EXPERIMENTAL OPTIMISATION OF COMPOSITE TUBE

FOR INTERNAL PRESSURE PREDICTION

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

Of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

By

MOHAMMED FAHAD 160315736008

FARES WAHEED KHAN 160315736010
MOHAMMED AHMED 160315736028

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DECCAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Osmania University)
HYDERABAD
2018-2019
 DECCAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(A MINORITY INSTITUTION)
(AFFILIATED TO OSMANIAUNIVERSITY)
Estd.by : DAR-US-SALAM EDUCATIONAL TRUST
Dar-us Salam, Near Nampally, Hyderabad-500001.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled“EXPERIMENTAL OPTIMISATION OF

COMPOSITE TUBE FOR INTERNAL PRESSURE” being submitted

By

Mr. MOHAMMED FAHAD (160315736008)

Mr.FARES WAHEED KHAN (160315736010)
Mr.MOHAMMED AHMED (160315736028)
in partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical
Engineering (Mech) to the OSMANIA UNIVERSITY, Hyderabadduring academic year 2018-
2019 , who carried out the project work under the guidance and supervision.

The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other University or
Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Dr. MUHAMMED MUSHTAQ

AHAMAD
Associate professor Head of the Department
Dept. of Mech. Engineering Dept. of Mech. And prod Engineering

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would take this opportunity to thank Dr. M.A. Malik, Director, Deccan Group of
Institution and principal Deccan College of Engineering and Technology. for allowing us to
pursue this project in the college.

Also we thank Dr. R. Chandrasekaran, Head, Mechanical and Production Engineering

Department. for his mortal support and Encouragement. His kindness and Best wishes are
appreciable.

We thank our Project Guide/Supervisor Dr. MOHAMMAD MUSTHAK

AHAMMAD, Associat Professor, Mechanical and Production Engineering Department has
spent his valuable time in helping, Encouraging and guiding us during the entire course of our
Project Work. His Excellent Inspiration, Patience, Valuable Suggestions and Sustained Interest
have been memorable.

We also thank all the non-teaching staff of our Department who helped us in getting to
use the necessary equipment and tools required for this project.

Our Acknowledgement would be incomplete without expressing our whole hearted

thanks to our families and especially our parents for their constant Encouragement, support ,
Prayers and love they have bestowed upon us during our tough times in this project work

MOHAMMED FAHAD
FARES WAHEED KHAN
MOHAMMED AHMED

3
 ABSTRACT:

This experiment deals with the manufacturing and testing of E glass/Epoxy based
composite cylindrical shell. The Laminated cylindrical shells are being used in submarine,
underground mines, aerospace applications and other civil engineering applications. The
stiffened and unstiffened shells made up of metallic and laminated composite materials (large
diameter to thickness ratio) are extensively used in underwater, surface, air and space vehicles as
well as in construction of pressure vessels, storage vessels, storage bins and liquid storage tanks.
The geometric imperfections due to manufacturing processes takes dominant role in decreasing
the buckling load of cylindrical shells.

Pressure vessels are used for various industrial applications. To ensure safe operation of
pressure vessels, it is important to know its burst pressure. Burst pressure is the pressure at which
vessel burst/crack and internal fluid leaks. For light weight application pressure vessel are made
of composite material. Payload performance /speed /operating range depends up on weight. Use
of composites for pressure vessels improves performance and also offer significant amount of
material savings. Stacking sequence is very crucial to strength of composite pressure vessels.
In present study the influence of composite cylindrical shell diameter and stacking sequence on
tensile load has investigated and from the results the burst pressure for the composite shell is
predicted.

4
 Contents
List of figures 30
List of tables 12
Chapters Page
Numbers
CHAPTER 1 10
1 .Introduction 10
1.2 Plan of work 11
CHAPTER 2 12
2. Composite materials 12
2.1 Classifications of composites 13
 2.1.1 Polymer matrix composites 13

 2.1.2 Advantages of fiber reinforced composites 14

 2.1.3 Limitations of fiber reinforced composites 15

 2.1.4 Applications of composites 15

 2.1.4.1 Products of composite materials 16

 2.1.5 Overview 17

 2.1.6 Matrices 18

 2.1.7 Reinforcement 13

2.2 Fiber glass 20

 2.2.1 Manufacturing of fiber glass 20

 2.2.2 Properties of fiber glass 21

 2.2.3 Fabrication methods of fiber glass 23

 2.2.3.1 FRP Fabrication technology 23

 2.2.4 Emergence if major FRP systems 23

5
  2.2.5 Fabrication process 24

 2.2.5.1 Dough molding compound 24

 2.2.5.2 Compression molding technique 24

 2.2.5.3 Sheet molding compound 25

 2.2.5.4 Filament winding 26

 2.2.5.5 Injection Molding 29

 2.2.5.6 Compounding process 31

 2.2.5.7 Hand lay method 31

 2.2.5.8 Spray up technique 33

 2.2.5.9 FRP continuous paneling process 34

2.3 Composite shells 35

2.4 Application of Composite (glass fibre material) tubes 36

2.5 Taguchi method 37

CHAPTER 3 46

Problem identification 46

3.1 Material Selection 47

3.2 Specification of epoxy resin 48

CHAPTER 4
49

4.1 Manufacturing of composite laminated cylindrical shells 49

 4.1.1 Mandrels 49

4.2 Preparation of samples 49

6
  4.2.1 Procedure to prepare composite laminated cylindrical shells 49

CHAPTER 5 56

Results and Discussion 56

CHAPTER 6 73

6.1 Conclusion 73

6.2 Future scope 74

Terminology 76

References

LIST OF FIGURES

14
2.1 Types of fibres
2.3 Sheet moulding Compound. 25

2.5 Helical Wimding Machine 28

2.6 Polar Winding Machine 28

2.7 Special Purpose Winding Machine 28

2.8 Injection Moulding Machine Schematic 30

2.9 Hand lay Techniique Schematic 32

2.10 Spray Up Technique Schematic 33

34
2.11 FRP Continuous Panell Process schematic
2.4.1 Wind Turbine Coupling Glass Fibre 36

2.4.2 Tanlk Pressure Vessel Glass Fibre 36

2.4.3 Ventilation Glass Fibre Special Tube 36

2.4.4 Glass fibre anticorrosive pipes incl 45 degree elbow 37

7
2.4.5 Carbon fibre hydraulic cylinder 37

4.1 Mandrels made of PVC 49

4.2 Poly Vinyl alcohol viscous liquid applied on mandrel 50

4.3 Marking the fibre into the required dimension 51

4.4 Orientation of the fibre is determined using bevel protractor 51

4.5 The fibre is cut into the required dimension and orientation 52

4.6 Weighing of glass fibre on weighing machine 52

4.7 Tape winding on mandrel 53

4.8 A E-Glass/epoxy shell during test 53

4.9 The fixture got bend during the test 53

4.10 Another E-Glass/epoxy shell during test 55

4.11 The fixture got bend during the test 55

5.4 Response graph for Predicted Pressure 58

5.5 Response graph for Tensile strength 59

5.6 Program for one way ANOVA in MATLAB 60

5.7 Executing of Program for one way ANOVA in MATLAB 61

5.8 Results of one way ANOVA in MATLAB 62

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Properties of different type of fibre glass 22

