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Hydrate Prevention on Long Pipelines by Direct Electrical Heating

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 Hydrate Prevention on Long Pipelines by Direct Electrical Heating
Atle Lenes1, Jens Kristian Lervik1, Harald Kulbotten1, Arne Nysveen2, Atle Harald Børnes3
1
SINTEF Energy Research, N-7465 Trondheim, Norway 2NTNU, Dept. of El. Power Eng., N-7491 Trondheim, Norway,
3
STATOIL ASA, Forusbeen 50, N-4035 Stavanger, Norway
ABSTRACT
The direct electrical heating system (DEHS) has been developed and
qualified for heating of flowlines and is the only system for heating that
has been installed on subsea flowlines in the North Sea. Especially for
deep-water fields electrical heating of pipelines is attractive for
achieving reliable operation of transport flowlines.
Experiences on installed systems have proven easy operation and have
also shown to imply high reliability for flow assurance.
At present DEH has been applied to pipelines of chromium (13Cr) up
to 16 km length. Projects are now coming up in the North Sea where
application of DEH for pipelines of carbon steel with lengths up to 50
km are considered. A qualification project was initiated in 2003 to
expand the technology base for DEH to include these new installation
parameters.
An important issue has been to obtain the electrical and magnetic
characteristics of carbon steel pipes. The difference in magnetic
characteristics of individual carbon pipes results in variation of the
heated pipe temperature. Carbon Steel materials are more sensitive than
13Cr for thermal and mechanical stresses on the outer surface in regard
to DEH properties.
For long pipelines a new cable design is essential to avoid high screen
voltages caused by capacitive and inductive currents. In order to solve
this problem a semi-conductive outer sheath has been developed for
continuous transfer of the capacitive current to surrounding ground
potential (seawater/seabed).
The results from the study is promising and have given basis of rating
of DEH to maintain or raise the thermally insulated steel pipe
temperature above the critical value for hydrate (typically 15 - 25 oC) or
wax formation (typically 20 - 40oC). Furthermore the single-phase
power supply to the heating system is normally available from the
general topside (platform) power system. Topside equipment for power
factor compensation and load symmetry is based on commercial
components. Experiences from installed systems prove that the load
current can be quite easily adjusted to give the required heating for the
different operation modes.
Paper No. 2005-JSC-413 Lenes
KEY WORDS
Electrical heating, cable design, screen voltage, semi-conductive cable
sheath, hydrate and wax prevention.
INTRODUCTION
When transporting untreated well stream in ordinary pipelines, the
temperature of oil, gas and produced water will drop rapidly due to
cooling from the surrounding seawater. The low temperature results in
undesired fluid properties. At high pressures hydrates start to
precipitate already at temperatures in the range of 20-25oC. Large
amounts of hydrate, which is similar to ice crystals, can precipitate on
the pipe wall and cause blocking of well stream transport.
For some fields wax formation in the flowing crude may also cause
operational problems due to increased pressure loss in the pipeline.
The viscosity of waxy oil can be of such magnitude, that full “shut in
wellhead pressure” will not be sufficient for getting the cold fluid on
stream again after long shut downs.
The use of chemicals to remove hydrates will in practice mean to use
methanol or glycol. These chemicals move the hydrate equilibrium to
higher pressure and lower temperature, and thus work in the same way
as non-freeze solution in an automobile radiator. The disadvantage with
use of chemicals is that large amounts are often needed and implies a
risk to the environment if leakage should occur.
An obvious way to remove hydrates is to supply heat to the flow. On a
platform or on shore this can be done by injecting hot water or steam
into the pipe, but subsea this mostly has to be done by using electrical
heating. The direct electrical heating system (DEHS) has been
developed and qualified for heating of flowlines and is the only system
that has been installed on subsea flowlines in the North Sea. Electric
heating of pipelines implies reduced investments of depressurizing
systems and recovery plants for chemical residual products. Especially
for deep-water fields electrical heating of pipelines is attractive for
achieving reliable operation of transport flowlines.
1
DIRECT ELECTRICAL HEATING ON LONG FLOWLINES
The DEH system (DEHS) (J. K. Lervik, 1998), is supplied from the
platform power supply, from which feeder cables provide the electric
power to the heating system. One of the two single core feeder cables is
