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A Critical Flow Device for Accurate PM10 Sampling

and Correct Indication of PM10 Dosage to the
Thoracic Region of the Respiratory Tract

James B. Wedding , Michael A. Weigand , Young J. Kim , David L. Swift &

James P. Lodge Jr.

To cite this article: James B. Wedding , Michael A. Weigand , Young J. Kim , David L. Swift
& James P. Lodge Jr. (1987) A Critical Flow Device for Accurate PM10 Sampling and Correct
Indication of PM10 Dosage to the Thoracic Region of the Respiratory Tract, JAPCA, 37:3, 254-258,
DOI: 10.1080/08940630.1987.10466221

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JAPCA 37: 254-258 (1987)
A Critical Flow Device for Accurate PM10 Sampling and
Correct Indication of PM10 Dosage to the Thoracic
Region of the Respiratory Tract
James B. Wedding, Michael A. Weigand, and Young J. Kim
Wedding & Associates, Inc.
Fort Collins, Colorado
David L. Swift
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
James P. Lodge, Jr.
Consultant
Boulder, Colorado
A state-of-the-art flow controller is presented that maintains con-
stant volume flow at ambient conditions. It utilizes the concept of
critical flow and is extremely simple in design. It is insensitive to
pressure changes; the flow varies only with the square root of
ambient absolute temperature, a very small correction that, except
under extreme circumstances, can probably be ignored. Both the-
ory and field data are presented.
Included is a discussion of the present practice in use by the U.S.
EPA to convert the sampled ambient volume to EPA reference
conditions (298 K, 101.3 kPa). The intent of size selective ambient
monitoring is to mimic tracheobronchial deposition to provide an
indicator of particulate matter dosage to the thoracic region of the
respiratory tract. Below 2400 m humans breathe at essentially
constant volume, where this volume is expressed at ambient pres-
sure and body temperature (37°C). Thus, to simulate dosage to the
respiratory tract with an air sampler, we must sample at constant
volumetric flow rates at ambient pressure and temperature condi-
tions and, if necessary, correct for the difference between ambient
and body temperature. It is inappropriate from both the standpoint of
accurate PM10 sampling and normal behavior of the respiratory
tract to operate a PM10 sampler using mass flow control and then to
calculate mass concentration values using a reference mass of air,
rather than the actual volume of air that existed and passed through
the sampler during normal operation.
The recently proposed revisions to the National Ambient
Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for particulate matter in 49
Fed. Reg. 10408-10462 require measurement of inhalable
particles less than approximately 20 /im, commonly referred
to as PMio mass. The name results from the fact that the
typical sampler for this purpose collects 10-jum particles
with an effectiveness of about 0.5. The principal impetus for
these revisions is data that indicate that protection of public
health may be better served by considering particles that
deposit in the thoracic region of the respiratory tract. Inlets
to permit collection of the PMio fraction of ambient particu-
late matter have been developed by several investigators,
including Wedding1-2'3 and McFarland.4
Copyright 1987—APCA
254
The collection of accurate and meaningful PMio concen-
trations is intimately related to proper flow control, the
latter having two separate purposes. The first of these is to
provide an accurate denominator for the calculation of mass
concentration. There is an inherent additional question as to
whether that volume should be based upon actual ambient
conditions as sampled or upon some set of reference (stan-
dard) conditions. The second, at least as important, is to
maintain the flow rate near the design flow rate of the PMio
fractionating element so that it operates at the specific air
velocities for which it was intended. The PMio unit will
certainly become increasingly inaccurate as the volumetric
flow rate departs progressively from the design condition.
An important additional consideration is the behavior of
the human respiratory tract, since the intent of size selective
ambient monitoring is to mimic tracheobronchial deposition
to provide an indicator of particulate matter dosage to the
thoracic region of the respiratory tract. Thus, PMio mass
collected by a sampler and the most meaningful manner of
presentation of mass concentration data need consideration,
with particular reference to the present practice of convert-
ing actual sampled volume to "standard conditions." This
issue has increasingly serious implications for ambient mon-
itoring with increasing altitude above sea level.
