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Semester Project Report - Topics In Finite Group Theory

Research · December 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3324.0401

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 Topics In Finite Group Theory
Guide:
Student: Dr. Binod Kumar Sahoo
Ayush Kumar Tewari Reader-F ,School of
Roll No. : 1211011 Mathematical
Summer Project Report Sciences(SMS)
National Institute of Science National Institute of
Education and Research, Science Education and
Bhubaneswar Research,
Bhubaneswar

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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.1.1 Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.1.2 Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.1.3 Normal Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.1.4 Group Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.2 Sylow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.1 p-group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.2 Sylow p-subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.3 Sylow’s Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.4 Characteristic Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.3 Nilpotent Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.4 Some More Sylow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.5 Brodkey’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
0.6 Chermak-Delgrado Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.7 Subnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.8 Wielandt’s Join Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.9 Baer’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
0.10 Local p-groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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0.11 Zenkov’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
0.12 Lucchini’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
0.13 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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 Preface
The theory of groups has come along a long way now from its origin , and has
shown immense applications in the field of Number Theory ,Combinatorics ,etc
but even after such an extensive built up of theory around its applications, the
study of basic group theory has still been quite interesting , with the problem
of classifying all the finite simple groups being one of the most famous .In
this project report I would be presenting a study on some of the properties
of groups , pertaining myself to only finite groups , as in this case , we get
many interesting and astonishing results , like for example the much celebrated
Lagrange ’s Theorem also requires the finiteness condition , so the condition of
finiteness does not limit our horizons in this case but instead provide us with
even better results .

4
0.1 Basic Definitions
0.1.1 Group
A set G equipped with a binary operation ∗ is said to form a group (G,∗) , if
the following conditions hold :

1. ∀ a , b ∈ G , a∗b ∈ G.

2. a∗(b∗c) = (a∗b)∗c .

3. there exists an element e ∈ G , such that ∀ a ∈ G , a∗e = e∗a = a.

4. ∀ a ∈ G , there exists a−1 ∈ G , such that a∗a−1 = a−1 ∗a = e.

0.1.2 Subgroup
A subset H of G is said to form a subgroup (H,∗) if ∀ a,b ∈ H , ab−1 ∈ H.

0.1.3 Normal Subgroup

A subset N of G is said to form a normal subgroup of G , if ∀ g ∈ G , g−1 ng
∈ N , for all n ∈ N .
Further definitions pertaining to basic group theory would be introduced
as per needed , and now we would talk about maps related to groups ,

0.1.4 Group Action

A group is said to act on a set X , if their exists a map φ : G X Ω → Ω , such
that

φ(g,x) = g.x

1. 1.x = x ∀ x in Ω

2. g.(h.x) = (gh).x , ∀ x ∈ Ω and ∀ g,h ∈ G.

We can define a map σg : Ω → Ω defined by σg (α) = gα and it has an inverse

namely σg−1 .Therefore σg is a permutation of the set Ω, which means that σg
is both injective and surjective and therefore σg lies in Sym(X), which is the
set containing all the permutations of Ω.The map g → σg is clearly a
homomorphism and it is called the permutation representation of G.The
case in which Ω = G ,i.e when the group acts on itself , then the action is
said to be regular.The Kernel of an action φ is defined as

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Ker(φ) = {g ∈ G | g.α = α ∀ α ∈ Ω}.The action is said to be faithful if the
Ker is trivial .The Orbit of an action is defined as Oα = {g.α|g ∈ G}
additionally if H is a subgroup of G then we define the core of H in G as

coreG (H) = ∩x∈G H x , where Hx = xHx−1 .

The core of H is normal in G (as it is the kernel of an action) and clearly it is

contained in H.In fact if N / G is any normal subgroup that is contained in H
, then N = Nx ⊆ H x for all x ∈ G , and thus N ⊆ coreG (H).

Theorem 1. Let H ⊆ G be a subgroup , and let Ω be the set of right cosets of

H in G .Then G/coreG (H) is isomorphic to a subgroup of Sym(Ω).If the index
|G : H| = n , then G/coreG (H) is isomorphic to subgroup of Sn , the symmetric
group on n symbols .

Proof. The action of G on the set Ω by right multiplication defines a homomor-

phism θ from G into Sym(Ω).Since Ker(θ) = coreG (H), G/coreG (H) ∼ = θ(G)
st
, (by the 1 Isomorphism Theorem), which is a subgroup of Sym(G).The last
statement follows since if |G : H| = n , then |Ω| = n and thus Sym(Ω) ∼ = Sn .
Corollary 0.1. Let G be a group , and suppose that H ⊆ G is a subgroup with
|G : H| = n .Then H contains a normal subgroup N of G such that |G : N |
divides n!.
Proof. Take N = coreG (H) .Then G/N is isomorphic to a subgroup of the
symmetric group Sn ,and so by Lagrange’s theorem ,|G/N | divides |Sn | = n!.
Corollary 0.2. Let G be simple and contain a subgroup of index n > 1,Then
|G| divides n!.
Proof. The normal subgroup N of the previous corollary is contained in H ,
and hence it is proper in G because n > 1.Since G is simple, N =1 , and thus
|G| = |G/N | divides n!.
Corollary 0.3. Let x ∈ G ,where G is a finite group , and let K be the conjugacy
class of G containing x .Then |K| = |G : CG (x)|.
Proof. The class of x is the orbit of x under the conjugation action of G on
itself , and the stabiliser of x in this action is the centraliser CG (x).Thus |K|
= |G : CG (x)|.
Corollary 0.4. Let H ⊆ G ,where G is finite .Then the total number of distinct
conjugates of H in G ,counting H itself , is |G : NG (H)|.
Proof. The conjugates of H form an orbit under the conjugation action of G
on the set of subsets of G .The normaliser NG (H) is the stabiliser of H in this
action , and thus the orbit size is |G : NG (H)|,as wanted.

6
0.2 Sylow Theory
0.2.1 p-group
Fix a prime p , then a subgroup S of a finite group G is called a p-group if |G|
is a power of p.

0.2.2 Sylow p-subgroup

Fix a prime p , then a subgroup S of a finite group is said to be a Sylow
p-subgroup if |S| is a power of p and the index |G : S| is not divisible by p.
i.e if |G| = pk m where k is some positive integer and p6|m, then S is a Sylow
p-subgroup and |S| = pk .
We would now be stating the well known theorems related to Sylow p-subgroups
which we have already discussed in our basic group theory course , and they
would be used as and when required, further in the text.

0.2.3 Sylow’s Theorems

Theorem 2 (Sylow’s 1st theorem). [Existence] If G is a finite group ,and
p(prime) | |G| then G has a Sylow p-subgroup .
Theorem 3 (Sylow’s 2nd Theorem). [Conjugacy] If S and T are two Sylow
p-subgroups of G , then T = Sg for some g ∈ G .
Theorem 4 (Sylow’s 3rd Theorem). [Number of Sylow p-subgroups] If np rep-
resents the number of Sylow p-subgroups of a finite group G , for a fixed prime
p , then np ≡ 1( mod p).
Corollary 0.5 (Cauchy). Let G be a finite group , and suppose that p is a
prime divisor of |G|.Then G has an element of order p.
Proof. Let S be a Sylow p-subgroup of G , and note that since |S| is the
maximum power of p that divides |G|, we have |S| > 1.Choose a non-identity
element x of S , and observe that the order o(x) divides |S| , and thus 1 < o(x)
is a power of p.In particular, we can write o(x) =pm for some integer m ≥ 1,
and we see that o(xm ) = p.

0.2.4 Characteristic Subgroup

A subgroup K ⊆ G is called a characteristic subgroup of G if every automor-
phism of G maps K onto itself.
Along with this definition the characteristic subgroups can be identified as
those subgroups , which are uniquely determined for a group , which is the
reason behind the name ,”charachteristic” .

