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Composite Materials

The world of materials


Steels
Cast irons
Al-alloys

Metals
Cu-alloys
Ni-alloys
Ti-alloys
PE, PP, PC
Alumina PA (Nylon)
Si-Carbide
Polymers,
Ceramics,
GFRP elastomers
glasses CFRP Butyl rubber
Soda-glass Neoprene
Pyrex Composites
KFRP
Plywood

Polymer foams Woods


Metal foams
Natural
Foams materials
Ceramic foams
Natural fibres:
Glass foams Hemp, Flax,
Cotton
Introduction
• Engineering applications often require unusual
combinations of properties
– esp. aerospace, underwater, and transportation
– can’t be achieved with a single material
– e.g. - aerospace requires strong, stiff, light, and
abrasion resistant material
• most strong, stiff materials are dense and heavy
• most light materials are not abrasion resistant
• Solution is in composite materials
Composite Materials – Definition
• Definition: a material composed of 2 or more
constituents
– Reinforcement/discontinuous phase (e.g., Fibers)
– Binder/continuous phase (e.g., compliant matrix)
Composite Materials – Advantages

 High strength to weight ratio (low density


high tensile strength)
 High creep resistance
 High tensile strength at elevated
temperatures
 High toughness
Composite Parameters

For a given matrix/dispersed phase


system:
• Concentration
• Size
• Shape
• Distribution
• Orientation
Parameters

Distribution Concentration Orientation

Shape Size
Types of Fibres
Some commonly used FIBREs for polymer matrix composites:
-Glass FIBREs
-Carbon FIBREs
-Aramid FIBREs

Some commonly used FIBREs for metal matrix composites:


-Boron FIBREs
-Carbon FIBREs
-Oxide ceramic and non-oxide ceramic FIBREs
Glass Fibres
-Due to the relatively inexpensive cost glass FIBREs are the
most commonly used reinforcement
-There are a variety of types of glass, they are all compounds of
silica with a variety of metallic oxides
Designation: Property or Characteristic:
E, electrical low electrical conductivity
S, strength high strength
C, chemical high chemical durability
M, modulus high stiffness
A, alkali high alkali or soda lime glass
D, dielectric low dielectric constant

-The most commonly used glass is E-glass, this is the most


popular because of it’s cost
Carbon Fibres

-Carbon FIBREs have gained a lot of popularity in the last two


decades due to the price reduction

“Carbon FIBRE composites are five times stronger than 1020


steel yet five times lighter. In comparison to 6061 aluminum,
carbon FIBRE composites are seven times stronger and two
times stiffer yet still 1.5 times lighter”

-Initially used exclusively by the aerospace industry they are


becoming more and more common in fields such as automotive,
civil infrastructure, sports etc
Aramid Fibres
-Aramid FIBREs are also becoming more and more common

-They have the highest level of specific strength of all the


common FIBREs

-They are commonly used when a degree of impact resistance is


required such as in ballistic armour

-The most common type of aramid is Kevlar


Classification of Composites
(based on discontinuous phase)

Composites

Particulate Fibre Structural

Large Dispersion Laminates Sandwich


Particle Strengthened Panels
Continuous Discontinuous

Aligned Random
Classification of Composites
(based on continuous phase)

Composites

Polymer matrix Metal matrix Ceramic Matrix


Classification of Composites
(based on discontinuous phase)

Composites

Particulate Fibre Structural

Large Dispersion Laminates Sandwich


Particle Strengthened Panels
Continuous Discontinuous

Aligned Random
Particle-Reinforced Composites

• Divided into two classes


– (based on strengthening mechanism)
• Large particle
– interaction between particles and matrix are
not on the atomic or molecular level
– particle/matrix interface strength is critical
• Dispersion strengthened
– 0.01-0.1 mm particles
– inhibit dislocation motion
Large Particle Composites
Examples:
• Some polymers with added fillers are really
large particle composites
• Concrete (cement with sand or gravel)
– cement is matrix, sand is particulate
Large Particle Composites
Desired Characteristics
• Particles should be approximately equiaxed
• Particles should be small and evenly
distributed
• Volume fraction dependent on desired
properties
Dispersion Strengthened
Composites
• Metals and metal alloys
– hardened by uniform dispersion of fine particles of a very hard
material (usually ceramic)

• Strengthening occurs through the


interactions of dislocations and the
particulates
• Examples
• Thoria in Ni
• Al/Al2O3 sintered aluminum powder
Classification of Composites
(based on discontinuous phase)

