8°B TENSION

TEACHER:
Engineer Francisco Estrada

TEAM 2:
 Juárez Alfaro Verónica Sarahí
 Méndez Ruiz Lorena Citlali
 Requena Olvera Jesús Giovani
 Zamora Santiago Alberto

ENSAYOS
DESTRUCTIVOS
Index
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 3
Glossary .................................................................................................................. 3
Applications of the tensile test ................................................................................. 4
Aerospace Industry .............................................................................................. 5
Automotive Industry ............................................................................................. 5
Beverage Industry ................................................................................................ 5
Construction Industry ........................................................................................... 6
Electrical and Electronics Industry ....................................................................... 6
Medical Device Industry ....................................................................................... 6
Packaging Industry .............................................................................................. 6
Paper and Board Industry .................................................................................... 7
Pharmaceuticals Industry..................................................................................... 7
Safety, Health, Fitness and Leisure Industry ....................................................... 7
Textiles Industry................................................................................................... 7
Theoretical framework ............................................................................................. 8
Tension ................................................................................................................ 8
Normal Stress and Strain ..................................................................................... 9
Unit of tension: ..................................................................................................... 9
Tension test ....................................................................................................... 10
The test .......................................................................................................... 10
Test tube ........................................................................................................ 11
The tension testing machine .......................................................................... 11
Cross-Sectional Areas.................................................................................... 12
Generalities of the tension test ....................................................................... 14
Procedure .............................................................................................................. 14
Example ................................................................................................................ 16
Rules ..................................................................................................................... 23
ISO 6892-2 and ISO 6892 ................................................................................. 23
ASTM E8/8M. .................................................................................................... 24
ASTM E 21 ........................................................................................................ 25
ASTM A370 ....................................................................................................... 26
Criteria for acceptance and rejection ..................................................................... 27
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Requirements, safety considerations and / or conditions to perform the test ........ 27
Materials, tools and equipment.............................................................................. 28

Index of figures
Figure 1 Forces through the cube ........................................................................... 8
Figure 2 Axial forces in a bar ................................................................................... 9
Figure 3 Evolution of the specimen during the tensile test .................................... 10
Figure 4 Schematic of the procedure for the stress test ........................................ 10
Figure 5 Different types of test pieces used for the stress test. ............................. 11
Figure 6 Photograph of Universal Testing Machine. .............................................. 12
Figure 7 Graph of the tension test ......................................................................... 13
Figure 8 Realization of a tension practice ............................................................. 16
Figure 9 Parts of tension testing machine ............................................................. 16
Figure 10 Parts of Tension Testing Machine ......................................................... 28
Figure 11 Universal testing machine ..................................................................... 29
Figure 12 Vernier Caliper ...................................................................................... 29
Figure 13 General specimen size .......................................................................... 30
Figure 14 A reduced gage section specimen made from 6061-T6 aluminum, ready
for tensile testing. .................................................................................................. 19
Figure 15 A typical Instron load frame used for tensile testing. ............................. 19
Figure 16 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for A-36 steel. .... 20
Figure 17 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for 6061-T6
aluminum. .............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 18 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for polycarbonate.
.............................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 19 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for PMMA. ......... 21

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Introduction
The most of materials that are used in a process are exposed to charges. For which
it is necessary to know the properties and characteristics of the material with which
to design the piece, making sure that the forces to which it will be subjected are not
excessive and the material does not fracture.
Tension tests are normally used when the part will be subjected to an increasing
uniaxial charge until the failure occurs. In the simple tension tests, the operation
consists of holding the ends of the test piece of the material to be analyzed and
stretch them. This causes the specimen to have an elongation in a direction parallel
to the applied charge.
In general, all tests are carried out with cylindrical test specimen and with a constant
cross section along the section from which the measurements will be taken.
Tension tests are the most used, in addition to being the simplest of all mechanical
tests. These involve the standardization of the specimens with respect to size, shape
and method of preparation and test procedures. This type of test is most appropriate
for general use in the case of most metals and non-ferrous, molten, rolled or forged
alloys.

Glossary
Test specimen: Fraction of any type of material, which is subjected to traction,
torsion, bending, compression, etc., until reaching its breaking point to obtain
mechanical properties of interest.
Fracture: Situation in which there is separation of a solid in at least two parts. It can
be of a ductile nature (when there are important plastic deformations and it occurs
due to a very slow propagation of the crack) and fragile (it occurs when there are no
plastic deformations of consideration and with rapid propagation of the crack).
Elastic zone: In explosion-formed crater nomenclature, the remote zone that
undergoes no measurable permanent deformation.
Plastic zone: In explosion-formed-crater nomenclature, this zone differs from the
rupture zone by having less fracturing and only small permanent deformations.
There is no distinct boundary between the rupture and plastic zones.
Tenacity: is defined as the energy absorbed by a material before reaching its
breaking point (ultimate load). It is determined in the graph as the area under the
whole curve of the stress-strain graph.
Resilience: defined as the energy absorbed by a material in the elastic zone. It is
determined in the graph as the area under the curve in the elastic zone.

