Gravity center and hip angle
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas – ESPE
Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida y la Agricultura
Ingeniería en Biotecnología
Biofísica_NRC: 1668
Abstract – The present study aims to analyze the biophysical system
of human gait. This is done through the use of Kinovea software,
which will measure the hip angle and center of gravity of each
individual, identifying in a group of 18 individuals (6 men And 12
women) the differences in these measurements in fast walking, normal
and slow gait with different types of footwear, high heels, sport shoes
and casual shoes for women, sports and casual for men, their age
ranged between 21-22 years with Height and average weights 1.70 m
and 80 kg respectively. The experimental test was performed at the
“Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas-ESPE” during January 2017. In
addition, the error of anatomical appreciation, bearing, instrumental
appreciation, place of center of gravity and distortion of the image will
be calculated for the approximation to real results.
In results, there are differences between the number of steps per gender
(p value = 0.002) and velocity (p-value = 2.19 × 10-15), women (mean
= 109.8861) performed more steps per minute than men (mean =
100.2050). The number of steps according to the speed of the march:
fast, normal and slow had the following values, rapid gait (average =
127.4361) gives greater number of steps unlike normal gait (mean =
106.9111) and idle Mean = 85.63). The ratio by sex: speed configures
the following women in a rapid gait (mean = 131.7917) perform more
steps per minute than men at a rapid gait (mean = 118.7250).
Concluding according to the results obtained, it is observed (ANOVA
1) that gender and speed are significant factors and directly influence
number of steps that are generated during a short period of time, in
higher speed each individual gives greater steps number. There is a
greater average of steps generated by women than men, regardless of
the type of footwear. Interaction and speed are factors that also
influence the response variable.
Keywords: Gravity center; human march; hip angle; footwear;
gender.
I. INTRODUCTION
Human march is considered a process of displacement that
human beings use to go from one place to another, it is
considered as a rhythmic and cyclic activity, in which the whole
body is involved, especially the lower limbs and the hip [2], the
human being at the moment of walking behaves as a physical
organism and as a biological system at the same time due to its
muscular actions. Two important periods are considerated, the
support as a rocking where first refers to the time that the feet
make contact against the firm ground considering 62% of the
total cycle, and the second corresponds to the time in which one
of the limbs is in the air involving the remaining 38% of the
total [3]. People walking requires a minimum of energy that
varies with speed with each one walk, however, energy
expenditure is affected by factors such as weight of the person,
type of terrain, slope of it and the physic conditions that person
has (Sánchez, 2006). It has been estimated that best speed at
which a lower amount of energy is required is at 4.5 km / h [2].
Center of gravity is the point where force resulting from all the
forces of gravity acting on each portion of the system
concentrates. It is a point that represents the axis of an object
weight and is also the point where all parts are balanced, and
all planes of the body intersect each other. In anatomical
position, center of gravity is located in pelvis, anterior to the
sacrum (second sacral vertebra, S-2). In women, it is lower than
in men, because women have a heavier pelvis and thighs and
shorter legs (Plagenhoef et al, 2013).
Nowadays many softwares have been developed that allows to
calculate angles of a moving body, one of these programs is
Kinovea that measures distances and times manually or uses
semi automated tracking to follow points and check the actual
values or trajectories [4].
Analysis of the human march has the objective to arrive at an
accurate diagnosis of some pathology origin, as well as to
prevent possible problems before they develop. By means of
the pressure platform for this measurement, different pressures
realized in different stages of support of foot during the march
are captured. These data allow us to perform analysis of the
plantar pressures, different ankle movements, foot balance,
center of gravity, distribution of pressure line, etc [1].
With the accomplishment of this study it is possible to evaluate
imbalances of alignment and of foot supports in each phase,
that can trigger appearance of overloads and possible injuries,
hence importance of doing this type of studies. The objective
of this study was to identify differences in a group of 18
individuals (6 men and 12 women) with different variables like
fast, normal and slow march with different types of footwear.
II. METHODOLOGY
The peculiarities of the environment of every human being,
race, cultural factors and other distinctive elements determine
that every human being possesses an individual and typical
march; often, condiera like a distinctive feature of every person
according to its genre. Cinematic bosses are constant and they
can be standardized by normality bosses
Studies of characterization of march were practiced on students
in “Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas-ESPE”, the patient
study objects were 22, its age ranged between 21-22 years with
height and average weighed 1,70 m and 80 kg in weight
respectively.
Test consists of making to travel the patient for a corridor of
march in which an in sync digital camera is located, It is
realized by three types of footwear differentiated for men and
women, sports and chance in men; sports, chance and heels in
women.
Two repetitions are realized for every type of footwear in a time III. RESULTS
of 1 second, with count of generated steps.
Center of gravity variation
Gravity center and hip angle By gender
Gravity center and the hip angle was measured using Kinovea Two Sample t-test
Bioengineering program. Data has been taken placing two data: Men and Women
markers in iliac crest and one on the sacrum bone, camera was t = -2.6628, df = 16, p-value = 0.01702
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is
posed in front of the site where participants will walk. not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
-0.55829714 -0.06336953
Categorization and description of the proposed errors sample estimates:
Anatomical error: It is assignment for ignorance of Human mean of x mean of y
Anatomy, or for incorrect identification of the general and -2.298333 -1.987500
specific anatomical regions.
From this data we could see there is a significant statistical
difference by gender (p-value = 0.02).
Error of anatomical appreciation: Even knowing human
anatomy, errors can be committed due to difficulty of
specifying the position of points typical of “anatomical
regions that are visible in the image”. The anatomy of every
person is different from those from others, in most of the
figures they are not seen to simple sight superficial points of
the body.

