMAL LINEAR
Im
an
DEPTH
SUBNORMAL
(LOWER)
ian
Na
SURNORMAL
(GREATER)
ja fa
ba
di
I - 33
Page 37 / 224
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Compressibility/Porosity Problem No. 1
A limestone sample weighs 241.0 gm. The limestone sample coated with paraffin was found to
weigh 249.5 gm. The coated sample when immersed in a partially filled graduated cylinder
displaced 125.0 cc of water. The density of the paraffin is 0.90 gm/cc.
M
What is the porosity of the rock? Does the process measure total or effective porosity?
eh
Solution:
di
wt. dry 241.0 gm
Vm = = = 88.9 cc
ρ ls 2.71 gm/cc
Im
wt. coated sample - st. uncoated sample

Vparaffin =
ρ
an
249.5 gm - 241.0 gm
Vparaffin = = 9.4 cc
0.90 gm/cc
ian
Vb = 125 cc - 9.4 cc = 115.6 cc
Vp = Vb - Vm
Vp = 115.6 cc - 88.9 cc - 26.7 cc

Na
Vp 26.7 cc
φ = = = 0.231
Vb 115.6 cc
ja
φ = 23.1% (total porosity)

fa
ba
di
I - 34
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You are furnished with the results of a sieve analysis of a core from Pete well #1. Previous
laboratory work indicates there is a correlation between grain size and porosity displayed by those
particular particles. The correlation is seen below:
M
gravel - 25% porosity
eh
coarse sand - 38% porosity
fine sand - 41% porosity

di
What would be the minimum porosity of the mixture?
What basic assumption must be made in order to work the problem?
Im
Solution:
Begin calculation with a volume of 1 cu. ft.

an
remaining remaining
pore matrix
component volume porosity volume
ian
(ft3) (%) (ft3)

___
void space 1.000 100.0 0.000
gravel 0.250 25.0 0.750

Na
coarse sand 0.095 9.5 0.905
fine sand 0.039 3.9 0.961

ja
Final porosity - 3.9%
(Complete mixing of the grains)

fa
ba
di
I - 35
Page 39 / 224
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A sandstone reservoir has an average thickness of 85 feet and a total volume of 7,650 acre-feet.
Density log readings through the fresh water portion of the reservoir indicate a density of 2.40
gm/cc.
M
The Highgrade #1 Well was drilled and cored through the reservoir. A rock sample was sent to the
laboratory and the following tests were run.
eh
pressure cum. pore vol. change
(psig) (-cc)_________
1,000 0.122
2,000 0.162
di
3,000 0.196
4,000 0.224
5,000 0.250
6,000 0.273
Im
7,000 0.298
8,000 0.315
The dry weight of the core sample was found to be 140 gm while the sample dimensions were
an
1.575 inches long and 1.960 inches in diameter.
Assuming the compressibility at 4,500 psi is the average compressibility in the reservoir, how
much subsidence occurs when the reservoir pressure declines from 5,500 psi to 3,500 psi?
ian
Calculate:
A. Reservoir Porosity
B. Sample Pore Volume

Na
C. Compressibility at 4,500 psi
D. Amount of Ground Subsidence.

ja
Solution:
A. Reservoir Porosity
fa
ρ -ρ
φ = m L = 2.65 - 2.40 = 15.22%
ρ m - ρ f 2.65 - 1.00
ba
di
I - 36
Page 40 / 224
Petroleum
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B. Sample Pore Volume
L = (1.575 in) (2.54 cm/in) = 4.0 cm

M
D = (1.960 in) (2.54 cm/in) = 5.0 cm
3.14 5.0 2 4.0

= bulk volume = πD h =
2
eh
Vb = 78.5 cc
4 4.0
Vm = matrix volume = 140 gm cc = 52.8 cc
2.65 gm
di
Vp = Vb - Vm = 78.5 cc - 52.8 cc
Vp = 25.7 cc
Im
C. Compressibility (see graph)
Vp = 25.7 cc
an
D. Subsidence
ian
∆H = H cp φ ∆P
∆H = 85 ft 9.69x 10 -7 psi-1 0.152 2,000 psi
∆H = 0.026 ft
Na
∆H = 0.32 inches
Note: the pore volume (formation) compressibility is somewhat smaller than usually
ja
encountered. An experienced engineer would be wary of this small number. Also it was
assumed that the formation compressibility was exactly the same as the bulk volume
compressibility. Experience shows that this is not the case.
fa
ba
di
I - 37
Page 41 / 224
Petroleum
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POROSITY PROBLEM No. 3

M
0.0140
eh
.0118 - .0068
SLOPE =
0.0120 7000 - 2000
VOLUME EXPELLED, cc
di
C p = 9.96 x 10-7 psi -1
PORE VOLUME, cc
0.0100
Im
0.0080
an
0.0060
ian
0.0040
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
PRESSURE, psig
Na
ja fa
ba
di
I - 38
Page 42 / 224
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Compressibility Problem
A 160-acre and 100 ft thick reservoir has a porosity of 11%. The pore compressibility is 5.0 x 10-
M
6 (1/psi). If the pressure decreases 3,000 psi, what is the subsidence (ft)? Assume Cf = Cb
eh
Solution:
A = 160 (43,560) = 6,969,600 ft2

di
Vb = 100 (6,969,600) = 696,960,000 ft3
Vp = Vb(f) = (696,960,000) (.11) = 76,665,600 ft3

Im
dVp
Cp = - 1
Vp dp
an
dVp
5 x 10-6 (1/psi) = -1
76,665,600 ft3 3,000 psi
ian
dVp = 1.15 x 106 ft3
∆H = 1.15 x 106 ft3 x 1 = 0.165 ft

6,969,600 ft2
Na
ja fa
ba
di
I - 39
Page 43 / 224
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II. SINGLE PHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCK
I) Darcy's equation (1856)

M
A. Water flow through sand filters
eh
q A
di
h 1 - h2
Im
h1
an
Z
h2
ian
WATER
Na
SAND
ja
DARCY'S FOUNTAIN.
kA(h1 - h2)
fa
q=
µL
Length of sand pack,L = Z
ba
1. constant of proportionality, k, characteristics of particular sand pack, not

sample size
di
2. Darcy's work confined to sand packs that were 100% saturated with water
3. equation extended to include other liquids using viscosity
II - 1
Page 44 / 224
Petroleum
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kA(h1 - h2)
q=
µL
M
B. Generalized form of Darcy's equation
eh
1. Equation
ρg
vs = -k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
di
+Z
Im
90o 180o 270o 360o

+1
an
Vs
s
Θ
+X
ian
-Z
-1
+Y θ
Na
2. Nomenclature
vs = superficial velocity (volume flux along

path s) - cm/sec
ja
vs/φ = interstitial velocity - cm/sec

fa
ρ = density of flowing fluid - gm/cm3

ba
g = acceleration of gravity - 980 cm/sec2
dP = pressure gradient along s - atm/cm

ds
di
µ = viscosity - centipoise
k = permeability - darcies
II - 2
Page 45 / 224
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3. Conversion factors
dyne = gm cm/sec2 = a unit of force

M
atm = 1.0133 x 106 dyne/cm2
ρgh = dyne/cm2 = a unit of pressure

eh
poise = gm/cm sec = dyne sec/cm2
di
4. The dimensions of permeability
L = length
Im
m = mass
t = time
vs = L/t
an
µ = m/Lt
ρ = m/L3
ian
p = m/Lt2
g = L/t2
Na
dp ρg
vs = - k - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
L = - k m/Lt2 - m/L3 L/t2 L

ja
t m/Lt L L
k = L2 = cross-sectional area
fa
ba
di
II - 3
Page 46 / 224
Petroleum
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5. Definition of Darcy units
a. conventional units would be:
1) feet squared in the English system

M
2) centimeter squared in the cgs system
eh
b. both are too large for use in porous media
c. definition of darcy
di
A porous medium has a permeability of one darcy when a single-phase fluid of one
centipoise that completely fills the voids of the medium will flow through it under conditions of
viscous flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per second per square centimeter cross-sectional area
under a pressure or equivalent hydraulic gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter.
Im
k A P1 - P2
q =
µL
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 4
Page 47 / 224
Petroleum
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II) Reservoir systems
A. Flow of incompressible liquid
1. Horizontal, linear flow system

M
eh
A
q q
di
P1 P2
Im
L
an
a. Conditions
ian
dz
1) horizontal system, ds = 0
2) linear system, A = constant
3) incompressible liquid, q = constant

Na
4) laminar flow, can use Darcy's equation
5) non-reactive fluid, k = constant

ja
6) 100% saturated with one fluid
7) constant temperature, µ, q
fa
ba
di
II - 5
Page 48 / 224
Petroleum
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b. derivation of flow equation
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
M
q
vs = - k dP =
µ ds A
eh
L p2
q ds = - kA dP
µ p
0 1
di
qL-0 = - kA P2 - P1
µ
Im
q = kA P2 - P1
Lµ
Note: P1 acts at L = 0
an
P2 acts at L = L
q is + if flow is from L = 0 to L = L
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 6
Page 49 / 224
Petroleum
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Example II-1
What is the flow rate of a horizontal rectangular system when the conditions are as follows:
M
permeability = k = 1 darcy
area = A = 6 ft2
eh
viscosity = µ = 1.0 cp
length = L = 6 ft
di
inlet pressure = P1 = 5.0 atm
outlet pressure = P2 = 2.0 atm

Im
Solution:
an
We must insure all the variables are in the correct units.
k = 1 darcy
ian
A = 6 ft2 (144 in2/1 ft2) (6.45 cm2/1 in2) = 5572.8 cm 2
L = 6 ft (12 in/1 ft) (2.54 cm/1 in) = 182.88 cm
P1 = 5.0 atm
Na
P2 = 2.0 atm
q = kA P2 - P1
Lµ
ja
q = (1) (5,572.8) (5.0 - 2.0)

(1) (182.88)
fa
q = 91.42 cm 3/sec
ba
di
II - 7
Page 50 / 224
Petroleum
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2. Non-horizontal, linear system

M
-Z P2
eh
di
S
Θ
Im
X
an
P1
ian
a. Conditions
dz = sinθ
1) non-horizontal system, ds = constant

Na
4) laminar flow, use Darcy equation

ja

fa
7) constant temperature µ, q
ba
di
II - 8
Page 51 / 224
Petroleum
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b. derivation of equation
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
M
q k ρg sin θ
vs = - = - k dP +
A µ ds µ 1.0133 x 10 6
eh
L P2 L
kA ρg sin θ
q ds = - kA dp + ds
µ µ 1.0133 x 10 6
0 P1 0
di
ρgLsinθ
Im
q = - kA P1 - P2 +
µL 1.0133 x 10 6
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 9
Page 52 / 224
Petroleum
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3. Vertical, upward flow, linear system

FLOW UNDER
HEAD h
M
h
eh
x
di
Im
L
an
ian
a. Conditions
dz
Na
1) vertical system, ds = sinθ = constant
2) upward flow, q = 270°, sinθ = - 1

ja

fa

ba
8) constant temperature, µ
di
II - 10
Page 53 / 224
Petroleum
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b. derivation of flow equation
k dP - ρg dz
vs =
µ
M
ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
q ρg
vs = = - k dP +
µ
eh
A ds 1.0133 x 10 6
kA P1 - P2 ρg
q = -
µ L 1.0133 x 10 6
di
ρg (h + x + L)
P1 = -
1.0133 x 10 6
ρg x
Im
P2 =
1.0133 x 10 6
P1 - P2 ρg h ρg
= +
an
L 1.0133 x 10 6 L 1.0133 x 10 6
ρg h ρg ρg
ian
q = kA + -
µ 1.0133 x 10 6 L 1.0133 x 10 6 1.0133 x 10 6
ρg h
q = kA
µL 1.0133 x 10 6
Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 11
Page 54 / 224
Petroleum
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4. Horizontal, radial flow system

M
re
Pw
eh
Pe
rw
di
Im
re rw
an
h
ian
a. Conditions
dz
Na
2) radial system, A = 2πrh , ds = - dr, flow is inward
3) constant thickness, h = constant

ja

fa
7) 100% saturated with liquid,

ba
8) constant temperature, µ, q
di
II - 12
Page 55 / 224
Petroleum
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b. Derivation of flow Equation
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
M
q q
vs = + k dP = =
µ dr A 2πrh
eh
re pe
q dr = k dp
2πh r µ
rw pw
di
q
1n(re) - 1n( rw) = k Pe - Pw
2πh µ
Im
q = 2πhk P - Pw
µ 1n (re/rw) e
Note: if q is + , flow is from r e to rw

an
B. Flow of gas (compressible fluid)
1. horizontal, linear flow system

ian
A
q q
P1 P2
Na
L
ja
a. Conditions
dz
fa

ba
3) compressible gas flow, q = f(p)

di
5) non-reactive fluid, k= constant
7) constant temperature
II - 13
Page 56 / 224
Petroleum
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b. Assumptions
1) µ, Z = constant
M
2) Z(and µ ) can be determined at mean pressure
c. Derivation of equation for qsc

eh
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
di
q
vs = - k dP =
µ ds Ads
but
Im
Psc qscz T
q =
PTsc
an
thus
L p2
Psc T qsc PdP
ds = - k
Tsc A µz
ian
o p1
Psc T qsc P22 - P12

L -0 = - k
Tsc A µz 2
2
P21 - P2
Na
qsc = kA Tsc
µL Tz Psc 2
Note: real gas equation of state

ja
Pq = ZnRT
where q = volumetric flow/time

fa
n = mass flow/time
thus,
Pq
ba
= ZnRT
Pscqsc n R Tsc
Psc qscz T 1
q =
Tsc P
di
where qsc is constant
Z is determined at P, T
II - 14
Page 57 / 224
Petroleum
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d. Derivation of equation for q

2
kA Tsc P1 - P22
M
qsc =
µL Tz Psc 2
but
eh
P q Tsc Tsc P12 - P22
qsc = = k A
Z Psc T µL T z Psc 2
di
q = k A 1 P12 - P22
µL P 2
P12 - P22
Im
q = k A 2
µL P1 + P 2 2
q = k A P - P
µL 1 2
an
This equation is identical to the equation for horizontal, linear flow of incompressible liquid
ian
thus
if gas flow rate is determined at mean pressure, P, the equation for incompressible liquid
can be used for compressible gas!
Note: real gas equation of state

Na
Pq = ZnRT
thus
Psc qsc n R Tsc

ja
=
Pq znRT
fa
where
P1 + P 2
P =
ba
2
P = volumetric flow rate at P, T
z is determined at P, T
di
P q Tsc
qsc =
z Psc T
II - 15
Page 58 / 224
Petroleum
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2. Horizontal, radial flow system

M
re
Pw
eh
Pe
rw
di
Im
re rw
an
h
ian
a. Conditions
dz
1) horizontal system ds = 0
Na
2) radial system, A = 2πrL, ds = - dr,

inward flow
3) constant thickness, h = constant

ja
4) compressible gas flow, q = f (P)

fa

ba
8) constant temperature
di
II - 16
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Petroleum
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b. Assumptions
µz = constant
M
z (and µ ) can be determined at mean pressure
c. derivation of equation for qsc

eh
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
di
q
vs = - k dP =
µ ds A
but
Im
P q zT
q = sc sc
PTsc
an
and
A = 2πrh and ds = - dr
thus
ian
re Pe
Psc T qsc dr = k ρdP
2Tsc π h r µz
rw Pw
Na
PscT qsc r P2 - P2w