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Modulus of elasticity: is defined as the slope of the line in the elastic zone. It is a
parameter widely used in engineering that relates the rigidity of a material when
subjected to stress loads.
Effort (σ): Is defined as the relationship between force and a unit of area. In the
English system the PSI (pound square inch) is used and in the international system
the Pa (Pascal).
Proportionality limit: at this point the deformations and efforts stop behaving
proportionally, Hooke's Law is not met after this effort value is exceeded.
Creep stress (σy): value of effort that separates the elastic behavior from the plastic
behavior of a material. For ductile materials, fluctuations may exist and higher and
lower yield stresses may be generated until the passage to the plastic zone is
completely defined.
Maximum effort (σmax): maximum value of the ordinate that a material can take
during the tensile test (the highest point of the curve), after this effort begins the
narrowing of the specimen.
Break stress or last (σult): value at which the fracture of the specimen is generated
and, therefore, the end of the test.
Stricture: behavior that occurs when there begins to be reduction in the cross-
sectional area of the specimen. "
Elongation (δ): consists in the difference between initial length (calibrated) and the
final length after finishing the test.
Unitary deformation: is the relation between elongation and initial length; Express
how much a material is stretched per unit length (mm / mm, in / in etc.)

Applications of the tensile test

Tensile testing is used to guarantee the quality of components, materials and

finished products within a wide range industry. Typical applications of tensile
testing are highlighted in the following sections on:
 Aerospace Industry
 Automotive Industry
 Beverage Industry
 Construction Industry
 Electrical and Electronics Industry

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  Medical Device Industry
 Packaging Industry
 Paper and Board Industry
 Pharmaceuticals Industry
 Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry
 Safety, Health, Fitness and Leisure Industry
 Textiles Industry

Aerospace Industry
Applications of tensile testing in the aerospace industry include:
 Peel tests on airframe composites
 Shear and tensile strength testing of fasteners e.g. bolts, nuts and screws
 Tensile & material strength testing of adhesive bonds, aircraft textiles and
carpets, cables, hoses and tubing, gaskets and o-rings, seat belts, welded
and crimped joints, wiring looms and harnesses

Automotive Industry
Applications of tensile testing in the automotive industry include:
 Quality assessment through tensile testing of interior fittings including:
airbags, carpets, dashboards, electrical harness (incl. crimped terminals pull-
off force), handles, laminated trim, mirrors, seals and seatbelts and
handbrake levers.
 Quality assessment through tensile testing of exteriors fittings including:
bumper mouldings and trims, door and window seals, emblems and number
plates, mirrors and mud flaps

Beverage Industry
Applications of tensile testing in the beverage industry include:
 Peel strength of induction-sealed foils and labels
 Tensile force required to open 'ring-pulls' on bevcans
 Testing cork extraction forcé

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Construction Industry
Applications of tensile testing in the construction industry include:
 Bond strength testing of adhesives, mastics, sealants and bonds between
brick and foam layers
 Tensile and material strength testing of geotextiles and safety support netting

Electrical and Electronics Industry

Applications of tensile testing in the electrical and electronics industry include:
 Connector withdrawal force
 Pull-off forces of crimped, welded or soldered electrical contacts
 Component-to-PCB pull-off force
 PCB material tensile strength

Medical Device Industry

Applications of tensile testing in the medical device industry include:
 Hypodermic needle-to-hub retention force
 Tensile strength and elongation at break of medical tubing, bandages,
dressings and tapes
 Joint strength of IV connector fittings
 Suture-to-needle crimp pull out test
 Tensile strength of suture material and knotting
 Joint strength and material elongation of respiratory masks
 Elongation and tensile strength of examination gloves
 Mechanical strength of orthopaedic implant components

Packaging Industry
Applications of tensile testing in the packaging industry include:
 Adhesive/peel testing of adhesive bonds, container seals and labels

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  Force associated with opening snap-caps, pop-caps and other push pull
closures
 Elongation of plastic packaging materials

Paper and Board Industry

Applications of tensile testing in the paper and board industry include:
 Openability of card and paper based packaging
 Folding characteristics of boxes and cartons
 Force to separate multi-part documents
 Durability of documents

Pharmaceuticals Industry
Application of tensile testing in the pharmaceuticals industry include:
 Pull off force of phial caps
Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry
Applications of tensile testing in the plastics, rubber and elastomers industry include:
 Joint strength of interlocking plastic components
 Assessment of material tensile properties
 Adhesion / peel testing of plastic labels, ID and credit cards

Safety, Health, Fitness and Leisure Industry

Applications of tensile testing in the safety, health, fitness and leisure industry
include:
 Tensile testing of safety support netting
 Ergonomic risk evaluations
 Elastic properties of racquet strings

Textiles Industry
Applications of tensile testing in the textiles industry include:

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  'Pull-off' characteristics of buttons, stitched-on decorations, press studs,
poppers, zip fasteners, hook-and-loop fasteners
 Strength testing of vulnerable seams

Theoretical framework
Tension
Stresses are defined as force per unit area on the surfaces of a differential cube in
the familiar Cartesian xyz coordinates. Stresses are divided into two categories. The
figure on the left illustrates a normal stress—normal in the mathematical sense that
the surface is perpendicular to the line of action of the forces. These stresses are
described as tensions or compressions. The figure on the right illustrates a shear
stress, with forces along the face areas, and tending to slide one layer of material
over another.