Bearing error: It is due to existing incongruity between the

identified point and really pronounced point.

Error of instrumental appreciation: It takes place during the

measurement process, due to reading inaccurate or incorrect
of instruments. FIGURE 1. Center of gravity variation boxplot.
Two Sample t-test
Error for place of center of gravity: This error can be
committed when center of gravity of every corporal segment data: Men and Women
t = -2.6628, df = 16, p-value = 0.00851
is charted manually on the image. alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is
less than 0
95 percent confidence interval:
Error for distortions of the image: East is a type of error that -Inf -0.1070304
affects basically the clearness and proportions of an image, sample estimates:
and that it bears in mind diverse aspects: resolution, depth, mean of x mean of y
-2.298333 -1.987500
quality of the final impression, size and difference of scale
A two sample one sided t test indicated that men have a higher
Position markers: this mistake has been realated with a badly variation than women (p-value=0.01).
placement of the markers in a differents parts of the body. The
position markers must be fixed in the bones or skin. This By shoe type
mistake can produce a variability of 40 mm (center of gravity) Paired t-test
and 12 °(hip angle) data: Casual and Heel
t = 33.977, df = 11, p-value = 1.718e-12
Data Analysis alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is
not equal to 0
In order to find a statistical difference in center of gravity 95 percent confidence interval:
variation and hip deflection between women and men, two 0.1769126 0.2014207
sample estimates:
sample t tests were used. On the other hand, a paired test was mean of the differences
performed to find statistical differences by shoe type in women. 0.1891667
If in a two sided test the alternative hypothesis was not rejected,
a one sided tests was executed. We found, that there is a statistical difference between center
of gravity variation by shoe type (p-value=1.72×10-12), in
We analyse data from steps number similarly, comparing women. Thus, a one sided t Student test was performed.
Paired t-test
number of steps by gender and by shoe type (in women) but
using ANOVA tests instead of t tests. Also, LSD tests were data: Casual and Heel
t = 33.977, df = 11, p-value = 8.592e-13
used to find groups with similar means. RStudio software was alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is
greater than 0
used for all the statistical tests. 95 percent confidence interval:
 0.179168 Inf
sample estimates:
mean of the differences
0.1891667

The test showed that there is a higher variation with heel shoes
than casual shoes (p-value=8.59×10-13), in women.

