Definition

Biochemistry is a Study of what goes on Within the Living System.

As title suggests it will involve molecules important for biological processes

Biochemistry

Bio-Organic Bio-Inorganic
 Biochemistry

Bio-Organic Bio-Inorganic

Our Focus
Molecules

Important Others

Carbohydrates Lipids

Proteins Vitamins

Nucleic acids Hormones

Carbohydrates As the name suggests,
these are Hydrates of Carbons
Classical Definition:
These are Hydrates of Carbon. General formula is written as Cx(H2O)y.

The structures that are known to satisfy this formula are:

Examples :

Glucose/ Fructose : C6H12O6 Or C6(H2O)6

Sucrose : C12H22O11 Or C12(H2O)11

Carbohydrates
We though want to represent Carbohydrates as Hydrates of Carbon,
that Is Not the Right thing to do.
As, there are many molecules that, Satisfy Similar Criteria but are Not
Carbohydrates.
Example

Acetic acid: CH3COOH C2H4O2

C2(H2O)2

But this IS NOT a Carbohydrate!

 Carbohydrates
And there are a lot of compounds that Don’t Satisfy the formula but are
Carbohydrates.
Example
Rhamnose : C6H12O5 Rhamnose doesn’t satisfy the formula

Yet it is a Carbohydrate.

Modern Definition:

Carbohydrates are Optically Active Polyhydroxy Aldehydes or Ketones or

any such Compounds which produce these on Hydrolysis
(+) D- Glucose
❑ It is a Carbohydrate
❑ Plays prominent role in biochemistry
❑ Most abundant substance in biomolecules
❑ Omnipresent fuel in biology
 Source and Storage of (+) D- Glucose in biopolymer

(+) D- Glucose

Dextrorotatory Sugar
Source:
Photosynthesis in plant leaf : CO2 + H2O
External Conditions:
❖ Sunlight

❖ Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is a Metal Ion-Complex of
Mg(Magnesium)
Storage of (+) D- Glucose in
biopolymer
D-Glucose D-Glucose is inter-convertible in
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose
Starch Cellulose

In plant seeds Framework for structure

as food. of plants
Glycogen

Animal Transported Stored in

starch via blood stream Liver

present in
animals
Classification of Carbohydrates

1. On the basis of Functional Group:

Functional
Group
Polyhydroxy Polyhydroxy
Aldehyde Ketone

Glucose Fructose
Classification of Carbohydrates
2. On the basis of Reducing Nature:
Reducing Nature

Non-Reducing Reducing
Sugar Sugar

Sucrose Fructose
Lactose, Maltose and Sucrose
Glucose are Dissaccharides
Maltose

Lactose
All monosaccharide
Classification of Carbohydrates
3. On the basis of Sweetness:

Sweetness

Sugar Non-Sugar

Note: Saccharide came from a Latin word

Saccharum which means Sugar
Classification of Carbohydrates
4. On the basis of Number of Carbon Atoms:

3 4 5 6
Triose Tetrose Pentose Hexose
Tetra means Four
–CHO → Aldose •C=O→
Ketose Ose means Sugar
So if a Carbohydrate has 4 Carbons and
-CHO, then it is “ALDO-PENTOSE”

Or if a Carbohydrate has 5 Carbons and

• C = O, then it is “KETO-HEXOSE”
Classification of Carbohydrates
5. On the basis of Number Product of Hydrolysis :
Product of
Hydrolysis
Mono-Saccharides Poly-Sachharides

Oligo-Saccharides

Do Not undergo Give more than

Hydrolysis Give 10 Units
2-10 units
Glucose Starch,
Fractose Sucrose Cellulose,
Ribose Maltose Glycogen
 Monosaccharides
In Monosaccharides, we will study
Aldohexose : Glucose, Mannose, Galactose
Ketohexose : Fructose
Preparation of Glucose :
Cane Sugar or Invert Sugar
1) Hydrolysis of Cane-sugar: The reaction is or Sucrose
H
C12H22O11 + H2O ⊕ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Cane-sugar Glucose Fructose

Acid Catalyst
(Boil) in presence of alcohol Or the enzyme “Invertase” can cause this reaction
2) Commercial method :
(n – 1)H2O
(C6H10O5)n n× C6H12O6 Dil. HCl, dil. H2SO4,
H⊕ 393 K, 2–3 atm
Starch or Glucose
Cellulose
Evidence of Glucose structure
1) Molecular formula of Glucose is: C6H12O6