Composites

Particulate Fibre Structural

Large Dispersion Laminates Sandwich


Particle Strengthened Panels
Continuous Discontinuous

Aligned Random
Fibre-Reinforced Composites
• Technologically, the most important type of
composite
• Characterized in terms of specific strength
or specific modulus = strength (or E) per
weight
– usually want to maximize specific strength and
modulus
• Subclasses:
– Short fibre and continuous fibre lengths
A. Short(discontinuous) fibre reinforced composites

Aligned Random

B. Continuous fibre (long fibre) reinforced composites


Fibre Phase
Requirements for the fibre
• The small diameter fibre must be much
stronger than the bulk material
• High tensile strength
Different classifications
• whiskers (single crystal - large aspect ratio)
• fibres (polycrystalline or amorphous)
• wires (large diameters - usually metal)
Matrix Phase
Function
• Binds fibres together
• Acts as a medium through which
externally applied stress is transmitted
and distributed to the fibres
• Protects fibres from surface damage
• Separates fibres and prevents a crack in
one fibre from propagating to another
Matrix Phase
Requirements
• Ductile
• Lower E than for fibre
• Bonding forces between fibre and matrix
must be high
– otherwise fibre will just “pull-out” of matrix
• Generally, only polymers and metals are
used as matrix material (they are ductile)
Fibreglass Reinforced Composites
Glass is a common reinforcement
• it is easily drawn into fibres
• it is cheap and readily available
• it is easy to process into composites
• it can produce very strong, very light
composites (high specific strength)
• it is usually chemically inert (does not
degrade in harsh environments)
Other Fibre Reinforced
Composites
 Carbon-Carbon Composites
 carbon fibre in pyrolyzed carbon matrix
 high tensile strength and modulus at high
temperature (2000ºC)
 low coefficient of thermal expansion
 high thermal conductivities
 low thermal shock potential
 Applications include; rocket motors, friction
materials in aircraft, advanced turbine engine
components, ablative shields for reentry vehicles
 Hybrid composites
 two or more different kinds of fibres.
Classification of Composites
(based on discontinuous phase)

Composites

Particulate Fibre Structural

Large Dispersion Laminates Sandwich


Particle Strengthened Panels
Continuous Discontinuous

Aligned Random
Classification of Composites
(based on continuous phase)

Composites

Polymer matrix Metal matrix Ceramic Matrix


Polymer-Matrix Composites
• Matrix
• polyester and vinyl esters
• epoxies - aerospace applications, stronger, resistant
to moisture
• polyimides - high temperature
• high temperature thermoplastics - PEEK, PPS, PEI,
aerospace
Metal Ceramic-Matrix Composites
Metal-Matrix Composites

Ceramic-Matrix Composites
Employed to increase the fracture toughness of the ceramic
Example: Transformation toughened zirconia
Influence of Fibre Length
• Mechanical properties depend on:
• mechanical properties of the fibre
• how much load the matrix can transmit to the fibre
– depends on the interfacial bond between the fibre and the
matrix

• Critical fibre length - depends on


• fibre diameter, fibre tensile strength
• fibre/matrix bond strength
Influence of Fibre Length
• Critical fibre length - lc
– “Continuous” fibres l >> 15 lc
– “Short” fibres are anything
shorter 15 lc

lc = fd/2c
where No
Reinforcement
d = fibre diameter
c = fibre-matrix bond
strength
f = fibre yield strength
Characteristics of Fibre Reinforced
Composites

-As can be seen


from this plot, the
strength of the
composite
increases as the
FIBRE length
increases (this is a
chopped E-glass-
epoxy composite)
Influence of Fibre Orientation
• Fibre parameters
– arrangement with respect to each other
– distribution
– concentration
• Fibre orientation
– parallel to each other
– totally random
– some combination
Characteristics of Fibre Reinforced
Composites

-As can be seen


from this plot, the
strength of the
composite
increases as the
FIBRE length
increases (this is a
chopped E-glass-
epoxy composite)
Fibre Orientation

-Maximum strength is
obtained when long
FIBREs are oriented
parallel to the applied
load
-The effect of FIBRE
orientation and strength
can be seen in the plot
Fibre Orientation

-The properties of FIBRE


composites can be tailored
to meet different loading
requirements
-By using combinations of
different FIBRE orientation
quasi-isotropic materials
may be produced