FIGURE 2. Center of gravity variation by shoe type boxplot

Between men there is a little variation in center of gravity, on average it changes -2.30cm

Men casual shoes

1.00
0.00
-1.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
-5.00
-6.00
-7.00
Time

Individuo 1 Individuo 2 Individuo 3 Individuo 4 Individuo 5 Individuo 6

FIGURE 3. Variation of center of gravity in men casual shoes

Between women in casual shoes on average of variation in center of gravity is -1.99cm

Women casual shoes

1.00

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1.00

-2.00

-3.00

-4.00

-5.00

Individuo 1 Individuo 2 Individuo 3 Individuo 4 Individuo 5 Individuo 6

Individuo 7 Individuo 8 Individuo 9 Individuo 10 Individuo 11 Individuo 12

FIGURE 4. Variation of center of gravity in women casual shoes

Between women in casual shoes on average of variation in center of gravity is -2.18cm

Women heel shoes

1.00
0.00
-1.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
-5.00

Individuo 1 Individuo 2 Individuo 3 Individuo 4 Individuo 5 Individuo 6

Individuo 7 Individuo 8 Individuo 9 Individuo 10 Individuo 11 Individuo 12

FIGURE 5. Variation of center of gravity in women heel shoes

By shoe type
Hip deflection Paired t-test
By gender data: Casual and Heel
Welch Two Sample t-test t = -6.2946, df = 11, p-value = 5.882e-05
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is
data: Men and Women not equal to 0
t = -13.856, df = 13.514, p-value = 2.262e-09 95 percent confidence interval:
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is -5.667461 -2.730873
not equal to 0 sample estimates:
95 percent confidence interval: mean of the differences
-14.26627 -10.43039 -4.199167
sample estimates:
mean of x mean of y
7.196667 19.545000 The test to evaluate shoe type indicated that there is a
significant difference in hip deflection (p-value=5.88×10-5), in
The t-test indicated that there is a significant difference women.
between the hip deflection by gender (p-value=2.8×10-4). Thus, Paired t-test
a one sided test was necessary. data: Casual and Heel
Welch Two Sample t-test t = -6.2946, df = 11, p-value = 2.941e-05
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is
data: Men and Women less than 0
t = -13.856, df = 13.514, p-value = 1 95 percent confidence interval:
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is -Inf -3.001118
greater than 0 sample estimates:
95 percent confidence interval: mean of the differences
-13.92204 Inf -4.199167
sample estimates:
mean of x mean of y
7.196667 19.545000 Then we found that there is a higher hip deflection when
women use heel shoes (p-value=2.94×10-5).
The test showed that women have higher hip deflection than
men (p-value=2.3×10-9).

FIGURE 6. Hip deflection by gender boxplot FIGURE 7. Hip deflection by shoe boxplot
 While there is a significant difference in the step number by
Step number speed (p-value≈0), but there is not enough evidence to say the
By gender same thing about the shoe type (p-value=0.52). Yet, there is an
Anova interaction between shoe type and speed (p-value=0.03),
Response: Number.steps indicating that, maybe, the step number varies according to
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Gender 1 1124.7 1124.7 10.573 0.002102 ** shoe type if the speed also varies.
Speed 2 15731.5 7865.7 73.948 2.194e-15 ***
Gender:Speed 2 114.0 57.0 0.536 0.588556
Residuals 48 5105.7 106.4 LSD test
Groups by speed
trt means M
It is clear that there is a significant difference in the step number 1 Fast 132.30556 a
during walking by gender (p-value=0.002) and by speed (p- 2 Normal 109.35833 b
value=2.19×10-15). In this case we compared the male data with 3 Slow 91.29167 c
the female casual shoe data.
LSD tests
Groups by speed
trt means M Groups by shoes:speed
1 Fast 127.4361 a trt means M
2 Normal 106.9111 b 1 Heels:Fast 134.20833 a
3 Slow 85.6300 c 2 Casual:Fast 131.79167 a
3 Gym:Fast 130.91667 a
4 Gym:Normal 116.79167 b
Groups by gender 5 Casual:Normal 110.36667 bc
trt means M 6 Heels:Normal 100.91667 cd
1 Women 109.8861 a 7 Heels:Slow 95.33333 de
2 Men 100.2050 b 8 Gym:Slow 91.04167 de
9 Casual:Slow 87.50000 e
Groups by gender:speed
trt means M
1 Women:Fast 131.7917 a
2 Men:Fast 118.7250 b
3 Women:Normal 110.3667 b
4 Men:Normal 100.0000 c
5 Women:Slow 87.5000 d
6 Men:Slow 81.8900 d

FIGURE 9. Interaction plot between type of shoe and speed of

walk.