Using Mole Concepts like Mass Percent or Combustion Products Percent

we find Empirical Formula

2) CHO

(CHOH)4 HI,
CH3–(CH2)4–CH3
Δ
CH2OH (Prolonged) N- hexane

Proves that all carbons are

connected in a straight chain
Evidence of Glucose structure
CH = N – OH

3) CHO NH2OH (CHOH)4 (Oxime)

(CHOH)4 CH2OH
HCN
CH2OH CN OH
CH

(Cyanohydrin) (CHOH)4
CH2OH
Carbonyl group present
Evidence of Glucose structure
4) CHO COOH
Presence of Aldehyde group
Br2/H2O
(CHOH)4 (CHOH)4
CH2OH CH2OH
(Glucose) (Gluconic acid)

Mild oxidizing agent

Aldose Aldonic Acid
As Ketones do not oxidize to acids
in presence of Bromine water
Evidence of Glucose
structure
5) CHO COOH
Conc. HNO3 Glucaric Acid is same
(CHOH)4 (CHOH)4
as Saccharic Acid
CH2OH COOH
(Glucose) (Glucaric acid)
Strong oxidizing agent
Aldose Aldaric Acid

Presence of Primary Alcohol

Evidence of Glucose structure
6) CHO CHO
Ac2O
(CHOH)4 (CHOAc)4 + 5 AcOH
pyridine
CH2OH CH2OAc
(Glucose) (Penta-Ester)
Ac2O: CH3 – C – O – C – CH3 Ac2O: Acetic Anhydride
=

=
O O
Ac– : CH3 – C – Ac: Acetyl Group
=

O
Anhydride + Alcohol → Ester + Acid Presence of 5 –OH Groups
Conclusion:
Glucose is concluded to have 5 Alcoholic groups and 1 Aldehydic group
all On Different Carbons, as the Structure Is Stable
2 –OH groups on same carbon are unstable all
On Different Carbons

∴ The structure is :

H H H H H H
– –
– –
– –
– –
– –

C – C – C – C – C – C – OH
O OH OH OH OH H
Stereochemistry
The examination of stereochemistry of Glucose was done by Fischer,
and he gave the following structure
CHO
H * OH ⇒ Carbon Backbone
HO * H 4 chiral carbons
H * OH
⇒ 24 = 16 possible
H * OH
configurations exist
CH2OH

and Only one of them is (+) D-Glucose

Failures of Straight Chain Structure

The Straight Chain Structure fails to explain the following properties

or reaction shown by Glucose:

1) Glucose DOES NOT SHOW 2-4 DNP test, Schiff’s Base test, NaHSO3 Addition product

2) The Pentacetate of Glucose Doesn’t React with NH2OH to form Oxime

Though straight chain on direct reaction forms oxime, cyclic structure doesn’t

Both these observations indicate absence of a free –CHO group

Glucose has TWO crystalline forms

Glucose

α- Glucose β -Glucose
Melting Points: 419K 423K
Crystallization of Crystallization of
Concentrated solution Hot and saturated
Preparation: Of Glucose at 303K solution at 371K
(300C) (980C)
Room Boiling Point
Temperature of Water
 Cyclised structure of Glucose
Let us first draw the straight chain structure in center. On cyclisation, If –OH on C-1
comes on right ⇒ α-Glucose; left ⇒ β-Glucose
Glucose
(0.02%)
α-D-Glucose CHO β-D-Glucose
H OH There exists equilibrium, α and
α – cycle HO H β – cycle
(36%) (64%) β forms can interconvert via
H OH
H OH straight chain structure.
1 1
H OH CH2OH HO H
2 2
H OH H OH
3 O HO 3 O
HO 4
H 4
H
H OH H OH
5 5
H H
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
 Proofs of Cyclic Structure

R′ CH OR
2 R–OH + 1 R′–CHO + H–OH
OR
Alcohol Aldehyde Acetal Water

R′ CH OR
1 R–OH + 1 R′–CHO
OH
Alcohol Aldehyde Hemi-Acetal

We know that on addition of Alcohol on Aldehyde we get Acetals or Hemi-acetals.