1n r e = k e
2 Tsc π h w µz 2
2πhk Tsc P2e - P2w

qsc
ja
=
µ 1n re/rw Psc zT 2
fa
ba
di
II - 17
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Petroleum
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d. derivation of equation for q
2πhk Tsc P2e - P2w

qsc =
M
µ 1n re/rw Psc zT 2
but
eh
P q Tsc
q =
z Psc T
di
thus
P q Tsc 2πhk Tsc P2e - P2w

=
z Psc T µ 1n re/rw Psc zT 2
Im
q = 2 π h k 1 (P2e - P2w)
µ 1n re/rw P 2
an
2πhk 2 (P2e - P2w)

q =
µ 1n re/rw Pe + P w 2
ian
q = 2πhk P - Pw
µ 1n re/rw e
Note: Equation for real gas is identical to equation for incompressible liquid when
volumetric flow rate of gas, q, is measured at mean pressure.
Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 18
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C. Conversion to Oilfield Units
Symbol Darcy units Oil field

M
q cc/sec bbl/d or cu ft/d
k darcy md
A sq cm sq ft
eh
h cm ft
P atm psia
L cm ft
µ cp cp
di
r gm/cc lb/cu ft
Example:
Im
hkA P1 - P2
q=
µL in Darcy's units
an
cc = q bbl 5.615 cu ft 1,728 cu in 16.39 cc d hr
q sec
d bbl cu ft cu in 24hr 3,600 sec
cc = 1.841 q bbl
q sec
d
ian
darcy
k darcy = k md 1,000md
k darcy = 0.001 k md
Na
929.0 sq cm
A sq cm = A sq ft
sq ft
A sq cm = 929.0 A sq ft
ja
P1 - P2 atm = P1 - P2 psia atm

14.696 psia
fa
P1 - P2 atm = 0.06805 P1 - P2 psia
L cm = L ft 30.48 cm
ft
ba
meter = 100 cm
0.001 k 929.0 A .06805 P1 - P2

1.841 q =
di
µ 30.48 L
0.01127 k A P1 - P2
q = in oilfield units
µL
II - 19
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Petroleum
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D. Table of Equations
1. Darcy Units
M
System Fluid Equation
eh
Horizontal, Incompressible q = kA P1 - P2
Linear Liquid µL
di
Dipping, Incompressible ρ g L sin θ
Linear Liquid q = kA P1 - P2 +
µL 1.0133 x 10 6
Im
Horizontal, Incompressible q = 2 π kh Pe - Pw
Radial Liquid µ ln (re/rw)
an
Horizontal, Real Tsc P21 - P22

Linear Gas qsc = kA
µ L Tz Psc 2
ian
q = kA P1 - P2
µL
Horizontal, Real Gas

qsc = π kh Tsc
Pe 2 - Pw 2
Na
Radial µ ln (re/rw) Tz Psc
q = 2 π kh Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
ja fa
ba
di
II - 20
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2. Oilfield Units
M
System Fluid Equation
Horizontal, Incompressible q = 0.001127 kA P1 - P2

eh
Linear Liquid µL
q = res bbl/d
di
Dipping, Incompressible q = 0.001127 kA P1 - P2
Linear Liquid µL
Im
ρg L sinθ
+
1.0133 x 10 6
an
Horizontal, Incompressible q = .007082 kh Pe - Pw
Radial Liquid µ ln (re/rw)
ian
Horizontal, qsc = .1118 kA P12 - P22

Linear Real Gas µ LzT
qsc = scf/d
Na
q = .001127 kA P1 - P2
µL
ja
q = res bbl/d
fa
Horizontal, qsc = .7032 kh Pe 2 - Pw2

Radial Real Gas µ ln (re/rw) Tz
ba
q = .007082 kh Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
di
II - 21
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Example II-2
What is the flow rate of a horizontal rectangular system when the conditions are as follows:
permeability = k = 1 darcy
M
area = A = 6 ft2
viscosity = µ = 1.0 cp
eh
length = L = 6 ft
inlet pressure = P1 = 5.0 atm.
outlet pressure = P2 = 2.0 atm.
di
Solutions:
Im
We must insure that all the variables are in the correct units.
k = 1 darcy = 1,000 md
A = 6 ft2
an
L = 6 ft
P1 = (5.0 atm) (14.7 psi/atm) = 73.5 psi
P2 = (2.0 atm) (14.7 psi/atm) = 29.4 psi
ian
q = 1.1271 x 10-3 kA P1 - P2
µL
1,000 6
q = 1.1271 x 10-3 73.5 - 29.4
1 6
Na
q = 49.7 bbl / day

ja fa
ba
di
II - 22
Page 65 / 224
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Example II-3
Determine the oil flow rate in a radial system with the following set of conditions:
M
K = 300 md re = 330 ft
h = 20 ft rw = 0.5 ft
eh
Pe =2,500 psia re/rw = 660
Pw =1,740 psia ln (re/rw) = 6.492

di
µ = 1.3 cp
Im
Solution:
an
7.082 x 10 -3 kH Pe - Pw
q=
µ ln Re / Rw
ian
7.082 x 1--3 300 20 2,500 - 1,740
q=
1.3 6.492
q = 3,826 res bbl/d

Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 23
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E. Layered Systems
1. Horizontal, linear flow parallel to bedding

M
eh
di
P1 P2
q q
A
Im
B
C
an
W
L
ian
qt = qA + qB + qC
h = hA + hB + hC
Na
let k be "average" permeability,
then
ja
k wh P1 - P2
qt =
µL
fa
and
kA whA kB whB kC whC

qt = P1 - P2 + P1 - P2 + P1 - P2
µL µL µL
ba
then
k h = kA hA + kB hB + kC hC
di
n kj hj
k = ∑
j=1 h
II - 24
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2. Horizontal, radial flow parallel to bedding

M
re re
eh
hA rw qA
Pe
di
hB qB
ht
Im
hC qC
Pw
an
again
ian
qt = qA + qB + qC
h = hA + hB + hC
qt = 2πk h Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
Na
and
2 π kA hA 2 π kB hB
ja
qt = Pe - Pw + Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw) µ ln (re/rw)
fa
2 π kc hc
+ Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
then
ba
k h = kA hA + kB hB + kC hC
and again
di
n kj hj
k = ∑
j=1 h
II - 25
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3. Horizontal, linear flow perpendicular to bedding
A B C
M
P1 P2
eh
q q
kA kB kC
∆P A ∆P B ∆P C
h
LA LB LC
di
W
Im
L
an
qt = qA = qB = qC
p1 - p2 = ∆PA + ∆PB + ∆PC

ian
L = LA + LB + LC
k wh P1 - P2
qt =
µL
Na
and since P1 - P2 = ∆ PA + ∆PB + ∆PC

ja
qt µ L q µLA q µLB q µLC

P1 - P2 = = A + B + C
k wh kA wh kB wh kC wh
fa
since qt = qA = qB = qC
ba
L = LA + LB + LC
k kA kB kC
di
thus
K = L
n Lj
∑
j = 1 kj
II - 26
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4. Horizontal, radial, flow perpendicular to bedding

q
M
PA PB PC
eh
Pw
di
Im
h
an
rw
rA
rB
rC
ian
qt = qA = qB = qC
Pe - Pw = ∆PA + ∆PB + ∆PC

Na
2 π k h Pe - Pw
q =
µ ln (re/rw)
ja
qt µ ln (re/rw) qA µ ln (rA/rw)
Pe - Pw = =
2π k h 2 π kAh
fa
qB µ ln (rB/rA) q µ ln (rC/re)
+ + C
2 π kB h 2 π kC h
ba
then
ln re/rw
k =
di
n ln(rj/rj-1)
∑
j=1 kj
II - 27
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Example II-4
Damaged zone near wellbore

M
k1 = 10 md r1 = 2 ft
k2 = 200 md r2 = 300 ft
eh
rw = 0.25 ft
Solution:
di
ln (re/rw)
k =
n ln (rj/rj-1 )
∑
Im
j=1 kj
ln 300
an
k = 0.25
ln 2/0.25 ln 300/2
+
10 200
ian
k = 30.4 md
The permeability of the damaged zone near the wellbore influences the average permeability more
Na
than the permeability of the undamaged formation.

ja fa
ba
di
II - 28
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F. Flow through channels and fractures
1. Flow through constant diameter channel

M
A
eh
L
di
a. Poiseuille's Equation for viscous flow through capillary tubes
πr4
Im
q= P1 - P2
8µL
A = π r2, therefore
an
q= Ar2 P1 - P2
8µL
ian
b. Darcy's law for linear flow of liquids
q = kA P1 - P2
µL
Na
assuming these flow equations have consistent units
Ar2 P1 - P2 = kA P1 - P2
8µL µL
ja fa
thus
2
k = r2 = d
ba
8 32
where d = inches, k = 20 x 10 9 d2 md
di
II - 29
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Example II-4
A. Determine the permeability of a rock composed of closely packed capillaries

M
0.0001 inch in diameter.
B. If only 25 percent of the rock is pore channels (f = 0.25), what will the
eh
permeability be?
di
Solution:
Im
A. k = 20 x 109 d2
k = 20 x 109 (0.0001 in) 2

an
k = 200 md
ian
B. k = 0.25 (200 md)
k = 50 md
Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 30
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2. Flow through fractures

M
eh
b
di
Im
q h2
v= = (P 1-P 2)
A 12 µ L
an
2
q = b A (P1 -P2)
12 µ L
ian
setting this flow equation equal to Darcy's flow equation,
b2 A P1 - P2 = kA P1 - P2
12 µ L µL
Na
solve for permeability of a fracture:
2
k = b in darcy units, or
12
ja
k = 54 x 109 b2
where b = inches
fa
k = md
ba
di
II - 31
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Example II-6
Consider a rock of very low matrix permeability, 0.01 md, which contains on the average a
fracture 0.005 inches wide and one foot in lateral extent per square foot of rock.
M
Assuming the fracture is in the direction of flow, determine the average permeability using the
equation for parallel flow.
eh
Solution:
di
∑ kj Aj
k = , similar to horizontal, linear flow parallel to fracture
A
Im
matrix k matrix area + fracture k fracture area
k =
total area
12 in 2 + 12 in
an
0.01 0.005 in
k = +
144 in2
54 x 109 x 0.005 2 12 in x 0.005 in

ian
144 in2
1.439 + 81,000
k =
144
k = 563 md
Na
ja fa
ba
di
II - 32
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III) Laboratory measurement of permeability
A. Procedure
1. Perm plug method

M
a. cut small, individual samples (perm plugs) from larger core
eh
b. extract hydrocarbons in extractor
c. dry core in oven
d. flow fluid through core at several rates

di
Im
TURBULENCE
qsc P sc
an
A SLOPE = k / m
ian
P 12 - P 22
2L
Na
kA P12 - P22
qsc = horizontal, linear, real gas flow with
ja
2 µ L Psc
T = Tsc and Z = 1.0
fa
qsc Psc P12 - P22

= k
A µ 2L
ba
k = ( slope ) m
di
II - 33
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2. Whole core method
a. prepare whole core in same manner as perm plugs
b. mount core in special holders and flow fluid through core as in perm
M
plug method
eh
VERTICAL FLOW
LOW AIR
PRESSURE
(FLOW)
di
Im
CORE
RUBBER
TUBING
an
HIGH AIR
PRESSURE
PIPE
ian
TO FLOWMETER
Na
c. the horizontal flow data must be adjusted due to complex flow path
d. whole core method gives better results for limestones

ja fa
ba
di
II - 34
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B. Factors which affect permeability measurement
1. Fractures - rocks which contain fractures in situ frequently separate along

the planes of natural weakness when cored. Thus laboratory measurements
give "matrix" permeability which is lower than in situ permeability because
M
typically only the unfractured parts of the sample are analyzed for
permeability.
eh
2. Gas slippage
a. gas molecules "slip" along the grain surfaces
b. occurs when diameter of the capillary openings approaches the mean

di
free path of the gas molecules
c. Darcy's equation assumes laminar flow

Im
an
d. gas flow path with slippage

ian
Na
e. called Klinkenberg effect

ja
f. mean free path is function of size of molecule thus permeability

measurements are a function of type of gas used in laboratory
fa
measurement.
ba
di
II - 35
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H2
M
N2
eh
k CALCULATED
CO2
di
Im
0
1
P
an
g. mean free path is a function of pressure, thus Klinkenberg effect is

greater for measurements at low pressures - negligible at high
pressures.
ian
h. permeability is a function of size of capillary opening, thus

Klinkenberg effect is greater for low permeability rocks.
i. effect of gas slippage can be eliminated by making measurements at

several different mean pressures and extrapolating to high pressure
Na
(1/p => 0)
ja fa
kMEASURED
ba
di
0
1
P
II - 36
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Example II-7
Another core taken at 8815 feet from the Brazos County well was found to be very shaly. There
was some question about what the true liquid permeability was, since nitrogen was used in the
permeameter.
M
Calculate the equivalent liquid permeability from the following data.
eh
Mean Measured
Pressure Permeability
( atm ) ( md )
1.192 3.76
2.517 3.04
di
4.571 2.76
9.484 2.54
Solution:
Im
Plot kmeasured vs. 1/pressure
an
Intercept is equivalent to liquid permeability
From graph:
ian
kliq = 2.38 md
5
Na
GAS PERMEABILITY, md
3
ja
2
fa
k gas = 2.38276 + 1.64632

P bar
1
ba
Equivalent Liquid Permeability = 2.38 md
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
di
RECIPROCAL MEAN PRESSURE, atm - 1
II - 37
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3. Reactive fluids
a. Formation water reacts with clays
1) lowers permeability to liquid

M
2) actual permeability to formation water is lower than lab permeability
to gas
eh
RELATIONSHIP OF PERMEABILITIES MEASURED

di
WITH AIR TO THOSE MEASURED WITH WATER
1000
Im
WATER PERMEABILITY, md
100
an
ian
10
Water concentration
20,000 - 25,000 ppm Cl ion.
Na
1
1 10 100 1000 10000
AIR PERMEABILITY, md
ja fa
b. Injection water may,if its salinity is less than that of the formation water,
reduce the permeability due to clay swelling.
ba
di
II - 38
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M
Effect of Water Salinity on Permeability of Natural Cores
(Grains per gallon of chloride ion as shown).
eh
Field Zone Ka K1000 K500 K300 K200 K100 Kw
S 34 4080 1445 1380 1290 1190 885 17.2

di
S 34 24800 11800 10600 10000 9000 7400 147.0
S 34 40100 23000 18600 15300 13800 8200 270.0
S 34 4850 1910 1430 925 736 326 5.0

S 34 22800 13600 6150 4010 3490 1970 19.5
Im
S 34 34800 23600 7800 5460 5220 3860 9.9
S 34 13600 5160 4640 4200 4150 2790 197.0

S 34 7640 1788 1840 2010 2540 2020 119.0
an
T 36 2630 2180 2140 2080 2150 2010 1960.0
T 36 3340 2820 2730 2700 2690 2490 2460.0

T 36 2640 2040 1920 1860 1860 1860 1550.0
T 36 3360 2500 2400 2340 2340 2280 2060.0
ian
Ka means permeability to air; K500 means permeability to 500 grains per gallon chloride solution;
Kw means permeability to fresh water
Na
4. Change in pore pressure
a. The removal of the core from the formation will likely result in a change in
pore volume.This is likely to result in a change in permeability (+ or -).
ja
b. The production of fluids,especially around the well,will result in a decrease

in pore pressure and a reduction of in-situ permeability.
fa
ba
di
II - 39
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III. BOUNDARY TENSION AND CAPILLARY PRESSURE
I) Boundary tension, σ
M
A. at the boundary between two phases there is an imbalance of molecular forces
B. the result is to contract the boundary to a minimum size

eh
di
GAS
Im
an
SURFACE
ian
LIQUID
Na
ja fa
ba
di
III- 1
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C. the average molecule in the liquid is uniformly attracted in all directions
D. molecules at the surface attracted more strongly from below
E. creates concave or convex surface depending on force balance