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Example - Center Z(G),the derived subgroup G’, Intersection of all Sylow p-
subgroups = Op (G),etc.
We know that Normal subgroups do not follow transitivity , i.e if N / K and
K / G , then this need not imply that N / G , but we get a nice result if we
work with characteristic subgroup .
Lemma 1. Let K ⊆ N ⊆ G , where G is a group , N is a normal subgroup of
G and K is a characteristic subgroup of N .Then K / G .
Proof. Let g ∈ G .Then conjugation by g maps N onto itself,and it follows that
the restriction of this conjugation map to N is an automorphism of N(But note
that it is not necessarily an inner automorphism of N ).Since K is characteristic
in N , it is mapped onto itself by this automorphism of N and thus K g = K
,and it follows that K / G .
Theorem 5. Let P be an arbitrary p-subgroup of a finite group G ,and suppose
that S ∈ Sylp (G).Then P ⊆ Sg for some element g of G .
Proof. let Ω = {Sx|x ∈ G}, the set of right cosets of S in G , and note that
|Ω| = |G : S| is not divisible by p since S is a Sylow p-subgroup of G .We
know that G acts by right multiplication on Ω,and thus P acts too ,and Ω is
partitioned into P-orbits.Also,since |Ω| is not divisible by p,there must exist
some P-orbit such that |Ω| is not divisible by p.
By the Orbit Stabiliser theorem ,|O| is the index in P of some subgroup .It
follows that |O| divides |P |,which is a power of p.Then |O| is both a power of
p and not divisible by p , and so the only possibility is |O| =1.Recalling that
all members of Ω are right cosets of S in G , we can suppose that the unique
member of O is the coset Sg.
Since Sg is alone in a P-orbit , it follows that it is fixed under the action of P
and thus Sgu = Sg for all elements u ∈ P . Then gu ∈ Sg, and hence u ∈ g −1 Sg
= Sg .Thus P ⊆ S g
Lemma 2 (Frattini’s Argument). Let N / G ,where N is finite , and suppose
that P ∈ Sylp (N ).Then G = NG (P)N.
Proof. Let g ∈ G and note that Pg ⊆ N g = N , and thus Pg is a sub-
group of N having the same order as the Sylow p-subgroup P.It follows that
Pg ∈ Sylp (N ),and so by the Sylow ’s -2nd Theorem applied in N , we deduce
that(Pg )n = P,for some element n ∈ N .Since Pgn = P ,we have gn ∈ NG (P ),and
so g ∈ NG (P )n−1 ⊆ NG (P )N .But g ∈ G was arbitrary, and we deduce that G
= NG (P )N ,as required .
Theorem 6. Let P be a p-subgroup of a finite group G .Then P is contained
in some Sylow p-subgroup of G .

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Proof. Let S ∈ Sylp (G).Then by the previous theorem , we know that P ⊆
Sg for some element g ∈ G .Also,since |S g | = |S|,we know that Sg is a Sylow
p-subgroup of G .
Corollary 0.6. Let S ∈ Sylp (G), where G is a finite group .Then np (G) =
|G : NG (S)|.
Proof. Since np (G) = |Sylp (G)| is the total number of conjugates of S in G , and
we know that the number of conjugates of a subgroup H in G = |G : NG (H)|
, hence np (G) = |G : NG (S)|.
We would now be looking at a more generalised version of Sylow’s 3rd Theorem
,wherein the congruence relation that we get as mod p could be bettered with
the index of some chosen Sylow p-subgroups .
Theorem 7. Suppose that G is a finite group such that np (G) > 1,and choose
two distinct Sylow p-subgroups S and T of G such that the order |S ∩ T | is as
large as possible.Then np (G) ≡ 1 mod |S : S ∩ T |.
Lemma 3. let P ∈ Sylp (G),where G is a finite group ,and suppose that Q is a
p-subgroup of NG (P ).Then Q ⊆ P.
Proof. We apply Sylow Theory in the group N = NG (P ).Clearly, P is a Sylow
p-subgroup of N, and since P / N , we deduce that P is the only Sylow p-
subgroup of N .However the p-subgroup Q of N must be contained in some
Sylow p-subgroup . The only possibility is Q ⊆ P ,as required .
Proof of the Theorem Let S act on the set Sylp (G) by conjugation .One orbit
is the set S, of size 1, which is generated when S acts on itself, and so if we
can show that all other orbits have size divisible by |S : S ∩ T | ,it will follow
that np (G) = |Sylp (G)| ≡ 1 mod |S : S ∩ T |,as wanted .Let O be an arbitrary
S-orbit in Sylp (G) other than {S} and let P ∈ O , so that P 6= S .By the Orbit
Stabiliser Theorem |O| = |S : Q| ,where Q is the stabiliser of P in S under
conjugtaion .Then Q ⊆ NG (P ) and so Q ⊆ P (by the previous lemma).But
also Q ⊆ S , and thus |Q| ≤ |S ∩ P | ≤ |S ∩ T |,where the latter inequality
follows since S and T are chosen in such a way that there intersection is as
large as possible among the intersection of any two distinct Sylow p-subgroups
of G .It follows that |O| = |S : Q| ≥ |S : S ∩ T |.But, since the integers |O| and
|S : S ∩ T | are powers of p and |O| ≥ |S : S ∩ T |,we conclude that |O| is a
multiple of |S : S ∩ T |, and since O was arbitrary , this is true for all S-orbits
except S.Hence,proved.
Now we give an example, where the above theorem comes into play , so lets
consider a group G of order 21,952 = 26 .73 .We know that n7 must divide 26 =
64 and it must be congruent to 1 modulo 7.We see, therefore, that n7 must be
one of 1,8 or 64.Suppose that G does not have a normal Sylow 7-subgroup, so
that n7 > 1.Since 8 nor 64 is congruent to 1 modulo 72 = 49,we see that by

9
the above theorem , there exists distinct Sylow 7-subgroups S and T of G such
that |S : S ∩ T | = 7.

0.3 Nilpotent Groups

In our basic group theory course we already have proven that the center of non
trivial p-group is non trivial , but a more generalised statement is also true ,
which can be stated as
Theorem 8. Let P be a finite p-group and let N be a non-identity normal
subgroup of P.Then N ∩ Z(P) > 1.In particular , if P is non-trivial, then Z(P)
> 1.
Proof. Since N / P , we can let P act on N by conjugation , and we observe that
N ∩ Z(P) is exactly the set of elements of N that lie in orbits of size 1.By the
Orbit Stabiliser Theorem ,every orbit has p-power size , and so each non-trivial
orbit has size divisible by p.Since the set N -(N ∩ Z(P)) is a union of such orbits
,we see that |N | − |N ∩ Z(P )| is divisible by p ,and thus |N ∩ Z(P )| ≡ |N | ≡ 0
mod p,where the second congruence follows because N is a non-trivial subgroup
of P.Now, N ∩ Z(P) contains the identity element , and so |N ∩ Z(P )| > 0.It
follows that |N ∩ Z(P )| ≥ p > 1 , and hence N ∩ Z(P) is non-trivial , and
hence Z(P) is also non-trivial.
Now we would like to talk about some series that are formed using the normal
subgroups of a group. A finite collection of normal subgroups Ni of a group G
is a normal series for G provided that
1 = N0 ⊆ N1 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Nr = G
This normal series is a central series if in addition , we have Ni /Ni−1 ⊆
Z(G/Ni−1 ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ r.Finally a group G is nilpotent if it has a central
series.It is worth noting that subgroups ,factor groups and homomorphic
images of nilpotent groups are nilpotent .
Given any group G , we can try to canonically construct a central series as
follows .We start by defining Z0 = 1 and Z1 =Z(G).The second center Z2 is
defined to be the unique subgroup such that Z2 /Z1 = Z(G/Z1 )(Z2 exists and
is normal in G by the correspondence theorem between subgroups of a group
and subgroups of its factor group).We continue like this inductively defining
Zn for n > 0, so that Zn /Zn−1 = Z(G/Zn−1 ). The chain of normal subgroups
1 = Z0 ⊆ Z1 ⊆ Z2 . . .
constructed in this is way is called the upper central series of G .We may
tell you that this series does not necessarily terminate at G , its only in the
case of nilpotent groups , in which this happens and Zi = G , for some i .