(Cyclic structure is Internal Addition of Alcohol on Aldehydic group)

 Proofs of Cyclic Structure
While ring formation generally 5 – 6 membered rings are favored.

: :
Lets focus on C1, the O on C5 will attack C1 and will form 6-membered ring.

1
H 2
OH
H OH Configuration of C in -CHO is sp2,
H O
3
HO while in Hemi-Acetal is sp3.
4
H OH
5
H
6
CH2OH
A sp2 C is susceptible to attack from two sides: Above or Below
So we have 2 structures accordingly: α and β
If -OH at C1 is inside the box like structurethen, it is α and if outside then β

Now C1 also has become chiral!

1
H OH
2
Now, we have 5–chiral carbons H OH
H O
3
HO
4
H OH
5
H
6
CH2OH
Cyclic Structure of Glucose

Observation
α and β forms are Epimers of each other, at C1.
Anomers :
Anomer is a special type of epimer that differs in
configuration, specifically at the
hemiacetal /acetal carbon atom.
Eg. α-D-glucopyranose and β -D-glucopyranose

Generally, Hemi-acetals are unstable But, in 5 or 6 membered rings they

become extremely stable
Epimers and Anomers, are both diastereomers.
Drawing the Cyclic Structure
We know that Glucose exists as a six-membered ring so a Hexagon
Keep Oxygen in top right corner of Hexagon.
Now on this ring, we will start numbering from the C on Right
We will represent Bonds as Vertical Lines.
Then start giving the Functional Groups.
6
1 CH2OH
H OH 5 O
H 2 H H
OH H
H O
3 4 1
HO HO OH H
4 OH
H OH 3 2
5 H OH
H ⇒ α-D-Glucose
6
CH2OH
 Anomers
Now to get β–D–Glucose we simply rotate functional groups at C1.
Anomers

6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
H
5 O H H
5 O
H H
4 1 4 1
HO OH H HO OH H
OH
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose

The two cyclic forms α and β are in equilibrium with the open chain structure.
 Anomers
6
CH2OH 6
CH2OH
H
5 O H 5 O OH
H H H
4 1 4 1
HO OH H OH H
OH HO H
3 2 2
OH 3
H H OH
α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose
α-D-(+)-Gluco-Pyranose β-D- (+)-Gluco-Pyranose

The front bonds are made thick to ⇒ PYRAN

highlight The 3D nature of carbohydrate O

Hence, these structures are called Pyranose.

Also they are Glucose derivative, so Gluco-Pyranose.
 Stability
α-Glucose < β -Glucose
Reason : In β form,– OH is at equitorial position,
while in α form, it is at axial

Five and Six membered hemi–acetal rings

are stable due to ring size.
Mutarotation
The specific rotation of pure α–D–Glucose or β –D–Glucose changes over
time to reach an equilibrium value and this phenomenon is called
mutarotation.

Specific Rotation of
α-D-Glucopyranose: +112.2°
β-D-Glucopyranose: +18.7°
Optical activity at equilibrium : +52.6°
 Fructose
❑ Keto-hexose
❑ Laevose
Structure 1
CH2OH
2 O
3
HO H
4
H OH
5
H OH
6
CH2OH

Now, as the –OH on C5 is on Right: D-Sugar

Hence the given Sugar is: D-(–)-Fructose
 Anomers of Fructose
Unlike glucose, in fructose practically it is seen that
6-membered rings are formed in very small quantities and
relative formation of a 5-membered ring is more frequent.
Fructose
1
CH2OH
2 O
α-Fructose HO 3
H β-Fructose
4
H OH
5
1 2 H OH
HOH2C OH 6
CH2OH HO 2 1
HO
3
H HO CH2OH
3
4 O HO H O
H OH 4
5 H OH
H H
5
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
 Drawing Cyclic Structure of Fructose
❑We know that Fructose exists as a five-membered ring so, a Pentagon
❑Keep Oxygen on Top Corner of Pentagon.
❑We will represent Bonds as Vertical Lines.
❑Then start giving the Functional Groups.
❑Now on this ring, we will start Numbering
from the C on Right Branch
6 2 1
HOH2C OH
HO CH2OH
O HO
3
H
5 H HO 2 O
4
H4 CH2OH H OH
3 1 5
OH H H
6
CH2OH
Cyclic Structure of Fructose
HOH2C 6 1 HOH2C 6
O CH2OH O
5 H HO 2 5 H HO 2
H 4 H 4 1
3 OH 3
OH H OH H
∝-D-Fructose β-D-Fructose
α-D-(–)-Fructo-furanose β-D-(–)-Fructo-furanose

Configuration at C3, C4, C5 is same as Glucose.

o
⇒ FURAN

The front bonds are made thick to highlight 3–D nature.