The test showed the same results than the previous one (step
number by gender), so there is strong evidence to support that
there are more steps per minute if the person walks faster.
FIGURE 8. Interaction plot between gender and speed of walk. Normal and slow speed shows the same steps number with
heels shoes, but it is very different when women walk fast.
Fast speed there is the same steps by different shoes types,
According to the LSD tests, there are more steps during normal speed shows that there is less steps when women is with
walking if the person walks faster. On the other hand, women heels.
showed to make more steps per minute than men.
Men in fast speed have the same steps number like Women in
normal speed and in slow speed this has no difference. IV. DISCUSSION
Gravity center
By shoe type In order to collect data required for our study, we used free
Anova software Kinovea in its version 0.8.15, which is a video
Response: Steps
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F) analyzer that allows the measurement of times, angles, paths,
Shoes 2 202.7 101.4 0.6519 0.52326 perspectives and coordinates; Reproduction at high and low
Speed 2 30421.4 15210.7 97.8266 < 2e-16 ***
Shoes:Speed 4 1766.7 441.7 2.8406 0.02814 * speeds. This software works by analyzing the behavior of a
Residuals 99 15393.2 155.5 group of pixels set by the user and tracing a path that can be
derived in speed or angles of behavior (Kinovea.org, s.f.).

The results obtained by the statistical analysis with the t tests
with a significance level of 95% indicate that the comparison
of center of gravity by gender presents a statistically significant
difference (p = 0.02), as shown in Figure 1.
This can be due to different reasons, one of them being location
of center of gravity, which is different in men and women.
Currently there are several perspectives related to location of
center of gravity on human body in anatomical position. The
first indicates that it is in front of the second sacral vertebra in
men, 3 cm lower in women (Viladot, 2001). The second reason
proposes that center of gravity is located at a point located 56%
to 57% of body height measured from ground in men and 55%
in women (Guillén del Castillo & Linares Girela, 2002).
Gender differences are also due to fact that women have a
broader pelvic waist and a wider pelvis, shorter limbs, and a
less mass / fat mass index; Men have a broader scapular waist,
their extremities are longer, and their lean mass / fat mass index
is higher (Arcila, Cardona, & Giraldo, 2013).
On the other hand, a unilateral t test of two samples at a
significance level of 95% showed that men had a higher
variation than women (p-value = 0.01). According to Arcila et
al. (2013) the location of center of gravity varies constantly
with the execution of different daily activities and sports
gestures. During the hike, for example, the body descends on
the extended leg, generating a rise of center of gravity of
approximately 5 cm.
According to (Navarro, 2014) changes are constantly occurring
in center of gravity of the human body, even with breathing or
blood circulation. Therefore, the body is constantly making
changes and automatic adjustments so that center of gravity is
maintained on the basis of lift.
Finally, using a test with a significance level of 95% was made
the comparison between the various types of shoes in women
(heel and casual), found that there is a statistical difference
between the variation of center of gravity of the type of
footwear (P-value = 1.72 × 10 -12), in women. Therefore, the
unilateral t Student test was performed, which showed that
there is a higher variation with heeled shoes than in casual
shoes (p-value = 8.59 × 10-13). As shown in Figure 2.
The study of center of gravity could be affected by several
factors such as incorrect identification of anatomical regions,
poor placement of position markers and, especially for a
distortion of the image since it is mentioned before, the
software works analysing the pixels of this.
There are several methods of measuring center of gravity that
are valid, among them we have: Reynolds and Lovett (1909),
platform for the evaluation of footprints, Basler equilibrium
platform (Gutiérrez, 1999). However, for this type of studies
can resort to a software, There are many softwares that allow to
perform analysis of the techniques of sports movements like:
Kwon-3D, Kinovea, and ATD. According to a study published
in the 7th International Congress of the Asociación Española
del Deporte, a comparison between these programs indicates
the high fidelity of Kinovea, which is also shown as a simple
and multifunctional software (Bermejo, Palao, & Valadés).
Hip deflection
By gender
Test showed that women have higher hip deflection than men
(p-value=2.3×10-9). In this test it was shown that there is a
greater deviation of the hip than men, because the male
anatomy differs from female anatomy. Men have a markedly
more masculine step because they have broader shoulders
relative to the hips. In women, just the other way around, they