Figure 1 Forces through the cube

Stresses are also defined such that static equilibrium is maintained. The test cube
can change shape but isn’t accelerated. Thus, the forces in each figure above must
be of the same numerical values. Further, for shear stress, the counter-clockwise
moment of forces for the arrows shown must be balanced by an equal but opposite
clockwise moment of forces on the remaining faces. For other coordinate frames, for
example cylindrical or spherical coordinates, the shape of the test volume contains
curved surfaces, but the nature of the stresses is similar.

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In the most general 3D case, there can be three independent normal stresses and
three independent shear stresses. Mathematically, these are expressed as a
symmetrical 3X3 matrix known as the “stress tensor.” Normal stresses are most
commonly designated with the Greek letter sigma (σ) and shear stresses with the
Greek letter tau (τ)

Normal Stress and Strain

Consider a prismatic bar, the axial forces produce a uniform stretching of the bar, it
is called the bar is in tension

mn: cross section z the longitudinal axis

A: cross section area

Figure 2 Axial forces in a bar

the intensity of the force (force per unit area) is called stress, assuming
that the stress has uniform distribution, then
𝑃
σ= force equilibrium
𝐴

when the bar is stretched, the resulting stress are tensile stress, if the bar is
compressed, the stress are compressive stress the stress " acts in the direction
perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred as normal stress, another type of stress
is called shear stress
When the bar is stretched, the resulting stress are tensile stress, if the bar is
compressed, the stress are compressive stress the stress " acts in the direction
perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred as normal stress, another type of stress
is called shear stress sign convention of the normal stresses are : tensile stress as
positive and compressive stress as negative.

Unit of tension:

SI unit: N / m2 (Pa, Pascal), N / mm2 (MPa), 1 MPa = 106 Pa, 1 GPa= 109 Pa

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USCS: lb / in2(psi), kip / in2 (ksi), 1 ksi = 103psi, 1 psi = 6,895 Pa, 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa

Tension test

The tension test consists of a destructive test for obtaining, interpreting and
analyzing some mechanical properties of the material to be analyzed. It is done by
submitting a standardized test tube to a load that tries to stretch it and that increases
with time until it produces the narrowing and subsequent breakage of the test piece.
From this test important material properties are obtained such as: modulus of
elasticity, yield stress, maximum stress, breaking stress and percentage (%) of
elongation, among others.
The test

The tension test is carried out by fixing a test piece at its ends to a fixed jaw and
another mobile one (Fig. 3), a displacement speed of the fixed jaw is calibrated,
which applies a quasi-static load (very low speeds) of tension in the test tube Once
the ultimate stress value is reached, the specimen fails, dividing into two halves; At
this point the trial is concluded. (Fig. 4)

Maximum
charge Last charge

Figure 3 Evolution of the specimen during the Figure 4 Schematic of the procedure for the stress
tensile test test

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Test tube

The test pieces used for the stress test have standardized dimensions and stipulated
by the ASTM E8 standard, which defines the considerations regarding geometry and
general characteristics of the test specimen.

Three types of test piece can be used, mainly:

a) circular section test tubes
b) flat test tubes
c) Rod sections (length according to the standard)

Figure 5 Different types of test pieces used for the stress test.

The tension testing machine

The tension testing machine (universal machine) has a frame in which two jaws are
located: one fixed and one mobile. The movable jaw, in general, moves by means
of an endless screw or a hydraulic mechanism. As input data, it requires the
calibrated length and the cross-sectional area of the specimen to subsequently
generate the stress-strain graph.
The universal testing machine includes software that allows graphing the evolution
of the material throughout the test, obtaining graphs that allow obtaining useful
information for the design and selection of materials for various manufacturing
processes.

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 Figure 6 Photograph of Universal Testing Machine.