Hence, these structures are called Furanose.
Also they are Fructose derivative, so Fructo-
Cyclic Structure of Fructose

HOH2C 6 1 HOH2C 6 OH
O CH2OH O
5 H HO 2 5 H HO 2
H 4 H 4 1
3 OH 3 CH2OH
OH H OH H

α-D-(–)-Fructo-furanose β-D-(–)-Fructo-furanose

For α-D-(–)-Fructo-furanose, both –CH2OH are on the same sides

For β -D-(–)-Fructo-furanose, both –CH2OH are on the opposite sides

 Fructose and Glucose
Glucose and Fructose generally show similar reactions.
❑ α-Hydroxy Carbonyls are known to show positive
results for Benedict’s, Fehling’s and Tollen’s tests.
❑ Glucose and Fructose show positive results
for Benedict’s, Fehling’s and Tollen’s tests.
 Disaccharides
To form a Di-Saccharide we need to join two Mono-Saccharides

Mono-Saccharide1 + Mono-Saccharide2 = Di-Saccharide

Example :
1) Sucrose
2) Maltose
3) Lactose
 6 CH2OH
Sucrose 5 O HOH2C 6 O OH
H H H
5 H HO 2
4 1 1
HO OH H OH H 4
3
CH2OH
3 2 OH OH H
H
α-D-Glucose β-D-Fructose

To form glycosidic linkage

HOH2C 1 O H
2 H HO 5
Flip β–D–Fructose about this axis by 180°
HO 3 CH OH
4 6 2
Then C1 -OH of α-Glucose and OH H
C2 -OH of β-Fructose condense,
expelling H2O molecule.
 6
Sucrose CH2OH
5 O H HOH2C
1′
H
H H 1
O
4 2′ HO 5′
H
HO OH H
2
OH HO 3′ CH2OH
3 4′ 6′
H OH OH H
α-D-Glucose β-D-Fructose
6
CH2OH
5 O H HOH2C
1′
H
H H 1
O
4 2′ HO 5′
H
HO OH H
3 2
O 3′ 4′
CH2OH
6′
H OH OH H
α-D-Glucose β-D-Fructose

α _ β _ Glycosidic linkage
 Sucrose
α _ β _ Glycosidic linkage
Glucose Hemi-Acetal
Hence, they give Tollen’s,
Fructose Hemi-Ketal Benedict’s and Fehling’s test.

To Identify Hemi-acetal :- -OH, Ether, H

To Identify Ketal :- -OH, Ether, -R

Note :- if any Compound have it , It will be a reducing sugar.

Invert Sugar :-
 Galactose Glucose and Galactose are C4 Epimers
Straight Chain Structure 1
Cyclic Structure
CHO
2
H OH 6
3 CH2OH
HO H 5 O
D-Glucose 4 β-D-Glucose H H
OH
H OH 4 1
H 5 OH OH H
6 3 2 H
CH2OH HO H OH
1
CHO 6
2 CH2OH
H OH 5 O
3 HO OH
HO H H
4 1
D-Galactose HO
4
H β-D-Galactose H OH H
2 H
H 5 OH H
3
OH
6
CH2OH
 Lactose Disaccharide of Galactose and Glucose
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
HO
5 O OH H
5 O OH
H H
4 1 4 1
H OH H HO OH H
H H
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
β-D-Galactose β-D-Glucose
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
HO
5 O H
5 O OH
H H
4 1 O 4 1
H OH H OH H
H H
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
β-D-Galactose β-D-Glucose
Then C4 -OH of α-Glucose and C1 -OH of β-Galactose condense, expelling H2O molecule.
Maltose

The monomers of maltose are

6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
5 O 5 O
H H H H
H H
4 1 4 1
HO OH H HO OH H
OH OH
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose α-D-Glucose