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Lemma 4. Let G be finite .Then the following are equivalent

1. G is nilpotent.

2. Every non-trivial homomorphic image of G has a non-trivial center.

3. G appears as a member of its upper central series

Proof. 1 =⇒ 2 We have already stated that the homomorphic image of a

nilpotent group is nilpotent, and also since the first term of a central series
for a nilpotent group is contained in the center of of the group,it follows that
nontrivial nilpotent groups have non trivial centers.
2 =⇒ 3 It follows that if Zi < G ,where Zi is a term in this upper central series
for G , then Zi+1 /Zi = Z(G/Zi ) is non trivial , and thus Zi < Zi+1 .Since G is
finite and the proper terms of the upper central series are strictly increasing
, we see that not every term can be proper , hence there exists some r , such
that Zr = G .
3 =⇒ 1 , Since 3 guarantees that the upper central series is actually a central
series , therefore G is nilpotent.
Eg - If P is a finite p-group , then every homomorphic image of P is also a finite
p-group , and thus every non-trivial homomorphic image of P has non-trivial
center and hence it follows that P is nilpotent .
Theorem 9. Let G be a(not necessarily finite) nilpotent group with central
series
1 = N0 ⊆ N1 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Nr = G
and as usual , let
1 = Z0 ⊆ Z1 ⊆ Z2 ⊆ . . .
be the upper central series for G .Then Ni ⊆ Zi ,for 0 ≤ i ≤ r, and in
particular , Zr = G.
Proof. We prove that Ni ⊆ Zi , by induction on i.Since Z0 = 1 =N0 , we can
suppose that i > 0, and by the induction hypothesis , we can assume that
Ni−1 ⊆ Zi−1 .For notational simplicity ,write N = Ni−1 and Z = Zi−1 and
observe that since N ⊆ Z,there is a natural surjective homomorphism θ : G/N
→ G/Z defined by θ(Ng) = Zg for elements g ∈ G.
Since θ is surjective ,it carries central elements of G/N to central elements
of G/Z ,and since Ni /N is central in G /N ,it is mapped by θ into Z(G/Z)
=Zi /Z.If x ∈ Ni , therefore , it follows that Zx = θ(Nx) ∈ Zi /Z and thus x
∈ Zi , as required.
The case in which we have Zr = G, for some integer r ≥ 0 then the smallest
integer r for which this happens is called nilpotence class of G .Thus non
trivial abelian groups have nilpotence class 1,and the groups of nilpotence
class 2 are exactly the non abelian groups such that G/Z(G) is cyclic.A group

11
G is called metabelian if and only if there is an abelian normal subgroup A
such that the quotient group G/A is abelian.Examples of metabelian groups -
D2n for any n, nilpotent groups with nilpotence class ≤ 3 ,all groups of order
less than 24 except S4 ,etc.
Theorem 10 (Growth of Normalisers). Let H < G , where G is a nilpotent
group .Then NG (H) > H.
Proof. Before progressing with the proof of the theorem we would like to discuss
about the correspondence theorem and its implications i.e when we take a
quotient of a group with one of its subgroups .If N ⊆ H ⊆ K ⊆ G.,then H
/ K iff H̄ /K̄.In particular, if N ⊆ H , then since H ⊆ NG (H), we see that
H̄ / NG¯(H) and we have NG (H) ⊆ NḠ (H̄). in fact , equality holds here .To
see this ,observe that since NḠ (H̄) is a subgroup of Ḡ, it can be written in the
form of Ū for some unique subgroup U with N ⊆ U ⊆ G.Then H̄ / Ū ,and so
H / U (since the overbar is a homomorphism ) and U ⊆ NG (H).This yields
NḠ (H̄) = Ū ⊆ NG (H),as claimed.
Now we prove the theorem.Since G is nilpotent , it has by definition a central
series {Ni | 0 ≤ i ≤ r}, and we have N0 = 1 ⊆ H and Nr = G 6⊆ H.It follows
that there is some subscript k with 0 ≤ k < r such that Nk ⊆ H but Nk+1 6⊆
H.We will show that in fact, Nk+1 ⊆ NG (H), and it follows that NG (H) > H,as
wanted.
Write Ḡ = G/Nk and use the bar convention.Since the subgroups Ni form a
central series , we have
Nk+1 ⊆ Z(Ḡ) ⊆ NḠ (H̄) = NG (H)
where the equality holds because Nk ⊆ H.Now because Nk ⊆ NG (H),we can
remove the bars to obtain Nk+1 ⊆ NG (H).
Now we return to our discussion of p-groups and discuss some results about
them.
Lemma 5. Let P be a finite group and suppose that N < M are normal sub-
groups of P .The there exists a subgroup L / P such that N ⊆ L ⊆ M and
|L : N | = p.
Proof. Write P̄ = P/N and note that M̄ is non-trivial and normal in P̄ .Now
Z(P̄ )∩ M̄ is non-trivial (since P̄ is also a p-group)and so this subgroup contains
an element of order p.Because our element is central and of order p , it generates
a normal subgroup of order p,and we can write L̄ to denote this subgroup, where
N ⊆ L. Now L̄ ⊆ M̄ , and thus N ⊆ L ⊆ M ,as wanted.Also, as L̄ / P̄ , we see
that L / P.Finally, |L : N | = |L̄| = p, as required.
Corollary 0.7. Let P be a p-group of order pa .Then for every integer b with
0 ≤ b ≤ a , there is a subgroup L / P such that |L| = pb .

12
Proof. The assertion is trivial if b = 0,and so we can assume that b > 0 and we
work by induction on b.By the inductive hypothesis ,there exists a subgroup
N / P such that |N | = pb−1 and we can apply previous lemma (with M = P)
to produce a subgroup L / P with |L : P | = p.Then |L| =pb and the proof is
complete.
Corollary 0.8. Let G be a finite group , and suppose that pb divides |G|,where
p is prime and b ≥ 0 is an integer.Then G has a subgroup of order pb .
Proof. Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G and write |P | = pb .Since pb divides
|G|,we see that b ≤ a ,and the result follows by the previous corollary.
Theorem 11. Let G be a finite group G .Then the following are euivalent

1. G is nilpotent.

2. NG (H) > H for every proper subgroup H < G .

3. Every maximal subgroup of G is normal .

4. Every Sylow subgroup of G is normal.

5. G is the (internal) direct product of its non-trivial Sylow subgroups.

Proof. To help with the proof of 4 =⇒ 5 we would be requiring the following

lemma ,
Lemma 6. Let χ be a collection of finite normal subgroups of a group G ,and
assume that Q the orders of the members of χ are pairwise Qcoprime.Then the
product H = χ of the members of χ is direct.Also, |H| = X∈χ |X|.
Q
Proof. Certainly |H| ≤ |X|.Also by Lagrange’s Theorem , |X| divides |H|,for
every member X of χ, and Q since the orders of the members of χ are Q
pairwise
co-prime ,it follows that |X| divides |H|.We conclude that |H| = |X|,as
wanted . Q
Now to see that |X| is direct , it suffices to show that
Q
X ∩ {Y ∈ χ|Y 6= X} = 1
member X ∈ χ.This followsQsince by the previous paragraph , the
for everyQ
order of Y for Y 6= X is equal to |Y |,and this is coprime to |X|.
Proof of the Theorem We saw that 1 =⇒ 2 in one of the previous
theorems .
2 =⇒ 3 Is clear , since if M < G is a maximal subgroup , then NG (M ) > M
and so this implies that NG (M ) = G.
3 =⇒ 4 Let P ∈ Sylp (G) for some prime p .If NG (P ) is proper in G , it is
contained in some maximal subgroup M , and we have M / G.Since P

13
∈ Sylp (G), it follows by the Frattini’s Argument that G = NG (P )M ⊆ M ,
and this is a contradiction .Thus P / G.
4 =⇒ 5 is immediate from the previous lemma that we proved .
5 =⇒ 1 Since G is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups , this implies
that the Sylow subgroups are normal in G and therefore in any homomorphic
image of G , the corresponding Sylow subgroups would be normal in the
image of G , so we see that every homomorphic
Qn image of G is a direct product
of p-groups for various primes p,i.e if G = i=1 Pi where each Pi is the unique
Sylow p- subgroup (they are unique since they are normal), then if φ is any
homomorphism then φ(G) is again a product of unique Sylow Qn subgroups ,
0
which are essentially p-groups , and so if see Z(φ(G)) = j=1 Z(Pj ) where
each Pj is a p-subgroup and hence Z(Pj ) is non trivial for all j and hence
Z(φ(G)) is non trivial , hence center of every non-trivial homomorphic image
of G is non-trivial , therefore by Lemma 4,G is nilpotent.
T
Now we recall that we define Op (G) = p||G| (Sylp (G)), and by definition it is
the unique largest normal p-subgroup of G .
We define Fitting subgroup of G , denoted by F(G), to be the product of
Op (G) where p runs over all primes dividing |G|.By definition F(G) is
characteristic , and hence normal .
Corollary 0.9. Let G be a finite group . Then F(G) is a normal nilpotent
subgroup of G .It contains every normal nilpotent subgroup of G , and so it is
the unique largest such subgroup.
Proof. By Lemma 6 we know that |F (G)| is the product of the orders of the
subgroups Op (G) as p runs the prime divisors of G .Then Op (G)
∈ Sylp (F(G)), and thus F(G) has a normal Sylow subgroup for each prime.It
follows by Theorem 11 , that F(G) is nilpotent.
Now let N / G be nilpotent.If P ∈ Sylp (N ),then P / N by Theorem 11, and
thus P is characteristic in N and hence is normal in G .It follows that P ⊆
Op (G) ⊆ F(G).Since N is the product of its Sylow subgroups and each of these
is contained in F(G),it follows that N ⊆ F(G), and the proof is complete .
Corollary 0.10. Let K and L be nilpotent normal subgroups of a finite group
G .Then KL is also nilpotent.
Proof. We have K ⊆ F(G) and L ⊆ F(G), and thus KL ⊆ F(G).Since F(G) is
nilpotent , hence KL is nilpotent.