connected to the near end of the pipe, and the other to the forward
conductor (piggyback cable) is connected to the utmost end of the pipe.
The cable connected to the far end is installed in parallel with the pipe
as indicated in Fig. 1. For safety and reliability reasons, the direct
electrical heating system is electrically connected (“earthed”) to
surrounding seawater through several sacrificial anodes for a length of
about 50 meters (“current transfer zone”) at both ends where the cables
are connected, see Fig. 1.
Power supply (topside)
Feeder cables
(Dynamic two core cable)
Piggyback cable.
20 % generated heat (~0,5 kV/km)
Grounded pipeline
70 % generated heat (0 kV/km)
Seawater
10 % generated heat (0 kV/km)
Transfer Stationary part Transfer
zone zone
Fig. 1. DEHS schematically shown with the XLPE insulated single
core cable strapped to (piggybacked) and connected to the
end of the heated flowline. 50 - 70% of the return current will
flow in the seawater. The generated heat in the pipeline is
approx. 70% of the total heat generation. The voltage of the
piggyback cable increases linearly with length.
Up to now the system has been installed on flowlines of lengths
between 5 and 16 km. The operational experiences from these
installations have proven the functionality of the DEHS, and hence the
system is being evaluated for application on relevant wellstream and
transport pipelines.
The offshore market is also developing distributed subsea systems for
remote control and power supply. This implies that lengths of transport
lines is increasing, which means that DEHS for flow assurance will be
more attractive. The feasibility of the heating system for longer
pipelines has therefore been studied during the last two years. The
priority of this work has been to optimize the DEHS on an approx. 50
km pipeline in the North Sea. A development programme is being
carried out with focus on all relevant aspects. This paper presents the
results from the work that has been done on the electromagnetic
conditions for the heating cable (see Fig. 1) and the thermal model for
the heating system related to the selected pipeline.
The seawater functions as a current return path in parallel to the steel
pipe. The return current will be divided between pipe and seawater. The
current in the steel pipe is typically between 50 -70% depending of pipe
dimensions and magnetic/electrical characteristics of the steel pipe
Paper No. 2005--JSC-413 Lenes
material (and also depending on other factors, such as cable conductor
dimensions, distance between cable and pipe). The generated heat for
the steel pipe in the relevant pipeline in is approx. 70%, which gives an
estimate for the efficiency of the system. However, for a buried
pipeline the generated power in the piggyback cable, which is approx.
20% of the total contribute to heat the pipeline and will increase the
efficiency of the system. The generated heat in the seawater is approx.
10%. The current will be transferred between pipe and seawater at the
pipe ends (cable connections) in the current transfer zones as indicated
in the figure.
Due to variation in magnetic permeability for the single pipe joints,
and hence the impedance, some current transfer will take place through
the sacrificial anodes, which are distributed along the pipeline. To limit
this effect the pipeline is divided into sections, each with a limited span
of the permeability. An important design basis concerning the current
transfer zones is the number, dimension and location of sacrificial
anodes.
CABLE DESIGN RELATED TO LONG DEHS
In general a high voltage (HV) cable consists of an insulation system
(semi-conductive insulation screens and an insulating material,
typically cross-linked polyethylene: XLPE), a radial water tight
(aluminum tapes within the outer sheath) or diffusion retardant design
(swelling tapes), metallic screen wires and an insulating outer sheath.
In addition, in order to prevent water flowing longitudinally (e.g. after a
cable service failure) in the conductor, a semi-conductive sealing
material are filled in between the strands.
In order to avoid high screen voltages due to capacitive currents and
induced inductive currents it is possible to use a semi-conductive outer
sheath with sufficient electrical and mechanical properties as indicated
in Fig. 2. However, the HV cable can be subjected to high temperatures
in buried seabed sections combined with seawater. In order to reveal if
a cable design with a semi-conductive outer sheath can be used in high
temperature seawater conditions for several decades, an accelerated
ageing program was started (S. Hvidsten, 2005).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Fig. 2. Prototype HV XLPE insulated Cable for a DEH system
planned used in the North Sea. 1: Semi-conductive outer
sheath. 2: Insulation Screen. 3: XLPE Insulation. 4:
Conductor Screen. 5: Conductor with semi-conductive strand
sealing material.
2
Numerical calculations of screen currents and system temperatures
during production / heating by DEH system was used for determine
service conditions.
NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS
The first cable design for DEHS is illustrated in Fig. 3a). The DEH
cable has applied an insulating outer sheath and a metallic ground
screen of stainless steel. The reason for using a relative high resistive
screen (grounded at both ends) was to minimize the induced currents
and hence not reduce the efficiency of the heating system. A high
resistive screen will not influence the thermal loading of the cable.
With increasing length of the cable system, the screen voltage will
increase. For long cable lengths, two alternative methods for keeping
the screen voltage at acceptable levels have been suggested: 1)
Increasing the electric conductivity of the outer sheath (semi-
conductive sheath). In this case a metallic screen may not be required.
2) Intermediate grounding of the screen.
The alternative by use of a semi-conductive sheath has been considered
as the most attractive for long pipelines. This design, see Fig. 2,
eliminates the need for a metallic screen and the charging current is
radially conducted directly through the semi-conductive outer sheath to
ground (seabed). A circuit equivalent for this design is shown in Fig.
4b). In this case the sheath capacitance can be neglected compared to
the sheath admittance. This requires a sheath resistivity of less than 100
ȍm (S. Hvidsten, 2005). However, this assumes that for the case of the
pipeline being covered by clay on the seabed, the surrounding clay has
a relative low resistivity. This will be considered in Section “Electrical
Resistivity of clay”.
a)
Copper Conductor screen
conductor
XLPE insulation
Insulation screen
High resistance screen
Outer sheath
b)
Copper conductor Conductor screen
XLPE insulation
Insulation screen
Semi-conducting
outer sheath
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of two DEHS cable designs: a) Cable
equipped with a stainless steel screen and an insulating outer
sheath. b) Cable equipped with a semi-conductive outer
sheath.
Paper No. 2005--JSC-413 Lenes
Calculations of Screen Voltages
In order to reduce the induced voltage of the metallic screen it can be
grounded at both ends. A per length circuit equivalent for DEHS is
shown in Figure 4a). The impedances were calculated by using
numerical software based on the finite element method. The data input
for these calculations must be defined. Electrical and magnetic
properties for the cable and seawater are well documented, but for the
steel pipe material and surrounded soil (seabed) limited data are
available and measurements have to be performed. The data for
surrounding soil (clay) will be discussed in this article. Experiences
have shown that the magnetic properties for pipe steel material may
vary significantly even within the same batch and must be provided by
measurements for each project, see presentation in the next chapter of
this paper.
The calculating procedure for each PI-equivalent presented in Figure
4a) are described in (L.M. Wedepohl and D.J. Wilcox, 1973). The
calculations of voltages and currents along the cable were performed by
subdividing the cable into short sections. Each section was modeled by
the exact PI - equivalent. By this method the circuit with terminal
conditions was solved using the nodal admittance method. Calculations
have shown that for the cable with an insulating outer sheath and a
metallic screen of stainless steel the DEHS parameters (voltages and
currents) was independent of the seabed resistivity in case of water
depths exceeding 50 m at 50/60 Hz.
a) zc
zs cd
zg cs
b) zc
cd
Fig. 4. Per length circuit equivalent for 50/60 Hz DEHS for the case
with a) Insulating outer sheath and a metallic screen of
Stainless Steel. b) Semi-conducting outer sheath and no
metallic screens. Zc : Cable impedance, Zs : Sheath
impedance, Zg : Ground impedance, Cd: Cable insulation
capacitance, Cs: Sheath capacitance.
As an example, by DEH on a 10” Carbon steel pipeline of 16 km with a
U-value of 5 W/m2K, about 1,5 kA is required to keep the pipe content
above hydrate formation temperature of 25oC at a seawater temperature
of 5oC. Fig. 5 shows the results from calculations of the screen voltages
referred to ground and shows that maximum is about 1 kV and appears
at about 6 km from the power input. This voltage level is considered to
be acceptable considering the material properties of the outer cable
sheath. Hence the cable design with metallic screen is feasible for a
DEH heating length of 16 km.
3
 shall then be obtained by intermediate earthing of the metallic screen
conductors/bands along the whole length of the cable. The effect of
such earthing is shown in Fig. 8.
Screen voltage to ground [kV]