M
F. creation of this surface requires work
eh
1. work in ergs required to create 1 cm 2 of surface (ergs/cm 2) is termed
"boundary energy"
2. also can be thought of as force in dynes acting along length of 1 cm

di
required to prevent destruction of surface (dynes/cm) - this is called
"boundary tension"
3. Boundary Energy = Boundary Tension x Length

Im
G. Surface Tension - Boundary tension between gas and liquid is called "surface
tension"
H. Interfacial Tension - Boundary tension between two immiscible liquids or

an
between a fluid and a solid is called "interfacial tension"
σgw = surface tension between gas and water

ian
σgo = surface tension between gas and oil
σwo = interfacial tension between water and oil
σws = interfacial tension between water and solid
σos = interfacial tension between oil and solid

Na
σgs = interfacial tension between gas and solid

ja
I. Forces creating boundary tension
1. Forces
fa
a. Law of Universal Gravitation applied between molecules
b. physical attraction (repulsion) between molecules

ba
2. Liquid-Gas Boundary
attraction between molecules is directly proportional to their masses and

inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
di
3. Solid-Liquid Boundary
physical attraction between molecules of liquid and solid surface
III- 2
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4. Liquid-Liquid Boundary
some of each
M
II) Wettability
eh
A. forces at boundary of two liquids and a solid (or gas-liquid-solid)
σow
di
Im
OIL OIL
an
WATER
Θ
ian
σos σw s
SOLID
σws = σos + σow cos θ

Na
B. Adhesion Tension, AT
AT = σws - σos = σow cos θ

ja
C. if the solid is "water-wet"
σws ≥ σos
fa
AT = +
ba
cos θ = +
0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°
di
if θ = 0° - strongly water-wet
III- 3
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D. if the solid is "oil-wet"
σos ≥ σws
M
AT = -
cos θ = -
eh
90° ≤ θ ≤ 180°
if θ = 180° - strongly oil-wet

di
θ = 1580
Im
θ= 300 θ= 830 θ = 350
(A)
an
ISOOCTANE ISOOCTANE + 5.7% ISOQUINOLINE NAPHTHENIC ACID

ISOQUINOLINE
ian
θ = 300 θ = 480 θ = 540 θ = 1060
(B)
Na
ja
Interfacial contact angles. (A) Silica surface; (B) calcite surface

fa
ba
di
III- 4
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III) Capillary pressure
A. capillary pressure between air and water

M
h Θ
eh
AIR
di
Im
WATER
an
1. liquid will rise in the tube until total force up equals total force down
a. total force up equals adhesion tension acting along the

ian
circumference of the water-air-solid interface
= 2πr AT
b. total force down equals the weight of the column of water

converted to force
Na
= πr2 hgρ w
c. thus when column of water comes to equilibrium

ja
2πr A T = πr2 hgρ w

fa
d. units
dyne gm
cm cm = cm2 cm cm
sec2 cm3
ba
gm cm
dyne =
sec2
dyne = force unit
di
e. adhesion tension
dyne
AT = 1 r hgρ w cm
2
III- 5
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2. liquid will rise in the tube until the vertical component of surface tension
equals the total force down
a. vertical component of surface tension is the surface tension

between air and water multiplied by the cosine of the contact angle
M
acting along the water-air-solid interface
= 2πr σaw cosθ

eh
b. total force down
= πr2 hgρ w
di
c. thus when the column of water comes to equilibrium
2πr σaw cosθ = πr 2 hgρ w

Im
d. units
an
dyne gm
cm cm = cm2 cm cm
sec cm3
2
gm
cm dyne = cm
cm sec2
ian
3. since AT = σaw cosθ, 1 and 2 above both result in
2 σaw cos θ
h=
rg ρw
Na
ja fa
ba
di
III- 6
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4. capillary pressure (air-water system)
Pa
B'
M
Pw B
h Θ
Pa
eh
AIR
A' A
di
WATER
Im
an
pressure relations in capillary tubes
a. pressure at A' is equal to pressure at A
Pa' = Pa
ian
b. pressure at B is equal to the pressure at A minus the head of water

between A & B
pw = pa - ρ wgh
Na
dyne dyne gm ⋅ cm
units: = - cm
cm2 cm2 cm3 ⋅ sec2
c. thus between B' and B there is a pressure difference

ja
pa - pw = pa - (pa - ρ wgh)
fa
pa - pw = ρ wgh
ba
d. call this pressure difference between B' and B "capillary pressure"

Pc = pa - pw = ρ wgh
e. remember
di
2 σgw cos θ
h=
rg ρ w
III- 7
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f. thus
2 σgw cos θ
M
Pc = r
B. capillary pressure between oil and water

eh
di
h Θ
OIL
Im
an
WATER
ian
1. liquid will rise in the tube until the vertical component of surface tension
equals the total force down
a. vertical component of surface tension equals the surface tension

Na
between oil and water multiplied by the cosine of the contact angle
acting along the circumference of the water-oil-solid interface
= 2πr σow cosθ

ja
b. the downward force caused by the weight of the column of water is

partially offset (bouyed) by the weight of the column of oil outside
the capillary
fa
c. thus, total force down equals the weight of the column of water
minus the weight of an equivalent column of oil converted to force
ba
1) weight per unit area of water
= ρw h
di
2) weight per unit area of oil
= ρo h
III- 8
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3) net weight per unit area acting to pull surface down
= ρ wh - ρ oh = h(ρ w - ρ o)
M
4) total force down
eh
= πr2 gh (ρ w - ρ o)
d. thus when the column of water comes to

equilibrium
di
2πr σow cosθ = πr 2 gh (ρ w - ρ o)
Im
2. thus the equilibrium for the height of the column of water
2 σow cos θ
h=
rg (ρ w - ρo)
an
3. capillary pressure (oil-water system)
Po
ian
B'
Pw B
h Θ
Po OIL
A
Na
WATER
ja fa
a. pressure at A' equals pressure at A
Poa = Pwa
ba
b. pressure at B is equal to the pressure at A minus the head of water

between A and B
Pwb = Pwa - ρ wgh
di
c. pressure at B' equal to the pressure at A' minus the head of oil
between A' and B'
III- 9
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Pob = Poa - ρ ogh
d. thus capillary pressure, the difference between pressure at B' and

the pressure at B is
M
Pc = Pob - Pwb
eh
Pc = (Poa - ρ ogh) - (Pwa - ρ wgh)
since Poa = Pwa

di
Pc = (ρ w - ρ o)gh
Im
e. remember
2 σow cos θ
h=
rg (ρ w - ρo)
an
f. thus
2 σow cos θ
Pc =
ian
r
4. same expression as for the air-solid system except for the boundary
tension term
Pc = 2 σ cos θ
r
Na
C. remember adhesion tension is defined as
AT = σow cosθ,
ja
and
2 σow cos θ
fa
Pc = r
thus
ba
Pc = f (adhesion tension, 1/radius of tube)

di
III- 10
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ADHESION TENSION
M
AIR AIR AIR
eh
WATER Hg
WATER
di
1/radius of tube
D. an important result to remember

Im
1. pwb < pob
2. thus, the pressure on the concave side of a curved surface is greater than
the pressure on the convex side
an
3. or, pressure is greater in the non-wetting phase
E. capillary pressure-unconsolidated sand

ian
1. the straight capillary previously discussed is useful for explaining basic

concepts - but it is a simple and ideal system
2. packing of uniform spheres

Na
Pc = σ 1 + 1
R1 R2
R1 and R2 are the principal radii of curvature for a liquid adhering to two spheres in
contact with each other.
ja
3. by analogy to capillary tube
1 + 1 = 2 cos θ
fa
R1 R2 r
where Pc = 2 σ cos θ
ba
r
call it Rm(mean radius), i.e.
di
1 = 2 cos θ = (∆ρ)gh
Rm rm σ
III- 11
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F. wettability-consolidated sand
1. Pendular-ring distribution-wetting phase is not continuous, occupies the

small interstices-non-wetting phase is in contact with some of the solid
M
2. Funicular distribution - wetting phase is continuous, completely covering
surface of solid
eh
di
WATER WATER
Im
SAND GRAIN SAND GRAIN
an
OIL OR GAS OIL OR GAS

ian
(A) (B)
Na
Idealized representation of distribution of wetting and nonwetting fluid

ja
phase about intergrain contacts of spheres. (a) Pendular-ring distributions;

(b) funicular distribution
fa
ba
di
III- 12
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IV) Relationship between capillary pressure and saturation
A. remember that the height a liquid will rise in a tube depends on
1. adhesion
M
2. fluid density
3. variation of tube diameter with height
eh
B. consider an experiment in which liquid is allowed to rise in a tube of varying
diameter under atmospheric pressure. Pressure in the gas phase is increased
forcing the interface to a new equilibrium position.
ATMOSPHERIC HIGHER
di
PRESSURE PRESSURE
R
Im
R
an
ian
Na
DEPENDENCE OF INTERFACIAL CURVATURE ON FLUID SATURATION

IN A NON-UNIFORM PORE
1. Capillary pressure is defined as the pressure difference across the

ja
interface.
2. This illustrates:
fa
a. Capillary pressure is greater for small radius of curvature than for

large radius of curvature
ba
b. An inverse relationship between capillary pressure and wetting-

phase saturation
c. Lower wetting-phase saturation results in smaller radius of

di
curvature which means that the wetting phase will occupy smaller
pores in reservoir rock
III- 13
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V) Relationship between capillary pressure and saturation history
A. consider an experiment using a non-uniform tube (pore in reservoir rock)
1. tube is filled with a wetting fluid and allowed to drain until the interface
M
between wetting fluid and non-wetting fluid reaches equilibrium
(drainage)
eh
2. tube is filled with non-wetting fluid and immersed in wetting fluid
allowing wetting fluid to imbibe until the interface reaches equilibrium
(imbibition)
di
LOW PC HIGHER P C HIGHER P C LOW PC
Θ
Θ
Im
R
Θ Θ
SATURATION = 100% SATURATION = 80% SATURATION = 0% SATURATION = 10%
an
PC = LOW VALUE CAPILLARY PRESSURE = P C P C = HIGH VALUE CAPILLARY PRESSURE = P C
(A) (B)
ian
Dependence of equilibrium fluid saturation upon the saturation history in a

nonuniform pore. (a) Fluid drains; (b) fluid imbibes. Same pore, same
contact angle, same capillary pressure, different saturation history
Na
3. This is an oversimplified example, however it illustrates that the

relationship between wetting-phase saturation and capillary pressure is
dependent on the saturation process (saturation history)
a. for given capillary pressure a higher value of wetting-phase

ja
saturation will be obtained from drainage than from imbibition

fa
ba
di
III- 14
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B. Leverett conducted a similar experiment with tubes filled with sand.
DATA FROM HEIGHT-SATURATION EXPERIMENTS

M
ON CLEAN SANDS. (FROM LEVERETT)
1.6
Φ
eh
1.4
Φ Drainage Imbibition
Sand I
1.2
(k/ø)1/2
Φ Φ Sand II
di
1.0
∆ρgh
Φ
0.8
Im
σ
0.6 Drainage
Φ
an
0.4
0.2
Imbibition
ian
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
WATER SATURATION, Sw %
Na
1. capillary pressure is expressed in terms of a non-dimensional correlating

function ( remember Pc = (∆ρ gh )
ja
2. in general terms,
a. drainage means replacing a wetting fluid with a non-wetting fluid

fa
b. imbibition means replacing a non-wetting fluid with a wetting fluid

ba
di
III- 15
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M
eh
di
DRAINAGE
PC
Im
an
IMBIBITION
ian
Na
0 100
WATER SATURATION, S W
ja fa
ba
di
III- 16
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VI) Capillary pressure in reservoir rock
Water Oil
M
eh
ρw h ρoh
P w = Po/w - P w2 P o2 P o = Po/w -
144 144
di
Im
Oil and Water
P o1 = P w1
100% Water
an
Pc = P o - Pw = h ρ w - ρo
ian
144
Where: Po = pressure in oil phase, psia
Pw = pressure in water phase, psia
h = distance above 100% water level, ft
Po/w = pressure at oil-water contact, psia
Na
ρw = density of water, lb/cf

ρo = density of oil, lb/cf
At any point above the oil-water contact, po ≥ p w

ja fa
ba
di
III- 17
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M
eh
di
ρoH
PC P O = PO/W -
144
Im
HEIGHT
an
ABOVE
O-W-C
ian
ρ H
P w = PO/W - w
144
Na
ja
PRESSURE
fa
ba
di
III- 18
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VII) Laboratory measurement of capillary pressure
A. Methods
1. porous diaphragm
M
2. mercury injection
eh
3. centrifuge
4. dynamic method
B. Porous diaphragm
di
1. Start with core saturated with wetting fluid.
2. Use pressure to force non-wetting fluid into core-displacing wetting fluid

Im
through the porous disk.
3. The pressure difference between the pressure in the non-wetting fluid and
the pressure in the wetting fluid is equal to Pc.
an
4. Repeat at successively higher pressures until no more wetting fluid will

come out.
5. Measure Sw periodically.
ian
6. Results
7. Advantages
a. very accurate
Na
b. can use reservoir fluids
8. Disadvantages
a. very slow - up to 40 days for one core

ja
b. pressure is limited by "displacement pressure" of porous disk

fa
ba
di
III- 19
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Petroleum
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C. Mercury Injection Method
1. Force mercury into core - mercury is non-wetting phase - air (usually

under vacuum) is wetting phase
M
2. Measure pressure
eh
3. Calculate mercury saturation
4. Advantages
a. fast-minutes
di
b. reasonably accurate
5. Disadvantages
Im
a. ruins core
b. difficult to relate data to oil-water systems
an
D. Centrifuge Method
CORE HOLDER BODY

WINDOW
ian
Na
TUBE BODY
ja
1. Similar to porous disk method except centrifugal force (rather than

fa
pressure) is applied to the fluids in the core
2. Pressure (force/unit area) is computed from centrifugal force (which is

ba
related to rotational speed)
3. Saturation is computed from fluid removed (as shown in window)
4. Advantages
di
a. fast
b. reasonably accurate
c. use reservoir fluids
III- 20
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Petroleum
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E. Dynamic Method
GAS OUTLET GAS INLET

M
∆Po
∆P g Pc
eh
di
CORE
Im
an
TO ATMOSPHERE OIL INLET
OIL BURETTE
ian
DYNAMIC CAPILLARY - PRESSURE APPARATUS

(HASSLER'S PRINCIPLE)
1. establish simultaneous steady-state flow of two fluids through core