2.2 Deign selection guideline 41

2.3 L9 Design Array 42

2.4 General ANOVA 44

3.1 Process Parameters with levels 46

3.2 Process Parameters arranged inL9 orthogonal array 46

8
3.3 Comparison of material for selection 47

3.4 Properties of material 47

5.1 Array of experimental results of L9 orthogonal 56

5.2 Response table for Predicted Pressure 57

5.3 Response table for S/N of Predicted Pressure 57

5.10 ANOVA table for responded raw data 63

9
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION:

A composite is when two or more different materials are combined together to create a
superior or unique material, or composite describes as reinforced plastics .An increasing number
of structural designs, especially in the aerospace, automobile, and petrochemical industries are
extensively utilizing fiber composite laminated plates and shells as structural elements. The
laminated orthotropic shell belongs to the composite shell category. One of the important factors
in the analysis of the layered shells is its individual layer properties, which may be anisotropic,
orthotropic or isotropic. A shell is a curved, thin walled structure. Two important classes of
shells are plates (shells which are flat when un-deformed) and membranes (shells whose walls
offer no resistance to bending). Shells may be made of a single homogeneous or anisotropic
material or may be made of layers of different materials.

The primary function of a shell may be to transfer loads from one of its edges to another,
to support a surface load, to provide a covering, to contain a fluid, to please the eye or a
combination of these. A thin shell is defined as a shell with a thickness which is small compared
to its other dimensions and in which deformations are not large compared to thickness. A
primary difference between a shell structure and a plate structure is that, in the unstressed state,
the shell structure has curvature as opposed to plates. Membrane action in a shell is primarily
caused by in-plane forces (plane stress), though there may be secondary forces resulting from
flexural deformations. Where a flat plate acts similar to a beam with bending and shear stresses,
shells are analogous to a cable which resists loads through tensile stresses. The ideal thin shell
must be capable of developing both tension and compression.

Thin shell structures are light weight constructions using shell elements. These elements
are typically curved and are assembled to large structures. Typical applications are fuselages of
aero planes, boat hulls and roof structures in some buildings. Shell structures are mainly used in
industrial applications such as automobile, civil, aerospace and petrochemical engineering.
Various types of shells are used in civil field such as conoid, hyperbolic paraboloid and elliptical
paraboloid shell. All are used for roofing to cover large column-free areas. Laminated
composites are such type of material which has high strength to weight and strength to stiffness

10
ratios. The mechanical properties of the laminated composites depend on the degree of
orthotropy of the layers, ratio of the transverse shear modulus to the in-plane shear modulus and
stacking sequence of laminates.

1.2 PLAN OF WORK:

design

manufacturing

testing

Results have been indicated that composite shells can be used by replacing metallic shells
due to light weight, non-corrosive shells.

11
 CHAPTER 2

2.COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

The importance of composite materials in today’s industry has grown to such standards
that it is put to use almost in all subjects of engineering and materials science. In recent years,
composite materials have found increasing applications in construction, aerospace and
automotive industries due to their good characteristics of light weight, improved strength,
corrosion resistance, controlled anisotropic properties, reduced manufacturing and maintenance
costs. However, there is a growing demand to improve on composite materials with reduction in
the cost of construction.

Epoxy resin is the most common class of thermosetting resin used in various applications
because of their high tensile strength and modulus, low shrinkage in cure, good chemical and
corrosion resistance, high adhesion and dimensional stability. Epoxy resins have been widely
used in practical applications such as adhesives, construction materials, composites, laminates
and coatings owing to their excellent mechanical properties, low cost, ease of processing, good
adhesion to many substrates, and good chemical resistance.

Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites) are

materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain
separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many
reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when
compared to traditional materials.

Typical engineered composite materials include:

 Composite building materials such as cements, concrete

 Reinforced plastics such as fiber-reinforced polymers
 Metal Composites

12
 Ceramic Composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges and structures such as boat
hulls, swimming pool panels, race car bodies, Aircrafts, Body Panels, shower stalls, bathtubs,
storage tanks, imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and counter tops. The most advanced
examples perform routinely on spacecraft in demanding environments.

Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fibre reinforced plastic or CFRP,

and glass-reinforced plastic or GRP. If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic
composites, short fibre thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced
thermoplastics. There are numerous thermoset composites, but advanced systems usually
incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix.

The advanced composite materials such as Graphite, Carbon, Kevlar and Glass with
suitable resins are widely used because of their high specific strength (strength/density) and high
specific modulus (modulus/density). The main difference between composite and an alloy are
constituent materials which are insoluble in each other and the individual constituents retain
those properties in the case of composites, where as in alloys, constituent materials are soluble in
each other and forms a new material which has different properties from their constituents.

2.1 Classification of composites:

Composite materials can be classified as:

(i) Polymer matrix composites
(ii) Metal matrix composites
(iii) Ceramic Matrix

2.1.1 Polymer matrix composites:

Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is
in the form of a fiber. The design of fiber-reinforced composites is based on the high strength
and stiffness on a weight basis. Specific strength is the ratio between strength and density.
Specific modulus is the ratio between modulus and density. Fiber length has a great influence on
the mechanical characteristics of a material. The fibers can be either long or short. Long
continuous fibers are easy to orient and process, while short fibers cannot be controlled fully for

13
proper orientation. Long fibers provide many benefits over short fibers. These include impact
resistance, low shrinkage, improved surface finish, and dimensional stability. However, short
fibers provide low cost, are easy to work with, and have fast cycle time fabrication procedures.
The characteristics of the fiber-reinforced composites depend not only on the properties of the
fiber, but also on the degree to which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix
phase.

The principal fibers in commercial use are various types of glass, carbon, graphite and
Kevlar. All these fibers can be incorporated into a matrix either in continuous lengths or in
discontinuous lengths as shown in the Fig 1.1. The matrix material may be a plastic or rubber
polymer, metal or ceramic. Laminate is obtained by stacking a number of thin layers of fibers
and matrix consolidating them to the desired thickness. Fiber orientation in each layer can be
controlled to generate a wide range of physical and mechanical properties for the composite
laminate.

Fig 2.1 Types of fibers

2.1.2 Advantages of fiber reinforced composites:

The advantages of composites over the conventional materials are

(i) High strength to weight ratio
(ii) High stiffness to weight ratio

14
(iii) High impact resistance
(iv) Better fatigue resistance
(v) Improved corrosion resistance
(vi) Good thermal conductivity
(vii) Low Coefficient of thermal expansion. As a result, composite structures may exhibit a better
dimensional stability over a wide temperature range.
(viii) High damping capacity.