A common flow controller used in the TSP high volume
sampler and in many other devices, including some PMio
samplers, senses flow by the heat loss from a heated resis-
tance element, compensates for ambient temperature, and
maintains constant mass flow by feedback to the speed of
the pump motor. Variations in volumetric flow rate are di-
rectly proportional to changes in ambient air density. The
procedure used for calibration leads to the establishment of
a constant mass flow rate, but a variable volumetric flow rate
depending on temperature and pressure changes from set
point conditions. Wedding5 has demonstrated that varia-
tions in volumetric flow rate could become sufficiently great,
using the Electronic Mass Flow Controller, to affect the
accuracy of PMio monitoring. This type of flow controller
meets neither of the two purposes for flow control as previ-
ously stated.
A state-of-the-art volumetric flow controller utilizing the
concept of critical flow has been developed and reduced to
practice. This device will increase the accuracy and precision
of the measurement of PMio mass concentration at ambient
conditions as compared to the electronic mass flow control-
JAPCA
ler. Using nearly constant volume flow at ambient condi-
tions, the two stated purposes of flow control are met; the
PMio fractionator will operate accurately at its design veloc-
ity, and the total air volume sampled will be a known value.
To express concentration in terms of reference conditions
(usually 298 K, 101.3 kPA), a reference volume is easily
calculated. The simplicity of the system also makes it less
susceptible to failure than the electronic controller; it is
difficult to imagine what could cause it to malfunction.
"Standard" vs. Actual Flow
The use of constant "standard" vs. actual volumetric flow
rates raises some interesting questions concerning the accu-
racy and meaningfulness of data collected by PMio sam-
plers.
The practice of correcting pollutant concentrations to
standard or reference conditions probably stems from two
sources. The first of these is custom; most scientists and
engineers are taught that, because of the variability of air
density, it is appropriate to correct measured gas volumes to
reference conditions, simply as a part of the practice of
measuring volumes or flows.
Historically, concentrations of trace gases in air were re-
ported as mixing ratios, such as parts per million by volume.
These measures are less meaningful for concentrations of
particulate matter, which have always been reported in units
of weight per unit volume of suspending air. However, the
mixing ratio was not changed by changes in temperature
and/or pressure, while the weight concentration was so af-
fected. Accordingly, if one were to investigate the stoichi-
ometry of mixtures containing both gases and particles, it
was necessary to specify the temperature and pressure at
which the mass concentration of particles had been mea-
sured. Rather than consider the implications, it was simpler
to reduce the measurements to a set of reference conditions
in all cases.
These two mutually reinforcing practices virtually became
tradition. They were further strengthened by the move to
define standards for gaseous air pollutants in terms of
weight concentrations, apparently under the impression
that standards expressed in micrograms per cubic meter
were "more metric" than dimensionless mixing ratios. At
this point there was no particular inquiry into the respira-
tory physiology involved; it was simply a matter of course
that the concentrations be calculated at reference condi-
tions.
This may have been strengthened by the fact that there is
a physiological basis for altitude correction in the case of
carbon monoxide. Since this toxic operates by preferentially
associating itself with blood hemoglobin in competition with
oxygen, its relative effect at constant mixing ratio-actually
increases slightly with altitude, and a standard based upon
ambient mass concentration could easily give inadequate
protection if the margin of safety of the standard were small.
However, for particulate matter the issue is purely the
mass of the pollutant brought into the body per unit time,
and thus the governing question is the manner in which the
volumetric intake of air into the body varies with altitude
and temperature.