Na
2. measure pressures of the two fluids in core (special wetted disks) -

difference is capillary pressure
3. saturation varied by regulating quantity of each fluid entering core

ja
4. advantages
fa
a. seems to simulate reservoir conditions

b. reservoir fluids can be used
ba
5. Disadvantages
a. very tedious
di
III- 21
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F. Comparison of methods
1. diaphragm method (restored state) is considered to be most accurate, thus

used as standard against which all other methods are compared
M
2. comparison of mercury injection data against diaphragm data
a. simple theory shows that capillary pressure by mercury injection

eh
should be five times greater than capillary pressure of air-water
system by diaphragm method
b. capillary pressure scale for curves determined by mercury injection

is five times greater than scale for diaphragm air-water data
di
c. these comparisons plus more complex theory indicate that the ratio
between mercury injection data and diaphragm data is about 6.9
(other data indicate value between 5.8 and 7.5)
Im
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
III- 22
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Example VIII-1
Comparison of Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure Data with Porous Diaphragm Data
M
A. Calculate capillary pressure ratio,
eh
PcAH
g
, for the following data:
PcAW
di
σAHg = 480 Dynes/cm σAW = 72 Dynes/cm
Im
θ AH = 140°
g θ AW = 0°
B. Pore geometry is very complex. The curvature of the interface and pore radius are
not necessarily functions of contact angles. Calculate the ratio using the
an
relationship.
g σAHg
PcAH
ian
=
PcAW σAW
Solution:
PcAH σ cos θAHg

Na
(A) g = AHg 480 cos(140°)

=
PcAW σAWcos θ AW 72 cos (0°)
ja
PcAH
g = 5.1
PcAW
fa
PcAH
(B) σAHg
ba
g @
= 480
PcAW σAW 70
di
PcAH
g = 6.9
PcAW
III- 23
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Discussion:
A. Best way to determine the relationship between mercury and air-water data
is to generate capillary pressure curves for each set of data and compare
M
directly.
eh
Mercury Injection and Porous Diaphragm Methods

di
B. For this given set of conditions, mercury injection method requires a
higher displacement pressure, must adjust ratio between scales until match
is obtained.
Im
C. Minimum irreducible wetting phase saturations are the same.
D. Reduction in permeability results in a higher minimum irreducible wetting

an
phase saturation. For both cases, mercury system still has higher required
displacement pressure.
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
III- 24
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VIII) Converting laboratory data to reservoir conditions
= 2σLcos θ L
PcL
M
r
= 2σRcos θ R
PcR
eh
r
setting r = r
2σLcos θ L 2σRcos θ R
di
r= =
PcL PcR
σcos θ R
∴ PcR = PcL
Im
σcos θ L
where
an
Pc = reservoir capillary pressure, psi
R
Pc = capillary pressure measured in laboratory, psi

L
ian
σL = interfacial tension measured in laboratory, dynes/cm
σR = reservoir interfacial tension, dynes/cm
θR
Na
= reservoir contact angle, degrees
θL = laboratory contact angle, degrees

ja fa
ba
di
III- 25
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Petroleum
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Example III-2
Converting Laboratory Data to Reservoir Conditions

M
Express reservoir capillary pressure by using laboratory data.
eh
lab data: σAW = 72 dynes
σAW = 0o
di
reservoir data: σOW = 24 dynes/cm

Im
σOW = 20o
Solution:
an
σcos θ R
= PcL
PcR σcos θ L
ian
24 cos20°
= P cL
PcR 72 cos0°
=
Na
PcR 0.333 PcL

ja fa
ba
di
III- 26
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IX) Determining water saturation in reservoir from capillary pressure data
A. convert laboratory capillary pressure data to reservoir conditions
B. calculate capillary pressure in reservoir for various heights above height at which
M
capillary pressure is zero
(∆ρ)gh
eh
Pc =
144 gc
in English units
di
∆ρ = ρ w - ρ O, lb/cu ft
g = 32 ft/sec2
Im
gc = 32 lbm ft
lbf sec2
h = ft
an
144 = (sq in)/(sq ft.)
thus
ian
Pc = lbf/(sq in), psI

Na
ja fa
ba
di
III- 27
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Example III-3
Determining Water Saturation From Capillary Pressure Curve
Given the relationship,

M
PcR = 0.313 P cL, use the laboratory capillary pressure curve to calculate the water
saturation in the reservoir at a height of 40 ft. above the oil-water contact.
eh
ρo = 0.85 gm/cm3 ρ w = 1.0 gm/cm3
20
di
Im
P CL 10
8.3
an
ian
0
0 50 100
SW
Na
Solution:
ρw − ρ o h
PcR =
144
ja
1.0 - 0.85 62.4 lb 40

= ft3 = 2.6 psi
PcR 144
fa
PcR
PcL =
0.313
ba
= 2.6 = 8.3 psi

PcL 0.313
move to the right horizontally from PcL = 8.3 psi to the capillary pressure curve. Drop vertically
di
to the x-axis, read Sw.
Sw = 50%
III- 28
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X) Capillary pressure variation
A. effect of permeability
1. displacement pressure increases as permeability decreases

M
2. minimum interstitial water saturation increases as permeability decreases
eh
RESERVOIR FLUID DISTRIBUTION CURVES

di
(From Wright and Wooddy)
30 200 90
900 md
200 md
100 md
10 md
Im
180
Height above zero capillary pressure, ft
24 160 72
Oil - Water Capillary Pressure, psi
Air - Water Capillary Pressure, psi

an
140
(reservoir conditions)
(laboratory data)
18 120 54
100
ian
12 80 36
60
6 40 18
Na
20
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ja
Sw %
fa
ba
di
III -29
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B. Effect of grain size distribution
30 225.0
M
25 187.5
Water/nitrogen capillary pressure, psi

eh
20 150.0
Mercury capillary pressure, psi

Sandstone Core
15 Porosity = 28.1% 112.5
Permeability = 1.43 md
di
Factor = 7.5
10 75.0
5 37.5
Im
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water
an
100 80 60 40 20 0
Hg
60 348
ian
50 290
Water/nitrogen capillary pressure, psi
Mercury capillary pressure, psi

40 232
Na
30 174
20 116
Limestone Core
Porosity = 23.0%
Permeability = 3.36 md
ja
10 Factor = 5.8 58
0
fa
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water
100 80 60 40 20 0
ba
Hg
di
1. majority of grains same size, so most pores are same size - curve (a) (well
sorted)
2. large range in grain and pore sizes - curve (b) (poorly sorted)
III -30
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XI) Averaging capillary pressure data
J-function
Pc k 1/2
M
J Sw =
σcos θ φ
eh
attempt to convert all capillary pressure data to a universal curve
universal curve impossible to generate due to wide range of differences existing in

reservoirs
di
concept useful for given rock type from given reservoir
where
Im
Pc = dyne/(sq cm)
σ = dyne/cm
k = (sq cm)
φ = fraction
an
or can use any units as long as you are consistent

ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
III -31
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Petroleum
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CAPILLARY RETENTION CURVES.

(From Rose and Bruce.)
2.0
M
1.9 LEDUC
1.8
1.7 LEVERETT
eh
KATIE ALUNDUM
1.6
1.5
CAPILLARY PRESSURE FUNCTION, J
1.4
1.3 EL ROBLE
di
1.2
1.1 KINSELLA
1.0
0.9
0.8
Im
0.7
0.6
0.5 HAWKINS
0.4
an
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
ian
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
WATER SATURATION, Sw
Reservoir Formation
Na
Hawkins Woodbine
El Roble Moreno
Kinsella Viking
Katie Deese
Leduc Devonian
ja
Alundum (consolidated)
Leverett (unconsolidated)
fa
ba
di
III -32
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Petroleum
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Capillary Pressure Problem 1
1. A glass tube is placed vertically in a beaker of water. The interfacial tension between the
air and water is 72 dynes/cm and the contact angle is 0 degree.
M
Calculate:
a. the capillary rise of water in the tube if the radius of the tube is 0.01
eh
centimeters.
b. what is the difference in pressure in psi across the air-water interface in the
tube.
di
2. The displacement pressure for a water saturated porcelain plate is 55 psi of air. What is
the diameter in inches of the largest pore in the porcelain plate? Assume 72 dynes/cm
and 0 degrees.
Im
Solution:
(1) σAW = 72 dynes/cm

an
ρW = 1 gm/cm3
g = 980 dynes/gm
ian
θ = 0o
(a) capillary rise of water if radius is .01 cm
2σAWcos θ 2 72 cos0°
h= =
rρg .01 1.0 980
Na
h = 14.69 cm
(b) pressure drop in psi across interface

ja
Pc = pa - pw = ρ wgh = 1.0 980 14.69

fa
= 14.696 psi
Pc 0.0142 atm
atm
ba
Pc = 0.209 psi
di
III -33
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Petroleum
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(2) 2σAWcos θ
Pc =
r
Pc = 55 psi
M
Pc atm 1.0133 x 10 6 dynes/cm2
= 55 psi
14.696 psi atm
eh
= 3.792 x 106 dynes/cm2
r = 2σAW cos θ
di
Pc
r = 2 72 cos0° in
= 3.797 x 10 -5 cm
6 2.54 cm
Im
3.792 x 10
r = 1.495 x 10-5 in
d = 2.99 x 10-5 in
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
III -34
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Capillary Pressure Problem 2
Given the information below and graph of PcL vs. wetting phase saturation Sw , construct the
M
curves for PcR, h in reservoir, and J-function vs. Sw. Water is the wetting phase in both the
laboratory and the reservoir.
eh
lab res
di
fluids air-water oil-water
θ 0° 25°
Im
σ 60 dyne/cm 20 dyne/cm
ρwet 1.0 gm/cm3 1.1 gm/cm3

an
ρnon-wet 0 gm/cm3 0.863 gm/cm3
k 37 md variable
ian
φ 16% variable
Pc k/φ 1/2
Na
J=
σ cos θ
ja fa
ba
di
III -35
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35.0
32.5
M
30.0
27.5
eh
25.0
22.5
PCL, psi
20.0
di
17.5
15.0
12.5
Im
10.0
7.5
5.0
an
2.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ian
Sw %
Solution:
Na
(1) = σR cosθ R
Pc
PcR σL cosθ L L
ja
= 20 cos25
P
60 cos0 cL
fa
=
PcR 0.302 P cL
ba
di
III -36
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hR ρw - ρo
(2) P =
cR 144
= hR 1.1 - .863 62.4

M
144
PcR = .103 h R
eh
= 9.74 P cR
hR
di
(3) J Pc k 1/2
=
σ cos θ φ
PcL k 1/2
Im
=
σAW cosθ L φ L
PcL
= 37 1/2
an
60 cos0° .16
J = .253 P cL
ian
Sw PcL PcR hR J
% psi psi ft assorted
15 32 9.7 94.1 8.1

Na
20 19.5 5.9 57.4 4.9
25 15.6 4.7 45.9 3.9
30 13.2 4.0 38.8 3.3

ja
40 9.9 3.0 29.1 2.5

fa
50 7.8 2.4 22.9 2.0
60 6.0 1.8 17.6 1.5

ba
70 4.7 1.4 13.8 1.2
80 3.7 1.1 10.9 0.9

di
90 2.8 0.8 8.2 0.7
100 2 0.6 5.9 0.5
III -37
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10
8
M
6
R
Pc
4
eh
2
0
di
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
100
Im
80
60
R
an
h
40
20
ian
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
10
8
Na
6
J
4
ja
2
fa
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
ba
di
III -38
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IV. FLUID SATURATIONS
I) Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation

M
A. Initially, water filled 100% of pore space
eh
B. Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
C. Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and gravity
D. Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone

di
II) Methods for determining fluid saturations

Im
A. Core analysis (direct method)
1. factors affecting fluid saturations
a. flushing by mud filtrate

an
1) differential pressure forces mud filtrate into

formation
ian
Ph > Pres
2) for water base mud, filtrate displaces formation water

and oil from the area around the well (saturations
likely change)
3) for oil base mud, filtrate will be oil; saturations may

Na
or may not change.

ja fa
ba
di
IV - 1
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Example: Effects of flushing by mud filtrates
Coring with water base mud

M
Oil zone at minimum interstitial water saturation:
sat at surface
eh
flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res
Sw ↑ ↓ ? probably ↑
di
So ↓ ↓ ↓
Sg - ↑ ↑
Im
Gas zone at minimum interstitial water saturation:
sat at surface
an
Sw ↑ ↓ ?
ian
So - - -
Sg ↓ ↑ ?
Na
Water zone:
sat at surface
ja
Sw - ↓ ↓
fa
So - - -
Sg - ↑ ↑
ba
di
IV - 2
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Coring With Oil Base Mud
Oil zone at minimum interstitial water saturation:

M
sat at surface
eh
Sw - - -
So - ↓ ↓
di
Sg - ↑ ↑
Im
Gas zone at minimum interstitial water saturation:
sat at surface
an
Sw - - -
So ↑ ↓ ↑
ian
Sg ↓ ↑ ↓
Water zone:
Na
sat at surface
Sw ↓ ↓ ↓
ja
So ↑ ↓ ↑
↑ ↑
fa
Sg -
ba
di
IV - 3
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b. bringing core to surface
1) reduction in hydrostatic pressure causes gas to come

out of solution
M
2) gas displaces oil and water causing saturations to
change
eh
2. laboratory methods
a. evaporation using retort distillation apparatus

di
Im
an
HEATING ELEMENT
ian
CORE
Na
COOLING WATER IN
CONDENSER
COOLING WATER OUT
ja fa
ba
di
IV - 4
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1) process
a) heat small sample of rock

M
b) oil and water vaporize, then condense in
graduated cylinder
eh
c) record volumes of oil and water
d) correct quantity of oil

di
For converting distilled oil volume to oil volume originally in a sample, multiply
oil volume recovered by factor corresponding to gravity of oil in core
1.4
Im
1.3
an
1.2
Multiplying Factor
ian
1.1
Na
1.0
0.9
ja
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Oil Gravity, °API at 60° F

fa
ba
di
IV - 5
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e) determine saturations
V V
Sw = w So = o
Vp Vp
M
Sg = 1 - S o - Sw
eh
where
Sw = water saturation, fraction

So = oil saturation, fraction
di
Sg = gas saturation, fraction
Vp = pore volume, cc
Vw = volume of water collected, cc
Im
Vo = volume of oil collected, cc
2) disadvantages of retort process

an
a) must obtain temperature of 1000-1100oF to
vaporize oil, water of crystallization from
clays also vaporizes causing increase in water
recovery
ian
WATER
Na
RECOVERED
PORE WATER
0
ja
0
TIME
fa
b) at high temperatures, oil will crack and coke.

ba
(change in hydrocarbon molecules) amount

of recoverable liquid decreases.
di
c) core sample ruined
IV - 6
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3) advantages of retort process
a) short testing time required

M
b) acceptable results obtained
eh
b. leaching using solvent extraction apparatus
WATER OUT
di
WATER IN
Im
GRADUATED TUBE
CORE
an
ian
SOLVENT
Na
HEATER
ja fa
1) process
a) weigh sample to be extracted

ba
b) heat applied to system causes water from core

to vaporize
c) solvent leaches hydrocarbons from core

di
IV - 7
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Petroleum
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d) water condenses, collects in trap. Record

final water volume
e) reweigh core sample

M
f) determine volume of oil in sample
Wi - Wdry - Vw ρ w
eh
Vo =
ρo
where:
di
Wi = weight of core sample
after leaching
Im
Wdry = weight of core sample
after leaching
V V
Sw = w So = o
an
Vp Vp
2) disadvantages of leaching
ian
a) process is slow
b) volume of oil must be calculated
3) advantages of leaching
Na
a) very accurate water saturation value obtained
b) heating does not remove water of

crystallization
ja
c) sample can be used for future analysis

fa
ba
di
IV - 8
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3. uses of core determined fluid saturation
a. cores cut with water base mud