Then C1 -OH of α-Glucose and

C4 -OH of α-Glucose condense,
expelling H2O molecule.
 Maltose 6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
5 O H H
5 O
H H H H
1 1
4 4
HO OH H OH H OH
3 2
O 3 2
H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose α-D-Glucose
In Maltose, Hemi-Acetal of one α-Glucose
gets converted to Acetal
But, Hemi-Acetal of other α-Glucose is intact
So, Maltose reduces
Tollen’s, Benedict’s and Fehling’s Reagents
So, Maltose is Reducing Sugar.
Polysaccharides

We need to learn about three Polysaccharides:

Three main Polysaccharides

Amylose
STARCH
Amylopectin
GLYCOGE
N

CELLULOSE
Properties of Amylose and Amylopectin

Amylose Amylopectin

1 ) Straight Chain Structure 1)Branched Chain Structure

2) Only C1-C4′ bonds present 2)C1-C4′ and C1-C6′bonds present
3) Water Soluble 3)Water Insoluble
4) 15% - 20% of Starch 4) 80% - 85% of Starch
 Amylose α - Glycosidic linkage
6 6 6
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
5 O H
5 O H
5 O H
H H H H H H
1 1 1
4 4 4
OH H OH H OH OH H
HO OH O HO OH OH
3 2 3 2 3 2
H OH H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose α-D-Glucose α-D-Glucose
6 6 6
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
5 O H
5 O H
5 O H
H H H H H H
1 1 1
4 4 4
OH H OH H OH OH H
HO
2
OH O HO 2
O 2
O
3 3 3
H OH H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose α-D-Glucose α-D-Glucose
Amylopectin
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
H
5 O H H
5 O
H H H
1 4 1
4
OH H OH H OH
O 3 2
O 3 2
H OH H OH H2O

6 6
CH2OH CH2 OH
H
5 O H H
5 O H
H 1
H 1
4 4
OH H OH H
O 2
O 2
O
3 3
H OH H OH
Amylopectin
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
H
5 O H H
5 O
H H H
1 4 1
4
OH H OH H
O O
H
3
OH
2 3
H OH
2
O
6 6
CH2OH CH2
H
5 O H H
5 O H
H 1
H 1
4 4
OH H OH H
O 2
O 2
O
3 3
H OH H OH
Cellulose It is a Straight chain polysaccharide composed only of Beta D-
Glucose 6
CH2OH
H H
5 O OH
4 1
OH H
6
H
CH2OH 3 2
H OH
H
5 O OH
H
4 1 β-D-Glucose
OH H
H
3 2
6
CH2OH H OH

H
5 O OH β-D-Glucose
H
4 1
OH H
H
3 2
H OH
β-D-Glucose
 Glycogen
it is also called Animal Starch. Its Structure is similar to Amylopectin & rather
more highly branched..
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
H
5 O H H
5 O
H H H
1 4 1
4
OH H OH H
O 3 2
O 3 2
H OH H OH
6 6
CH2OH CH2
H
5 O H H
5 O H
H 1
H 1
4 4
OH H OH H
O 2
O 2
O
3 3
H OH H OH
 Proteins (Greek word Proteios)

Very important Something of

for sustaining life prime importance

Proteins are Polymers of α-Amino acids.

Polymers of β, γ-amino acids also exist, but

Proteins contain only α -amino acids.
 Amino acids
α
R CH COOH
NH2

Natural Amino Acids are L–Amino acids

Residue of H
Amino acid
C
COOH
R
NH2
 Amino Iso-Propyl Iso-Butyl
acids CH3

–
R H– CH3– (CH3)2CH– (CH3)2CH.CH2– CH3–CH2–CH– Sec-Butyl
Name Glycine Alanine Valine Leucine Isoleucine
Symbol Gly Ala Va Leu Ile
l
Code G A V L I

R H2N–(CH2)4– HOOC–(CH2)2– HS–CH2– Ph–CH2–

Name Lysine Glutamic acid Cysteine Phenylalanine
Symbol Ly Glu Cys Phe
s
Code K E C F

The names are derived from common names

 Naming of Amino acids
Carbohydrates D ⇒ –OH on Right L ⇒ –OH on Left
α-Amino acids D ⇒ –NH2 on Right L ⇒ –NH2 on Left

