ETAP 5.

Harmonic Analysis

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc.

 Types of Power Quality
Problems

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 2

 Waveform Distortion
• Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
– DC Offset
– Harmonics
– Interharmonics
– Notching
– Noise

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 3

 Harmonics
• One special category of power quality
problems

• “Harmonics are voltages and/or currents

present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.”
(IEEE Std 399, Brown Book)

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 4

 Harmonic Sources
• Utilities (Power Grid)
– Known as “Background Harmonic”
– Pollution from other irresponsible customers
– SVC, HVDC, FACTS, …
– Usually a voltage source
• Synchronous Generators
– Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractional-
pitch winding) and Saturation
– Usually a voltage source
Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 5
 Harmonic Sources
• Transformers
– Due to magnetizing branch saturation
– Only at lightly loaded condition
– Usually a current source
• Power Electronic Devices
– Charger, Converter, Inverter, UPS, VFD, …
– Due to switching actions
– Either a voltage source or a current source

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 6

 Harmonic Sources
• Other Non-Linear Loads
– Arc furnaces, discharge lighting, …
– Due to unstable and non-linear process
– Either a voltage source or a current source
• In general, any load that is applied to a
power system that requires other than a
sinusoidal current

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 7

 Nonlinear Loads
• Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor

• Increasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 8

 Classification of Harmonics

• Harmonics may be classified as:

– Characteristic Harmonics

¾ Generally produced by power converters

– Non-Characteristic Harmonics

¾ Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge

lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 9

 Characteristic Harmonics

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 10

 Characteristic Harmonics

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 11

 Fourier Representation
• Any periodic
waveform can be
expressed as a sum
of sinusoids
• The sum of the
sinusoids is referred
to as Fourier Series
(6-pulse)
2 3 1 1 1 1
I ac = I d (cosωt − cos 3ωt + cos 7ωt − cos11ωt + cos13ωt
π 5 7 11 13
∞
⇒ ∑ I h cos(hωt + Φ h )
h =1

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 12

 Harmonic Spectrum

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 13

 Harmonic-Related Problems
• Motors and Generators

– Increased heating due to iron and copper losses

– Reduced efficiency and torque

– Higher audible noise

– Cogging or crawling

– Mechanical oscillations

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 14

 Harmonic-Related Problems
• Transformers
– Parasitic heating
– Increased copper, stray flux and iron losses

• Capacitors (var compensators)

– Possibility of system resonance
– Increased heating and voltage stress
– Shortened capacitor life

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 15

 Harmonic-Related Problems
• Power Cables
– Involved in system resonance
– Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric failure
– Heating and derating
• Neutrals of four-wire systems (480/277V; 120/208V)
– Overheating
• Fuses
– Blowing

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 16

 Harmonic-Related Problems
• Switchgears
– Increased heating and losses
– Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
– Shortened insulation components life
• Relays
– Possibility of misoperation
• Metering
– Affected readings

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 17

 Harmonic-Related Problems
• Communication Systems
– Interference by higher frequency
electromagnetic field
• Electronic Equipment (computers, PLC)
– Misoperation
• System
– Resonance (serial and parallel)
– Poor power factor

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 18

 Parallel Resonance
• Total impedance at resonance frequency
increases
• High circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 19

 Parallel Resonance
Cause: Source inductance resonates with
capacitor bank at a frequency
excited by the facilities harmonic
sources
Impacts: 1. Excessive capacitor fuse
operation
2. Capacitor failures
3. Incorrect relay tripping
4. Telephone interference
5. Overheating of equipment
Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 20
 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
– Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor
(HDF), is the most popular index to measure the
level of harmonic distortion to voltage and
current
– Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the
fundamental component
– For an ideal system THD = 0%
– Potential heating value of the harmonics relative
to the fundamental
Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 21
 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
– Good indicator of additional losses due to
current flowing through a conductor
– Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a
capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)
∞

∑F i
2

THD = 2

F1

Where Fi is the amplitude of the ith harmonic,

and F1 is that for the fundamental component.
Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 22
 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
• Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)
- Ratio of a given harmonic to fundamental
- To track magnitude of individual harmonic
Fi
IHD =
F1
• Root Mean Square (RMS) - Total
- Root Mean Square of fundamental plus all
harmonics
- Equal to fundamental RMS if Harmonics are
zero ∞
2
RMS = ∑F
1
i

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 23

 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
• Arithmetic Summation (ASUM)
– Arithmetic summation of magnitudes of all
components (fundamental and all harmonics)
– Directly adds magnitudes of all components to
estimate crest value of voltage and current
– Evaluation of the maximum withstanding ratings
of a device
∞
ASUM = ∑ Fi
1

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 24

 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
• Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
– Weighted THD
– Weights based on interference to an audio
signal in the same frequency range
– Current TIF shows impact on adjacent
communication systems
∞ 2

∑ (W F )i i

TIF = 1

∞ 2

∑F
1
i

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 25

 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
• I*T Product (I*T)
– A product current components (fundamental
and harmonics) and weighting factors
H
I •T = ∑ (I
h =1
h ⋅ Th ) 2

where Ih = current component

Th= weighting factor
h = harmonic order (h=1 for fundamental)
H = maximum harmonic order to account
Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 26
 Triplen Harmonics
• Odd multiples of the
third harmonic
(h = 3, 9, 15, 21, …)
• Important issue for
grounded-wye systems
with neutral current
• Overloading and TIF problems
• Misoperation of devices due to presence of
harmonics on the neutral

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 27

 Winding Connections

• Delta winding provides ampere turn balance

• Triplen Harmonics cannot flow
• When currents are balanced Triplens
behave as Zero Sequence currents
• Used in Utility Distribution Substations
• Delta winding connected to Transmission

• Balanced Triplens can flow

• Present in equal proportions on both sides
• Many loads are served in this fashion

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 28

 Implications
• Neutral connections are susceptible to overheating
when serving single-phase loads on the Y side that
have high 3rd Harmonic
• Measuring current on delta side will not show the
triplens and therefore do not give a true idea of the
heating the transformer is subjected to
• The flow of triplens can be interrupted by appropriate
isolation transformer connection
• Removing the neutral connection in one or both Y
windings blocks the flow of Triplen harmonic current
• Three legged core transformers behave as if they have
a “phantom” delta tertiary winding
Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 29
 Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis
• Motors and Machines
– Represented by their equivalent negative
sequence reactance
• Lines and Cables
– Series impedance for low frequencies
– Long line correction including transposition and
distributed capacitance

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 30

 Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis
• Transformers
– Leakage impedance
– Magnetizing impedance
• Loads
– Static loads reduce peak resonant impedance
– Motor loads shift resonant frequency due to
motor inductance

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 31

 Reducing System
Harmonics
• Passive Filters
– Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
– Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
– Provide low impedance path for harmonic
current
– Least expensive

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 32

 Reducing System
Harmonics
• Pulse Numbers
– Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
– Limited by practical control problems

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 33

 Reducing System
Harmonics
• Phase Shifting
– Using Phase Shifting Transformers
– Achieve higher pulse operation of the total
converter installation
• In PowerStation
– Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the
transformer editor

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 34

 Reducing System
Harmonics
• Either standard phase shift or special phase
shift can be used

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 35

 Reducing System
Harmonics
• Active Filters

– Instantly adapts to changing source and load

conditions

– Very costly

– MVA Limitation

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 36

 Distortion Limits
Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE
519): Bus Voltage Individual Total Voltage
Distortion Distortion
At
(%) THD (%)
PCC
69 kV and below 3.0 5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV 1.5 2.5
161.001 and above 1.0 1.5

In PowerStation:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 37