have larger hips in relation to shoulders so they walk lightly,
Walking a side swing of body, women do not. Hip in man
moves up and down, and legs go further apart. In woman, hip
sways and legs come together Gomez, M. (2015).
In addition we can take into account the physiology of women
is different from male physiology. Woman's pelvis widens
from puberty, dilating the pubis that will allow baby to pass at
time of delivery. This causes the femur to arch, then the pelvis
distributes weight of the spine between the two legs, giving the
girls that hip movement that does not occur in males Nerín, S.
(1999).
Test to evaluate shoe type indicated that there is a significant
difference in hip deflection (p-value = 5.88 × 10-5), in women
also we found that there is a higher hip deflection when women
use heel shoes (p-value = 2.94 × 10-5). The effect of wearing
heels on sagittal plane posture is unclear. Although obviously
causing a variation in the position of ankle, which is situated to
a greater extent, effect on knees, hips, pelvis and lumbar spine
is not precisely known. General knowledge of traumatologists,
rehabilitators and physiotherapists explains that the use of heels
causes an anterior rotation of the pelvis and an increase in
lumbar lordosis (LL) secondary to the initial displacement of
center of gravity forward that is counteracted by an increased
LL. Then the change on inclination of foot support plane causes
an alteration of anterior rotation of pelvis, modifying center of
gravity Ruiz, A. (2005).
Maximum hip flexion, which occurs in oscillation phase,
decreases as heel height increases in people accustomed to it,
while it increases in unaccustomed ones, besides causing
instability at ankle and knee joints Bombi, M. (2015).
Step number
By gender
According to Anova analysis it can be observed that there is a
significant difference between number of steps per gender (p-
value = 0.002) and speed (p-value = 2.19 × 10-15), therefore
both factors are important at moment To define differences in
human progress. When analyzing according to gender it was
obtained that women (mean = 109.8861) performed more steps
per minute than men (mean = 100.2050). According to Núñez
& Alcázar (1997), differences in different parameters of the
gait cycle between men and women could be due to factors such
as height, weight, footwear, etc., and not only to sexual
difference. Lumbar lordosis is usually greater in women than in
men due to weight of the breasts and the use of high heels that
move forward center of gravity. In addition, weight and height
influence forces exerted on ground during walking, mainly on
vertical forces, which reflect vertical displacement of center of
gravity (Ramírez, 1998).
By speed
Analyzing the number of steps according to the speed of the
march: fast, normal and slow. It was obtained that a fast march
(mean = 127.4361) is given greater number of steps unlike the
normal gait (mean = 106.9111) and the slow gait (mean =
85.63). Human walking speed is the distance a person travels
in a given time, usually measured in m * s-1 or m * m-1 (Rao
& Joseph, 1993).
According to Sánchez (1993), the transition from the march to
the race begins to occur according to the characteristics or
preferences of the people. When the running speed of the stride
length and stride length depend, the variation of one of these
two variables will influence the speed. People tend to change
speed by jointly changing these two variables.
When we comparing subjects, Torres (1995) mentions that to
avoid the influence of height on walking speed, the magnitude
of this variable is usually normalized by the height of the
subjects and / or by the length of their lower member.
The normal velocity gait (mean = 106.9111), according to
Gisbert (2001) is the speed that a subject acquires when he
walks naturally, without any predetermined speed being
imposed on him. At this rate, the energy expenditure is less than
any other speed. Clothing characteristics can condition the
normal running pattern; Weight of the clothes, the comfort or
discomfort of the same, that is more or less ample and allows
or not to carry out the movements properly (Sánchez, 1993).
The performance of certain activities in a habitual way, with
repetition of a series of gestures and movements or frequent
maintenance of certain positions, for example during the
performance of the professional activity or of the practice of
sports, dance, etc., can introduce modifications in the March.
The professional and sports activities, movements and postures
that are frequently adopted in carrying out these activities may
change the gait pattern but also take into account the clothes
and footwear that are used in the performance of these activities
and other factors Personal or environmental influences
(Gisbert, 2001).
By gender:speed
According to analysis of means, women in a fast march (mean
= 131.7917) perform more steps per minute than men to a fast
march (mean = 118.7250). In contrast women to a normal gait
(mean = 110.3667) the steps done per minute did not have