M
1) presence of oil in formation
2) determination of oil/water contact

eh
3) determination of gas/oil contact
di
0 SO 50
Im
GAS
an
OIL
ian
WATER
Na
So ≅ 0 in gas zone
ja
So ≥ 15% in oil zone

fa
0 ≤ So ≤ Sor in water zone

ba
Sor = residual oil saturation

di
IV - 9
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b. cores cut with oil base mud ("natural state" cores)
1) minimum interstitial water saturation

M
2) hydrocarbon saturation
3) oil/water contact
eh
B. Capillary pressure measurements (discussed in Chapter VIII)
di
C. Electric logs
Im
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
IV - 10
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Example IV-1
You want to analyze a core sample containing oil, water and gas.
M
Vb bulk volume = 95 cm3
eh
Wt initial = 216.7 gm
the sample was evacuated and the gas space was saturated with water ρ w = 1 gm/cm3
di
Wt new = 219.7 gm
the water with in the sample is removed and collected

Im
Vw removed = 13.0 cm3
the oil is extracted and the sample is dried
Wt dry = 199.5 gm
an
calculate:
ian
(1) porosity
(2) water saturation
(3) oil saturation assuming 35o API
(4) gas saturation

Na
(5) matrix density
(6) lithology
ja
Solution:
fa
gas vol. = 219.7 - 216.7 ; Vg = 3 cc
water vol. = 13 - 3 ; Vw = 10 cc
ba
Wt fluids = 219.7 - 199.5 = 20.2 gm
Wt oil = 20.2 - 10 - 3 = 7.2 gm

di
IV - 11
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ρo = 141.5 = 0.85 gm/cc

131.5 + 35°API
M
Vo = 7.2/0.85 = 8.49 cc
Vp = 8.49 + 3 + 10 = 21.47 cc
eh
φ = 21.47/95 = 22.6%
Sw = 10/21.47 = 46.57%
di
So = 8.49/21.47 = 39.46%
Sg = 3/21.47 = 13.97%
Im
ρm = 199.5/(95-21.47) = 2.71 gm/cc
lithology = limestone
an
ian
Na
jafa
ba
di
IV - 12
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Example IV-2
M
A core sample was brought into the laboratory for analysis. 70 gm of the core sample were placed
in a mercury pump and found to have 0.71 cc of gas volume. 80 gm of the core sample was
eh
placed in a retort and found to contain 4.5 cc of oil and 2.8 cc of water. A piece of the original
sample weighing 105 gm was placed in a pycnometer and found to have a bulk volume of 45.7 cc.
di
(Assume ρ w = 1.0 gm/cc and 35o API oil)
calculate:
Im
(1) porosity
(2) water saturation

an
(3) oil saturation
(4) gas saturation

ian
(5) lithology
Solution:
Vg = .71 cc 100 gm = 1.014 cc

Na
70 gm
Vo = 4.5 cc 100 gm = 5.63 cc

80 gm
Vw = 2.8 cc 100 gm = 3.50 cc

ja
80 gm
Vb = 45.7 cc 100 gm = 43.52 cc

fa
105 gm
ba
Wt matrix = 100 - 5.63(.85) - 3.5(1.0) = 91.71 gm
Vm = 43.52 - 1.014 - 5.63 - 3.50 = 33.37 cc

di
Vp = 1.014 + 5.63 + 3.50 = 10.14 cc
φ = 10.14/43.52 = 23.31%
IV - 13
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Sw = 3.50/10.14 = 34.5%
So = 5.63/10.14 = 55.5%
M
Sg = 1.014/10.14 = 10%
eh
ρm = (91.71/33.38) = 2.75
di
Im
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
IV - 14
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Fluid Saturation Problem 1
Calculate porosity, water, oil, and gas saturations, and lithology from the following core analysis
M
data.
How should the calculated saturations compare with the fluid saturations in the reservoir?
eh
Oil well core with water base mud
di
initial weight of saturated core = 86.4 gm
after gas space was saturated with water, weight of core = 87.95 gm
Im
weight of core immersed in water = 48.95 gm
core was extracted with water recovery being 7.12 cc

an
after drying core in oven, core weighed 79.17 gm
assume ρ w = 1.0 gm/cc

ian
oil gravity = 40° API
Solution: γo = 141.5
131.5 + °API
γo
Na
= 141.5 = 0.825
131.5 + 40°
ρo = 0.825 gm/cc
ja
Vp
(1) φ = Vb
fa
Vp = Vw + Vo + Vg
ba
Wo = Wsat - Vwρ w - Wdry
= 87.95 - 7.12(1.0) - 79.17

di
Wo = 1.66 gm
IV - 15
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Vo = Wo
ρo
1.66 gm
M
Vo = = 2.01 cc
0.825 gm/cc
Vw = Vwrec - Wsat - Wi / ρ w
eh
= 7.12 - (87.95 - 86.4)/(1.0)
Vw = 5.57 cc
di
Vg = 1.55 cc
Vp = 5.57 + 2.01 + 1.55

Im
Vp = 9.13 cc
Wsat - Wimm
an
Vb =
ρw
Vb = (87.95 - 48.95) gm
= 39.0 cc
1 gm/cc
ian
φ = 9.13 = 23.4%
39.0
Vw
Vp
Na
(2) Sw =
Sw = 5.57 cc = 61.0%
9.13 cc
ja
So = Vo
Vp
fa
So = 2.01 cc = 22.0%
9.13 cc
ba
Vg
Sg =
Vp
di
Sg = 1.55 cc = 17.0%
9.13 cc
(3) Vm = Vb - Vp
IV - 16
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Vm = 39 - 9.13 = 29.87 cc
Wdry
M
=
ρm Vm
=
eh
gm
ρm 79.17 gm/29.87 cc = 2.65 cc
. . lithology is sandstone
di
(4) water saturation at surface will probably be greater than reservoir water
saturation
oil saturation at surface will be less than reservoir oil saturation

Im
gas saturation at surface will be greater than reservoir gas saturation
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
IV - 17
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Fluid Saturation Problem 2
Calculate porosity, water saturation, oil saturation, gas saturation, and lithology from the following
M
core analysis data.
How should the saturations you have calculated compare with the fluid saturations in the reservoir?
eh
Oil well core cut with an oil base mud
di
Sample 1 weighed 130 gm and was found to have a bulk volume of 51.72 cc
Sample 2 weighed 86.71 gm, and from the retort method was found to contain 1.90 cc of water
and 0.87 cc of oil
Im
Sample 3 weighed 50 gm and contained 0.40 cc of gas space
assume ρ w = 1.0 gm/cc

an
oil gravity = 40o API
141.5
ian
Solution: γo = 131.5 + °API
γo = 141.5 = 0.825
131.5 + 40°
Na
ρo = 0.825 gm/cc
Vp
(1) φ = Vb
ja
Vp = Vo + Vw +Vg
fa
Vo = 0.87 cc x 100 = 1.00 cc

86.71 gm 100 gm
ba
Vw = 1.90 cc x 100 = 2.19 cc

86.71 gm 100 gm
Vg = 0.40 cc x 100 = 0.80 cc

di
50 gm 100 gm
Vp = (1.00 + 2.19 + 0.80) cc/100 gm
IV - 18
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Vp = 3.99 cc/100 gm
Vb = 51.72 cc x 100 = 39.78 cc

130 gm 100 gm
M
φ = 3.99/100 x 100 = 10%
eh
39.78/100
Vw
x 100
Vp
(2) Sw =
di
= 2.19 cc x 100
3.99 cc
Im
Sw = 54.8%
Vo
x 100
Vp
an
(3) So =
= 1.0 cc x 100
3.99 cc
ian
So = 25.1%
Vg
x 100
Vp
(4) Sg =
Na
= 0.80 cc x 100
3.99 cc
Sg = 20.1%
ja
(5) Vm = Vb - Vp
fa
= 39.78 - 3.99
Vm = 35.79 cc/100 gm
ba
Wm = Wsat - ρ oVo - ρ wVw /Wsat
= 86.71 - 0.825 0.87 - 1.0 1.90

di
86.71
Wm = 97 gm/100 gm
IV - 19
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ρm = Wm
Vm
ρm
M
= 97 gm/100 gm
35.79 cc/100 gm
ρm
eh
= 2.71 gm/cc
.. lithology - limestone
di
(6) water saturations should be fairly close in value

Im
oil saturation will be less than reservoir oil saturation
gas saturation will be greater than reservoir gas saturation

an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
IV - 20
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V. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK-FLUID SYSTEMS
I) Electrical conductivity of fluid saturated rock

M
A. Definition of resistivity
eh
di
ELECTRICAL
CURRENT FLOW A
Im
an
L
ian
given a box of length (L) and cross-sectional area (A) completely filled with
brine of resistivity (Rw)
Na
the resistance of the brine in the box to current flow may be expressed as
r = Rw L
A
ja
r = resistance - ohm
Rw = resistivity - ohm meters

fa
L = length - meters
ba
A = area - (meters)2
di
V-1
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B. Nonconductors of electricity
1. oil
2. gas
M
3. pure water
eh
4. minerals
5. rock fragments
di
C. Conductors of electricity
1. water with dissolved salts conducts electricity (low resistance)

Im
2. clay
D. Development of saturation equation (ignore clay)

an
AP
A
ian
ELECTRICAL
CURRENT FLOW
Na
L
ja
1. the electrical current flows through the water (brine)

fa
a. the area available for current flow is the cross-sectional area

of the pores.
Ap < A
ba
b. the path through the pores is Lp.
Lp > L
di
V-2
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2. resistance to electrical flow through the porous media is equal to the

resistance of a container of area Ap and length Lp filled with water
(brine)
M
RwLp
r= , water filled cube
Ap
eh
R L
r = o , porous media
A
thus
di
RwALp
Ro =
ApL
Im
where r = resistance of rock cube with pores filled with brine, ohm
Rw = formation brine resistivity, ohm-m

(from water sample or SP log)
an
Ro = resistivity of formation 100% saturated
with brine of resistivity, Rw, ohm-m
ian
Ap = cross-sectional area available for current
flow, m 2
Lp = actual path length ion (current) must

travel through rock, m
Na
A = cross-sectional area of porous media,

m2
L = length of porous media, m

ja
3. Since
Ap
≅ porosity, φ
fa
A
and
ba
Lp
≅
L tortuosity, a measure of rock cementation.
then
di
RwALp
Ro =
ApL
V-3
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becomes
Ro = f Rw, φ, tortuosity
M
E. Electrical formation resistivity factor, F
1. the equation for resistivity of a formation 100% saturated with a

eh
brine of resistivity of Rw
Ro = f Rw, φ, tortuosity
di
2. can be written as
Ro = F R w
Im
where F is the electrical formation resistivity factor
Ro
F=
Rw
an
3. cementation factor, m
a. it has been found experimentally that the equation for F takes

the form
ian
F = C φ-m
where C is a constant
m is the cementation factor
Na
b. thus
log F = log C - m log φ

ja fa
ba
di
V-4
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100
M
F 10
eh
di
1
0.01 0.1 1.0
Im
φ
when intercept = C
an
slope = -m, the cementation factor
4. commonly used equation for electrical formation resistivity factor

ian
a. Archie's Equation
F = φ-m
b. Humble Equation
Na
F = 0.62 φ-2.15
(best suited for sandstones)

ja
Cementation Factor (m) and Lithology

fa
Lithology m values
Unconsolidated rocks (loose sands, oolitic limestones) 1.3

ba
Very slightly cemented (Gulf Coast type of sand, except Wilcox) 1.4-1.5
Slightly cemented (most sands with 20% porosity or more) 1.6-1.7
Moderately cemented (highly consolidated sands of 15% porosity or less) 1.8-1.9
Highly cemented (low-porosity sands, quartzite, limestone,dolomite) 2.0-2.2
di
V-5
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Example V-1
Determine the porosity for a sandstone using Archie's and Humble equation .
The formation water's resisitivity was 0.5 ohm-meters. The formation rock 100% saturated with
M
this water was 21.05 ohm-meters.
Which of the two equations will give the most reasonable answer?
eh
Solution:
F =21.05/0.5 = 42.1
di
Archie's: F = φ-m
m = 2.0 for sandstone

Im
φ2 = 1/F
φ= 1
an
42.1
φ = 15.41%
ian
Humble: F = 0.62/φ2.15
φ2.15 = 0.62/F
Na
φ = 2.15 0.62
42.1
φ = 14.06%
ja
The Humble equation was developed for sandstone.

fa
ba
di
V-6
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F. Resistivity Index, I, and Saturation Exponent, n
1. definition of resistivity index
Rt
M
I=
Ro
where Ro = resistivity of formation 100%

eh
saturated with water (brine) of
resistivity Rw, ohm-m
Rt =resistivity of formation with

di
water (brine) saturation less than
100%, ohm-m
2. it has been found experimentally that

Im
-1 R -1
Sw = I n = t n
Ro
an
where n is the saturation exponent ≅ 2.0

ian
3. rearrange
Rt
Sw-n =
Ro
Na
Rt
-n log Sw = log
Ro
ja fa
ba
di
V-7
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100
M
Rt
10
eh
Ro
di
1
.1 1.0
Im
Sw
an
slope = -n, when n is the saturation exponent
ian
NOTE:
log y1 - log y2
slope =
log x1 - log x2
Na
II) Use of Electrical Formation Resistivity Factor, Cementation Factor, and Saturation
Exponent
obtain porosity, φ, from electric log or core analysis

ja
A.
-m
B. F=Cφ (usually use Archie or Humble equation)
fa
C. obtain water resistivity, Rw, from water sample or electric log

ba
D. Ro = F R w
E. convert Rt from electric log to water saturation

di
Ro 1n
Sw =
Rt
V-8
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III) Laboratory measurement of electrical properties of rock
A. Apparatus
M
AC SOURCE
eh
di
1000 OHM STD. RESISTOR

Im
CORE
an
ian
VOLTMETER
Na
B. Calculations
1. resistance of core
ja
E = Ir
fa
where: E = voltage, volts

ba
I = current, amperes
r = resistance, ohms
di
∴ rcore = E
I
V-9
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2. resistivity of core
r A
Rcore = core
M
L
substituting r = E into the equation
I
eh
Rcore = EA
IL
di
C. Procedure
1. determine resistance of core

Im
a. set desired current from AC source, low current preferred
so core does not heat up.
b. record voltage from voltmeter

an
2. determine resistivity of core
a. for the first test completely saturate core with brine Sw =

ian
100%, R core = Ro
b. for next test, desaturate core by 15-20%, until Sw < 100%

Rcore = Rt
Na
c. repeat tests until Sw = S wir
where
Swir = minimum interstitial brine saturation

ja
(irreducible), fraction
Ro = resistivity of core 100% saturated with brine,

fa
ohm-m
Rt = resistivity of core less than 100% saturated with

ba
brine of Rw, ohm-m
Rt = resistivity index = I
Ro
di
V - 10
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D. Determine saturation exponent, n
1. rearrange saturation equation

M
Sw = Ro 1/n
Rt
eh
= Ro
Swn Rt
di
Ro = Sw-n
Rt
Im
Rt
log = -n log Sw
Ro
an
Rt
2. Plot log vs log Sw or log I vs log Sw
Ro
ian
100
Na
Rt
I= 10
Ro
ja fa
1
.1 1.0
ba
Sw
3. the slope of the plot is -n, where n is the saturation exponent

di
V - 11
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Example V-2
Given the following data, calculate the electrical formation resistivity factor and saturation exponent
of the core.
M
Rw = 55 ohm-cm
eh
I = 0.01 amp
D = 2.54 cm
di
L = 3.2 cm
E
Im
Sw Voltage across
Water Saturation, % Core, volts
100.0 7.64
86.0 10.50
an
74.0 14.34
63.0 20.16
54.0 27.52
49.0 = Swir 34.67
ian
Solution:
(1) electrical formation resistivity factor
F = Ro
Na
Rw
ro = E = 7.64 = 764 ohm