2.1.3 Limitations of fiber reinforced composites:

The limitations of composites are

(i) Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is more complex than that of a metallic
structure
(ii) The design of fiber reinforced structure is difficult compared to a metallic structure, mainly
due to the difference in properties in directions
(iii) The fabrication cost of composites is high
(iv) Rework and repairing are difficult
(v) They do not have a high combination of strength and fracture toughness as
Compared to metals
(vi) They do not necessarily give higher performance in all properties used for material selection.

2.1.4 Applications of composites:

The common applications of composites are extending day by day. Nowadays they are
used in medical applications too. The other fields of applications are

(i) Automotive : Drive shafts, clutch plates, engine blocks, push rods, frames, Valve guides,
automotive racing brakes, filament–wound fuel tanks, fiber Glass/Epoxy leaf springs for heavy
trucks and trailers, rocker arm covers, suspension arms and bearings for steering system,
bumpers, body panels and doors

(ii) Aircraft: Drive shafts, rudders, elevators, bearings, landing gear doors, panels and floorings
of airplanes etc.

15
Space: payload bay doors, remote manipulator arm, high gain antenna, antenna ribs and struts
etc.

(iii) Marine: Propeller vanes, fans & blowers, gear cases, valves &strainers, condenser shells.

(iv) Chemical Industries: Composite vessels for liquid natural gas for alternative fuel vehicle,
racked bottles for fire service, mountain climbing, underground storage tanks, ducts and stacks
etc.

(v) Electrical & Electronics: Structures for overhead transmission lines for railways, Power line
insulators, Lighting poles, Fiber optics tensile members etc.

(vi) Sports Goods: Tennis rackets, Golf club shafts, Fishing rods, Bicycle framework, Hockey
sticks, Surfboards, Helmets and others.

2.1.4.1 Products of composite materials:

Fiber-reinforced composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high
cost) in high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh
loading conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat
and scull hulls, bicycle frames, swimming pool panels and racing car bodies. Other uses
include fishing rods, storage tanks, and baseball bats. The new Boeing 787 structure including
the wings and fuselage is composed largely of composites. Composite materials are also
becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery.

Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and heat shields for the re-
entry phase of spacecraft. It is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes
of spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch
vehicles. Furthermore disk brake systems of airplanes and racing cars are
using carbon/carbon material, and the composite material with carbon fibers and silicon
carbide matrix has been introduced in luxury vehicles and sports cars.

In 2006, a fiber-reinforced composite pool panel was introduced for in-ground swimming
pools, residential as well as commercial, as a non-corrosive alternative to galvanized steel.

16
In 2007, an all-composite military Humvee was introduced by TPI Composites Inc and Armor
Holdings Inc, the first all-composite military vehicle. By using composites the vehicle is lighter,
allowing higher payloads. In 2008, carbon fiber and DuPont Kevlar (five times stronger than
steel) were combined with enhanced thermoset resins to make military transit cases by ECS
Composites creating 30-percent lighter cases with high strength.

Pipes and fittings for various purposes like transportation of potable water, fire-fighting,
irrigation, seawater, desalinated water, chemical and industrial waste, and sewage are now
manufactured in glass reinforced plastics.

2.1.5 Overview:

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials.

There are two main categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one
portion of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement
materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special
mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces
material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety
of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an
optimum combination.

Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be
introduced to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into
the mould cavity or onto the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event,
after which the part shape is essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material,
this melding event can occur in various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification
from the melted state.

A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design

requirements. The principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen
matrix and reinforcement materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to
be produced. Large quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and
automated manufacturing technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower
capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate.

17
 Many commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a
resin solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw
ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most
common are known as polyester, vinylester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide,
polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also
commonly ground minerals. The various methods described below have been developed to
reduce the resin content of the final product, or the fibre content is increased. As a rule of thumb,
lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives a
final product with 40% resin and 60% fiber content. The strength of the product is greatly
dependent on this ratio.

2.1.6 Matrices:
Typically, most common polymer-based composite materials, including fiberglass,
carbon fiber, and Kevlar, include at least two parts, the substrate and the resin.Polyester resin
tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its weaknesses are that it
is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is also coated to help
preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications. Its hardener
is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide). When the peroxide is mixed with the
resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the curing reaction. Hardeners in
these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not re-appear unchanged at the
end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst.

Vinylester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin has lower
viscosity than polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often billed as being fuel
resistant, but will melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to be more resistant over time to
degradation than polyester resin, and is more flexible. It uses the same hardeners as polyester
resin (at a similar mix ratio) and the cost is approximately the same.

Epoxy resin is almost totally transparent when cured. In the aerospace industry, epoxy is
used as a structural matrix material or as a structural glue.

Shape memory polymer (SMP) resins have varying visual characteristics depending on
their formulation. These resins may be epoxy-based, which can be used for auto body and
outdoor equipment repairs; cyanate-ester-based, which are used in space applications; and

18
acrylate-based, which can be used in very cold temperature applications, such as for sensors that
indicate whether perishable goods have warmed above a certain maximum temperature. These
resins are unique in that their shape can be repeatedly changed by heating above their glass
transition temperature (Tg). When heated, they become flexible and elastic, allowing for easy
configuration. Once they are cooled, they will maintain their new shape. The resins will return to
their original shapes when they are reheated above their Tg. The advantage of shape memory
polymer resins is that they can be shaped and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material
properties. These resins can be used in fabricating shape memory composites.

Other matrices:

Common matrices include mud (wattle and daub), cement (concrete), polymers (fiber
reinforced plastics), metals and ceramics. Road surfaces are often made from asphalt
concrete which uses bitumen as a matrix. Unusual matrices such as ice are sometime proposed as
in pykecrete.

2.1.7 Reinforcement:

Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation. Thin fibers
can have very high strength, and provided they are mechanically well attached to the matrix they
can greatly improve the composite's overall properties.

Fiber-reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally
referred to as short fiber-reinforced materials and continuous fiber-reinforced materials.
Continuous reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure. The
woven and continuous fibre styles are typically available in a variety of forms, being pre-
impregnated with the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of various widths, plain
weave, harness satins, braided, and stitched.

The short and long fibers are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet
moulding operations. These come in the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also
be made from a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply /
laminate is achieved).

19
 Common fibers used for reinforcement include glass fibers, carbon fibers, cellulose
(wood/paper fiber and straw) and high strength polymers for example aramid.

2.2 FIBERGLASS

Fiberglass (or fibreglass) (also called glass-reinforced plastic, GRP, glass-fiber

reinforced plastic, or GFRP) is a fiber reinforced polymer made of a plastic matrix reinforced by
fine fibers of glass.

Fiberglass is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material. Although strength

properties are somewhat lower than carbon fiber and it is less stiff, the material is typically far
less brittle, and the raw materials are much less expensive. Its bulk strength and weight
properties are also very favorable when compared to metals, and it can be easily formed using
molding processes.

The plastic matrix may be epoxy, a thermosetting plastic (most often polyester or vinyl
ester) or thermoplastic.

Common uses of fiberglass include high performance aircraft (gliders), boats,

automobiles, baths, hot tubs, water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards and external
door skins.