much difference than men to a normal gait (mean = 100.00).
There is a significant difference in women at slow speeds
(mean = 87.50) than men at slow speeds (mean = 81.89).
As has already been pointed out, normal gait is modified in
everyday life for many and varied causes, taking into account
that not all of them have to be properly pathological like size,
age, footwear, terrain, load, The activity of the person, etc.
On the other hand, we find that there are many conditions of
different origin (structural, osteoarticular, myopathic,
neuropathic, etc.) that lead to an alteration of some part of the
cycle or the complete cycle of the march, being our job to
rebuild it Again (Dreisbach & Robertson, 1999).
Type of shoes
The main objective was to study the duration and the frequency
of the steps generated for male and female participants,
establishing a comparison between the two, it is worth
mentioning that another additional test was performed
comparing the steps based on the type of footwear that each
participant (Women) used. According to the results obtained
during the research, it is observed (ANOVA 1) that both gender
and velocity, to which each individual walks, are significant
factors and directly influence the number of steps that are
generated during a short period of weather. Our data provide us
with information that the greater the speed, the greater the
number of steps each individual gives. The low time variability
values of each step reflect the automated regular rhythmic gait
characteristic and are associated with a safe gait and are used
as a clinical index of gait stability (Nutt JG, 1993).
Based on the means obtained in each group there is a greater
average of steps generated by women than by men without
taking into account the factor of footwear in each participant.
According to Beauchet (2009) in his research on "Variation of
gait velocity in time variability of passage: effects of decreased
velocity", shows that the variability of passage time increased
with decreasing gait speed, Even taking into account an
adjustment for the effect of the subjects, the repetition of the
tests and the asymmetry of the left passage, comparing with the
obtained results, there is an inverse relation in the number of
steps and the speed of march, whereas our results show a direct
relationship between the two factors. The following results
(ANOVA 2) show that the number of steps has two significant
factors (velocity and interaction) that directly influence the
response variable. As before, speed is a factor that influences
the number of steps, however here also is considered the
interaction that exists between the type of footwear and speed.
You can see a higher average number of steps generated per
minute when the participants (women) use heels and go to a
"fast" speed but when wearing casual shoes the average does
not vary much from the previous one.
According to the interactions obtained on the basis of the speed
and type of shoe, for the interaction of a shoe with a high heel
and a high speed, an increase of the average is evidenced having
influence in the response variable, for the interaction of a shoe
with heel and an average speed, the average of steps decreases
whereas a normal speed does not show a remarkable variability.
Instead for a casual shoe type as well as a sports shoe, the shoe
type and speed interaction does not vary drastically and the
socks resemble each other. The lowest interaction mean of the
two factors is for a casual shoe where the number of steps is
approximately 87. Proving that depending on the type of
footwear the march tends to have a greater or lesser variability.
V. CONCLUSIONS
At the moment when we analyze the results is important
consider the possibility of errors. Along the work we can
demonstrate the grade of error, that error appear because the
anatomic appreciation is different between women and men.
Also we can appreciate in the graphics the variation of results.
The statistic analysis show the difference between the type of
shoe. Also we can appreciate how that factor intervenes in the
number of the steps. With the ANOVA analysis we can
demonstrate the importance of some factors.
The variation center of gravity in women according the type of
shoe is extremely significant. That results can be interpreted in
many different ways, but the most important is how a variation
in the position and high can influence in the correct
determination of center of gravity.
VI. RECOMENDATIONS
For further study is recommended to place markers on the iliac
crest and sacrum bone properly in all participants because the
deviations may produce incongruent data and uncertain results.
It is also important to take the number of steps data in a quiet
place without distractions because the lack of concentration of
the people involved can negatively affect the results. In other
hand, each person must follow his own pace without trying to
adapt to the pace or speed of the other participants at his side to
make data consistent.
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