Most Natural Amino Acids are L–Amino acids

COOH COOH

H * NH2 NH2 * H

R right left R
D – Amino acid L - Amino acid
 Classification of Amino Acids

1) On the basis of Character:

Character

Essential Non–Essential

Those which cannot be Those that can be

Synthesized in our body Synthesized by our
Have to be provided externally body
Classification of Amino Acids

2) On the basis of Acidic/Basic Nature : Number of Carboxyl groups is ‘x’

Number of Amino groups is ‘y’
Acidic/Basic

Acidic Neutral Basic

x• x=y .y
y

Glutamic acid Glycine Lysine

Aspartic acid Alanine Argenine
α–Amino acids:
α–Amino acidsProperties

Water soluble Due to H bonding in –COOH and –NH2

Colorless

High Melting Solids

Crystalline Solids Due to Zwitter ion

Zwitter Ion

–
R–CH–COO
⇒ Zwitter Ion
–
+
NH3

The only Amino acid that is COOH

Optically Inactive is Glycine
NH2 * H

H
Gylcine
 Zwitter Ion
– H+ – H+
R–CH–COO R–CH–COO R–CH–COOH
–

–
+ +
NH2 NH3 NH3

:
OH OH
K1 K2
Basic medium ⇒ Goes towards Carboxyl ion
Acidic medium ⇒ Goes towards Ammonium ion

An Amino acid NEVER exists in an uncharged form.

Isoelectric point (pI) is a pH at which

pK1 + pK2
net charge of protein is zero. pI =
2
 Peptides O
H2N CH C OH + H NH CH COOH
R1 R2
N-end C-end
O
H2N CH C NH CH COOH By Product H2O
R1 R2
2 amino acids ⇒ di peptide Hydrolysis of Peptide ⇒ amino - acids
peptide
3 amino acids ⇒ tri peptide n-Amino Acids
(n-amino acids) (n - 1)H2O
4 amino acids ⇒ tetra peptide
Many amino acids ⇒ poly peptide
Peptides
O
H2N CH C OH + H NH CH COOH
H CH3
Glycine Alanine

O
H2N CH C NH CH COOH
H CH3
Gly Ala
 Proteins
A Poly-Peptide with more than 100 Amino Acid Residue,
with molar mass > 10,000 amu(D) is called a protein.

Proteins > 10 kD
EXCEPTIONS are possible

Example
Insulin has only 51 Amino Acid Residues.
Molecular Shape of Proteins :- It can be classified in 2 types
 Structure of Proteins

The structure and shape of protein can be studied at four different levels:

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Each subsequent level being more complex then

the previous
Primary Structure of Proteins
It describes the sequence of amino acids
connected together to form the poly peptide.

It may contain more than one chain

Primary structure of Proteins
Primary
It describes the sequence of amino acids
connected together to form the poly peptide
It may contain more than one chain

Secondary
It describes the shape in which Secondary structure arises due to folding of the
polypeptide chain can exist back bone of the polypeptide chain to H–bonds.
Two types can exist
α–helix β-pleated–sheets

α-helix is like a right handed screw

 α–Helix

In α–Helix all possible H–bonds are formed to

give Right–Handed–Screw configuration
β–Pleated sheets

In β–pleated structure the Peptide Chains are

stretched out to max extension and then
joined by Intramolecular H–bonds
Tertiary Structure of Protein
Describes overall folding of a Polypeptide Chain
i.e. further folding of the Secondary Structure
This is due to Di-sulphide linkages
Quaternary Structure of Protein

Quaternary Structure
of Haemoglobin
 Denaturation of Protiens

Denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids

lose the quaternary structure, tertiary structure, and
secondary structure which is present in their native state.

its due to External stress or compound such as a strong acid

or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent
(e.g., alcohol or chloroform), radiation or heat.[3] If proteins in
a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell
activity and possibly cell death.
Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic Acids
Pentose Nitrogenous
Sugar base
Ribose Usually Heterocyclic
Phosphoric Acid
De-oxyRibose derivative

Phosphate ester
 Ribose CHO
H OH
Cyclic Structure: H OH
H OH
CH2OH

HOH2C 5 O OH HOH2C 6 H
O
4 H H 1 4 H H 1
H 3 2 H H 3 OH
2
OH OH OH OH
β-D-Ribo-Furanose α-D-Ribo-Furanose