Accordingly, if the value of PMio concentration is meant
to be related to the relative risk of exposure to fine particles,
then consideration must also be given to the volume or mass
of air people breathe at different conditions of temperature
and pressure. The appropriate physiological parameter is
the minute volume, V, the volume of air inhaled per minute,
which is expressed as a volume at BTPS (body temperature,
ambient pressure, saturation). Because ambient air is rapid-
ly brought to temperature and water vapor equilibrium in
the upper airways, the lung always sees air saturated with
water vapor at 37°C. Thus, V, (when expressed at BTPS)
March 1987 Volume 37, No. 3
normalizes for ambient temperature changes but is refer-
enced to ambient pressure.
It is, therefore, appropriate to consider how V changes
when ambient pressure changes. Although it has been shown
that V increases significantly above an altitude of 3000 m
(approximately 10,000 feet) (because of low oxygen partial
pressure, which drives respiration to maintain blood oxygen-
ation), experimental studies at altitudes below 2400 m (ap-
proximately 8000 feet) show no significant changes in V
compared to sea level.6 This holds true both for those born
and living at these altitudes and for sea level dwellers
brought to such altitudes. This conclusion applies to all
significant urban areas at altitude in North America, since
they are all below 2400 m.
It may be concluded from the above that below 2400 m
humans breathe at essentially constant volume, where this
volume is expressed at ambient pressure and body tempera-
ture. The human respiratory tract does not operate as a
constant mass flow sampler over this range of conditions.
Thus, to mimic appropriately the behavior of the respiratory
tract with an air sampler, we must sample at constant volu-
metric flow rates at ambient conditions and correct for the
difference between ambient and body temperature. Howev-
er, it must be noted that temperatures in excess of 37°C, and
high ambient relative humidities at temperatures in that
vicinity, are extremely uncommon, and daily mean tempera-
tures as high as that figure are virtually unknown. Thus,
bringing ambient air to a temperature of 37°C and satura-
tion at that temperature will invariably cause the air to
expand, thus decreasing mass concentration. As a result,
standards set on the basis of mass concentration determined
using ambient temperature and pressure will, at all but ex-
treme altitudes, accurately correct for altitude effects, and
will be conservative with regard to temperature effects (e.g.,
the mass concentration value based upon a 24-hour average
ambient temperature will nearly always be greater than if it
were based on body temperatures of 37 °C). Hence, we con-
clude that "correct" PMio dosage means that if the PMio
sampler is operating at its design condition, the reference
method criteria should provide that the mass transmitted to
the filter is representative of PMio dosage to the respiratory
tract. The present arbitrary practice in use by the U.S. EPA
to convert the sampled ambient volume to EPA reference
conditions (298°K, 101.3 kPa) creates a fictitious value
which is unrelated to the volume actually sampled by the
human respiratory tract or a PMio instrument. At an alti-
tude of, say, 1500 m, where it is estimated that 2.2 million
Americans lived in 1970,7 the pressure correction is appre-
ciable and fails to consider that individuals at these altitudes
breathe fewer molecules of air per unit time than their sea
level counterparts. With these facts as a basis, we conclude
that the use of reference conditions leads to a calculated
PMio value at altitude that overestimates particulate expo-
sure compared to that at sea level. It is inappropriate from
the standpoint of normal behavior of the respiratory tract to
operate a PMio sampler using mass flow control and then to
calculate mass concentration values using a reference mass
of air, rather than the actual volume of air that existed and
passed through the sampler during normal operation. If V^
was significantly higher at altitude, then the use of standard
conditions are more justifiable by requiring lower pollutant
mass concentration values at altitude and thus preventing
increased dosage of PMio which presumably would occur at
the increased V. Since V does not change at altitude, then
correction to standard volume has no justification.
The Critical Flow Device*
An inviscid, adiabatic, one-dimensional compressible flow
is considered to be choked when the flow velocity equals the
* U.S. Patent No. 4,649,760.
255
speed of sound at the point of minimum flow area. It then
follows that the definition of the critical state requires that
the reference velocity is such that the Mach number is unity.