2.2.1 Manufacturing of fiberglass

The manufacturing process for glass fibers suitable for reinforcement uses large furnaces
to gradually melt the silica sand, limestone, kaolin clay, fluorspar, colemanite, dolomite and
other minerals to liquid form. Then it is extruded through bushings, which are bundles of very
small orifices (typically 5–25 micrometers in diameter for E-Glass, 9 micrometers for S-Glass).
These filaments are thensized(coated) with a chemical solution. The individual filaments are now
bundled together in large numbers to provide a roving. The diameter of the filaments, as well as
the number of filaments in the roving determines its weight. This is typically expressed in yield-
yards per pound (how many yards of fiber in one pound of material, thus a smaller number
means a heavier roving, example of standard yields are 225yield, 450yield, 675yield) or in tex-
grams per km (how many grams 1 km of roving weighs, this is inverted from yield, thus a
smaller number means a lighter roving, examples of standard tex are 750tex, 1100tex, 2200tex).

20
 These rovings are then either used directly in a composite application such
as pultrusion, filament winding (pipe), gun roving (automated gun chops the glass into short
lengths and drops it into a jet of resin, projected onto the surface of a mold), or used in an
intermediary step, to manufacture fabrics such as chopped strand mat (CSM) (made of randomly
oriented small cut lengths of fiber all bonded together), woven fabrics, knit fabrics or uni-
directional fabrics.

2.2.2 Properties of fiberglass

An individual structural glass fiber is both stiff and strong in tension and compressionthat
is, along its axis. Although it might be assumed that the fiber is weak in compression, it is
actually only the long aspect ratio of the fiber which makes it seem so; i.e., because a typical
fiber is long and narrow, it buckles easily. On the other hand, the glass fiber is weak in shear that
is, across its axis. Therefore if a collection of fibers can be arranged permanently in a preferred
direction within a material, and if the fibers can be prevented from buckling in compression, then
that material will become preferentially strong in that direction.

Furthermore, by laying multiple layers of fiber on top of one another, with each layer
oriented in various preferred directions, the stiffness and strength properties of the overall
material can be controlled in an efficient manner. In the case of fiberglass, it is the plastic matrix
which permanently constrains the structural glass fibers to directions chosen by the designer.
With chopped strand mat, this directionality is essentially an entire two dimensional plane; with
woven fabrics or unidirectional layers, directionality of stiffness and strength can be more
precisely controlled within the plane.

A fiberglass component is typically of a thin "shell" construction, sometimes filled on the

inside with structural foam, as in the case of surfboards. The component may be of nearly
arbitrary shape, limited only by the complexity and tolerances of the mold used for
manufacturing the shell.

21
 Table 2.1 Properties of different types of Fiberglass

Specific Tensile strength Compressive strength

Material
gravity MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi)

Polyester resin (Not reinforced) 1.28 55 (7.98) 140 (20.3)

Polyester and Chopped Strand Mat

1.4 100 (14.5) 150 (21.8)
Laminate 30% E-glass

Polyester and Woven Rovings

1.6 250 (36.3) 150 (21.8)
Laminate 45% E-glass

Polyester and Satin Weave Cloth

1.7 300 (43.5) 250 (36.3)
Laminate 55% E-glass

Polyester and Continuous Rovings

1.9 800 (116) 350 (50.8)
Laminate 70% E-glass

E-Glass Epoxy composite 1.99 1,770 (257)

S-Glass Epoxy composite 1.95 2,358 (342)

22
2.2.3 Fabrication methods of fiberglass.

2.2.3.1 FRP fabrication technology.

FRP products can be fabricated can be fabricated in about ten basic process. These are:
1. DOUGH MOULDING COMPOUND (DMC)
2. SHEET MOULDING COMPOUND (SMC)
3. FILAMENT WINDING
4. INJECTION MOULDING
5. HAND LAY-UP
6. SPRAY-UP
PROCESSES FOR INTERMEDIATE CURE
7. FRP FOAM STRUCTURE
8. VACUUM BAG MOULDING
9. PRESSURE BAG MOULDING
However, only some of the above processes are being employed now.

2.2.4 Emergence of major frp systems

The hand lay-up technique of fabricating fiber-reinforced plastics refers to room

temperature cure in open moulds of a liquid thermostat resin after saturating it with suitable fiber
reinforcement. This technique became popular as follows. Engineering Under graduate in USA
with a flair for water based activities performed as a thesis. The construction of model boat hulls
using available fabric and liquid urea resins. When the Prime FRP materials became available
i.e., fiber glass cloth and polyester resin, he Performed a natural shift. His action helped to create
the FRP industry and paved the way for further improvement in materials and methods. Hence
the hand lay-up is till now the most applicable process it’s forth lead to the development of
spray-up technique bringing down the labor requirement and molding time.

Necessity is the mother of invention. Single thickness FRP laminates were too low in
flexural strength and elastic module. To overcome this difficulty two or more FRP skins were
laminated employing a foam material. This method is called bag molding.

23
 Recent improvement comprises, recombining resin and reinforcement to form SMC, a
moldable composite in sheet form. This eliminates the need of handling liquid resin at the press.
Let us discuss the fabrication techniques in greater detail.

2.2.5 Fabrication Processes

2.2.5.1 Dough Moulding Compound (DMC)

A dough-molding compound is also known as a premix. Premix is a fiber

reinforced, ready to use molding material. It is a pre blended combination of polyester resin,
chopped reinforcement and inorganic fillers.

Fig 2.2 Dough Moulding Compound Schematic

2.2.5.2 Compression Moulding Technique

It is commercially available in the form of a rope. Premix does not require preheating to
advance cure or drive off volatiles, as is the case with other thermoset compounds. The premix
can be molded either by compression molding or transfer molding or injection molding
technique of fabricating the premix.

The following are the advantages realized by using premix to fabricate FRP products.

24
 1. The cure rate is very rapid at temperature far below those for other thermoset compounds.

2. Premix has a very low shrinkage, which ranges from 0.004 inch to a minimum of
0.001 inch. Due to this the dimensional stability that can be achieved has a remarkable

3. Low molding pressure requirement is a big advantage with premix the higher pressure
required is at the lower end of the pressure range needed for other thermoset compounds.
Simple shapes can be molded at pressures as low as 100 psi. Thicker sections require
higher pressures ranging up to 1500 psi.

APPLICATIONS:

Telephones housing and receiver, picture tube masks for televisions, driving pulleys for
dynamo, and water pump of an automobile, pressure cooker handles, washing machine parts,
house-hold mixer casings etc.,

2.2.5.3 Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) or prepreg

The SMC process is one of the newer closed-mould processes used to produce fiber reinforced
plastic parts, particularly in the automotive industry. This is highly automated continuous
process.

Fig 2.3 Sheet Moulding Compound or Prepeg Schematic

25
 SHEET MOULDING TECHNIQUE:

Continues strand fiber roving is chopped into lengths of about 5cm and
deposited on a layer or resin-filler paste, which is traveling on a polyethylene film. Another
layer of resin-filler paste is deposited later on over the first layer to form a continuous
sandwich of fiber reinforcement and resin filler paste.