Cross-Sectional Areas

We need a way of directly being able to compare different materials, making the
“strength” we report independent of the size of the material. We can do that by simply
dividing the load applied to the material (the weight or force) by the initial cross-
sectional area. We also divide the amount it moves (displacement) by the initial
length of the material. This creates what material scientists refer to as engineering
stress (load divided by the initial cross-sectional area) and engineering strain
(displacement divided by initial length). By looking at the engineering stress-strain
response of a material we can compare the strength of different materials,
independently of their sizes.
To use the stress-strain response for designing structures, we can divide the load
we want by the engineering stress to determine the cross-sectional area needed to
be able to hold that load. For example, a 1/8” diameter 4340 steel wire can hold a
small car. Again, it is not always that simple. We need to understand the different
meanings of “strength” or engineering stress.
Now it gets more complicated. Let us take a look at what is meant by the different
strength values and also look at other important properties we can get from this
simple test. The easiest way is to examine a graph of engineering stress versus
engineering strain. Shown below is a graph of a tensile test for a common steel
threaded rod, providing a good example of a general metal tensile test. The units of
engineering stress are ksi, which stands for a thousand pounds per square inch.

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Note the reference to area in the units. The units on strain are of course unitless,
since we are dividing distance by distance.

Figure 7 Graph of the tension test

 Graph Location 1: Elastic Region

 Graph Location 2: 0.2% Offset Yield Strength
 Graph Location 3: Maximum Withstand-able Stress
 Graph Location 4: Failure or Fracture

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Generalities of the tension test

This test is used to measure the resistance of a material to a static force or applied
slowly. This test consists of lengthening a test specimen by tensile force, exerted
gradually, in order to know certain mechanical properties of materials in general:
their strength, stiffness and ductility. Knowing that the results of the test for a given
material are applicable to all sizes and sample shapes, a test has been established
in which a tension force is applied on a cylindrical shaped and standardized test
piece, which is universally handled between engineers This test is carried out at
room temperature between 10 ° C and 35 ° C. Below is a device used to perform
this type of tests.
Machine used in the realization of the practice
The machine used in the laboratory for the realization of this practice is a Hydraulic
Press. This machine is used to shape, extrude, mark metals and to evaluate the
ductility of certain metallic materials subjected to high pressures. Below are the parts
of this machine, to facilitate its understanding.
Fixed upper and lower base
They are the two bases that give the general stability to the machine, united by the
two parallel columns
Top mobile table
This table, when pushed up by the hydraulic jack, drags the inferring mobile table
(through the two mobile columns) and thus, stretches the mounted specimen
between XXX mobile table and the lower fixed base.
Hydraulic jack
The hydraulic jack being expanded by pumping drops the lever, acting on a pressure
transducer installed between its stem and the base of the manometer. This pressure
transducer, whose internal plunger has a diameter of 56.8 mm, allows us to calculate
the force exerted on the specimen, when reading the pressure of the pressure gauge
Vernier caliper
This gauge is placed between the upper moving table of the press and the upper
fixed base; Its function is to measure the elongation of the test pieces used during
the test.

Procedure

Before the test

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1. Put gage marks on the specimen
2. Measure the initial gage length and diameter
3. Select a load scale to deform and fracture the specimen. Note that that tensile
strength of the material type used has to be known approximately
During the test
1. Record the maximum load
2. Conduct the test until fracture.
After the test
1. Measure the final gage length and diameter. The diameter should be measured
from the neck.

ASSIGNMENTS
1. Tabulate the data obtained during the test
2. Plot the load versus elongation curve on a milimetrical paper. Make scales for
both x and y axis. Label the known values
3. Plot the engineering stress-strain curve on a milimetrical paper. Make scales for
both x and y axis. Label the known values.
4. Calculate the strength parameters;
 Yield stress (0.2 % off-set), σy [MPa]
 Young’s modulus, E [Gpa]
 Ultimate tensile strength, UTS [MPa]
 Fracture Stress, σF [MPa]
5. Calculate the critical strains;
 yielding strain, ey
 Strain at onset of neck (UTS strain), eUTS
 Fracture strain, ef
6. Calculate the ductility parameters;
 Percent elongation, %∆L
 Percent reduction in area, %RA
7. Calculate the energy parameters
 Resilience, UR; the elastic energy in J.
 Toughness,UT; the total energy absorbed by the specimen in J.

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8. Calculate the Poisson’s ratio assuming the volume is constant during elastic
deformation.
9. Tabulate your results

Figure 8 Realization of a tension practice

Figure 9 Parts of tension testing machine

Example
Executive Summary Tensile tests are fundamental for understanding properties of
different materials, and how they will behave under load. This lab tested four different
materials, including A-36 hot rolled steel, 6061-T6 Aluminum, polycarbonate, and
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). Each material was tested three times using an
Instron load frame and the BlueHill data acquisition software. The data from each
test was used to determine valuable material properties such as ultimate tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, and yield strength. Other calculated properties
included true fracture strength, percent reduction of area, and percent elongation.
These material properties were used for comparing the materials to each other, and
to define the material as brittle or ductile.