When this condition occurs, a stable shock wave is created
and maintained within the diverging portion of the critical
device. When a sufficient vacuum is maintained downstream
of the throat, the choking condition due to sonic flow at the
throat limits the flow of air through the device to an absolute
maximum. The flow field in the converging section up to the
throat is relatively insensitive to changes in entrance condi-
tions and unchanged with variation in exit conditions. The
result is that the volumetric flow rate remains fixed at a
constant, stable value.
The utilization of critical flow has been applied infre-
quently to ambient samplers due to the normal practice of
achieving the choked condition with inefficient fluid flow
geometries that fail to recover the energy normally expended
in back pressure (usually half an atmosphere) to attain the
critical state. The unique diffuser arrangement in the Criti-
cal Flow Device described here allows recovery of over 90
percent of this energy, permitting attainment of the choked
condition with a vacuum of just 5 kPa. Thus, an inexpensive
motor/blower arrangement can be utilized.
For example, energy expensive devices such as hypoder-
mic needles have been used as critical orifice meters for air
sampling. Corn and Bell,8 Lodge, et al.,9 and Urone and
Ross10 reported data on critical flow rates through either
hypodermic tubing or needles. Overcamp11 applied the clas-
sical theory of isothermal, compressible flow through a long
tube and successfully predicted the critical flow through
hypodermic needles. Urone and Ross10 showed that the dis-
charge coefficient of such tubes changes with ambient pres-
sure, which raises the question of Reynolds number-depen-
dent flow coefficients for commonly used PMio and high
volume sampler orifice calibration units.
FLOW
FILTER CASSETTE
-CRITICAL DEVICE
THROAT
STANDING
SHOCK WAVE
-BLOWER INLET
Figure 1 . Cross section of the Critical Flow Device.
256
The venturi-type Critical Flow Device is shown in Figure
1. Volumetric flow rates through the device have been mea-
sured under a variety of test conditions. Experimental re-
sults are compared with the theoretically predicted values.
Theory
Figure 1 shows a cross-sectional drawing of the Critical
Flow Device where Pi is the stagnation pressure downstream
of the filter and Po is atmospheric pressure; Qo and Qi are the
corresponding volumetric flow rates upstream and-down-
stream of the filter, respectively; At is the cross-sectional
area of the throat section of the venturi and P<i is a reference
diffuser pressure. An analysis of the flow path using both the
continuity and energy equations from the upstream to the
downstream sides of the filter (e.g., the "0" to the " 1 " posi-
tion) under the assumption of an adiabatic process, no heat
transfer and no work, yields the result of constant enthalpy
across the filter or TQ S 7\. To is ambient absolute tempera-
ture.
For the choked condition the ideal choking mass flow rate,
Wt, at the throat, is given as12:
(1)
where R is the universal gas constant, Mw is molecular
weight, y is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pres-
sure to the heat capacity at constant volume. The actual
choked mass flow rate, Wa, is related to Wt by Cf, the flow
coefficient as
w= (2)
Cf has to be determined experimentally and its values are
usually in the range of 0.96 to 0.98.
Equations 1 and 2 indicate that the mass flow rate of a
critical venturi is proportional to Pi/(Ti) 1/2 . To determine
stagnation volumetric flow rate, Qi, we divide Wa by the
reference density, p\, and obtain
(3)
Hence the volumetric flow rate, Qi is proportional to (Ti)1/2
and independent of the stagnation pressure P x .