The sandwich is rolled into package-seized rolls. The SMC rolls are then placed
in a room are cut into the required dimensions for further fabrication into the final product
The advantages of SMC are as follows.

1. Greater control over mechanical properties

2. Lesser material inventory
3. The costly resin mixing and transfer equipment are eliminated.
4. This process offers the possibility for complete automation.

However, it suffers from the following disadvantages.

1. This process requires higher molding temperatures.

2. This process is limited to product, which are fairly flat.
3. FRP products by this process have lower tensile strength because the fiber pattern and
directional fiber alignment are disturbed during molding.

APPLICATIONS:

Fittings for fluorescent lights, cable junctions boxes, dash board and panels for
hoods of automobiles, gas masks, safety helmets etc.,

2.2.5.4 Filament Winding

Filament winding is the most efficient fabrication technique by which the highest
composite structural strengths can be achieved as compared to any other process available for
composite fabrication. This process can efficiently make any product, which has a surface of
revolution.

26
 In this process the fibers are oriented in the direction of principal stresses. For
products with complex geometry where it is impossible to wind along the direction of principal
stresses the fiber are wound at some other angle so that the stresses developed are balanced. Instead
of a single feeding point the fiber is fed from several feeding points.

FILAMENT WINDING:

Fig 2.4 Filament Winding Technique Schematic

The basic winding process involves winding continuous filaments under

controlled tension drawn from a spool mounted on a tension drawn from a spool mounted on a
rotating mandrel by a feeding point. The relative motion between the feeding point and mandrel
is adjusted such that the filaments are put along a pre-wound mandrel is either cured at room
temperature or at an elevated temperature in an oven. The molded part is then stripped from the
mandrel.

FILAMENT WINDING MACHINES:

For winding the resin-wetted filaments with precise winding angles, special purpose winding
machines are employed. Depending upon the patterns that they give, the winding machines can
be broadly classified into.

HELICAL WINDING MACHINE:

In this type of machine the mandrel over which the filament is wound rotates
while the carriage the feeding point for supplying filaments has a reciprocating motion.

27
 Fig 2.5 Helical Winding Machine.

POLAR WINDING MACHINES: In this machine after one revolution of the fiber around the
mandrel the mandrel is relatively rotated such that the next roving falls side by side, which is the
desired pattern of winding.

Fig 2.6 Polar Winding Machine

The distinct feature of polar winding machines is that the feeding point is also
provided with rotary motion.

SPECIAL PURPOSE WINDING MACHINES:

Fig 2.7 Special Purpose Winding Machine

28
 By employing these machines the production rate can be increased tremendously. The
production rate is augmented by using multiple winding heads rotating at different speeds.
By employing these machines different orientations can be achieved. The additional
feature with these machines is that the mandrel is also capable of linear movement.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Filament strength is fully utilized due to proper orientation.

2. Since winding of filaments is done under tension, excess resin is squeezed out.
This leads to lesser wastage.
3. Capital investment is lesser as compared to fabricating an identical product in metal.
4. The process can be fully automated.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. A product whose surface is not a surface of revolution cannot be wound efficiently.

APPLICATIONS:

Chemical and fuel storage tanks, pressure vessels, rocket motor cases, railways tank cars,
storage tanks for acids, alkalies, oils etc.

2.2.5.5 INJECTION MOULDING

Injection molding is the fabrication technique for fiber-reinforced thermoplastics

(FRTP). The most critical factor in molding is the resin temperature. High molding
temperatures cause the resin and the reinforcement to separate and to reducing the strengths of
the product. The input to the injection-molding machine is in the form of pellets of fiber-
reinforced thermoplastics. The pellets are obtained from the following below two processes.

COATING PROCESS:

In the coating process 6 to 8 strands of continuous reinforcing fiber are dye coated with
thermoplastic melt. The coated strand is then cooled and cut into pellets.

29
 Fig 2.8 Injection Moulding Machine Schematic

INJECTION MOULDING:

The feed mechanism meters out a constant amount of material for each molding
cycle. The hydraulic plunger pushes the plastic through the plasticizing chamber, which is a
heating cylinder, and then through the nozzle into the mould. The function of the torpedo or
spreader is to increase surface to mass ratio by reducing the c/s area of the passages and hence to
improve the rate of heat transfer in to the plastic.

The principal variables that must be controlled during the process are:

The amount of plastic introduced into the cylinder

 The pressure applied

 The plunger speed
 Temperature of the heating cylinder
 Temperature of the mould
 Plunger forward time
 Mould closing time
 Mould champing force
 Mould open time.

30
 ADVANTAGES:

 High production rate

 Lower labor costs
 Good surface finish
 Intricate shapes can be produced
 The process is highly automated

DISADVANTAGES:

 The high machine cost is justified only when large volumes of product are to be produced.
 Close control is necessary to produce quality products.

2.2.5.6 COMPOUNDING PROCESS

In the compounding process the thermoplastic polymer is mixed with fibers

in either single or twin-screw extrusion machines extruded and cut off during cooling to
form pellets. The equipment is provided with degassing vents to remove volatile components
from the fiber rein – reinforced compound.The fiber length in the compounding process is
shorter as compared to the coating process.

In India glass fiber reinforced polypropylene granules are produced by IPCL.

2.5.7 HAND LAY UP

When the operator deposits resin and reinforcements in a mould by hand or hand tools, he is said to
be making a hand lay-up molding.The different layers of reinforcement thoroughly wetted with resin
are placed one over the other to build up the desired thickness. Hand lay-up may be chosen as the
fabrication technique when

 Only one side of the product needs smooth finish

 Only slight variations in thickness are permissible.
 Only when labor charges are not prohibitively high

31
  The number of mouldings required is less.

The mould employed to obtain the molding may be made from materials like plastics, wood,
clay, plaster or plywood depending on the availability. To prevent the sticking of the plastic to
the mould-releasing agent like cellulose acetate, polyvinyl alcohol or candle wax is applied.

Fig 2.9 Hand Lay Up Technique Schematic

HAND LAYUP TECHNIQUE:

A coating of resin is made on the mould surface. Again a coating of resin is applied with
the help of a brush. This process is continued to build up the required thickness. The mould may
then be cured either in atmosphere or in an oven to enhance the curing rate. The product may
then be ejected.

ADVANTAGES:

 The process is simple and requires no costly machinery

 There is practically no restriction on the size of the mould
 The process is highly flexible and can be modified to cater to customer’s choice.

DISADVANTAGES:

 This process is labor-intensive and hence the associated labor costs are higher.
 It is not suitable for mass production.

32
APPLICATIONS:

Boats, briefcases, sanitary ware, safety helmets, automotive components etc.