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The true stress and true strain were calculated for one sample of 6061-T6 aluminum
to show the difference between the engineering stress and strain, and the true
values. The engineering stress is an assumption that uses the initial area of the cross
section, ignoring the effects of transverse strain and the changing cross section. This
assumption results in the drop of the engineering stress-strain curve after the
ultimate tensile strength, where necking occurs.
Using the values of the true strain, the true plastic strain was determined for one
sample of Aluminum (Sample #2) by subtracting the contribution of the true elastic
strain, as outlined in Appendix E. Plotting the logarithm of the true stress versus the
logarithm of the true plastic strain allowed the plastic portion of the true stress-strain
curve to be modeled by the Ramberg-Osgood model, as detailed in Appendix F.
While the model did poorly at low plastic strains near yielding, it did an excellent job
just before necking and the ultimate tensile strain.
The results of the tensile tests showed that the A-36 hot rolled steel was the
strongest material. It had the highest ultimate tensile strength (527.9 MPa), the
greatest modulus of toughness (174.6 MPa), and the largest true fracture strength
(1047 MPa). The 6061-T6 aluminum had a higher yield (356.3 MPa) than the steel
(355.6), but a lower ultimate tensile strength (374.9 MPa) and true fracture strength
(571.8 MPa) due to tempering and precipitation hardening. All of the materials
besides the PMMA proved to be ductile, especially the polycarbonate, which had a
percent elongation of 82.2% The PMMA samples averaged a percent elongation of
only 0.7333%.
A.Introduction
Tensile testing is one of the most fundamental tests for engineering, and provides
valuable information about a material and its associated properties. These properties
can be used for design and analysis of engineering structures, and for developing
new materials that better suit a specified use.
The tensile testing laboratory was conducted using an Instron load frame and the
BlueHill data acquisition software. Four different materials were tested, including
6061-T6 Aluminum Alloy, A-36 hot rolled steel, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA, cast
acrylic), and polycarbonate. The samples were cylindrical in cross section, with a
reduced gage section. The reduced gage section ensured that the highest stresses
occurred within the gage, and not near the grips of the Instron load frame, preventing
strain and fracture of the specimen near or in the grips. The reduced gage section
of each specimen was about 12.7 mm (0.5 inches). The samples were already
machined to the proper dimensions required for the test, according to ASTM
standards.
Three samples of each material were tested in the Instron load frame, and the data
gathered into an Excel spreadsheet. The data was used to calculate various
properties of each material, including the elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate

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tensile strength. The data was then plotted on engineering stress-strain curves to
compare the samples. The purpose of this experiment was to gather information
about each material so that important mechanical properties could be determined.
This experiment also familiarized the students with the Instron load frame, BlueHill
data acquisition software, and the general steps to performing a tensile test on a
reduced gage section specimen. The data used for this lab report was not gathered
from the student run experiments, but rather from standardized testing performed by
the laboratory professor, to ensure accurate and consistent results.
B. Procedure
Each specimen was measured with the calipers to determine the diameter of the
cross section. A gage length was determined (typically 50.00 mm) and scribed into
the specimen so that the distance between the two marks could be measured after
the tensile test was completed. A typical reduced gage section specimen is shown
in Figure 1, on the following page. The BlueHill data acquisition software was started,
and the correct material was chosen. The load cell was zeroed to ensure that the
software only measured the tensile load applied to the specimen.
The specimen was loaded into the jaws of the Instron load frame so that it was
equally spaced between the two clamps. The axial and transverse extensometers
were attached to the reduced gage section of the specimen, ensuring that the axial
extensometer was set correctly when attaching it to the gage and that the transverse
extensometer was across the complete diameter of the specimen. This precaution
results in better data and prevents damage to the extensometers.
The Instron load frame, shown in Figure 2 on the following page, was preloaded
using the scroll wheel to ensure that the specimen was properly loaded in the frame,
and that it wasn’t slipping in the jaws. The load was released, and the extensometers
were zeroed using the software. The test was started, and the specimen was loaded,
resulting in a measureable strain. For the steel and aluminum samples, the
crosshead was initially set to move upward at 1.27 mm/min, then at 15 mm/min at a
specified state beyond yielding. This increase in the rate of strain sped up the test,
but may have also introduced some error. The polycarbonate sample started at 5
mm/min and was later sped up to 30 mm/min. The PMMA samples were pulled at a
constant rate of 10 mm/min.
The data was gathered using the software, and loaded into a spreadsheet. At a set
value of strain (past the yield strain), the software stopped using data from the
extensometers, and started gathering the strain information using the position of the
moving crosshead. A warning message came up on the computer screen, instructing
the operator to remove the extensometers to prevent damage. The test continued
until fracture, where the software stopped the moving crosshead, and finished
gathering data. The specimen was removed, and the crosshead was reset to the
initial position to start another tensile test. The testing procedure was repeated for
the rest of the specimens.
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 Figure 104 A reduced gage section specimen made from 6061-T6 aluminum, ready for tensile testing.

Figure 115 A typical Instron load frame used for tensile testing.