The actual volumetric flow rate at ambient conditions, Qa,
through the filter or the PMio inlet is then obtained by
dividing Wa by atmospheric density po, as
(4)
As noted the flow through the filter is adiabatic (7\ = To),
thus Qa becomes
. /_ii_\ 1/2 /^LV Tn )i/2 (5)
l
tl w ID \U0'
Experiments
Since theory predicts that the volumetric flow rate should
be proportional to the ratio Pi/Po (Equation 5), calibration
scenarios were developed for various P\/PQ values. The Criti-
cal Flow Device was calibrated using a Rootsmeter, and for
data taken at different geographical locations a portable
orifice was used that had been previously calibrated with a
Roots meter. The pressure drop of the orifice was monitored
with a water manometer while simultaneous measurements
of P o and Pi values were made with the aid of an electronic
pressure transducer previously calibrated with a 12-m col-
umn of water. Ambient temperature, To, was measured with
JAPCA
a precision mercury thermometer. The flow rate through the Table II. Comparison of measured and calculated flow rate for
orifice was varied by altering the pressure drop across the the critical flow device.a
filter by use of orifice plates upstream of the filter. A final Measured Calculatedb
measurement point was achieved with the orifice fixture in Site T(K) Qa(m3/min) Qa(m3/min)
place but no plates. The P\/Po value at the design (operat-
ing) condition of the sampler was measured after removing Fort Collins 290 0.9561 1.148 1.162
the orifice and recording the design condition PJPQ value. Albany 298.5 0.9613 1.181 1.185
All measurements were taken with one microquartz filter in a
Cf in these calculations equals 0.9883 from prior Roots meter
place. The same measurements were performed at two loca- calibration.
tions of different altitude (Fort Collins, CO and Albany, NY) b
Qa is calculated using Equation 5.
to determine the effect of the ambient pressure, PQ, on the
flow rate. Measured Qa values were compared to those pre-
dicted by theory.
Additionally, the ratio of the back pressure downstream of
the throat section (P2) to the stagnation pressure (Pi) is a
convenient means to present data as the flow rate is invari- Error Analysis in Measurement of Qa using P-\/Po, To
ant with changes in Pi when the choked condition exists.
The values for volumetric flow rate, Qa, were measured with Once the sampler is calibrated and the flow coefficient (Cf)
the use of a Roots meter for three temperatures and differ- is evaluated, the volumetric flow rate through the critical
ent P2/P1 ratios obtained by adjusting Pi with a precision high volume sampler can be audited by monitoring the stag-
valve. nation pressure, Pi, and by knowing ambient pressure, Po,
and temperature, To.
Absolute accuracy in determining Qa from Equation 5 is
Results expressed as
Results from calibration measurements at Fort Collins, APX APQ AT 0
AQa
CO and Albany, NY are summarized in Table I. The volu- = + (6)
metric flow rates at the operating condition (one micro- Qa Pi Po To
quartz filter in place and no other upstream obstructions) Either a mercury manometer or a calibrator utilizing an
were determined as 1.148 and 1.181 m3/min for the Fort electronic pressure transducer may be used to determine
Collins and Albany data, respectively. Table II gives mea- stagnation pressure (Pi).
sured vs. calculated volumetric flow rate. The values calcu- Typical measurement errors or resolution in reading a
lated (using Equation 5) were 1.162 and 1.185 m3/min for mercury manometer or the W & A electronic calibrator are
Fort Collins and Albany, respectively. This indicates that ±0.17 kPa (0.05 in. Hg) and ±0.5 mV, respectively. A change
the Critical Flow Device performed as predicted by theory in output voltage of 0.5 mV from the W & A electronic
within 1.17 percent and 0.31 percent at Fort Collins and calibrator corresponds to a pressure change of 17.3 Pa
Albany, respectively. The Cf value for these calculations was (0.0051 in Hg). A typical measurement error in reading a
0.9883 determined from prior Roots meter calibration. It is mercury thermometer is ±0.5 K.
important to note that while the value for Po changed from Using a mercury manometer results in a measurement
84.24 kPa (25.17 in. Hg) to 101.33 kPa (29.92 in. Hg) or error in Qa of ±0.49 percent. The measurement errors in Qa
nearly 16 percent, the ratio P\/Po changed by only an appar- are reduced to 0.12 percent using an electronic calibrator
ent value of 0.54 percent which is within the error bar of our which has the additional convenience of permitting on-site
measurements (discussed presently). Thus, the Critical determination of Po. At the design flow rate of 1.133 m3/min,
Flow Device represents a flow controller whose performance Qa can thus be accurately determined to within ±1.36 L/min
is independent of Po (e.g. elevation). (±0.048 cfm) using the electronic calibrator and to within
Figure 2 shows a plot of percent of design condition flow ±5.66 L/min (±0.20 cfm) using the mercury manometer.