0.4 Some More Sylow Theory

Theorem 12. Let |G| =pq ,where q < p are primes .Then G has a normal
Sylow p-subgroup .Also,G is cyclic unless q|p-1.

14
Proof. Since np ≡ 1 mod p, we see that if np > 1, we have np > p > q.This is
not possible ,however,since np must divide q, we conclude that np = 1.Also
,since every element of G of order p generates a subgroup of order p, and
there is only one of these ,there are exactly p-1 elements of order p in G .
Now if nq > 1 , then p = nq ≡ 1 mod p, and thus q divides p-1.Otherwise nq
= 1 and we see that there are exactly q-1 elements of order q in G.Together
with the identity ,we have now accounted for p+q-1 elements of G.But p+q-1
< 2p ≤ pq = |G|, and so G must have some element g that does not have
order either 1,q or p .Since o(g) divides |G| = pq, the only possibility is that
o(g) =pq, and thus G = < pq >, and G is cyclic.
Theorem 13. Let |G| = p2 q, where p and q are distinct primes .Then G has
either a normal Sylow p-subgroup or a normal Sylow q-subgroup.
Proof. We assume that np > 1 and nq > 1 , and we note that p 6= q.Since
np ≡ 1 mod p , it follows that np > p and similarly nq > q.
Now np must divide q , and hence np = q and we have nq > q = np > p.But
np divides p2 , and we see that the only possibility is that nq = p2 ,which
means that G has p2 subgroups of order q .
If Q1 6= Q2 are subgroups of order q, then since q is prime ,it follows by
Lagrange’s Theorem that Q1 ∩ Q2 = 1..The p2 subgroups of order q in G
,therefore,have no nonidentity elements in common, and it follows that G has
at least p2 (q − 1) elements of order q.The number of elements of G that do
not have order q is then atmost |G| − p2 (q − 1) = p2 .If P ∈ Sylp (G),then,of
course ,no element of P has order q, and since |P | = p2 , it follows that P is
not exactly equal to the set of elements of G that do not have order q.In
particular, P is uniquely determined ,and this is a contradiction since we are
assuming that np > 1.
Theorem 14. Let |G| = 24, and suppose that n2 (G) > 1 and n3 (G) >
1.Then G ∼
= S4 .
Proof. Since n3 exceeds 1, is congruent to 1 modulo 23 and divides 8, the
only possibility is that n3 = 4, and thus |G : N | = 4, where N = NG (P ) and
P ∈ Syl3 (G).Now let K = coreG (N ),so that G/K is isomorphic to a subgroup
of S4 by Theorem 1.It suffices to show that K = 1 since that will imply that
G is isomorphic to a subgroup of S4 ,and thus will complete the proof since
|G| = 24 = |S4 |.
We recall that K ⊆ N = NG (P ), where P ∈ Syl3 (G).Then P is an normal
Sylow 3-subgroup of KP,and so P is characteristic in KP.Since P is not
normal in G,however,we conclude that KP cannot be normal in G.But KP/K
is a Sylow 3-subgroup of G/K,and it follows that n3 (G/K) > 1.In
particular,G/K is not a 2-group, and so |K| is not divisible by 3.
Since |G : N | = 4 ,we see that |N | = 6, and hence the only possibilities are
|K| = 1,as wanted , or |K| = 2.Assuming now that |K| = 2,we work to

15
obtain a contradiction.Since |G/K| = 12,Theorem 12 applies , and and we
deduce that that either n2 (G/K) = 1 or n3 (G/K) = 1.Since we have seen
that n3 (G/K) > 1,however,we conclude that G/K has a unique Sylow
2-subgroup S/K .Then S/K / G/K ,and so S / G.Also |S| = 8 since |K| = 2
and |S/K| = 4, and thus S is a normal Sylow 2-subgroup of G.This
contradicts the hypothesis that n2 (G) > 1, Hence proved.
Now we talk about a result that talks about the existence of normal
subgroups of index 2.
Lemma 7. Let G act on a finite set Ω and suppose that some element of G
acts ”oddly” .Then G has a normal subgroup of index 2.
Theorem 15. Suppose that |G| = 2n,where n is odd .Then G has a normal
subgroup of index 2.
Proof. By Cauchy’s Theorem we can choose an element t ∈ G of order 2.In
the regular action of G on itself by right multiplication ,t has no fixed points,
and so the permutation induced by t consists entirely of 2-cycles ,and there
are |G|/2 = n of them .Since n is odd , the permutation induced by t is odd ,
the result follows by Lemma 7 .
Theorem 16. Suppose that |G| = pa q, where p and q are prime numbers and
a > 0.Then G is not simple .
Proof. We can certainly assume that p 6= q and that np > 1, and thus np = q.
Now choose distinct Sylow p-subgroups S and T of G such that |S ∩ T | is as
large as possible, and write D = |S ∩ T |. If D = 1, then every pair of distinct
Sylow p-subgroups of G intersect trivially, and so the Sylow p-subgroups of G
account for a total of q(pa - 1) non-identity elements of G. All of these
elements, of course, have orders divisible by p, and this leaves room for at
most |G| - q(pq - 1) = q elements with order not divisible by p. It follows
that if Q ∈ Sylp (G), then Q is exactly the set of these elements, and in
particular Q is unique, and so Q / G and G is not simple, as required.
We can now assume that D > 1, and we let N = NG (D). Since D < S and D
< T and we know that ”normalizes grow” in p-groups, we can conclude that
N ∩ S > D and N ∩ T > D.
Next, we show that N is not a p-group. Otherwise, by the Sylow’s
3rd -theorem, we can write N ⊆ R ∈ Sylp (G). Then R ∩S ⊆ N ∩ S > D, and
so by the choice of D, we see that the Sylow subgroups R and S cannot be
distinct. In other words, S = R and similarly, T = R. But this is a
contradiction since S 6= T.
It follows that q divides |N |, and so if we choose Q ∈ Sylq (N ), we have |Q| =
q. Now S is a p-group and Q is a q-group, and thus S ∩ Q = 1 and we have
|SQ| = |S||Q| = pa q = |G|. Then SQ = G, and hence if g ∈ G is arbitrary, we
can write g = xy, where x ∈ S and y ∈ Q.Then Sg = S xy = S y ⊇ Dy = D,

16
where the second equality holds since x ∈ S and the last equality follows
because y ∈ Q ⊆ N = NG (D). We see, therefore, that D is contained in every
conjugate of S in G. Then D is contained in every Sylow p-subgroup of G,
and we have 1 < D ⊆ Op (G). Thus Op (G) is a non-identity proper normal
subgroup G, and this completes the proof that G is not simple.

0.5 Brodkey’s Theorem

Theorem 17 (Brodkey). Suppose that a Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G
is abelian .Then there exists S,T ∈ Sylp (G), such that S ∩ T = Op (G).
The theorem here says that in the case where if a Sylow subgroup is abelian (
it implies that all Sylow subgroups are abelian , since all Sylow p -subgroups
are conjugates ) , then the group Op (G) can be obtained as the intersection of
exactly two Sylow p-subgroups .
We will be using the following theorem in proving this theorem
Theorem 18. Fix a prime p , and let G be a finite group.Choose S, T
∈ Sylp (G) such that D = S ∩ T is minimal in the set of intersections of any
two Sylow p-subgroups of G .Then Op (G) is the largest subgroup of D that is
normal both in S and T .
If we assume that S and T are abelian , we see that D / S and D / T , and so
in this case , the theorem guarantess that D = Op (G).In other words
Brodkey’s Theorem is a corollary to this theorem
Proof of Theorem 17 Let K ⊆ D, and K / S and K / T, then we have to
show that K ⊆ Op (G) or equivalently it is sufficient to prove that K ⊆ P
∀P ∈ Sylp (G) (since OP (G) ⊆ P, ∀P ∈ Sylp (G)).Let N = NG (K) and S ⊆ N
and, therefore S ∈ Sylp (N ).Let P ∈ SylP (G) and observe that P ∩ N is a
p-subgroup of N ( since P ∩ N ⊆ N),therefore P ∩ N ⊆ Sx for some x ∈ N .
Now T ⊆ N , as N is the largest subgroup of G in which K is normal ,
therefore Tx ⊆ N , =⇒ P ∩ T x = P ∩ N ∩ T x ⊆ S x ∩ T x = Dx
then,
−1 −1 −1
D = (Dx )x ⊇ ((P ∩ T x ))x = P x ∩ T
−1
Now since Px and T ∈ Sylp (G), therefore by minimality of D
−1 −1
D = Px ∩ T, =⇒ K ⊆ D ⊆ P x
and therefore Kx ⊆ P , but Kx = K because x ∈ N = NG (K)
=⇒ K ⊆ P, ∀P ∈ Sylp (G), Hence proved.
Corollary 0.11. Let P ∈ Sylp (G), where G is a finite group and assume that
P is abelian . |G : Op (G)| ≤ |G : P |2 .
Proof. By Brodkey’s Theorem , we choose S,T ∈ Sylp (G) such that S
∩ T = Op (G).