C. Results
C.1 Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain The data from the tensile tests was
plotted on separate graphs according to material. Each graph shows the engineering
stress versus the engineering strain, as calculated per Appendix A. Figure 16 shows
the three tests for the A-36 hot rolled steel samples, and Figure 17 shows the three
tensile tests of the 6061-T6 aluminum samples. Figure 18 and Figure 19 show the
test results of the polycarbonate and the PMMA, respectively.

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 Figure 126 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for A-36 steel.

Figure 137 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for 6061-T6 aluminum.

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 Figure 148 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for polycarbonate.

Figure 159 The engineering stress versus the engineering strain for PMMA.

D. Discussion
The test results were consistent for each of the materials, as evident in Figures 3-6,
where each of the three stress-strain curves were approximately overlapping. An
interesting observation can be made from the PMMA graph, where sample one
suddenly loses stress as it is stretched. This sample may have fractured partially
across the cross section before complete failure, or a void could have caused a
sudden release of stress. All of the other samples exhibited consistent behavior.

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From the ultimate tensile strength data in Table 1, it is clear that the A-36 hot rolled
steel was the strongest material, followed by aluminum, PMMA, and polycarbonate,
respectively. All of the standard deviations were low, not exceeding 2.606 MPa,
suggesting that the data was consistent and that the testing procedure was valid and
repeatable. The true fracture strength, shown in Table 4, gives a better view of the
true stress at fracture. The A-36 steel had the highest true fracture strength, followed
by the aluminum, polycarbonate, and PMMA.
Although the A-36 hot rolled steel had a much higher modulus of elasticity (209300
MPa, compared to 69460MPa for the 6061-T6 aluminum), and a higher ultimate
tensile strength, the yield strength is about the same as the 6061-T6. The higher
ultimate stress is due to work hardening as the material is plastically deformed. The
introduction of dislocations reduces their motion, and hardens the material. The
6061-T6 is a tempered and aged alloy that is already precipitation hardened. It will
not work harden as much as the A-36 steel, resulting in a lower ultimate tensile
strength. The standard deviations for the yield strength and modulus of elasticity are
also small compared to the average values, proving the consistency of the data.

The modulus of resilience and the modulus of toughness are important values in
determining the energy that a material can absorb before yielding and before
fracture. The modulus of resilience is the area under the engineering stress-strain
curve up until the yield, and corresponds to the energy per unit volume that a material
can absorb before it yields. The 6061-T6 aluminum had the highest modulus of
resilience, followed by A-36 steel, polycarbonate, and PMMA. The aluminum had the
highest resilience due to the high yield strength, and the low modulus of elasticity
(compared to the A-36 steel), as shown in Table 3. The low modulus of elasticity
ensured that the aluminum was strained more before yielding, allowing it to absorb
more energy.
The modulus of toughness was the highest for the A-36 steel due to the high ultimate
tensile strength, and the ductility of the steel. The polycarbonate had a higher
modulus of toughness than the 6061-T6 aluminum due to its high ductility, even
though it had a lower yield and ultimate tensile strength. The acrylic had the lowest
modulus of toughness due to its brittle nature.
The percent reduction of area and the percent elongation are indicators of the
ductility of a material. All of these values are located in Table 4. A more ductile
material will have a greater percent elongation, and the material will neck down
further, resulting in a greater reduction of area. The A-36 steel samples had the
greatest reduction of area due to the large amount of necking just before fracture.
The polycarbonate had the highest percent elongation due to the straightening of
the polymer chains. The polymer chains did not neck down after they were
straightened, which resulted in a smaller percent reduction of area compared to the
steel and aluminum samples. The aluminum did not elongate as far as the steel due
22
to the alloying of the material and the precipitation hardening that was used to
improve other properties. The PMMA had the lowest percent reduction of area and
the lowest percent elongation, indicating that it is a brittle material.
The true stress and true strain take into account the changing area of the cross
section as it is being elongated, and the strains that accompany the changing area.
Accounting for these two effects results in a final true stress that is much higher than
the engineering fracture stress and a greater amount of strain. As shown in Figure
7, the true stress reaches a maximum at the point of fracture. At this point, the area
is much smaller, so the specimen cannot withstand a large load, which causes the
engineering stress-strain curve to drop off after necking. There is no ultimate tensile
stress in the true stress-strain curve as with the engineering stress-strain curve, and
the true stress is always increasing up until fracture. The Ramberg-Osgood model
proved to be excellent at determining the true stress at higher values of true plastic
strain, but had higher error at low values of true plastic strain, especially near the
yield strain, where plastic strain is essentially zero. Table 5 shows that near the
ultimate tensile strain, the error is very small, but near the yield strain, the error is
rather high at 19.84%. The aluminum samples did not exhibit the power hardening
behavior that is typical of the Ramberg-Osgood model. The engineering stress-strain
curve was flat after yielding, and not curved like the model shows in Figure 8. Since
the model was fitted to the data between three times the yield strain, and the ultimate
tensile strain, it does not fit the sample well at low values of true plastic strain. This
error could be alleviated by fitting multiple models to the curve, or by choosing a
different model that better fits the shape of the engineering stress-strain curve.