rate (i.e., 1.133 m3/min or 40.0 cfm) as a function of varying
P2/P1 ratios at three different ambient temperatures. The
Error Analysis in Measurement of Qa Using Standard Orifice
flat portion of the curve indicates attainment of the choked Audit Procedure
condition. Note that the diffuser recovers nearly 90 percent
of the energy required to choke the flow. Thus, the system Historically, the procedures for flow calibration of ambi-
can be operated using an inexpensive motor/blower assem- ent samplers suggest the use of a top loading orifice and a
bly. At the three different temperatures (To) of 301,291, and water manometer to audit flow rate during sampler opera-
280 K, the theory (Equation 5) predicts that the experimen- tion. Typically, the calibration plots are in terms of the value
tal points should collapse onto one curve with the different of standard flow rate, Qstd
values proportional to (To)1/2. Thus, the Critical Flow Device
operates predictably from theory.
Qstd = 3 (7)

Table I. Calibration data for the Critical Flow Device. where A(AfiT) is the water manometer reading and m and b
Fort Collins, CO Albany, NY are constants determined from previous flow calibration.
(Po = 84.24 kPa, (Po = 101.33 kPa, The error in determining Qstd is expressed as
To = 17.0°C) To = 25.5°C)
Orifice AQstd 1 A(Aff) AP 0 AT 0
plate no.a Pi/Po Qab P1/P0 Qab Qstd 2 AH A) •i (8)

13 0.9242 1.059 0.9338 1.103 For typical values of A{AH) = 12.4 Pa (0.05 in. water), AP0 =
18 0.9319 1.085 0.9403 1.121 17.3 Pa (0.005 in. Hg), and AT0 = 0.5 K, the error in deter-
None 0.9436 1.113 0.9501 1.149 mining Qstd is 1.34 percent which corresponds to ±15.29 L/
O.CC 0.9561 (1.148) 0.9613 (1.181) min (±0.54 cfm).
a
Calibration orifice plates. The conclusion is that the error in determining the opera-
b
Volumetric flow rate in m3/min. tional flow rate using the EPA audit procedure is an order of
c
Operating condition: one microquartz filter in place, no other flow magnitude larger than when using stagnation pressure as a
obstruction. reference (i.e., P1/P0 values) measured with an electronic

March 1987 Volume 37, No. 3 257

 1.0 r
0.9 -
0.8 -
0.7 -
0.6 -
0.5 -
0.4 - O
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1.0 0.9
P2IP\ (RATIO OF DOWNSTREAM TO STAGNATION
Figure 2. Percent of design condition flow rate (1.133 m3/min) defined as the ratio of measured (M) to
reference (R) conditions vs. the ratio of downstream to stagnation pressure (P2/P1). Data taken at different
temperatures collapse onto one curve with volumetric flow rate proportional to (7o)1/2, ambient absolute
temperature, as predicted by Equation 5.
calibrator and a factor of approximately 3 larger than ob-
tained using a mercury manometer.
Conclusions
The Critical Flow Device, a venturi-type critical flow sys-
tem, provides essentially constant volumetric flow indepen-
dent of pressure changes and proportional to the square root
of ambient absolute temperature ideal for the normal opera-
tion of PM10 and other related particle samplers. This pro-
vides an accurately-known total sample volume for the cal-
culation of concentration. It also maintains the design veloc-
ities (volumetric flow rate) through the inlet fractionating
elements to provide reproducible rejection of particles larger
than the element's cutpoint. This design also allows the use
of P\IPQ ratios which enable accurate, in-situ measurements
(audits of flow rate by monitoring stagnation pressures).