I .01
ja
Ro = roA 764 2.54 2π/4

= = 1210 ohm cm
L 3.2
fa
F = Ro 1210
= = 22
Rw 55
ba
di
V - 12
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saturation exponent
Rt
-n log Sw = log
M
Ro
rA Rt
Sw rt = E Rt = t Ro
eh
I L
% (ohm) (ohm-cm)
1.00 1.000
.86 1050 1663 1.374
di
.74 1434 2271 1.877
.63 2016 3192 2.638
.54 2452 4358 3.601
.49 3467 5490 4.537
Im
(.334,10)
an
10
ian
Na
Rt/Ro
ja fa
1 (1.0,1.0)
ba
.1 1
Sw
di
V - 13
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-n = slope = log 10 - log 1

log .334 - log 1
-n = 1-0
M
-.4763 - 0
n = 2.10 = saturation exponent
eh
NOTE:
di
Rt Et
=
Ro Eo
Rt could have been calculated as the ratio of voltage at

Im
so
Ro
Sw divided by the voltage at Sw = 1.0
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
V - 14
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E. Determine cementation factor, m, and constant C for electrical formation

resistivity factor equation
1. test several core samples from reservoir with formation brine

M
a. determine Ro and f for each sample
eh
b. determine Rw for formation brine
Ro
F=
c. Rw
di
2. plot data according to form of equation for electrical formation
resistivity factor
Im
F = C φ-m
an
log F = log C - mlog φ
ian
100
Na
F 10
ja fa
1
0.01 0.1 1.0
φ
ba
slope = -m, m = cementation factor

di
intercept = C (intercept found at φ = 1.0)
V - 15
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Example V-3
The laboratory test of Example IV-2 has been repeated for several core samples from the reservoir.
Data is given below. Calculate the cementation factor and intercept for the formation resistivity
factor equation.
M
Porosity Formation Resistivity Factor
eh
φ F
0.152 40
0.168 32
di
0.184 26
0.199 22
0.213 19
0.224 17
Im
Solution:
F = C φ-m
an
log F = log C - m log φ
plot log F vs log φ

ian
100
Na
10
ja
F
fa
ba
1
.1 1
di
V - 16
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slope = log 50 - log 10

= -2.21
log 0.137 - log 0.284
-m = slope = -2.21
M
eh
m = 2.21 = cementation factor
di
intercept
log F = log C -m log f

Im
log 10 = log C -2.21 log 0.284
log C = -.2082
an
C = 062 = intercept
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
V - 17
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IV) Effect of clay on resistivity
A. ideally, only water conducts a current in rock
B. if clay is present, portion of current conducted through the clay

M
BRINE
eh
di
CLAY
Im
1 = 1 + 1
RoA Rclay Ro
an
where RoA = resistivity measured on sample of reservoir rock

with clay, 100% saturated with brine of
resistivity Rw, ohm-m
ian
Rclay = component of measured resistivity due to clay,

ohm-m
Ro = component of measured resistivity due to brine,

ohm-m
Na
1 = 1 + 1
ja
RoA Rclay F Rw
fa
C. to determine electrical formation resistivity factor
1. measure resistivity of core sample (containing clay) in usual manner,

this will be RoA
ba
2. measure resistivity of brine, Rw, in usual manner

di
V - 18
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3. plot
M
eh
di
1
ROA
(OHM - M) -1
Im
an
1 -1
RW (OHM - M)
ian
1 = 1 + 1 1
RoA Rclay F Rw
Na
where
ja
1 = intercept
Rclay
fa
1 = slope
F
ba
di
V - 19
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D. effect of clay
RoA
M
FA =
1. define Rw , clays reduced the apparent formation resistivity
factor
eh
CLEAN SAND
di
F
SHALY SAND
FA
Im
an
RW
ian
2. formation resistivity factor decreases more gradually when clay is

present in the formation
100
Na
CLEAN SAND
F 10
ja
SHALY SAND
fa
1
0.1 φ 1.0
ba
di
V - 20
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3. saturation exponent n is not constant when clay is present in

formation.
M
100
eh
CLEAN SAND LOW R w
n=2
CLEAN SAND
Rt
Swn-1 = I
di
I= 10
Ro SHALY SAND n =?
Im
CLEAN SAND HIGH R w
n=1
1
.1 1.0
an
Sw
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
V - 21
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VI. MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCK
I) Effective permeability
M
A. Permeability, k, previously discussed applies only to flow when pores are
100% saturated with one fluid - sometimes called absolute permeability
eh
kA∆ρ
q=
µL
di
B. When pore space contains more than one fluid, the above equation becomes
k A∆Pο
qo = o
µoL
Im
k A∆Pw
qw = w
µw L
an
kgA∆Pg
qg =
µgL
ian
where qo = flow rate of oil, volume/time
qw = flow rate of water, volume/time
qg = flow rate of gas, volume/time

Na
and ko = effective permeability to oil, md
kw = effective permeability to water, md

ja
kg = effective permeability to gas, md

fa
C. Effective permeability is a measure of the fluid conductance capacity of

porous media to a particular fluid when the porous media is saturated with
more than one fluid
ba
D. Effective permeability is a function of:
1. geometry of the pores of the rock

di
2. rock wetting characteristics
3. fluid saturations
VI - 1
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E. Darcy equation for multiple fluids in linear flow, in oilfield units
k A P1 - P2
qo = 1.1271 x 10-3 o
µoL
M
k A P1 - P2 w
qw = 1.1271 x 10-3 w
µw L
eh
kg A P1 - P2 g
qg = 1.1271 x 10-3
µgL
di
when k = md
A = ft2
Im
P = psia
L = ft
q = res bbl/day
an
II) Relative permeability

ian
A. Defined as the ratio of the effective permeability to a fluid at a given

saturation to the effective permeability to that fluid at 100% saturated
(absolute permeability)
k
kro = o
Na
k
k
krw = w
k
kg
ja
krg =
k
B. It is normally assumed that the effective permeability at 100% saturation is
fa
the same for all fluid in a particular rock. (not necessarily true in shaly sand)
ba
III) Typical relative permeability curves
A. Use subscript wp to represent the "wetting phase"
Use subscript nwp to represent the "non-wetting phase"

di
VI - 2
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1
1
M
NON-WETTING PHASE
eh
di
Kr
Im
2
an
WETTING PHASE
ian
3
4
0
0
Na
SWP, % 100
MINIMUM INTERSTITIAL S WP EQUILIBRIUM S NWP
ja
krwp
1. = 1, only at S wp = 100%
fa
k
2. rapid decrease in rwp as Swp decreases
krwp
ba
3. = 0, at minimum interstitial Swp
krnwp
4. = 0, at equilibrium Snwp
di
Note that krwp + krnwp < 1.0
VI - 3
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B. Effect of saturation history
1. two types of relative permeability curves
a. drainage curve - wetting phase is displaced by non-wetting

M
phase, i.e., wetting phase saturation is decreasing
b. imbibition curve - non-wetting phase is displaced by wetting

eh
phase, i.e., wetting phase saturation is increasing
2. the typical relative permeability curve shown below represents a

process in which
di
a. process begins with porous rock 100% saturated with
wetting phase (Swp = 100%)
b. wetting phase is displaced with non-wetting phase (drainage)

Im
until wetting phase ceases to flow (Swp = minimum
interstitial wetting phase saturation)
c. then non-wetting phase is displaced with wetting phase

an
(imbibition) until non-wetting phase ceases to flow (Swp =
equilibrium or residual non-wetting phase saturation)
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
VI - 4
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1
M
eh
Krnwp
DRAINAGE
di
Im
Kr
an
IMBIBITION
ian
Krwp
Na
0
0 SWP, % 100
ja
minimum interstitial residual non-wetting

fa
wetting phase saturation phase saturation

ba
di
VI - 5
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3. the word "hysteresis" describes the process in which the results (kr)
are different when measurements are made in different directions
4. the procedure (drainage or imbibition) used to obtain kr data in

M
laboratory must correspond to the process in the reservoir
a. initial distribution of fluids in reservoir was by drainage

eh
b. at and behind a water front (flood or encroachment) the
process is imbibition
5. wetting preference for reservoir rocks is usually water first, then oil,
di
finally gas
Im
Fluids Present Wetting Phase
Water & Oil Water

Water & Gas Water
Oil & Gas Oil
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
VI - 6
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C. Three phase relative permeability
1. often three phases are present in petroleum reservoirs

M
2. tertiary (triangular) diagram is used to represent a three-
phase system
eh
di
100% GAS
Im
an
ian
Na
ja
100% WATER 100% OIL

fa
ba
di
VI - 7
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3. relative permeability to oil in a three phase system

M
100% GAS
eh
1%
di
5
Im
10
20
an
40
60
ian
100% WATER 100% OIL
Note, kro is shown in %

Na
a. dependence of relative permeability to oil on saturations of

other phases is established as follows:
1) oil phase has a greater tendency than gas to wet the

solid
ja
2) interfacial tension between water and oil is less than

that between water and gas
fa
3) oil occupies portions of pore adjacent to water
4) at lower water saturations the oil occupies more of

ba
the smaller pores. The extended flow path length

accounts for the change in relative permeability to oil
at constant oil saturation and varying water saturation
di
VI - 8
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4. Relative permeability to water in a three-phase system

M
100% GAS
eh
di
0
Im
Krw
10%
an
20%
40%
ian
60%
80%
100% WATER 100% OIL

Na
a. straight lines indicate relative permeability to water is a

function of water saturation only
ja
b. thus, krw can be plotted on cartesian coordinates against

Sw.
fa
ba
di
VI - 9
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5. Relative permeability to gas in a three-phase system
100% GAS
M
eh
50%
40
30
di
20
5
Im
1
an
100% WATER 100% OIL

ian
k
a. curves above indicate that rg is a function of saturations of
other phases present.
k
b. other research shows that rg is a unique function of gas
saturation
Na
c. the other phases, oil and water, occupy the smaller pore
openings and wet the surface of the rock
k
therefore, rg should be dependent only on the total
ja
d.
saturation of the other two phases (i.e. 1-Sg) and
independent of how much of that total is composed of either
fa
phase
k
e. thus rg can be plotted on Cartesian coordinates against So +
ba
Sw
di
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1.0
M
0.8
eh
0.6
krg
di
0.4
Im
0.2
an
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
So + Sw
ian
6. Bottom line - for three-phase system in water wetted rock
a. water
Na
1) is located in smaller pore spaces and along sand

grains
2) therefore krw is a function of Sw only

ja
3) thus plot krw against Sw on rectangular coordinates

fa
b. gas
1) is located in center of larger pores

ba
k
2) therefore rg is a function of Sg only
k
thus plot rg against Sg (or So + Sw) on rectangular
di
3)
coordinate
VI - 11
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c. oil
1) is located between water and gas in the pores and to a

certain extent in the smaller pore spaces
M
2) therefore kro is a function of So, S w, and S g
eh
3) thus plot kro against So, S w, S g on a triangular
diagram
di
4) if Sw can be considered to be constant (minimum
interstitial) kro can be plotted against So on a
rectangular diagram
Im
1.0
an
0.8
ian
0.6
kro
0.4
Na
0.2
ja
0.0
fa
0 20 40 60 80 100
So, %
ba
Minimum Interstitial
Water Saturation
di
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7. Flow in three-phase system

M
100% GAS
eh
di
Im
5% oil
an
5% gas
ian
5% water
100% WATER 100% OIL

Na
Arrows point to increasing fraction of respective components in stream
Region of three-phase flow in reservoir centers around 20% gas, 30% oil,
50% water
ja fa
ba
di
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IV) Permeability ratio (relative permeability ratio)

M
A. Definitions
1. When the permeability to water is zero (as at minimum interstitial

eh
water saturation) it is sometimes convenient to use permeability ratio
to represent the flow conductance of the rock to gas and oil as a
ratio.
di
kg krg
permeability ratio = =
Im
ko kro
an
2. When the permeability to gas is zero (no gas or gas below "critical
gas saturation") it is sometimes convenient to use permeability ratio
to represent the flow conductance of the rock to oil and water as a
ratio
ian
k kr
permeability ratio = o = o
kw krw
V) Measurement of relative permeability

Na
A. Methods
1. Laboratory - steady-state flow process

ja
2. Laboratory - displacement (unsteady-state process)
3. Calculation from capillary pressure data (not covered here)

fa
4. Calculation from field performance data
B. Laboratory Methods
ba
1. Steady-state flow process
a. saturate core with wetting-phase fluid

di
b. inject wetting-phase fluid through core (this will determine

absolute permeability)
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c. inject a mix of wetting-phase and non-wetting phase (start

with small fraction of non-wetting phase)
d. when inflow and outflow rates and portion of non-wetting

phase equalize, record inlet pressure, outlet pressure and
M
flow rates of each phase
e. measure fluid saturation in core (see below)

eh
f. calculate relative permeability
q µ L
di
ko = o o
A∆p
q µ L
Im
kw = w w
A∆p
g. repeat b through f with injection mixtures containing

an
relatively more non-wetting phase until irreducible wetting-
phase saturation is reached
1
ian
Na
kr kro krw
ja fa
ba
di
0
0 Sw, % 100
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h. determination of fluid saturations
1) resistivity
Ro 1n Eo 1n
M
Sw = =
Rt Et
eh
where: Ro = resistivity of core 100% saturated with
wetting-phase, ohm-m
Rt = resistivity of core with saturation of wetting

di
phase less than 100%, ohm-m
Eo = voltage across core 100%, saturated with

wetting phase, volts
Im
Et = voltage across core with saturation of wetting
phase less than 100%, volts
2) volumetric balance
an
3) gravimetric method - remove core and weigh it
Wf = Wt - Wd
ian
where: Wf = weight of fluid in core, gm
Wt = weight of saturated core, gm
Wd = weight of dry core, gm

Na
Wf = ρ oVo + ρ wVw
and
ja
Vf = Vo + Vw
fa
where: ρ = density, gm/cc
V = volume, cc
ba
Sw = Vw/Vf
where: Sw = saturation of wetting phase

di
thus
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Petroleum
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Wf/Vf - ρ o
Sw = ρw - ρo
M
i. same procedure can be used starting with 100% saturation of
non-wetting phase
eh
1) injection ratio start with high ratio of non-wetting
phase
2) procedure ends at residual non-wetting phase

di
saturation
3) then is a hysteresis effect of same type as discussed

with capillary pressure measurements
Im
4) choice of starting saturation depends on reservoir
process which is being simulated
an
j. end effects
1) causes of end effects

ian
a) in the bulk of the core there is a wetting-

phase saturation and a non-wetting phase
saturation, therefore there is a finite value of
capillary pressure
b) thus there is a difference in pressure between

the wetting-phase and non-wetting phase
Na
Pcap = P nwp - Pwp
c) at the face of the core the pressures in the

wetting-phase and the non-wetting phase are
ja
essentially equal
Pnwp = P wp
fa
thus capillary pressure is essentially zero

ba
d) if capillary pressure is zero, the saturation of

the wetting phase must be 100% (see
capillary pressure curve)
di
e) there must be a saturation gradient from

essential 100% wetting phase at the "end" to
some value of Swp less than 100% in the
bulk of the core
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100 100
Theoretical saturation Theoretical saturation

gradient gradient
80 80
Oil Saturation, %
Oil Saturation, %
M
60 60
Inflow face Inflow face

eh
40 40
20 20
di
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance from outflow face, cm Distance from outflow face, cm