1
10

Max. screen voltage [kV]

0,8
8
0,6
6
0,4
4
0,2
2
0
0 5 10 15 0
Distance along pipeline [km] 0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 5. Screen to ground voltage for the DEH in Fig. 3a) at 1,5 kA
Distance along the pipeline [km]
for a 10” Carbon steel pipeline of 16 km length with a
U-value of 5 W/m2K to keep the pipe content above hydrate
formation temperature of 25oC at a seawater temperature of
5oC. 24 kV XLPE insulated piggyback cable with a conductor Fig. 7. The screen voltage vs. distance along the pipeline for the
cross-section of 1000 mm2. 50 km case.

The relation between the cable length (with a metallic screen) and the
maximum screen voltage is shown in Fig. 6. Below 10 km pipeline
Max. screen voltage [kV] 1,2
length the screen voltage is relative small, but from approx. 10 km the
screen voltage increases more rapidly and is almost linear with length. 1
For a 50 km pipeline the screen voltage is approx. 9 kV, which is far
0,8
above acceptable level. As indicated in Fig. 5 the location of the
maximum screen voltage occurs not on the geometric midpoint for the 0,6
pipeline. This location depends on the electrical parameters of the
system. For the 50 km long pipeline the graph for the screen 0,4
voltage is shown in Fig. 7, indicating the maximum value at
approx. 12 km from the near end of the heated length. 0,2
0
Max. screen voltage [kV]

10
0 10 20 30 40 50
8
Distance along the pipeline [km]
6
4
Fig. 8. Values for the screen voltage along the 50 km pipeline.
2
0 The graph in Fig. 8 indicates that with an intermediate earthing system
0 10 20 30 40 50 for the cable screen every 5 km along the pipeline, the screen voltage is
sufficiently reduced. From an installation point of view it may be
Pipeline length [km] required to introduce splices at a similar interval. Earthing of the screen
may be performed during the splicing operation of the cable. As seen
from the graph the screen voltage decreases along the pipeline, and
Fig. 6. Relation between pipe length and screen voltage for the DEH hence the distance between the earthing points can be increased. At the
piggyback cable with metallic screen. last section with an earthing distance of 15 km, the screen voltage will
be kept below 1 kV.

The enhanced screen voltages for pipe lengths above 16 km indicate

that it is necessary to discharge the screen currents to the surrounding
seawater/seabed sediments/soil, to above excessive electric field
exposure to the outer (insulating) cable sheath. The alternative design
of applying a semi conducting outer sheath as a substitute for the
metallic screen and the insulating sheath will hence be attractive.
However, this requires a qualification of relevant materials, which shall
prove long term properties when exposed to the subsea environment at
the actual water pressure, temperature etc. At present the cable design
with metallic screen is base case. Discharging of the screen currents
TEMPERATURES SUBJECTED TO THE CABLE SYSTEM
The rating of DEH is strongly dependent on the thermal characteristics
of the pipe content in the different phases, i.e. the composition of gas,
oil and water. When melting wax plugs or hydrates is required, this will
be the dominating part of the heating time, but this case is considered to
be a remote event. The operation procedures should be prepared to
avoid this situation.

Paper No. 2005--JSC-413 Lenes 4

When calculating the required d heat development, “worst case The maximum cable temperature will then occur about 35-70 hours
situations” from a thermal point of view are considered for both the (dependent of the configuration) after DEH is turned on. The
pipeline and the electric cable. The required heat in the pipe was calculations in this paper were performed with a thermal conductivity
calculated with the insulated pipe located on the seabed (surrounded by of 1W/mK for the clay.
seawater) as shown in the configuration in Fig. 9a). The maximum
power (current) needed for avoiding wax and hydrate formation, is then The maximum temperature occurring in the cable was calculated for
determined by the lowest observed temperature of the seawater. The different clay/rock configurations as shown in Table 1. These
cable conductor cross section is determined for a buried/rock-dumped conditions are considered relevant for an installed pipeline / DEH
pipe with the maximum depth of backfill or taking into account seabed system. The ‘worst case’ condition with respect to the maximum
movements, and the maximum seawater temperature of the field. The temperature (Case No. 4) is the same as that shown in Figure 9b).
thermal rating of the cable must also be considered if for any reason
heating is required while the pipe is in production mode. Fig. 9b) Table 1. Calculation of cable temperatures.
illustrates the “worst case” in respect to the thermal condition for the
cable, which is limited to 90oC. Steady Transient
Case No. Description State Case
[oC] [oC]
a) Seawater Pipe covered to the
1 middle by clay and rock 62,1 89
dumped
Thermal Pipe covered to the top
Piggyback cable insulated 2 by clay and rock 70,5 94
inside pipeline dumped
protection profile Clay coverage of 0,5 m
3 80,6 100
and rock dumped
Clay coverage of 1 m
4 88,5 104
and rock dumped
Seabed
The results from the temperature calculations show that at steady state
conditions with no production, the temperature is limited to about 89oC.
Seawater This indicates that the maximum temperature of 90oC rated for the
XLPE insulated system was not exceeded for any of the four cases.