Figure (a) shows a unidirectional arrangement


Figure (b) shows a quasi-isotropic arrangement
Aligned Fibres
• When fibres are aligned
– properties of material are highly anisotropic
– modulus in direction of alignment is a function
of the volume fraction of the E of the fibre and
matrix
– modulus perpendicular to direction of
alignment is considerably less (the fibres do not
contribute)
Randomly Oriented Fibres
• Properties are isotropic
– not dependent on direction
• Ultimate tensile strength is less than for
aligned fibres
• May be desirable to sacrifice strength for the
isotropic nature of the composite
Composite Micromechanics
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF FIBRE
COMPOSITES
• SIMPLE MICROMECHANICAL MODELS
• The simplest method of estimating the
stiffness of a composite in which all of the
fibres are aligned in the direction of the
applied load (a unidirectional composite) is to
assume that the structure is a simple beam
SIMPLE MICROMECHANICAL MODELS
ASSUMPTIONS
• Components are perfectly bonded together so that they
deform together
• polymer matrix does not exhibit time-dependent
deformation.
• Poisson ratios of the two components are equal (νf = νm),

Cross-sectional area of the fibre ‘component’ be Af and that


of the matrix component be Am.
• Length of the beam is L; Vf + Vm = 1
• The load on the composite, Pc, is shared between the two
phases, so that Pc = Pf + Pm
• Strain in the two phases is the same as that in the
composite, εc = εf = εm (iso strain)
SIMPLE MICROMECHANICAL MODELS
• stress = load/area,
• σcAc = σfAf + σmAm
• from the iso-strain condition, dividing through
by the relevant strains

• This equation is referred to as the Voigt


estimate, but is more familiarly known as the
rule of mixtures.
SIMPLE MICROMECHANICAL MODELS
• More sophisticated models such as Hill (1964)
have been developed which take into account of
Poisson’s ratios
• The most familiar being that of which shows that
the true stiffness of a the prediction of Voigt
equation by an amount which is proportional to
the square of the difference in Poisson ratios, (νf
– νm)2
• For most practical purposes this difference is so
small as to be negligible.
SIMPLE MICROMECHANICAL MODELS
SIMPLE MICROMECHANICAL MODELS

Iso-stress’ model: σc = σf = σm
The total extension of the model is the sum of the
extensions of the two components: εcLc = εf Lf + εm Lm
If the cross-sections of both phases are the same,
L ≡ V, so dividing through by the stress (and
remembering that Vf + Vm = 1) we have:

This is referred to as the Reuss estimate,


sometimes called the inverse rule of mixtures
SIMPLE MICROMECHANICAL MODELS
The Reuss estimate is sometimes modified to account for the
Poisson effect in the matrix by introducing a ‘constrained’ matrix
modulus, effectively by dividing Em by (1 – ν2m)
Injection Moulding

• Similar to extrusion, barrel is heated

• Pellets or granules are fed into heated cylinder

• Melt is forced into a split-die chamber

• Molten plastic is pushed into mould cavity

• Pressure ranges from 70 MPa – 200 MPa


Injection Moulding

• Injection moulds have


several components
such as runners, cores,
cavities, cooling
channels, inserts, knock
out pins and ejectors

3-basic types of moulds


• Cold runner two plate
mould
• Cold runner three plate
mould
• Hot runner mould
Fig : Examples of injection
moulding
Injection Moulding
The Process
 One of the most important industrial processes in the mass
production of plastic goods.
 The cost of machining the original moulds can be very high.

Thermoplastic granules are heated until they soften. Then


the material is forced under pressure into a mould. When
cool, the mould is opened and a component which is the
exact shape of the cavity is extracted
Injection Moulding Machine

Fig : A 250-ton injection moulding machine. The tonnage is the force applied to keep the
dies closed during injection of molten plastic into the mould cavities.
Injection Moulding
Typical Materials Used
Most thermoplastics can be processed by injection moulding.
The table below lists some of the commonly used materials.

Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene ABS
Polyamide–(Nylon) PA
Polycarbonate PC
Polypropene – (Polypropylene) PP

Typical Products Produced


Power-tool
Safety helmets
housings
Telephone
Television cabinets
handsets

Washing-up bowls
Process Capabilities
• High production rates

• Good dimensional control

• Cycle time ranges from 5 to 60 secs


• Mould materials- Tool steels, Beryllium - Cu, Al

• Mould life- 2 million cycles (steel moulds)


10000 cycles ( Al moulds)

Machines :
• Horizontal or vertical machines
• Clamping – hydraulic or electric
Reaction Injection Moulding

• Mixture of resin with 2 or more reactive


fluids forced into the mould cavity at high
speed .

• Applications : Bumpers, tenders, thermal


insulation, refrigerators and freezers, water
skis, stiffness
Reaction-Injection Moulding

Fig : Schematic illustration of the


reaction-injection moulding
process.

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