Im
2) elimination of end effects

an
a) install end pieces to contain end effects
b) flow at rapid rates to make end effect

negligible (pressure gradient > 2 psi/inch
ian
Thermometer Inlet
Copper
Packing Nut Orifice
Electrodes
Plate
Na
End Test Mixing

Section Section Section
ja fa
Differential
Pressure Taps
ba
Bronze Screen Highly permeable disk

Outlet Inlet
di
PENN STATE RELATIVE-PERMEABILITY APPARATUS
VI - 18
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Example VI-1
The relative permeability apparatus shown above was used in a steady-state flow process to obtain
the data given below at a temperature of 70oF. See figure on previous page.
M
eh
di
The Core The Fluids
sandstone brine, 60,000 ppm

length = 2.30 cm oil, 40oAPI
Im
diameter = 1.85 cm µw = 1.07 cp
area = 2.688 cm2 µo = 5.50 cp
porosity = 25.5%
an
Oil Flow Water Flow Inlet Pressure Outlet Pressure Voltage Drop Electrical Current
cc/sec cc/sec psig psig volts amps
ian
0.0000 1.1003 38.4 7.7 1.20 0.01

0.0105 0.8898 67.5 13.5 2.10 0.01
0.0354 0.7650 88.1 17.6 2.80 0.01
0.0794 0.3206 78.2 15.6 4.56 0.01
0.1771 0.1227 85.6 17.1 8.67 0.01
0.2998 0.0000 78.4 15.7 30.00 0.01
Na
Draw the relative permeability curve
Solution:
ja
1. Calculate absolute permeability using data with core 100% saturated with water
fa
qwµwL
k =
ba
A∆p
k = 1.1003 1.07 2.30

2.688 38.4 - 7.7 14.696
di
k = 0.482 darcy
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2. Calculate effective permeabilities to oil and water
qoµoL
M
ko = A∆P
0.0105 5.50 2.30

eh
ko = 2.688 67.5 - 13.5 / 14.696
ko = 0.0134 darcy
di
qwµwL
kw = A∆P
Im
0.8898 1.07 2.30
kw = 2.688 67.5 - 13.5 / 14.696
kw = 0.2217 darcy
an
3. Calculate relative permeabilities
k
kro = o = .0134 = 0.028
ian
k .482
k
krw = w = .2217 = 0.460
k .482
4. Calculate water saturations
Na
Sw = Eo 1/2
Et
Sw = 1.20 1/2 = .756

ja
2.10
5. Results
fa
Water Saturation Relative Permeability Relative Permeability

to oil to water
Sw kro krw ko/kw
ba
1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000

0.756 0.028 0.460 0.061
0.655 0.072 0.303 0.238
di
0.513 0.182 0.143 1.273

0.372 0.371 0.050 7.419
0.200 0.686 0.000 -------
VI - 20
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1.0
M
0.8
eh
Relative Permeability
0.6
Kro
Krw
di
0.4
Im
0.2
0.0
an
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw, % pore space

ian
10
Permeability Ratio, ko/kw
1
Na
ja
.1
fa
.01
ba
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw, % of pore space
di
VI - 21
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6. The data permit certain checks to be made
0.62 φ-2.15
M
F =
F = Ro
eh
Rw
Rw = 12 ohm-m for 60,000 ppm brine

di
Ro = EA = 1.20 2.688 = 140 ohm-m
IL .01 2.3
F = 140 = 11.7
Im
12
Φ = 1 1
.62 2.15 = .62 2.15
F 11.7
an
Φ = .255
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
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2. Displacement (unsteady-state)(Welge)
a. does not result in relative permeability only give permeability

ratio
M
b. procedure
1) mount core in holder

eh
2) saturate with wetting phase (usually oil)
3) inject non-wetting phase (usually gas) at constant

inlet and outlet pressures
di
4) measure
a) cumulative gas injected as a function of time

Im
b) cumulative oil produced as a function of time
c. conditions
an
1) pressure drop across core high enough to make end
effects negligible,but not enough to cause turbulent
(non-darcy) flow.
ian
2) gas saturation can be described at mean pressure
P + Po
Pm = i
2
3) flow is horizontal and core is short so that effects of
Na
gravity can be neglected
d. calculations
1) convert gas injected into pore volumes

ja
Gipi
fa
Gipv =
LAφ pm
ba
where Gi = cumulative gas injected (measured at

pressure pi), cc
Gipv = cumulative gas injected in pore

di
volume
pi = inlet pressure, psi
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pm = pi + po
, psi
2
LA φ = pore volume, cc
M
2) calculate average gas saturation, Sgav
eh
Np
=
Sgav LAφ
where Np = cumulative oil produced, cc

di
LA φ = pore volume, cc
Im
3) plot Sgav vs G ipv
an
ian
Na
Sgav
GAS BREAKTHROUGH
ja fa
ba
0
0 Gipv
di
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4) determine fractional flow of oil, fo
d Sgav
M
fo =
d Gipv
fo = slope of plot of Sgav vs qGipv

eh
5) calculate permeability ratio, kg/ko

di
koA ∆p
µoL
fo =
koA ∆p kgA ∆p
Im
+
µoL µgL
ko/µo
an
fo =
ko/µo + kg/µg
kg 1 - fo
=
ko fo µo/µg
ian
kg
where = permeability ratio of gas to oil
ko
fo = fractional flow of oil

Na
6) Permeability ratio, kg/ko, calculated above applies

only at the gas saturation of the outflow face, thus
must calculate Sgo
ja
Sgo = S gav - Gipvfo
where Sgo = gas saturation at outlet

fa
face of core
Gipv
ba
= cumulative gas
injected, pore volumes
fo = fractional flow of oil at

di
outlet face of core
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e. advantages
1) minimum amount of equipment
2) rapid
M
f. disadvantages
eh
k
1) results in kg/ko, not kro and rg
2) equations don't apply until gas breaks through, thus

initial value of gas saturation may be high, resulting
di
in incomplete kg/ko vs Sgo curve.
Im
an
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
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Example VI-2
The data from an unsteady-state displacement of oil by gas in a 2 inch diameter by 5 5/8 inch long
sandstone core are given below.
M
eh
Cumulative Gas Injection, Gi, cc Cumulative Oil Produced, Np, cc
14.0 14.6
50.2 19.5
di
112.6 22.5
202.3 25.5
401.4 28.6
546.9 30.4
Im
769.9 32.2
1226.5 33.4
3068.9 35.3
5946.6 35.9
an
Other data
ian
T = 70oF, µo = 2.25 cp, µg = .0185 cp
φ = .210, p inlet = 5.0 psig, p out = 0.0 psig

Na
L = 5 5/8 x 2.54 = 14.3 cm A = p (2.54)2 = 20.27 cm 2
G
Prepare to determine kg/ko by calculating Sgav and ipv.
ja
Solution:
1. Calculate Sgav
fa
Np
Sgav =
LAφ
ba
Sgav = 14.6 cc
14.3 cm 20.27 cm2 .210
di
Sgav = 0.24
G
2. Calculate ipv
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Gipi
Gipv =
LAφ pm
M
14.0 cc 19.7 psia
Gipv =
14.3 cm 20.27 cm2 .210 19.7 psia + 14.7 psia /2
eh
Gipv = 0.264 pv
3. Results
di
Sgav Gipv pv
Im
0.24 0.264
0.32 0.945
0.37 2.12
0.42 3.81
an
0.47 7.56
0.50 10.3
0.53 14.5
0.55 23.1
0.58 57.8
ian
0.59 112.0
Na
ja fa
ba
di
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Example VI-3
A core sample initially saturated with oil is flooded with gas. The following data was obtained:
Gipv pv
M
Sgav
0.24 0.264
0.32 0.945
eh
0.37 2.12
0.42 3.81
0.47 7.56
0.50 10.3
di
0.53 14.5
0.55 23.1
0.58 57.8
0.59 112.0
Im
µo = 2.25 cp
µg = 0.0185 cp
an
S
Calculate and construct a fg verses Sgo plot. Convert gavg to Sgo. Determine kg/ko for each of
the given saturations. Construct a graph of kg/ko versus S go.
ian
Solution:
Plot Sgav vs. Gipv
The slope from this plot is fo.

Na
Sgo = S gav - fogipv
1 - fo
kg/ko =
µ
fo o
µo
ja
Sgav Gipv pv fo Sgo kg/ko

fa
0.24 .264 .375 .141 .0137

0.32 .94 .075 .249 .101
ba
0.37 2.17 .0357 .294 .222

0.42 3.81 .0214 .338 .376
0.47 7.56 .0118 .381 .689
0.50 10.3 .0092 .405 .886
0.53 14.5 .0046 .463 1.78
di
0.55 23.1 .0013 .521 6.32

0.58 57.8 .0005 .550 16.4
0.59 112.0 .0001 .581 82.2
VI - 29
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0.6
M
0.5
eh
Sgav 0.4
fraction
di
0.3
Im
0.2
an
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Gipv, pv
ian
100
10
Na
kg/ko 1
ja fa
.1
ba
.01
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
di
Sg, %
VI - 30
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C. Field determination of permeability ratios
1. equations
M
kg A ∆p
qg µgL
eh
qo = k A ∆p
o
µoL
where qg = gas flow rate measured at reservoir conditions,

di
vol/time
qo = oil flow rate measured at reservoir conditions,

Im
vol/time
thus,
kg qg µg
an
=
ko qo µo
replace qg/qo with

ian
qg Bg Rp - Rs
qo = 5.615 B o
where Bg = formation volume factor of gas, res cu ft/scf

Na
Bo = formation volume factor of oil, res bbl/STB
Rp = producing gas-oil ratio, scf/STB must include both

separator gas and stock tank gas)
ja
thus
kg µgBg Rp - Rs
fa
=
ko µo 5.615 Bo
2. procedure
ba
a. producing gas-oil ratio, Rp, and physical properties, Bg,

Bo, R s, µg, µo must be determined at some known
reservoir pressure
di
b. saturations in reservoir, Sg or So, must be calculated from

production data and material balance calculations
VI - 31
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Example VI-4
Discovery pressure for your well was 4250 psia, temperature is 200oF, and initial producing gas-
M
oil ratio was 740 SCF/STB. Stock tank oil gravity is 30oAPI and surface gas gravity is 0.7.
Production history and correlations indicate the bubble point at 3500 psia. Reservoir pressure is
eh
now 3000 psia. Producing gas-oil ratio is 18,100 SCF/STB. What is kg/ko in the reservoir at this
time.
Solution:
di
Correlations covered in the fluid properties portion of this course yield the following value
of the physical properties of the gas and oil at 3000 psia and 200o F.
Im
Rs = 560 SCF/STB
Bo = 1.314 res. BBL/STB

an
Tpc of gas = 390 oR

ian
Ppc of gas = 665 psia
z = 0.86
Bg = 0.0282 z T/p = 5.34 x 103 res cu ft/SCF

Na
µg = 0.0192 cp
µo = 0.75 cp
ja
kg = µgBg Rp - Rs
ko µo 5.615 Bo
fa
kg 0.0192 5.34 x 10 -3 18100 - 560

=
ko 0.75 5.615 1.314
ba
kg = 0.325
ko
di
VI - 32
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VI) Uses of relative permeability data
A. Determination of free water surface in reservoir (100% water production)

M
1
eh
di
kr
Im
an
Log Response
0 Diagram
0 Sw, % 100
ian
SP Log RT Log
Na
h, ft
100% Water Production
ja fa
ba
100 % Sw
0
0 Sw, % 100
di
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B. Determination of height of 100% oil production
1
M
eh
kr
di
Im
an
0 Log Response
0 Sw, % 100 Diagram
SP Log RT Log
ian
100% Oil Production
100% Water Production

Na
h, ft
ja fa
100 % Sw
0
0 Sw, % 100
ba
di
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C. Effect of permeability on thickness of transition zone
1
M
eh
kr Low K
di
High K
Im
an
0
0 Sw, % 100
h = height of zone
ian
of interest
Na
h, ft
Low K
ja
High K
fa
0
0 Sw, % 100
ba
di
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D. Fractional flow of water as a function of height
kw A ∆ P
M
q q µw L
fw = q w = q +wq = = 1
tot o w ko A ∆ P kw A ∆ P ko µw
+
eh
1+
µo L µo L kw µo
1
di
Im
fw
100
an
0
0 Sw 100
ian
100
Na
0
0 1
fw
h
ja fa
0
0 Sw 100
ba
di
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160
10 md
140
M
120
Height above free water level, ft
eh
100
80
50 md
di
60
40
Im
100 md
20
200 md
0
an
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fraction of water in produced fluid, %

ian
This figure indicates that lower permeabilities result in longer transition zones
E. Determination of residual fluid saturations
1
Na
Oil
Water
kr
ja fa
0
0 100
ba
Sw
Residual Oil
Saturation
1. Imbibition curve used in water flood calculations

di
2. Maximum oil recovery = area (acre) x h(ft) x f x 7758 BBL/acre ft x

∆Sw
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F. Interpretation of fractional flow curve

M
1
eh
1
di
4
fw
Im
an
2 3
0
ian
0 Sw 100
1. fw at water breakthrough
Na
2. Sw at well at water breakthrough
Swav in reservoir between wells at water breakthrough

3.
ja
1 = pore volume of water injected

4. slope
fa
ba
di
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1 3
M
eh
2
di
Water input
fw Pore vols.
Im
1
an
ian
0 0
0 100
Oil Rec - % Oil in Place
Na
ja fa
ba
di
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VII. STATISTICAL MEASURES
I) Introduction
M
Usually we can not examine an entire "population" (i.e. we can not dig up an entire
eh
reservoir, cut it into plugs, and measure the porosity of every plug). We can only
"sample" the population and use the properties of the sample to represent the
properties of the population. Often we seek a single number (porosity or

di
permeability) to represent the population (reservoir) for use in reservoir engineering
calculations.
Im
an
If the sample is representative of the population, we have a statistical basis for
estimating properties of the population.

ian
The sample data is said to be unclassified or classified depending on whether it is
arranged or grouped in a particular order. Unclassified data is randomly arranged.

Na
The classification of data for a large number of samples will often provide
additional information to help describe the physical properties of the population.

ja fa
ba
di
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II) Frequency Distributions
It is often useful to distribute data into classes. The number of individuals

M
belonging to each class is called the class frequency. A tabular arrangement of
eh
these data according to class is called a frequency distribution or frequency table.
Sometimes classified data is called grouped data.

di
The division of unclassified data into classified data is accomplished by allocating

Im
all data to respective class intervals. The midpoint of each class interval is called the
class mark.
an
Rules for forming frequency distributions
ian
A. Determine largest and smallest numbers in the raw data.
B. Divide the range of numbers into a convenient number of equal sized class
intervals. The number of class intervals depends on the data but is usually
Na
taken between 5 and 20 in number.
C. The number of observations for each class interval is the class frequency.
ja
D. The relative frequency of a class is the frequency of the class divided by the
fa
total frequency of all the classes.

ba
di
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III) Histogram
A histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution.