17
|G| ≥ |ST | = |S||T |/|S ∩ T | = |P |2 /|Op (G)|
=⇒ |G|/|P |2 ≥ 1/|Op (G)|
=⇒ |G|2 /|P |2 ≥ |G : Op (G)|.
Corollary 0.12. Let P ∈ Sylp (G),G is finite and P is abelian and assume
that |P | > |G|1/2 .Then Op (G) > 1, Therefore G is not simple unless |G| = p.
Proof. We have |G : P |2 = |G|2 /|P |2 < |G|, therefore Op (G) > 1.

0.6 Chermak-Delgrado Lattices

In this section we will be dealing with the question of whether we could
estimate a bound on the index of a normal abelian subgroup of a finite group
, and we would show the existence of a subgroup which actually attains this
bound .
Theorem 19 (Chermak-Delgrado). Let G be a finite group.Then G has
characteristic abelian subgroup N such that |G : N | ≤ |G : A|2 for every
abelian subgroup A ⊆ G.
To prove this theorem we would be using a series of lemmas , and in the
process we would be using a quantity which we define as
mG (H) = |H||CG (H)| ( this is called as Chermak Delgrado Measure )
We begin with this simple lemma
Lemma 8. Let H ⊆ G, where G is a finite group and write C = CG (H).Then
mG (H) ≤ mG (C) and if equality occurs , then H = CG (C).
Proof. H ⊆ CG (C) (since g −1 hg ∈ C ∀ h ∈ H and g ∈ G)
so mG (C) = |C||CG (C)| ≥ |C||H| = mG (H),
and the result follows .
Lemma 9. Let H and K be subgroups of a finite group G , and write D =
H ∩ K and J = < H, K >.Then
mG (H)mG (K) ≤ mD mG (J),
and if equality holds then J = HK and CG (D) = CG (H)CG (K).
Proof. Let define CH = Centraliser of H , CK = Centraliser of K , CD =
Centraliser of D , CJ = Centraliser of J , and we see that CJ = CH ∩ CK ,
CH , CK ⊆ CD
|J| ≥ |HK| = |H||K|/|D| and
CD ≥ |CH CK | = |CH ||CK |/|CJ |
=⇒ mG (D) = |D||CD | ≥ |H||K|/|J|.|CH ||CK |/|CJ |
≥ mG (H).mG (K)/mG (J)
if equality occurs then |J| = |HK| and |CD | = |CH CK | and J = HK and
CD = CH CK .

18
A collection λ of subgroups of group G is said to be a lattice of subgroups if
it is closed under intersections and joins .
Theorem 20. Given a finite group G, let λ = λ(G) be the collection of
subgroups of G for which the Chermak-Delgrado measure is as large as
possible .Then

1. λ is a lattice of subgroups of G ,

2. If H,K ∈ λ, then < H, K > = HK.

3. If H ∈ λ, then CG (H) ∈ λ and CG (CG (H)) = H.

Proof. Let m be the maximum of the Chermak-Delgrado measures of the

subgroups of G and let H,K ∈ λ.Then mG (H) = m = mG (K),and so by the
previous lemma , we have m2 = mG (H)mG (K) ≤ mG (D)mG (J),where D = H
∩ K and J = < H, K >.But mG (D) ≤ m and mG (J) ≤ m,by the maximality
of m and thus mG (D) = m = mG (J), and hence D and J lie in λ , which
proves (1).Also , since equality holds in the previous lemma so , we know that
HK = J and this proves (2) .Finally statement (3) follows because the
maximality of mG (H) forces equality in the first lemma.
Corollary 0.13. Every finite group G contains a unique subgroup M
,minimal with respect to the property that mG (M ) is the maximum
Chermak-Delgrado measures of the subgroups of G. Also , M is abelian and M
⊆ Z(G).
Proof.
T Let λ = λ(G) Tbe the lattice of subgroups of G .Therefore ,
H∈λ H ∈ λ and let H∈λ H = M .Also since M ∈ λ =⇒ CG (M ) ∈ λ by
previous Theorem and M ⊆ CG (M ) (as M is the intersection of all elements
,its inside every element) ,Hence M is abelian and M =
(CG (CG (M ))) ⊆ Z(G).Here M is called the Chermak-Delgrado subgroup of G
. Since it is unique for a group hence its characteristic and therefore normal.
Proof of The Theorem Since M is characteristic and abelian , therefore it
suffices to show that |G : M | ≤ |G : A|2 ∀ A ⊆ G.By definition ,
mG (M ) ≥ mG (A) = |A||CG (A)| ≥ |A|2 ( because A is abelian ).
|G : A|2 = |G|2 /|A|2 ≥ |G|2 /mG (M ) = |G|/|M |.|G|/|CG (M )| ≥ |G|/|M |
|G : A|2 ≥ |G : M |,
Hence Proved.

19
0.7 Subnormality
A subgroup S ⊆ G is said to be subnormal in G, if there exist subgroups Hi
of G , such that
S = H0 / H1 / . . . / Hr = G.
and we denote subnormality as S // G.
If S is subnormal then this series has to be finite ( r is then finite , even if G
is infinite ).Repetitions are allowed , i.e Hj = Hi
The length of the shortest possible chain is called the subnormal depth .In
the proofs that would be following we will be using subnormal chains with
strictly increasing members without any repetition .
Additionally , It is evident from the definition that ”subnormality” is a
transitive relation.
Lemma 10. Let G be a finite group .G is nilpotent iff every subgroup of G is
subnormal .
Proof. We know that G is nilpotent ⇐⇒ normalisers grow
i.e H < NG (H) ∀ H G
Now if H < G and H is subnormal , then we have H = H0 / H1 . . . Hr = G,
and assume that H1 > H0 , becuase here we are considering subnormal series
with strictly increasing members , since H = H0 / H1 =⇒ H < H1 ⊆ NG (H)
,therefore if every subgroup is subnormal =⇒ normalisers grow for all
subgroups of G =⇒ G is nilpotent .
Conversely, Let G be nilpotent and let H ⊆ G and we show that H / / G , by
induction on |G : H| = n, if n = 1, =⇒ H = G , is subnormal .Otherwise if H
< G and we have H < NG (H) =⇒ |G : NG (H)| < |G : H| =⇒ NG (H) / /G
and by adding H to this series we get H / / G ( Since , H /NG (H)).
A little different version of the theorem is also true for infinite groups, i.e A
group ( not necessarily finite) with every subgroup subnormal is a soluble.
Now lets recall the definition of F(G) , the Fitting subgroup which is the
largest normal nilpotent subgroup of G .In the coming section we would be
characterising the subgroups of the Fitting subgroup.
Theorem 21. Let H ⊆ G , where G is finite.Then H ⊆ F(G) iff H is
nilpotent and subnormal in G
Proof. We know subgroup of a nilpotent subgroup is nilpotent , hence if H
⊆ F (G), then H is nilpotent and Since F(G) is nilpotent =⇒ H / /F (G).
Conversely, lets assume that H / / G and H is nilpotent.We proceed by
induction on |G|.If H = G , then G is nilpotent , =⇒ F(G) = G and H ⊆
F(G) = G.Therefore we assume that H < G and let M be the 2nd last term in
the subnormal chain of H , then H // M and M / G (considering all terms in
subnormal chain, are strictly increasing, i.e M < G) =⇒ H ⊆ F(M)( by

20
inductive hypothesis) But F(M) is characteristic in M , Therefore F(M)
/M / G =⇒ F (M ) / G
=⇒ H ⊆ F (M ) ⊆ F (G) (since F(M) is normal and nilpotent in G ).
Remark If S,T / / G =⇒ S ∩ T / /G
Remark If S / / G and K ⊆ G is an arbitrary subgroup =⇒ S ∩ K / /K.