Rules

Tension tests must generally comply with the requirements given the standards with
which it is performed, which define the shape and dimensions of the specimen, the
speed of the test, the calibration and precision of the equipment, the environmental
conditions and the information that must be presented in the test report. For metallic
materials the standards implemented are EN ISO 6892-1 and ASTM E8 / 8M.

ISO 6892-2 and ISO 6892

The ISO 6892 standard specifies the test method of metallic materials and defines
the mechanical properties that can be determined at room temperature. The test
consists of deforming a piece in tension, generally until the break, in order to
determine one or more mechanical properties. Products that can be tested with this
standard include metal sheets, plates, cables, rods and tubes. The specimens are
gripped in such a way as to ensure that they are axially aligned to minimize the

23
bending effect. The sample is stretched in tension until the break and the values of
load and deformation must be recorded.
The standard contemplates two methods to test the samples. The first method uses
strain control to minimize the variation of strain rates during the determination of
parameters that are sensitive to the strain rate, while the second method is a test
whose speed is based on the speed of resistance change. The choice of method
and speed are at the discretion of the test laboratory, but the method chosen in the
test report must be clearly indicated.
The standard also includes recommendations about the types of test pieces and
their dimensions and about the computer-controlled test machines and methods for
estimating the measured uncertainty. Typically, the results include the yield strength,
test strength, tensile strength and elongation at break.
A typical test system will include a universal testing machine like our 5900 series,
with wedge or hydraulic jaws, and a contact extensometer or an automatic
extensometer.

ASTM E8/8M.

ASTM E 8 describes tension testing methods to determine yield strength, yield point
elongation, tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area of metal products. It
applies to metallic materials in any form, including: sheet, plate, wire, rod, bar, pipe
and tube. For each of these specimen types, the standard defines suitable
geometries and dimensions, requiring specific gripping solutions that are critical to
performing a successful test. The most common types of specimens are rectangular
and round. Rectangular plate specimens have a reduced area section with a 1.5-
inch width and a nominal thickness of 3/16 inch or more. Sheet rectangular
specimens have a reduced area section of 1/2 inch and their thickness should not
exceed 3/4 inch. Subsize specimens with a 1/4-inch width can be used for material
thicknesses up to 1/4 inch. When the material has a thickness of a 1/2 inch or more,
round specimens can also be used. The most common specimens have a 1/2-inch
diameter and are typically used for cast and wrought metallic materials.

For testing rectangular type specimens we use a variety of mechanical wedge action
grips, including manual, pneumatic and hydraulic, with flat serrated faces. In the case
of round specimens, we suggest using vee-serrated or threaded faces, dependent
upon the geometry of the specimen ends. To test fine wires we typically
use pneumatic cord and yarn grips that appropriately distribute the load in a long
section of the wire to avoid brakes in the clamping zone. Improper preparation of
specimens is often the reason for unsatisfactory test results. In order to ensure
accurate and precise test results, specimens should be machined carefully.

24
To guarantee accurate results, our series of Universal Testing Machines meet or
exceed the accuracy specifications requested by ASTM E 8. Bluehill® 3
Software provides standard functions to perform tensile tests easily and accurately.
For more complex test requirements that require changing the rate at different points
or for specific stressing or straining rates, we recommend using the Bluehill Metals
application module. This module also allows us to calculate results such as yield
point elongation, and upper and lower yield as directed by ASTM E 8.

We offer a range of extensometry solutions for tensile testing of metals. Our

extensometers meet or exceed the accuracy classifications by ASTM E 83. When
performing strain measurements, such as the strain corresponding to the yield
strength, we typically recommend our 2630 series of axial clip-on extensometers.
Non-contacting extensometers, such as the Automatic Video Extensometer 2 (AVE
2), allow us to determine the elongation at fracture without exposing the equipment
to damage due to the energy released.
The topics we included here are some of the main points of E8; however, due to the
complexities and enormity of ASTM E8, we recommend that you review the standard
to fully understand its requirements.

ASTM E 21

ASTM E 21 covers tensile testing methods to determine creep strength, tensile

strength, elongation and reduction of the area of metals at elevated temperatures.
The sizes of the specimens described in ASTM E 8 are usually suitable for the tests
of E 21. According to E 21, the specimens should be round as long as the dimensions
of the materials permit; some exceptions would be materials in sheets or strips. As
in E 8, the ratio of the length of the indicator and the diameter should be 4. Make
sure that the load is applied as axially as possible. To facilitate this, E 21
recommends using threaded ends in round specimens or an appropriate end
geometry to meet this requirement. When a rectangular test piece is used and there
is sufficient material, elongated flange ends can be used to place the jaws outside
the furnace. ASTM E 21 requires testing equipment that meets the accuracy
specified in ASTM E 4, along with jaws and a heating device that uses an electrical
resistance or a radiation mechanism. The air surrounding the specimen must have
atmospheric pressure conditions. An extensometer of class B-2, according to E 83,
should be used when determining the yield strength.