For the “transient case”, 90oC was exceeded for three of the cases with
Max. rock clay coverage of 0,5 and 1 m, with temperatures ranging from 94 to
coverage 104oC. However, when the pipe was covered by clay to the middle and
rock dumped the temperature was slightly below 90oC.

Max. clay
coverage ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF PIPES
Thermal
insulated Electrical and magnetic characteristics of steel pipes are important for
the heat generation and efficiency of the heating system. These data are
pipeline
normally not available from the steel mill (pipe manufacturer).
Measurements in the verification work on the concept indicate that the
Piggyback cable designation of type (“13Cr”, “Carbon” and “Clad steel”) does not
inside identify the material characteristics properly. Experiences prove that
protection profile these data should be specified within an uncertainty of ±10%. Until
there is obtained a data bank for these material properties,
b)
measurements are necessary to provide data for rating of the heating
system in detail engineering work. Such measurements have been made
Fig. 9. a) Pipeline and DEH cable surrounded by seawater.
on steel pipes for projects in the North Sea.
This case determines the heat requirement.
b) Maximum coverage of the pipeline represents the “worst
The results from measurements performed on a large number of
case” in respect to the thermal condition for the cable.
pipejoints display significant variation indicating that material
characteristics are not properly covered by the production quality
An example of thermal rating for DEH for an 18” pipeline with a U-
programme. Table 2 shows typical measured values for different steel
value of 4 W/m2K is chosen to give basis for thermal rating of the
pipes.
piggyback cable. The calculations were performed both for the steady
state condition with no production, and for the “transient case” with
A considerable random variation of effective relative permeability for
immediately turning on DEH after shutdown of the production with a
individual pipes within a pipeline has great influence on the variation in
well stream temperature of 116oC. The required supply current was
pipe temperatures.
1320A to keep the pipe content above 25oC determined by the case
with the pipe surrounded by seawater. The calculations were performed
with a copper conductor cross section of 1200 mm2.

Paper No. 2005--JSC-413 Lenes 5

Table 2. Electrical and magnetic properties for steel pipes. the resistivity of surrounding seabed should not be greater than the
max. limit of the cable sheath, i.e. less than 100 ȍm (S. Hvidsten,
Resistivity Temperature 2005).
Relative
Steel coefficient, D
permeability
[10-6 :*m] [1/°C] Measurements of resistivity have been performed on samples taken
Carbon steel 0,2 0,003 300-1500 from the seabed close to relevant oil fields in the North Sea. The
Clad steel 0,2 0,003 300-1500 resistivity was measured at different temperatures from about 4oC up to
13Cr 0,8 0,0008 40-200 65oC.

Subsequent to delivery from the steel mill, the pipe joints are exposed
to heat treatment and grit blasting during the thermal insulation process
and later to excessive strain during pipe laying (especially reel vessel).
These stresses may influence the electrical and magnetic properties.
Measurements indicate that the effect of stresses was different on
Carbon steel and 13Cr pipes. In general Carbon steel pipes were more
affected by the stresses than 13Cr pipes. Measurements show that the
generated heat in the pipe may be reduced by approx. 20 % for Carbon
steel pipe after grit blasting. For 13Cr steel pipes the grit blasting has
insignificant influence.
As the electrical resistivity can be dependent upon water content in the
clay samples, also the water content was measured both prior and after
the resistivity measurements by using the weight method.
Fig. 10 shows results from measurements of the resistivity of the clay
taken from two different locations in the North Sea. It was seen that the
resistivity decreases with temperature. At about 4oC the resistivity is
approximately 1,3 ȍm, decreasing to about 0,3 ȍm at 70oC which is
close to that typically measured for seawater (0,2 ȍm). No change in
resistivity was observed when the samples were measured again at
20oC after the measurements at elevated temperatures.