0.8 Wielandt’s Join Theorem

Theorem 22. Let G be a finite group and suppose that S,T / / G.Then
< S, T > / / G.
Zassenhaus gave a counterexample to show that this result does not hold true
for infinite groups. We would be requiring the following theorem in order to
prove the above result
Theorem 23. Let S / / G , G is a finite group and let M be a minimal
normal subgroup of G .Then M ⊆ NG (S).
Proof. Recall that M is a minimal normal subgroup , if
∀ N / G(N 6= e), N 6⊆ M . We define the Socle Soc(G) = subgroup generated
by all its minimal normal subgroups
Soc(G) = M1 M2 . . . Mk ( Since all Mi / G)
another lemma that we would be needing is
Lemma 11. Let M and N be normal subgroups of a group G, and assume M
∩ N = 1.Then every element of M commutes with N .
Proof. Let M ∈ M and N ∈ N and consider C = [m,n] =mnm−1 n−1 then c =
nm n−1 =⇒ c ∈ N (Since N / G) and similarly c = m(m−1 )n (since M / G)
=⇒ c ∈ M =⇒ c ∈ M ∩ N = 1 =⇒ c = 1 ∀ m ∈ M, n ∈ N .Therefore
,every element of M commutes with N .
Proof of the Theorem 23 We proceed by induction on |G|.If S = G , then
the hypothesis follows trivially.Therefore we consider S < G and then since S
/ / G, we consider a N / G , such that N ⊇ S and S / / N < G(we can simply
take N to be the second last term in the subnormal chain of S ).
There are two case to consider , 1st Case - M ∩ N = 1, then we have M ⊆
CG (N ) ⊆ CG (S) ⊆ NG (S), as required . Hence we consider the case when M
∩ N > 1.Then as M ∩ N ⊆ M , by the minimality of M we can say that M ∩
N = M , =⇒ M ⊆ N . Since S / / N < G, therefore by inductive hypothesis
for every minimal normal subgroup K of N ,K ⊆ NN (S). Now M / N , but we
do not know whether M is minimal normal in N or not .
Now we define Soc(N) = K1 K2 . . . Km ⊆ NN (S) (Since each Ki / G and each
Ki ⊆ NN (S)).So if we show that M ⊆ Soc(N) then we are done.

21
Firstly , M ∩Soc(N ) > 1(Since 1 < M / N)and Soc(N) is characteristic in N
=⇒ Soc(N ) / G and thus M ∩ Soc(N) / G , But M ∩ Soc(N) ⊆ M and hence
by minimality of M , =⇒ M ⊆ Soc(N ) ⊆ NN (S) ⊆ NG (S).
Proof of Theorem 22 We prove by induction on |G|, such that if S,T / / G,
then < S, T > / / G.Let M be a minimal normal subgroup of G let Ḡ = G/M
and observe that S̄ and T̄ are subnormal in Ḡ. But |Ḡ| < |G| and so
< S̄, T̄ > / / Ḡ and since ’¯’ is a homomorphism , it follows that
< S̄, T̄ >=< M S, M T >= M < S, T > = < S, T >
Therefore M < S, T > / / Ḡ.By correspondence theorem , there exists a
bijection between subgroups of Ḡ and the subgroups of G containing M, and
this bijection preserves normality and hence sub-normality , Therefore
< S, T > M / /G and M is minimal normal in G therefore S and T are
normalised by M , =⇒ < S, T > is also normalised by M , therefore
< S, T > / < S, T > M and hence < S, T > / / G.
Theorem 24. Let S ⊆ G and SSx = Sx S ∀x ∈ G.Then S / / G.
We would be using the following lemma to prove this theorem and would be
later proving the lemma itself.
Lemma 12 (Zipper’s Lemma). Suppose S ⊆ G and G is a finite group and
assume that S / / H for every (H < G).If S is not sub-normal in G , then
there exists a unique maximal subgroup M of G , such that S ⊆ M.
Lemma 13. Let H ⊆ G , and HHx = G .Then H = G.
−1
Proof. Write x =u . v , u ∈ H and v ∈ Hx , then xv−1 = u =⇒ Hx = (H x )v
−1
= Hu = H , where Hx = (H x )v , beacuse v ∈ H x .
Then G = HHx = H.H = H.
We define normal closure of H in G = HG =< H x | x ∈ G > = unique
smallest normal subgroup of G ⊇ H.
Proof of Theorem 24 We proceed by induction on |G|.We can assume that
S is subnormal in every subgroup of G such that S ⊆ H < G.Assuming that S
is not subnormal in G , we have S < G.By Zipper’s Lemma =⇒ S ⊆ M ,
where M is the unique maximal subgroup .Now consider Sx , since S < G ,
then SSx < G (SSx forms a subgroup by the hypothesis of the theorem).Now
since SSx is a proper subgroup hence there exist a maximal subgroup N, such
that N ⊇ SS x but this implies that S ⊆ SS x ⊆ N but as S is contained inside
a unique maximal subgroup , therefore M = N ,
=⇒ S x ⊆ M ∀ x ∈ G =⇒ S G ⊆ M .Therefore SG < G and hence by the
inductive hypothesis S / / S G and since SG / G , therefore S / / G.
Proof of Zipper0 s Lemma We proceed by induction on |G : S|, since we
assume that S is not subnormal < G and therefore in the case |G : S| = 1,
the lemma holds vacuously.Since S is not normal , NG (S) < G and therefore
NG (S) ⊆ M for some maximal subgroup M of G.Of course S ⊆ M , and so we

22
show that M is the unique such subgroup.Suppose that, ∃ K , such that S ⊆
K, K is maximal in G.
Claim K = M .
Proof. Since S ⊆ K < G =⇒ S / /K.Suppose that S / K,then K
⊆ NG (S) ⊆ M and since K is maximal =⇒ K = M , as wanted .
Therefore lets assume that S 6 / K and since S / / K, therefore there exists a
subnormal series (shortest),such that
S = H0 / H1 / . . . Hr = K (r ≥ 2)
also S is not normal in H2 , because if it was so we could delete H1 .Let x ∈
H2 , with Sx 6= S, and T = < S, S x >.Now T ⊆ K, since S ⊆ K and x ∈
K,also Sx ⊆ (H1 )x = H1 ⊆ NG (S) and therefore T ⊆ NG (S) ⊆ M and S
/ T ⊂ G and so hypothesis of the lemma is also true for Sx .
Claim T also satisfies the hypothesis.
Proof. We have to show that T ⊆ H < G =⇒ T / /H and T is not
subnormal in G . First if T ⊆ H < G =⇒ S ⊆ H and S / /H and
Sx / /H =⇒ T / /H (Wielandt ’s Join Theorem)
Also S / T and so if T / / G, then S / / G , which is a no the case , hence T is
not subnormal.
Now T > S, and since Sx ⊆ T but Sx ⊆ S =⇒ |G : T | < |G : S| and so by
the inductive hypothesis T is contained inside a unique maximal subgroup of
G , and we already know that T ⊆ M and T ⊆ K , therefore M = K, Hence
the claim.
Theorem 25. Let A be a abelian subgroup of a finite group G , and assume
that for every subgroup H , with S ⊆ H ⊆ G , we have
|H : A|2 ≤ |H : Z(H)|.Then A ⊆ F(G).
Proof. We work by induction on |G| and we assume that A ⊆ F (H),
whenever A ⊆ H < G and thus A / / H (since it is a subgroup of Fitting
subgroup).So if A / / G we are done.So assume that A 6 / / G .Then by
Zipper’s lemma there exists a unique maximal subgroup M of G such that A
⊆ M .Now let g ∈, if < A, AG > < G =⇒ < A, Ag >⊆ K for some maximal
subgroup K of G. and hence < A, Ag >⊆ M (because M is the unique
maximal subgroup which contains A) =⇒ Ag ⊆ M , and since this happens
for all g ∈ G, =⇒ AG ⊆ M . Therefore AG < G, therefore A
/ / AG / G =⇒ A / /G , which gives a contradiction.
Hence < A, Ag > = G , for some g ∈ G, and since A and Ag are abelian we
have A ∩Ag ⊆ Z(G)
=⇒ |G| > |AAg | = |A|2 /|A ∩ Ag | ≥ |A|2 /|Z(G)|
=⇒ |G|2 /|A|2 > |G|/|Z(G)| =⇒ |G : A|2 > |G : Z(G)|, which gives a
contradiction, hence A / / G. =⇒ A ⊆ F (G).