To ensure accurate results, our series of universal testing equipment meets or

exceeds the precision specifications required by ASTM E 21. When testing
rectangular specimens up to 350 ° C (660 ° F), our recommended solution includes

25
a series of high temperature mechanical wedge action jaws with serrated flat
surfaces. In the case of round specimens, we use serrated surfaces in V. Above the
mentioned temperature, we are successful using traction lengthening rods with
specimen holders that have female threads that coincide with the ends of the
specimen. With regard to the heating device, for temperature ranges of up to 600 °
C (1110 ° F) we usually use our environmental cameras of the 3119 series, and for
temperatures up to 1200 ° C (2200 ° F), our suggested solution is a oven, like the
split oven model SF-16 3.

ASTM A370

There are many rules that regulate testing of reinforcing rods (ASTM A370, ASM
A615, ASTM A996, BS4449 and EN 10002-1) The mechanical tests that set these
standards can be demanding for both operators and equipment. Therefore, when
performing tests with large reinforcing bars, our recommendation is to use a single
test frame instead of the traditional dual spaces. For this test we have used a
1500KN model, which has a capacity of 1500kN (337,500 lbf) and which adapts to
bars whose length is between 400 and 700 mm
This frame has an upper mounted hydraulic actuator that locates the loading area at
ground level. This significantly reduces the need to lift samples that are very heavy.
Additionally, the same equipment is capable of performing tension and compression
tests on the samples using the compression adapters for the jaws. This saves the
time it would take to replace large and heavy jaws. Attaching the compression fitting
and the bending fixture takes only a few minutes and involves only tightening a few
screws.
For the tensile test, wedge hydraulic jaws were used, because, due to the initial
clamping force, slippage in the grip on the irregular surface of the reinforced bar is
reduced. These hydraulic wedge jaws allow to adapt samples of diameter between
10mm (0.39 ") to 70mm (2.75"). The specific shape of the jaws of the jaws, allows
the perfect subjection of the sample.

In order to measure the value of the voltage, an automatic extensometer has been
used. The selected model (M300B) has an adjustable reference length between
10mm and 300mm (what is required for most applications of this type). This
extensometer is automatically fixed to the sample at the time of starting the test and
is released at a specific time of the same. Voltage data may be required to calculate
the modulus or yield.

26
Criteria for acceptance and rejection

1) If any tensile property of any tension test specimen is less than that specified, and
any part of the fracture is outside the middle third of the gage length as indicated by
scribe scratches marked on the specimen before testing, a retest shall be allowed.
2) If the results of an original tension specimen fail to meet the minimum
requirements and are within 14 MPa of the required tensile strength, within 7 MPa
of the required yield point, or within two percentage units of the required elongation,
a retest shall be permitted on two random specimens for each original tension
specimen failure from the lot. If all results of these retest specimens meet the
specified requirements, the lot shall be accepted.
3) If a bend test fails for reasons other than mechanical reasons or flaws in the
specimen as described in 11.1.11(4) and 11.1.11(5) below, a retest shall be
permitted on two random specimens from the same lot. If the results of both test
specimens meet the specified requirements, the lot shall be accepted. The retest
shall be performed on test specimens that are at air temperature, but not less than
160C.
4) If any test specimen fails because of mechanical reasons such as failure of testing
equipment or improper specimen preparation, it may be discarded and another
specimen taken.
5) If any test specimen develops flaws, it may be discarded and another specimen
of the same size bar from the same batch substituted.

Requirements, safety considerations and / or conditions to

perform the test

Use of Personal Safety Equipment: To avoid injuries during the use of the universal
machine, due to a fault or caused by the misuse of it, we use the Personal Protection
Equipment, to carry out the practice it is necessary that the operators have:
 Leather gloves.
 Glasses.
 Industrial Boots Overall
 In case the operator is female it is important that when operating the machine
do not have earrings, necklaces, rings and loose hair.
Prior to the test a very small mark should be made near one of the ends of the parallel
length. Using a pair of needle-pointed dividers set at the gauge length, an arc is
scribed with the mark as the center. After fracture. the broken test piece should be
placed in a fixing clamp and axial compressive force applied, preferably by means

27
of a screw I sufficient to hold the pieces firmly together during measurement.
A second arc of the same radius should then be scribed from the original centre, and
the distance between the two scratches measured by means of a measuring
microscope or other suitable instrument. In order to render the fine scratches more
easily visible, a suitable dye film may be applied to the test piece before testing

Materials, tools and equipment

Tension testing machine

Figure 16 Parts of Tension Testing Machine

28
 Figure 17 Universal testing machine

Tools

Figure 18 Vernier Caliper

General specimen
Test specimens shall be either substantially full size or machined, as prescribed in
the product specifications for the material being tested.

29
Figure 19 General specimen size

Figure 20 specimen examples

30
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