2.2.5.8 SPRAY UP TECHNIQUE

The spray up technique is a remarkable step in the direction of mechanization of

hand lay-up molding. The fiber is continuously fed into a chopper. This roving is cut into pieces
of about 50mm length. These pieces are then ejected into resin steams directed onto the mould.
The resin recoats the strands and the operator directs the spray gun onto the mould. The different
types of spray guns are employed. The first type has two feeder types, one carrying the resin mixed
with hardener and another one having resin premixed with accelerator. In the second type of gun, a
single feeder pipe carries the mixture of a pre acceleration resin with hardener added it.

Fig 2. 10Spray up Technique Schematic

ADVANTAGES:

 This method employee roving which are the cheapest forms of reinforcements.
 Labor charges/kg of finished material are lesser compared to hand lay-up
technique.

33
  More suitable for continuous production as compared to hand lay-up
technique.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Considerable investment on machinery.

 The quality of the final product is highly dependent on operator's skill.
 This method cannot be applied for epoxy resins that are toxic.

2.2.5.9 FRP CONTINUOUS PANELING PROCESS

Continuous processing is based on the concept of making the best product at the lowest possible
cost. This system incorporates the following elements into an inline operation.

Fig 2.11 FRP Continuous Paneling Process Schematic

CONTINUOUS PANELING PROCESS

 Mat formation from roving.

 Impregnation of mat with resin.
 Consolidation of the material into an encased package
 Configuration of the package to predetermined contour.
 Solidification of the resin.
 Separation of issuing continuous ribbon of product into individual sized panels.

34
ADVANTAGES:

 Uniformity of product.
 Efficient use of raw material.
 High production capacity.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Unsuitable for small and medium scale production.

 The process efficiency is directly dependent on operator skill.

APPLICATIONS:

Flame retardant panels, roofing sheets etc.

2.3 Composite shells:

The use of laminated composite shells in many engineering applications has been
expanding rapidly in the past four decades due to their higher strength and stiffness to weight
ratios when compared to most metallic materials. Composite shells now constitute a large
percentage of recent aerospace or submarine structures. They are used increasingly in areas such
as automotive engineering, biomedical engineering and other applications.

Literature on composite shell research can be found in many national and international
conferences and journals. A recent article focused on the recent research done on the dynamic
behavior of composite shells wherein problems of free vibration, shock, wave propagation,
dynamic stability, damping and viscoplastic behavior related to laminated shells are discussed.
Several review articles on the subject, such as Qatu Kapania, Noor and Burton , Noor et al.,and
Soldatos covered much of the research done in past decades. Computational aspects of the
research were covered by Noor and Burton, Noor et al. and Noor and Venneri. Carrera presented
a historical review of zigzag theories for multilayered plates and shells. He also reviewed the
theories and finite elements for multilayered, anisotropic, composite plates and shells.

35
2.4 APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE TUBES

2.4.1Windturbine coupling glass fiber

2.4.2 Tank presseure vessel glass fiber

2.4.3 Ventilation glass fiber speical tube

36
 2.4.4 Glass fiber anticorrosive pipes incl 45 degree elbow

2.4.5 Carbonfiber hydraulic cylinder

2.5 Taguchi method

Dr. Taguchi of Nippon Telephones and Telegraph Company, Japan has developed a
method based on " ORTHOGONAL ARRAY " experiments which gives much reduced "
variance " for the experiment with " optimum settings " of control parameters. Thus the marriage
of Design of Experiments with optimization of control parameters to obtain BEST results is
achieved in the Taguchi Method. "Orthogonal Arrays" (OA) provide a set of well balanced
(minimum) experiments and Dr. Taguchi's Signal-to-Noise ratios (S/N), which are log functions
of desired output, serve as objective functions for optimization, help in data analysis and
prediction of optimum results.

37
 Taguchi Method treats optimization problems in two categories.

A] STATIC PROBLEMS :

Generally, a process to be optimized has several control factors which directly decide the
target or desired value of the output. The optimization then involves determining the best control
factor levels so that the output is at the the target value. Such a problem is called as a "STATIC
PROBLEM".

This is best explained using a P-Diagram which is shown below ("P" stands for
Process or Product). Noise is shown to be present in the process but should have no effect
on the output! This is the primary aim of the Taguchi experiments - to minimize
variations in output even though noise is present in the process. The process is then said
to have become ROBUST.

[B] DYNAMIC PROBLEMS :

If the product to be optimized has a signal input that directly decides the output, the
optimization involves determining the best control factor levels so that the "input signal / output"
ratio is closest to the desired relationship. Such a problem is called as a
"DYNAMICPROBLEM". This is best explained by a P-Diagram which is shown below. Again,
the primary aim of the Taguchi experiments - to minimize variations in output even though noise

38
is present in the process- is achieved by getting improved linearity in the input/output
relationship.

STEPS IN TAGUCHI METHOD:

A design is selected based on the experimental objective and the number of

factorsThe choice of an experimental design depends on the objectives of the experiment and the
number of factors to be investigated.

39
Experimental Design Objectives

Types of designs are listed here according to the experimental objective they meet.

Comparative objective:
If you have one or several factors under investigation, but the primary goal of your
experiment is to make a conclusion about one a-priori important factor, (in the presence of,
and/or in spite of the existence of the other factors), and the question of interest is whether or not
that factor is "significant", (i.e., whether or not there is a significant change in the response for
different levels of that factor), then you have a comparative problem and you need a comparative
design solution.

 Screening objective: The primary purpose of the experiment is to select or screen out the
few important main effects from the many less important ones. These screening designs
are also termed main effects designs.

 Response Surface (method) objective: The experiment is designed to allow us to

estimate interaction and even quadratic effects, and therefore give us an idea of the
(local) shape of the response surface we are investigating. For this reason, they are
termed response surface method (RSM) designs. RSM designs are used to:

o Find improved or optimal process settings

o Troubleshoot process problems and weak points
o Make a product or process more robust against external and non-controllable
influences. "Robust" means relatively insensitive to these influences.

 Optimizing responses when factors are proportions of a mixture objective: If you

have factors that are proportions of a mixture and you want to know what the "best"
proportions of the factors are so as to maximize (or minimize) a response, then you need
a mixture design.

 Optimal fitting of a regression model objective: If you want to model a response as a

mathematical function (either known or empirical) of a few continuous factors and you

40
 desire "good" model parameter estimates (i.e., unbiased and minimum variance), then
you need a regression design.

Summary table for choosing an experimental design for comparative, screening,

and response surface designs.

TABLE 2.2 Design Selection Guideline

Number
Comparative Screening Response Surface
of
Objective Objective Objective
Factors

1-factor completely
1 _ _
randomized design

Central composite or Box-

2-4 Randomized block design Full or fractional factorial
Behnken

Fractional factorial or Screen first to reduce

5 or more Randomized block design
Plackett-Burman number of factors

Three-level, mixed-level and fractional factorial designs:

Mixed level designs have some factors with, say, 2 levels, and some with 3 levels or 4
levelsThe 2k and 3k experiments are special cases of factorial designs. In a factorial design, one
obtains data at every combination of the levels. The importance of factorial designs, especially 2-
level factorial designs, was stated by Montgomery (1991): It is our belief that the two-level
factorial and fractional factorial designs should be the cornerstone of industrial experimentation
for product and process development and improvement. He went on to say: There are, however,
some situations in which it is necessary to include a factor (or a few factors) that have more than
two levels.