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0.9 Baer’s Theorem
Theorem 26. Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G .Then H is nilpotent
in G iff < H, H x > is nilpotent ∀g ∈ G.
Proof. If H ⊂ F(G) ,Then Hx ⊆ F(G), since F(G) / G.
=⇒ < H, H x >⊆ F (G) =⇒ < H, H x > is nilpotent ∀x ∈ G.
Conversely if < H, H x > is nilpotent for all x ∈ G then since H
⊆< H, H x >, =⇒ H is nilpotent.So if we show that H / / G the we are done
.We do so by induction on |G|.Assume that H is not subnormal in G.If H
⊆ K ⊆ G , then by the inductive hypothesis < H, H x > is nilpotent for all x
∈ K and thus H ⊆ F (K) =⇒ H / / K , therefore we apply the Zipper’s
lemma , then H ⊆ M , where M is the unique maximal subgroup .Now
consider Hx .If < H, H x >= G, then G is nilpotent hence H / / G(since every
subgroup of a nilpotent group is subnormal).Therefore assume that
< H, H x > < G =⇒ < H, H x >⊆ K and where K is a maximal subgroup
then this implies < H, H x >⊆ M =⇒ H x ⊂ M ∀ x ∈ G =⇒ H G ⊆ M .This
implies that HG < G and therefore H / / H G / G , and so H / / G, which is a
contradiction .Hence H / / G and therefore H ⊆ F(G).
Now we will discuss about some of the consequences of the above theorem ,
viz in the definition of generalised Dihedral group
Recall that an element of order 2 is called involution.
Theorem 27. Let t be an involution in a finite group G, and assume that t
6∈ O2 (G).Then there exists a x ∈ G of odd prime order such that xt = x−1 .
Since O2 (G) is the unique largest normal 2-subgroup of G , the condition that
t 6∈ O2 (G) says that t is not contained in any normal 2-subgroup of G .
Now recall that a a group is called dihedral if it contains a nontrivial cyclic
subgroup C of index 2 such that every element in D - C is an involution.
Therefore |D| = 2|C|.
We would be proving a lemma about the characterisation of dihedral groups
and using it we would prove the above theorem.
Lemma 14. Let D be a group.
1. Suppose that C = < c > is a non-trivial cyclic subgroup of index 2 in D,
and that t ∈ D - C is an involution. Then every element of D-C is an
involution if and only if ct = c−1 . In this case, D is dihedral, and
xy = x−1 for all x ∈ C and y ∈ D - C. Also, D is generated by the
distinct involutions ct and t.
2. Suppose that D is generated by distinct involutions s and t. Then the
cyclic subgroup C = < st > is non-trivial, and it fails to contain s and
t. Also |D : C| = 2, and t inverts the generator st of C. In particular,
we are in the above situation, and D is dihedral

24
Proof. 1 - Observe that D - C = Ct i.e the coset with respect to C.If a ∈ C,
then (at)2 = atat = at−1 at( since t2 = 1) = a.at and therefore at = a−1 iff
(at)2 = 1.If every elemnt of D - C is an involution, then (ct)2 = 1 and so
ct = c−1 .Conversely suppose that ct = c−1 and
∀g ∈ C, g = ck =⇒ g t = g −1 ∀g ∈ C and hence (gt)2 = gtgt =ggt = 1
=⇒ ∀h = gt ∈ Ct = D − C, h is an involution, which implies that D is a
dihedral group.Let x ∈ C and y ∈ D - C , then y = at for some a ∈ C and we
have xy = xat = atxt−1 a−1 = atxta−1 =axt a−1 = ax−1 a−1 = x−1 aa−1 = xt =
x−1 .Also , ct is an involution , and the group < ct, t > properly contains C =
< c > and its whole group D.Therefore ct,t generates D.
2 - C is non-trivial , since s 6= t.We have (st)t = t(st)t = ts =t−1 s−1 = (st)−1
and therefore t inverts the generator set of C ,
Ct =< st >t =< (st)t >=< ((st)−1 >= C and so t ∈ ND (C).C< t > is a
subgroup containing both t and (st)t = s in C , then both s and t ∈ C ,
which is impossible ( since a cylic group has unique involutions ), therefore C
contains either s or t and in particular C ∩ < t > = 1. Since D =
C< t > =⇒ |D : C| = | < t > | = 2 and this completes the proof .
Proof of the theorem Let T =< t >.If T ⊆ F(G) , then T is contained in
the unique Sylow 2-subgroup of F(G) , i.e O2 (G), contrary to hypothesis ,
Therefore T 6⊆ F(G) =⇒ ∃g ∈ G, such that < T, T g > is not nilpotent ( By
Baer’s Theorem ) =⇒ < t, tg > is not a 2-group .(since every group of
p-order is nilpotent)
By lemma D = < t, tg > is dihedral and |D| = 2|C|,where C = cyclic
subgroup whose elements are inverted by t .
Since D is not a 2-group , therefore niether is C and therefore there exists x ∈
C such that x is odd prime order, such that xt = x−1 .

0.10 Local p-groups

H ⊆ G is called p − local , if H =NG (P ), where P is some non-identity p
-subgroup of G .
A subgroup is called local if it is p-local for some prime p.Many a times it
has been found that if we study a property on a local group , it characterises
the whole group and such properties are called global. We would be
discussing some of the local to global properties here .
Theorem 28. Suppose for every odd prime p , every p-local subgroup of a
finite group G has a normal Sylow 2-subgroup .Then G has a normal Sylow
2-subgroup.
Lemma 15. Let N / G and Ḡ = G/N, where¯:G → Ḡ. Then for all primes p
, every p -local subgroup Ḡ has the form L̄, for some p-local subgroup L of G .

25
Proof. By the correspondence theorem every subgroup of G looks like H̄, for
some H ⊆ G and H ⊇ N .Now let N ⊆ M ⊆ G, where M̄ is p-local in Ḡ
,although M may not be p-local in G , we show that M̄ = L̄ for some L,
p-local in G .
Since M̄ is p-local, therefore M̄ = NḠ (Ū ), where N < U ⊆ G , (since Ū =
U/N)
and |U : N | is a power of p.Then M̄ = NḠ (Ū ) and since U ⊃ N it follows
that M = NG (U )( U/N ⊆).
Let P ∈ Sylp (U ) and let L = NG (P ).Now U = NP because N and P have
co-prime indices in U, i.e. |U : N | = pk , whereas |U : P | = m, and p 6| m
=⇒ U = N P and since N < U therefore P > 1 and therefore L is p-local in
G .Since L normalises both N and P ,this implies that L
⊆ NG (N P ) = NG (U ) = M , and therefore L̄ ⊆ M̄ and oberve that U / M
and P ∈ Sylp (U ) ,
=⇒ M = NM (P )U (Frattini’s Argument)
= NPNM P = N NM (P ) (since P ⊆ NM (P ))
⊆ NL
, this implies that M̄ ⊆ N L = L̄, =⇒ M̄ = L̄.
Proof Of The Theorem First, we suppose that O2 (G) = 1, and we show in
this case that |G| is odd. If G has even order, we can choose an involution t ∈
G, and we observe that t 6∈ O2 (G). Then by Theorem 27 , there exists an
element x of odd prime order p such that xt = x−1 . Let X = (x), and note
that t ∈ NG (X) and that NG (A) is p-local. By hypothesis, NG (X) has a
normal Sylow 2-subgroup S, which necessarily contains t. As X and S are
normal in NG (X) and X ∩ S = 1, it follows by Lemma 11 that X and S
centralize each other, and in particular, t centralizes x. Thus x = xt = x−1 ,
and this is a contradiction since x has order p > 2. This shows that |G| is
odd, as wanted.
In the general case, let N = O2 (G), and observe that by the previous lemma,
the p-local subgroups of G = G/N are homomorphic images of p-local
subgroups of G for all odd primes p. By hypothesis, the p-local subgroups of
G have normal Sylow 2-subgroups, and thus the same is true for their
homomorphic images, and it follows that G satisfies the hypothesis of the
theorem. But O2 (G) is trivial, and by the first part of the proof it follows
that |G| is odd. Then N = O2 (G) is a normal Sylow 2-subgroup of G, and the
proof is complete.
Lemma 16. Let G be a finite group, and let N < G. Write Ḡ = G/N , and
let p be a prime that does not divide |N |. If P is a nontrivial p-subgroup of G,
then P̄ is nontrivial, and NḠ (P̄ ) = NG (P ). In particular, if L is p-local in G,
then L is p-local in G.
Proof. Since the p-group P is non trivial, and the order of N is not divisible
by p, we have P 6⊆ N , and thus P̄ is non trivial. Write L = NG (P ), and

26
observe that P̄ / L̄ because overbar is a homomorphism. Thus L̄ ⊆ NḠ (P̄ )
and it suffices to prove the reverse containment.
By the correspondence theorem, every subgroup of Ḡ has the form X for
some (unique) subgroup X ⊆ G with X ⊇ N, and so in particular, we can
write NḠ (P̄ ) = M̄ , where N ⊆ M ⊆ G. Now P N = P̄ / M̄ , and thus PN / M
by the correspondence theorem. Also, P ∈ Sylp (P N ) since p does not divide
|N |, and thus by the Frattini argument, we have M
=NM (P )(P N ) = NM (P )N ⊆ NG (P )N = LN . This yields NḠ (P̄ ) = M̄ ⊆ L̄,
as wanted. The last statement should now be clear.