Once the device is calibrated, no independent orifice system
is required for field audits.
Expression of the resulting concentration in terms of am-
bient, rather than reference or standard conditions, is appro-
priate in view of the fact that, up to at least an altitude of
2400 m, respiratory flow rate does not increase to compen-
sate for decreasing atmospheric pressure. Correction for
temperature and humidity change of inhalation may be de-
sirable in precise clinical studies, but will almost invariably
result in a decrease in indicated concentration. Accordingly,
mass concentrations expressed in terms of ambient tem-
perature and pressure will be conservative and indicative of
PM10 dosage to the thoracic region of the respiratory tract.
The use of reference conditions, (101.3 kPa, 25°C) which
"correct" the sampled air volume, leads to a calculated PM10
mass concentration which overestimates particulate expo-
sure at altitude compared to that at sea level. Thus, ambient
air quality standards established to protect public health
should be expressed in terms of ambient temperature and
pressure, and concentrations determined from samplers us-
ing the Critical Flow Device can be used without further
correction.
258
A T 0 = 2 8 0 °K
T o i 2 9 1 °K (REFERENCE CONDITION)
• T 0 = 301 °K
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5
PRESSURE)
References
1. J. B. Wedding, M. A. Weigand, T. C. Carney, "A 10 micron
cutpoint inlet for the dichotomous sampler," Environ. Sci. Tech-
nol. 16: 602 (1982).
2. J. B. Wedding, M. A. Weigand, M. A. Ligotke, R. E. Baum-
gardner, "The Wedding ambient aerosol sampling inlet for an
intermediate flow rate (4 CFM) sampler," Environ. Sci. Technol.
17: 379 (1983).
3. J. B. Wedding, M. A. Weigand, "The Wedding ambient aerosol
sampling inlet (D-50 = 10 microns) for the high volume sampler,"
Atmos. Environ. 19: 535 (1985).
4. A. R. McFarland, C. A. Ortiz, R. W., Berth, Jr., "A 10-Mm
cutpoint size selective inlet for hi-vol samplers," JAPCA 34: 544
(1984).
5. J. B. Wedding, "Errors in sampling ambient concentrations
with instruments employing setpoint temperature compensated
mass flow transducers," Atmos. Environ. 19:1219 (1985).
6. H. Rahn, A. B. Otis, "Man's respiratory response during and
after acclimatization to high altitude," Am. J. Physiol 157: 445
(1949).
7. Carbon Monoxide, Committee on Medical and Biological Ef-
fects of Environmental Pollutants, National Academy of Sci-
ences, Washington, DC, 1977.
8. M. Corn, W. Bell, "A technique for construction of predictable
low-capacity orifices," Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 24: 502 (1963).
9. J. P. Lodge, Jr., J. B. Pate, B. E. Ammons, G. A. Swanson, "The
use of hypodermic needles as critical orifices in air sampling,"
JAPCA 16:197 (1966).
10. P. Urone, R. C. Ross, "Pressure change effects on hypodermic
needle critical orifice air flow rates," Environ. Sci. Technol. 13:
351 (1979).
11. T. J. Overcamp, "A theory for critical flow through hypodermic
needles," Environ. Sci. Technol. 19:1134 (1985).
12. A. H. Shapiro, The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Com-
pressible Fluid Flow, Ronald Press, New York, 1953.
James B. Wedding, Ph.D., Michael A. Weigand, and Young
J. Kim, Ph.D. are with Wedding & Associates, Inc., 209
Christman Drive, Fort Collins, CO 80524. David L. Swift,
Ph.D. is with The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
21205. James P. Lodge, Ph.D., is a consultant at 385 Broad-
way, Boulder, CO 80303. This paper was submitted for peer
review June 13, 1986; the revised manuscript was received
January 2, 1987.
JAPCA