This section will look at how to add three-level factors starting with two-level designs,
obtaining what is called a mixed-level design. We will also look at how to add a four-level factor
to a two-level design. The section will conclude with a listing of some useful orthogonal three-

41
level and mixed-level designs (a few of the so-called Taguchi "L" orthogonal array designs), and
a brief discussion of their benefits and disadvantages.

L9 design:

Table 2.3 L9 Design Array

Advantages and Disadvantages of Three-Level and Mixed-Level "L"Designs

Advantages and disadvantages of three-level mixed-level designs The good features of

these designs are:

They are orthogonal arrays. Some analysts believe this simplifies the analysis and
interpretation of results while other analysts believe it does not.

 They obtain a lot of information about the main effects in a relatively few number of
runs.

42
  You can test whether non-linear terms are needed in the model, at least as far as the three-
level factors are concerned.

On the other hand, there are several undesirable features of these designs to consider:

 They provide limited information about interactions.

They require more runs than a comparable 2k-pdesign, and a two-level design will often
suffice when the factors are continuous and monotonic (many three-level designs are used when
two-level designs would have been adequate).

Analysis of Variance:

The purpose of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) is to determine which cutting

parameters significantly affect the quality characteristic (Ra).

Total variance = between systems variance + variance due to the errors.

It follows that: Total sum = Sum of squares + Sum of squares

of squares between systems of errors
(SST) (SSSys) (SSE)

In practice we transpose this equation and use: SSE = SST - SSSys.

Calculation of Sums of Squares:

The 'square' for each case is (x - x )2 where x is the value for that case and x is the mean. The

'total sum of squares' is therefore   x  x  . The classical method for calculating this sum is to
2

tabulate the values; subtract the mean from each value; square the results; and finally sum the
squares. The use of a statistical calculator is preferable!

In the lecture on summary statistics we saw that the standard deviation is calculated by:

 x  x 
2

so   x  x  =
2
sn  ns
2
n
with s from the calculator using [xn]
n

43
  x  x 
2

so   x  x  =  n
2
  1 s n  1
2
or s n  1 with s from the calculator using [xn-1]
n 1

Both methods estimate exactly the same value for the total sum of squares.

TotalSS Input all the data individually and output the values for n , x and n from the
2 2
calculator in SD mode. Use these values to calculate  n
and n n .

SSSys Calculate n and x for each of the management systems separately ;Input as frequency
data, (n), in your calculator and output n, x and n .

SSE is found by difference SSE = SST - SSSys

Table 2.4 General ANOVA (for k groups, total sample size N)

Source S.S d.f. M.S.S. F

SSG MSG
Between groups SSG k–1  MSG  F
k 1 MSE

SSE
Errors SSE (N-1) - (k-1)  MSE
N  k

Total SST N–1

Method:

 Fill in the total sum of squares, SST, and the between groups sum of squares, SSG, after
calculation; find the sum of squares due to the errors, SSE, by difference.

 the degrees of freedom, d.f., for the total and the groups are one less than the total number of
values and the number of groups respectively; find the error degree of freedom by difference
the mean sums of squares, M.S.S., is found in each case by dividing the sum of squares, SS,
by the corresponding degrees of freedom.

44
 The test statistic, F, is the ratio of the mean sum of squares due to the differences between the
group means and that due to the errors.

45
 CHAPTER 3

In present study the composite cylindrical shell is selected and design & optimization of
two influential manufacturing parameters, such as cylindrical shell diameter and stacking
sequence were considered, each of which has three different levels (high, medium and low
levels) as shown in table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Process Parameters with levels

Parameters/Levels L1 L2 L3
P1 (Diameter of mandrel -mm) 76.2 101.2 152.4
P2 (Stacking Sequence) [90/90/90] [90/45/90] [45/45/45]

To increase the experimental efficiency, the L9 mixed orthogonal array table in the
Taguchi quality design is prepared as shown in table 3.2.

Table 3.2. Process Parameters arranged in L9 orthogonal Array:

Experiment No. P1 (Diameter of mandrel -mm) P2 (Stacking Sequence)

1 76.2 [90/90/90]
2 76.2 [90/45/90]
3 76.2 [45/45/45]
4 101.2 [90/90/90]
5 101.2 [90/45/90]
6 101.2 [45/45/45]
7 152.4 [90/90/90]
8 152.4 [90/45/90]
9 152.4 [45/45/45]

By considering the parameters mentioned in table3.2 the composite cylindrical shells

were prepared

46
3.1 Material selection:

From the table 3.3 the E-glass was considered as fiber material for its cheaper cost and
lower weight compared with steel and aluminum. Epoxy (LAPOX L-12) is considered as matrix
and suitable hardener of (K-6) was used for curing of resin at room temperature. The properties
of selected material are shown in table.

Table 3.3. Comparison of material for selection:

Table 3.4.Properties of material.

S.No. Property Unit value

1 Flexural strength Kg/mm2 40-50

2 Impact strength KJ/mm2 100-150

3 Modulus of elasticity Kg/mm2 2500-3500

4 Water absorption % w/w 0.020-0.20

.
5 Martens value c 100-130

47
3.2 Specifications of resins and hardener:

Lapox L-12

Epoxide equivalent gm/eq 182-192

Epoxy value eq/kg 5.2-5.5

Viscosity at 250c mpa.s 9000-12000

Hardener K-6

Visual appearance Pale yellow liquid

Refractive index at 250c 1.4940 – 1.5000

Water content 1% max

Shear strength on A1 alloy lap joint 1:4 kgmm2 min

Processing parameters

Lapox L-12 100 pbw

Hardener K-6 10 -12 pbw

Viscosity at 200c mPa:s 5,000 – 8,000

Pot life at 200c Hrs ½-1

Lapox L-12 and Hardener K-6 can be mixed easily at room temperature.

48
 CHAPTER -4

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

4.1MANUFACTURING OF COMPOSITE LAMINATED CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

4.1.1 MANDRELS:

Mandrels of about 76.2mm, 101.2mm, and 152.4mm in diameter made of PVC were
selected because they were readily available in market as shown in the figure below .

Fig 4.1 mandrels made of PVC

4.2 Preparations of samples:

4.2.1 Procedure to prepare composite laminated cylindrical shells.

In the present work composite templates are prepared as per the required dimensions
according to the required dimensions the glass fiber mat has been cut into various orientations by
making use of different mechanical equipment and measuring equipment .the mandrel surface is
cleaned thoroughly and poly vinyl alcohol viscous liquid is applied on the surface of the mandrel
uniformly and left for drying about 15 minutes as shown in figure 1 this liquid creates an

49
invisible film which works as impervious layer prevents sticking to the mandrel surface as shown
in fig 4.2

Fig 4.2 Poly vinyl alcohol viscous liquid applied on mandrel

After drying of polyvinyl alcohol viscous liquid, a glass fiber mat which was cutted as
per the required dimension is placed on a flat surface resin is applied uniformly on the mat after
completion of distribution of resin on to the layer one end of first layer is sticked upon to the
mandrel and mandrel is rotated in forward direction by pressing .the same process have done for
various orientations of sandwich composite laminated shells and finally cut the laminated shells
by using cutter machine (or) hacksaw into a require ASTM standard dimensions.