0.11 Zenkov’s Theorem

Theorem 29. Let A and B be abelian subgroups of a finite group G and let
M be a minimal member of the set {A ∩ B g |g ∈ G} .Then M ⊆ F(G).
Proof. M is minimal memeber means that there does not exists any N
∈ J = {A ∩ B g |g ∈ G} , such that N ⊆ M .
Therefore in case of finite groups =⇒ M has minimal order .
M = A ∩ B.(Because B can be replaced by Bg ), so we can take the
representative to be A ∩ B.We show by induction on |G| that M ⊆
F(G).Suppose that G =< A, B g >, for some G ∈ G , Since A and Bg are
abelian , therefore A ∩B ⊆ Z(G) (as < A, B g > = G) and therefore ( A ∩
Bg )g−1 ⊆ B =⇒ A ∩ B g ⊆ A ∩ B = M and by the minimality of M we have
M = A ∩B g ⊆ Z(G) ⊆ F (G).
We now assume that < A, B g > < G ∀g ∈ G.To show that M ⊆ F(G) it is
enough to show that ∀ primes p,P ∈ Sylp (M ) ⊆ F (G) ( Since M =
< P1 , . . . , PK > as M is nilpotent )
So By Baer’s Theorem , it is enough to show that < P, P g > is nilpotent for
all g ∈ G.Let H = < A, B g >, so that H < G .Write C = B ∩ H and observe
that if h ∈ H then A ∩C h = A
∩(B ∩ H)h = A ∩ B h ∩ H = A ∩ B h ( since A ⊂ H).M = A ∩ B = A ∩ C is
minimal in the set {A ∩ C h |g ∈ G}.By the inductive hypothesis applied in H ,
and with C replacing B,we conclude that P ⊆ M ⊆ F (H) and thus P
⊆ Op (H), since Op (H) is the unique Sylow p-subgroup of F(H).Also Pg ⊆
Bg ⊆ H and therefore Pg normalises Op (H)( since Op (H) / H) and Op (H)P g
is a p-group containing < P, P g > .In particular < P, P g > is a p-group for all
g ∈ G, Hence < P, P g > is nilpotent for all g ∈ G.Therefore P ⊆ F(G).
Corollary 0.14. Let A ⊆ G , and A is abelian and G is non trivial ,finite
and assume that |A| > |G : A|.Then A ∩F (G) > 1.
Proof. If g ∈ G , we compute that |A||Ag | = |A|2 ≥ |A||G : A| = |G|
Also we assume that A < G and therefore AAg < G, this

27
gives |G| > |AAg | = |A||Ag |/|A ∩ Ag | ≥ |G|/|A ∩ Ag | ,
and therefore A ∩Ag > 1. Since this holds ∀g ∈ G ,we apply Zenkov’s
Theorem for B = A =⇒ A ∩ F (G) > 1.

0.12 Lucchini’s Theorem

We begin by an important lemma that would be neede in the proof of the
theorem
Lemma 17 (Dedekind’s Lemma). Let H and K be subgroups of a group G
and H ⊆ U ⊆ G, where U is also a subgroup.Then HK ∩U = H(K ∩ U ).
Proof. It is clear that H(K ∩ U) ⊆ HK and since H ⊆ U , we also have H(K
∩U ) ⊆ U .Thus H(K ∩U ) ⊆ HK ∩ U , and it suffices to prove the reverse
containment.Let u ∈ HK ∩ U and write u = hk with H ∈ h and k ∈ k .Then
k = h−1 u ∈ U since H ⊆ U and u ∈ U .Thus k ∈ U and we have k ∈ K ∩ U ,
and so u = hk ∈ H(K ∩ U ), and the proof is complete.
Theorem 30. Let A be a cyclic proper subgroup of a finite group G and let K
= coreG (A).Then |A : K| < |G : A|, and if |A| ≥ |G : A|, Then K > 1.
Proof. We proceed by induction on |G|.Now A/K is proper cyclic subgroup of
G/K and core of A/K in G/K is trivial .If K > 1 ,we can apply inductive
hypothesis in G/K to deduce that |A : K| < |G/K : A/K| = |G : A| and
there is nothing to prove .
Therefore we assume that K = 1 and we show that |A| < |G : A|.Assume that
|A| ≥ |G : A| and since G > A , therefore A ∩ F(G) > 1 (by previous
corollary) and F(G) > 1 so we can choose a minimal normal subgroup E of G
such that E ⊆ F(G).Then E ∩ F(G) > 1 and since E is minimal normal
subgroup E ⊆ Z(F(G))(by minimality of E ) and E is abelian.Also again E is
an elementary
Q abelian p-group for some prime
Q p ( xp = 1 ∀ x ∈ E), ( since
F(G) = p Op (G), therefore Z(F(G)) = p Z(Op (G)).
Since E ⊆ Z(F(G)), E normalises the group A ∩ F(G) , and A also normalises
this group , hence A ∩F (G) / AE, and since coreG (A) = 1 =⇒ AE < G.Let
Ḡ = G/M , and let M̄ = coreḠ (H̄), M ⊇ E and M / G and AM = ME.Also
Ā < Ḡ (Since AE < G) and so by the inductive hypothesis
|Ā : M̄ | < |Ḡ : Ā| =⇒ |AE : M | < |G : AE|.Let B = A ∩ M ,so that B is
cyclic , we have
|AE : A| = |AM : A| = |M : A ∩ M | = |M : B|
and |AE : M | = |A : B|.
We conclude that |AE : A| = |AM : A| = |M : A ∩ M | = |M : B|
and |AE : M | = |AM : M | = |A||M |/|A||A ∩ M ||M | = |A : B|
Therefore|M : B| = |AE : A| = |G : A|/|G : AE| < |G : A|/|AE : M | = |G :
A|/|A : B| ≤ |A|/|A : B| = |B|.

28
Suppose that M is abelian and let φ : M → M be an homomorphism
φ(m) = mp
, then E ⊆ ker(φ) ( since ker(φ)/ M) and M = EB (Dedekind’s lemma)
φ(M ) = φ(B) ⊆ B ⊆ A .Now M / G and thus φ(M )/ G and therefore we
conclude that φ(M ) = 1, and since coreG (A) = 1 , then φ(B) = 1 and since B
is cyclic =⇒ |B| ≤ p Then |M : B| < |B| ≤ p and since M/B is a p-group
=⇒ M = B. But M /G and M ⊆ A and thus M = 1 and E = 1, which is a
contradiction.
Therefore M is non-abelian and since M/E is cyclic =⇒ E is not central in
M and so E ∩Z(M ) < E =⇒ E ∩ Z(M ) = 1(by minimality of E) and thus
Z(M) is cyclic .Since B is an abelian subgroup of M and
|M : B| < |B| =⇒ B ∩ F (M ) >1( by the previous corollary).Now F(M) ⊆
F(G) and so E centralises F(M) and B ∩ F(M) is a non trivial central
subgroup of BE = M.Since Z(M) is cyclic =⇒ B ∩ F (M ) is characteristic in
Z(M) / G ( since every subgroup of a cyclic group is characteristic)
=⇒ B ∩ F (M ) / G and B ∩F (M ) ⊆ coreG (A).Since it is a non trivial
subgroup , therefore we arrive at a contradiction and hence the proof.

29
 0.13 Bibliography
1. Finite group theory - Isaacs, I Martin ,Volume 92, 2008 ,American
Mathematical Society Publications .

2. Finite group theory - Aschbacher, Michael, Volume 10, 2000

,Cambridge University Press.

3. Subnormal subgroups of groups - Lennox, John C., and S. E.

Stonehewer,1987, Oxford publications.

4. Basic Algebra - Jacobson, Nathan, 2012,Courier Corporation.

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