In Nucleic Acids, only β form is found

 Deoxy -
Ribose
Cyclic Structure: HOH2C 5 OH
O
4 H H 1
H 3 2 H
OH OH
HOH2C 5 O OH β-D-Ribose
4 H H 1
H 3 2 H
HOH2C 5 O OH
OH OH
4 H H 1
H 3 2 H
OH H
β-D-DeoxyRibose
 Nucleic Acids

Nitrogenous
base
Derivative of Derivative of
Purine Pyrimidine Usually Heterocyclic
6 7 6

1
5 N 1 5
N N
8

2 4 N9 4
2
N
3
N3
 6 7 6 7
1
5 N 5 N
N 1
N
8
8
2 4 N9 2 N9
N N
4
3
3

NH2 O
6 7 6 7
H
1
5 N 1
5 N
N N
8
8
2 N9
2
N 4 N9 H2N 4
N
3 3
Guanine
Adenine
 66
1 5
N

2 4
N3
Pyrimidine

NH2
6 OH O
1 5 6 6
N H 1 5 H 1 5 CH3
N N
4
O 2
N3 O 2 4
O 2 4
N3 N3
H
H H
Cytosine
Uracil Thymine
 O
Phospho Ester
P
Nucleic Acids contain only HO OH
OH
Phosphoric acid
O O
Phospho-mono-ester P Phospho-di-ester P
RO OH RO OR
OH OH

O
Phospho-tri-ester
P
RO OR
OR
Nucleosides

Combination of a Nitrogenous Base and a Sugar

Base + Sugar

The sugar may be Ribose or Deoxy Ribose

Nucleotides

Combination of a Nitrogenous Base + Sugar and Phospho-Di-Ester

Base + Sugar + Phosphate

 Nucleosides
NH2
NH2 6 7
6 7 1
5 N
1
5 N N
N Adenine 8
8
2 4 N9
2 4 N9 N
N 3
3
H

5′
5′ HOH2C O
HOH2C O OH
4′ 1′
4′
H H 1′
Adenosine
H H
H 3′ 2′
H
H 3′ H
2′ OH OH
OH OH
β-D-Ribose Constituents of Adenosine
 Nucleosides Constituents ofDeoxy-Adenosine
NH2
6 7 NH2
6 7
1
5 N
N 5 N
8
Adenine 1
N
8
2 4 N9
N 2 4 N9
3 N
H 3

2′-Deoxy-Adenosine
5′
HOH2C O OH 5′
HOH2C O
4′ 1′
H H 4′ 1′
H H
H 3′ H
2′ H 3′ 2′
H
OH H
OH H
2′-Deoxy-Ribose
 Nucleotides

Base + Sugar + Phosphate

Adenosine- 5’ – monophosphate: a ribonucleotide
NH2
O 6 7 NH2
1
5 N 6 7
N 5 N
P 8
1
N
O– OH + 8
2 N9
O– N
4
2 N9
3 O N
4
5′
O 3

HO 4′
1′ P 5′
O
1′
O– O 4′
3′ 2′ O– 3′
OH OH 2′
OH OH
 DNA and RNA

Nucleotides joins with each other through 3’ and 5’phosphate linkage

to give polynucleotides, which further forms nucleic acid.

Nucleic Acids

RNA DNA

Ribose 2′-Deoxy-Ribose
 DNA and RNA
DNA

Adenine Guanine Cytidine Thymine

A G C T

RNA

Adenine Guanine Cytidine Uracil

A G C U
 5′
4′ 1′

3′ 2′

Phospho group starts at 3′

and ends at 5′
5′
4′ 1′

3′ 2′

This is an Alternating Structure of an di-ester

and is connected across 3′ and 5′.
 DNA is known to be a double-helical structure.

In which the two helices are bound together by H–bonds between bases.
Sugar and Phospho groups appear to form Rails and the Bases appear to form Rungs.
 Complementary bases
In DNA, bases do not randomly pair up with each other,
but there are fixed pairs that pair up in double strands,

Complementary
Bases
Adenine Guanine

Thymine Cytosine
Subscribe the Channel
For
Coaching Free INDIA
Thank You