M
The vertical scale is the number of data points - the class frequency - in each class.
The width of the rectangle corresponds to the class interval.
eh
Frequency of Occurence
Mean
di
Im
Magnitude of Variable
8
an
6
# of Samples
ian
2
Na
0
12 16 20 24
Porosity, %
8
ja
6
# of Samples
fa
2
ba
0
20 60 100 140
Permeability, md
di
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Net pay thickness data from 20 wells summarized as relative frequency data
M
Frequency Relative Frequency
Range of (No. of wells (No. of wells having thickness Relative
eh
thickness, having thickness values in each range, Frequency
ft. values in the range) fraction of total wells) as percentage.
di
50-80 4 0.20 20%
81-110 7 0.35 35%
111-140 5 0.25 25%
141-170 3 0.15 15%
171-200 1 0.05 5%
Im
20 1.00 100%
an
ian
10
8
Frequency
Na
4
ja
0
fa
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
Random variable: net pay thickness, ft

ba
di
VII - 4
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M
Sometimes the relative frequency is plotted on a histogram
eh
di
.5
Im
.4
Relative Frequency
.3
an
.2
ian
.1
0
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
Na

ja fa
ba
di
VII - 5
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IV) Cumulative Frequency Distributions
Relative frequencies are summed and plotted at the higher ends of the class intervals
M
to create a "cumulative frequency less than or equal to" distribution
eh
di
Cumulative frequency less than for equal to
Cumulative % less than or equal to
1.0 100%
Im
.8 80%
an
.6 60%
.4 40%
ian
.2 20%
0 0
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
Na

ja fa
ba
di
VII - 6
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Occasionally a "cumulative frequency greater than or equal to" distribution is
plotted. Relative frequencies are summed from the highest class interval and plotted
at the lower ends of the intervals

M
eh
di
Cumulative frequency greater than for equal to
1.0
Cumulative % greater than or equal to
100%
Im
.8 80%
an
.6 60%
.4 40%
ian
.2 20%
0 0
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
Na

ja
Probability graph paper has been constructed so that data from certain probability
fa
distributions plot as a straight line. Different probability paper is used for data with
ba
different distributions
di
VII - 7
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V) Normal Distribution
The normal distribution is continuous probability distribution having a symmetrical

M
shape similar to a bell, sometimes called a Gaussian distribution.
eh
di
Im
f(x)
an
Inflection point
of curve
a a
ian
µ −a µ +a
Random variable x
Na
This distribution is completely and uniquely defined by two values - the mean, m,
ja
and standard deviation, σ.

fa
ba
di
VII - 8
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Technology
VI) Log Normal Distribution
The log normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution that appears

M
similar to a normal distribution except that it is skewed to one side. It is also called
an exponential distribution.
eh
di
Im
Mode
an
f(x)
Median (geometric mean)
ian
Mean (arithmetic mean)
Na
Random variable x
ja
This distribution can also be completely and uniquely defined by the mean, m, and
the standard deviation, σ.
fa
If random variable xi are log normally distributed then the variables log xi are
ba
normally distributed.
di
VII - 9
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VII) Measures of Central Tendency
An average is a value which is typical or representative of a set of data. When a set

M
of data is arranged according to magnitude the average value tends to lie in the
center of these data. These averages are called measure of central tendency.
eh
mean - the arithmetic average value of the samples
di
n
Σ xi
µ = i =1n
Im
where xi = values of the variable of interest for each sample
nµ = number of samples
an
median - the value equalled or exceeded by exactly one-half of the samples.
mode - the value which occurs with the greatest frequency

ian
geometric mean - the nth root of the product of n numbers
µg = x1⋅ x2⋅ x3 . . . x n 1/n
n 1/n
Na
µg = π xi
i=1
where µg = the geometric mean

ja fa
ba
di
VII - 10
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Technology
VIII) Measures of Variability (dispersion)
A measure of central tendency is the "average" or expected value of a set of

M
variables, however it does not show the spread or variability of the variables on
either side of the central tendency.

eh
A. Standard deviation - The square root of the mean of the squared deviations
about µ, where deviation is defined as the distance of the variable from µ.
di
n
Σ xi - µ 2
Im
σ =
2 i=1
n-1
where σ2 is the variance

an
σ is the standard deviation
B. Mean deviation - another measure of the dispersion about the central

tendency
ian
n
Σ xi - µ
MD = i=1 n
Na
For classified data
Σ fi xi - µ 2
j
σ2 =
ja
Σ fi
j
fa
where fi = frequency for each class
xj = class mark
ba
or
σ2 = Σ frj xj - µ 2
di
f
where rj = relative frequency for each class
VII - 11
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IX) Normal Distribution
Porosity data is usually assumed to have a normal distribution.

M
For the normal distribution the mean, median and mode have the same numerical
eh
values. They are identical measures of central tendency.
Thus, for unclassified data

di
n
Σ xi
µ = i=1n
Im
where i refers to each individual data point and, for classified data
Σ fj xj
an
j
µ=
Σ fj
j
ian
where j refers to each class interval
fj is the frequency of the class
xj is the class mark
or
Na
µ = Σ frj xj
j
f
ja
where rj is the relative frequency of the class.

xj is the class mark
fa
ba
di
VII - 12
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Technology
.999 .999
M
Cumulative Frequency
Cumulative Frequency
eh
di
.001 .001
Im
Random variable x Random variable x
Cumulative frequency plotted Cumulative frequency plotted

on coordinate graph paper on normal probability paper
an
ian
Normal probability graph paper

Na
.999 .999
µ+a
distributed normally
distributed normally
Random variable x,
Random variable x,
σ
ja
µ µ
fa
.001 .001
ba
50% 50% 84.1%
Cumulative % < Cumulative % <

di
VII - 13
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Technology
Porosity and permeability data from a well in the Denver-Julesburg Basin

M
Porosity Interval
Interval Frequency Midpoint
(xi - µ)2 fi(xi - µ)2
i Percent fi xi fixi (xi - µ)
eh
1 7.0<x<10.0 1 8.5 8.5 -9.2 84.64 84.64
2 10.0<x<12.0 0 11.0 0.0 -6.7 44.89 0.00
3 12.0<x<14.0 1 13.0 13.0 -4.7 22.09 22.09
di
4 14.0<x<16.0 10 15.0 150.0 -2.7 7.29 72.90
5 16.0<x<18.0 12 17.0 204.0 -0.7 0.49 5.88
6 18.0<x<20.0 8 19.0 152.0 +1.3 1.69 13.52
7 20.0<x<22.0 7 21.0 147.0 +3.3 10.89 76.23
Im
8 22.0<x<25.0 3 23.5 70.5 +5.8 33.64 100.92
42 745.0 376.18
an
ian
Σ fi xi
µ= = 745.0 = 17.7%
Σ fi 42
Σ fi xi - µ 2
j
σ2 = = 376.18 = 8.96
Na
Σ fi 42
j
σ = 8.96 = 2.99%
ja fa
ba
di
VII - 14
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Petroleum
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Technology
Cumulative
Frequency Cumulative
M
Than or Equal to Frequency
Porosity Upper Limit of Expressed as
eh
Interval, % Frequency Interval Percentage
7.0<x<10.0 1 1 2.4%
di
10.0<x<12.0 0 1 2.4%
12.0<x<14.0 1 2 4.8%
14.0<x<16.0 10 12 28.6%
Im
16.0<x<18.0 12 24 57.1%
18.0<x<20.0 8 32 76.2%
20.0<x<22.0 7 39 92.9%
an
22.0<x<25.0 3 42 100.0%
42
ian
26
24
22
20
Na
Core porosity, %
18
16
ja
14
12
fa
10
ba
8
2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 96
Cumulative % less than or equal to given values of porosity
at 50th percentile f = 17.7%

at 84th percentile f + σ = 20.7%
di
σ = 20.7 - 17.7 = 3%
VII - 15
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Petroleum
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Technology
X) Log Normal Distribution
Permeability data is usually assumed to have a log normal distribution.

M
For log normal distribution the median, mode, and mean have different numerical
eh
values. The median has been chosen as the value of central tendency which best
represents the data.

di
The median of a log normal distribution is equal to the geometric mean.
Im
Thus, for unclassified data
an
n 1/n
µ = π xi
i=1
ian
or
n
log (m) = 1 Σ log xi
Na
n i=1
ja fa
ba
di
VII - 16
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Petroleum
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Technology
Cumulative
Frequency Less Cumulative
Permeability Than or Equal to Frequency
Interval Upper Limit of Expressed As
M
(millidarcies) Frequency Interval Percentage
0-50 2 2 4.8%
eh
51-100 2 4 9.5%
101-150 4 8 19.0%
151-200 4 12 28.6%
201-250 4 16 38.1%
di
251-300 8 24 57.1%
301-350 4 28 66.7%
351-400 2 30 71.4%
401-450 4 34 81.0%
451-500 1 35 83.3%
Im
501-700 5 40 95.2%
701-1000 2 42 100.0%
42
an
Lognormal probability graph paper
1000
ian
Core permeability, md
Na
100
ja fa
ba
10
2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 96
di
Cumulative % less than or equal to given values of permeability
VII - 17
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Technology
PETE 306 HANDOUT 3/5/92
Calculation of Permeability using Capillary Pressure Data

M
Purcell Approach
(ABW: pages 167-172)
eh
Three basic considerations:
di
1. Capillary pressure in a capillary,
P c = 2 σ cosθ
Im
r
2. Capillary flow: Poiseuille's law

an
π r4
i ∆p
qi =
8µL
ian
3. Darcy's equation,
qt = kA ∆p
µL
Na
P c = dynes
cm2 k = cm2
ja
σ = dynes
cm A = cm2
fa
r = cm L = cm
ba
q = cm
2 µ = poise = dynes-sec
sec cm2
di
∆p = dyne
cm2
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2
Let V i = πr i L,
M
then the flow rate in a capillary is
eh
2
qi = Vr i ∆p, V = cm3
2
8µL
di
Since
r i = 2σ cosθ
Im
Pci
σ cosθ 2 Vi
qi = ∆p
an
Pci 2 2 µ L 2
For a bundle of n capillary tubes,

ian
i = n σ cosθ 2 ∆p i=n V
qt = Σ Σ i
i=1 2µL 2
i=1 Pci 2
Na
Since,
qt = k A ∆p
µL
ja
i=n
σ cosθ 2
fa
k = Σ Vi 2
2 A L i=n Pci
ba
di
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Define the fractional volume of ith capillary

M
Vi ,
si = s i = fraction
VT
eh
and
φ = VT , φ = fraction
di
AL
i=n
σ cosθ 2
k= φ Σ Si
Im
2 i=1 Pci 2
Introducing a lithology factor λ for deviation of the actual pore

space,
an
i=n
σ cosθ 2
k= φλ Σ Si
ian
2 i=1 Pci 2
In integral form,
S=1
Na
σ cosθ 2
k= φλ dS
2 2
S=0 Pc
ja
fa
ba
di
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PETE 306 HANDOUT 4/16/92
Calculation of Relative Permeabilities using

M
Capillary Pressure Data
Purcell and Burdine Approach

eh
(ABW: pages 196-199)
Purcell approach:
di
The absolute permeability may be expressed as
Im
S=1
σ cosθ 2
k= φλ dS
2 2
S=0 Pc
an
The effective permeability of the wetting phase may be expressed as

ian
S=Swt
σ cosθ 2
kwt = φλ dS
2 P2c
S=0
Na
The relative permeability of the wetting phase is the ratio of the wetting
phase effective permeability to the absolute permeability
S=Swt
ja
dS
P2c
S=0
krwt = kwt =
fa
k S=1
dS
ba
2
S=0 Pc
di
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Similarly, the effective permeability of the nonwetting phase may be

expressed as
S=1
M
σ cosθ 2
knwt = φλ dS
2 2
S=Swt Pc
eh
The relative permeability of the nonwetting phase is the ratio of the
nonwetting phase effective permeability to the absolute permeability
di
S=1
dS
Im
2
S=Swt Pc
krnwt = knwt =
k S=1
an
dS
2
S=0 Pc
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
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Technology
Burdine Approach:
Burdine considered the tortuosity factors for one-phase and multiphase

systems and modified the Purcell equations for the effective
M
permeabilities.
λrwti = λi
eh
λwti
The relative permeability of the wetting phase is the ratio of the wetting
di
phase effective permeability to the absolute permeability
S=Swt
Im
dS
P2c
S=0
krwt = kwt = λrwt 2
k S=1
an
dS
2
S=0 Pc
ian
The tortuosity ratio is related to the minimum wetting-phase saturation

Sm, as
λrwt = Swt - S m
Na
1 - Sm
ja fa
ba
di
Page 223 / 224

Petroleum
University Of
Technology
Similarly, the relative permeability of the nonwetting phase is the ratio

of the nonwetting phase effective permeability to the absolute
permeability
M
S=1
dS
eh
2
S=Swt Pc
krnwt = knwt = λrnwt 2
k S=1
dS
di
2
S=0 Pc
Im
The tortuosity ratio for the nonwetting phase is related to the minimum
wetting-phase saturation, Sm, and the equilibrium saturation to the
nonwetting phase, Se, as
an
λrnwt = Snwt - S e
1 - Sm - Se
ian
Na
ja fa
ba
di
4
All Right Reserved E_mail:mehdiimanian@yahoo.com
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" In The Name Of God "

Petroleum Engineering 311

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 311

CLASS NOTES (1992)

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY

I. ROCK POROSITY I-1

I) Darcy's equation II-11

I) Boundary tension III-1

VII) Laboratory measurement of capillary pressure III-19

IV. FLUID SATURATIONS IV-1

I) Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation IV-1

V. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK-FLUID SYSTEMS V-1

I) Electrical conductivity of fluid saturated rock V-1

Saturation Exponent V-8

VI. MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCK VI-1

I) Effective permeability VI-1

III) Typical relative permeability curves VI-2

VII. STATISTICAL MEASURES VII-1

Vm= matrix volume, (L3)

A. Primary (original) Porosity

Developed at time of deposition

Developed as a result of geologic process

total pore space Vb - Vm

interconnected pore space

VI) Factors affecting porosity

Porosity increases as particle uniformity decreases.

Porosity decreases as compaction increases

(FROM KRUMBEIN AND SLOSS.)

D. Particle Size Distribution

Porosity decreases as the range of particle size increases

E. Interstitial and Cementing Material

1. Porosity decreases as the amount of interstitial material increases

2. Porosity decreases as the amount of cementing material increases

3. Clean sand - little interstitial material

1. Contribute substantially to the volume of pore spaces

2. Highly variable in size and distribution

3. There could be two or more systems of pore openings - extremely complex

1. Conventional core analysis

1) calculate from dimensions

a) volumetric (measure volume)

(1) drop into liquid and observe volume charge

(2) must prevent test liquid from entering pores

(a) coat with paraffin

(c) use mercury as test liquid

b) gravimetric (measure mass)

(1) Change in weight of immersed sample-

prevent test liquid from entering pore space

(2) Change in weight of container and test fluid

1) assume grain density

3) Boyle's Law: P1V1 = P 2V2

b) Put core in second chamber, evacuate

V2 = Volumetric of first chamber &

VT = Volume of first chamber +

saturated weight - dry weight

2) Boyle's Law: P1V1 = P 2V2

b) Put core in Hassler sleeve, evacuate

V2 = Volume of first chamber + pore

2. Application to reservoir rocks

2) calculate bulk volume from measurements

Weight of paraffin coating = 20.9 gm - 20.0 gm = 0.9 gm

Bulk volume of sample = 10.9 cc - 1.0 cc = 9.9 cc

Bulk Volume = 9.9 cc