The reason why the electrical and magnetic properties for Carbon steel As see from the results the electrical resistivity of the clay (seabed) was
materials are more affected by external stresses can explained by the sufficiently low. This indicates that the capacitive currents can easily be
depth of penetration or skin depth, G , given by Eq. 1. The skin depth is
transferred to seabed (seawater) avoiding voltage buildup at the sheath.
approx. 1 mm for Carbon steel materials and 9 mm for 13Cr at 50 Hz,
see Table 3. 2
A1
Hence the outer surface of the steel pipe will be active in a DEHS in a A2
depth of twice the skin depth. Typical wall thickness for pipes is from 1,6
10 – 20 mm. For a Carbon steel pipe the main current passes through B1
m]

the outer 1 – 2 mm of the pipe cross section, while for a 13Cr pipe B2
almost the whole pipe cross section is an active conductor. It is 1,2
Resistivity [

therefore reasonable that Carbon Steel materials are more sensitive than
13Cr for stresses (thermal and mechanical) on the outer surface in
regard to DEH properties. 0,8

U 0,4
G (1)
S P0 Pr f
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
G - skin depth T emperat ure [°C]
U - electrical resistivity
P0 - permeability of air Fig. 10. Results from measurements of resistivity of four different
Pr - relative permeability sample of clay taken from two different locations (A and B)
f - frequency in the North Sea.

Table 3. Skin depth for different steel for frequency of 50 Hz. CONCLUSIONS

Skin depth Numerical calculations of screen voltages for the cable design with
Steel insulating sheath show that the voltage can become several kV for long
[mm]
Carbon steel 1 pipelines. Such high voltages can not be accepted. The screen voltages
Clad steel 1 can be reduced by earthing the screen at some locations along the
13Cr 9 pipeline.

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF CLAY
The alternative cable design by use of a semi-conductive sheath and no
metallic outer screen for long pipelines, requires sufficient conductivity
of surrounding seabed to avoid high voltage at the sheath. In general
The new cable design with a semi conducting outer sheath requires no
metallic screen. This design requires sufficient electrical conductivity
of surrounding seabed.
Measurements show that the electrical resistivity of the surrounding
seabed of clay was less than required for the semi-conductive outer
sheaths of the cable. This indicates that the capacitive currents can

Paper No. 2005--JSC-413 Lenes 6

easily be transferred to seabed (seawater) avoiding voltage buildup at
the sheath.
Heating did not cause any drying of the clay in contact with seawater.
This indicates that the relative low electrical resistivity of the clay will
likely remain during service.
The maximum temperature subjected to the DEH cable was strongly
dependent upon seawater temperature, clay coverage and operation of
the DEHS. Special efforts are required not to exceed the cable
temperature limit of 90oC.
Carbon Steel materials are more sensitive than 13Cr for thermal and
mechanical stresses on the outer surface in regard to DEH properties.
Measurements show that the generated heat in the pipe may be reduced
by approx. 20 % for Carbon steel pipe after grit blasting. For 13Cr steel
pipes the grit blasting has insignificant influence. A reduction of
generated heat in the pipe requires an increase of the system current to
keep the pipe above the hydrate formation temperature.
Paper No. 2005--JSC-413 Lenes
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors want to thank STATOIL ASA for permitting to publish the
research results from the actual project.
REFERENCES
J. K. Lervik, H. Kulbotten, A. Lenes, G. Klevjer: “Concept Verification
of Direct Heating of Oil & Gas Pipelines”, Phase II,SINTEF Energy
Research TR A4588, ISBN 82-594-1126-1, 1998-02-18.
S. Hvidsten, A. Bruaset, K. Olafsen, L. Lundegaard, A.H. Børnes: “HV
XLPE Cable Design for Direct Electrical Heating of Very Long
Flowlines”. ISOPE 2005.
L.M. Wedepohl and D.J. Wilcox, “Transient Analysis of Underground
Power Transmission System; System-Model and Wave Propagation
Characteristics”, Proc. IEE, vol. 120, No. 2, February 1973, pp. 252-
259.
Lervik, J. K.; Kulbotten, H.; Klevjer, G.; Lauvdal, T.
”Direct Electrical Heating of Subsea Pipelines”,
ISOPE-93.
7