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR THE PREPARATION OF COMPOSITE

LAMINATED CYLINDRICAL SHELLS IS SHOWN IN FIGURES BELOW:

Initially required dimensions marked on the E-Glass fibre mat by using steel rule as
shown is figure 4.3.

50
 Fig: 4.3 Marking the fibre in to the required dimension.

By the help of Bevel protractor the helical angles are maintained in the fibre mat for different
orientations to be wound on the mandrel.

Fig 4.4. Orientation of the fibre is determined using bevel protractor

Fibre mat is prepared as E-Glass tapes as per the mandrel required dimensions marked on the
mat as shown in figure 4.5.

51
Fig 4.5. The Fibre is cut into the required dimensions and orientation

Fig 4.6 Weighing of glass fiber on weighing machine

52
 The Weight of the E-Glass fiber on the weighing machine are noted for the mixture of
resin and hardener. The ratio maintained for fibre and resin is 1:1 and the ratio maintained for
resin and hardener is 1:10

E-Gglassfiber weight is 128gm and Epoxy Resin weight is also 128 gm whereas the
hardener mixed in resin will be 12.8 gm. Mix the resin and hardener in a jar and stir it, and start
applying it on to the tape by means of paint brush and wind the tape on the mandrel as shown in
the figure 4.7.

Fig: 4.7 Tape winding on mandrel

Stick one of the end of the layer on the mandrel and start rolling a mandrel by pressing it
in forward direction. Same procedure is repeated for all the shells by arranging layers in different
angles for each shell as mentioned in the table 3.2 and finally after completion of all the
procedure shells are left for curing. After curing of shells the mandrels were removed.

53
4.8 A E-glass/epoxy shell during testing

4.9 The fixture got bend during test.

54
 4.10 A E-glass/epoxy shell during testing

4.11 The fixture got bend during test.

From the above figures we can observed that the fixtures were bended during the testing. So that
the experimental loads and deflections were considered before bending of the fixture.

55
 CHAPTER 5

Below table shows two parameters p1 and p2 i.e., diameter of mandrel (mm) and stacking
sequence and their compression strength after performing Tensile test.

S/N ratio is calculated by using the following formula.

s 1 1
= − log [∑ 2 ]
n n y

Array Table 5.1 experimental results of L9 orthogonal

Load Predicted
Experiment P2 (Stacking S/N Deflection
P1 (Diameter of applied Pressure
No. Sequence) Ratio (mm)
mandrel -mm) (Kg-F) (N/mm2)
1 76.2 [90/90/90] 2368.21 23208.46 8.73 28.5
2 76.2 [90/45/90] 2357.63 23104.77 8.73 36.25
3 76.2 [45/45/45] 2470.31 24209.04 8.77 31
4 101.2 [90/90/90] 2303.21 22571.46 8.71 47
5 101.2 [90/45/90] 2092.81 20509.54 8.62 46.5
6 101.2 [45/45/45] 2898.89 28409.12 8.91 52
7 152.4 [90/90/90] 2215.75 21714.35 8.67 81
8 152.4 [90/45/90] 2435.37 23866.63 8.76 83
9 152.4 [45/45/45] 1652.91 16198.52 8.42 74

The below tabular column 5.2 shows the average of Tensile strength is calculated by
using the following sequence such as

[90/90/90] + [90/45/90] + [45/45/45]

L1 =
3

23208.46 + 23104.7 + 24209.04

L1 =
3

L1=23507.42

56
And similarly L2 and L3 of parameter p1 (diameter of mandrel) is calculated and then L1, L2
L3for parameter p2 (stacking sequence) is calculated by using the following sequence.

Table 5.2 Response table for Predicted Pressure (N/mm2)

Parameters/Levels L1 L2 L3

P1 (Diameter of
23507.42 23830.04 20593.1647
mandrel)

P2 (Stacking
22498.0887 22493.646 22938.89
Sequence)

Table 5.3 Response table for S/N ratio of Predicted Pressure (N/mm2)

Parameters/Levels L1 L2 L3

P1 (Diameter of
8.74 8.75 8.62
mandrel)

P2 (Stacking
8.70 8.70 8.70
Sequence)

[90/90/90] + [90/45/90] + [45/45/45]

L1 =
3

8.73 + 8.73 + 8.77

L1 =
3

L1=8.74

57
 Figure5.4 explain the response graph for Predicted Pressure which is obtained by taking
levels L1,L2 and L3 on x-axis and Predicted Pressure on y-axis.

In the graph blue line indicates p1(diameter of mandrel) and red line indicates p2(stacking
sequence). By analysing the graph we noticed that when the diameter of mandrel is 4
inches,Predicted Pressure is more.

From the line p2(stacking sequence) we noticed that Predicted Pressure is more when Helix
layers were wounded i.e, 45/45/45.

Fig5.4 Response graph for Predicted Pressure

Figure 5.5 shows the response graph for S/N ratio of Predicted Pressure,from this graph
we noticed that the value of S/N ratio is more when diameter of mandrel is 4 inches. In the graph
red line indicates that S/N ratio is more when Hoop’s and Helix combination were wounded
i.e,(45/45/45).

58
 Fig 5.5 Response graph for S/N ratio Tensile strength

Below figures 5.6 and 5.7 shows how the program is executed in MATLAB

59
Fig 5.6Program for One way ANOVA in MATLAB

60
Fig 5.7Executing of Program for One way ANOVA in MATLAB

61
 Fig 5.8Results of One way ANOVA in MATLAB

Analysis of Variance:

The purpose of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) is to determine which Tensile

strength significantly affects the quality characteristic.

Table 5.4 shows the results of ANOVA analysis of raw data for Tensile strength. From
Table 5.4, it is apparent that the F values p1 (diameter of mandrel) and p2 (stacking
sequence) are all less than F0.01, 2, 4 = 4.325

So we conclude that, assumed parameters p1 (diameter of mandrel) p2 (stacking

sequence) are not significant parameters affecting Predicted pressure.

62
 Table 5.9 ANOVA table for responded raw data

Source of Sum of Degree of Mean of F Value

Variation square Freedom square

P1 (Diameter 19074322.4 2 9537161.2 0.58

of mandrel)
P2 (Stacking 392571.9 2 196286 0.01
Sequence)
Error 65214453.9 4 16303613.5

Total 84681348.2 8

In the above chapter tensile test (UTM) has been done and the results obtained were
furnished in the form of Data Sheets and the output screen shots and the results were published
by performing these testing in the LUCID LABORATORIES PRIVATE LIMITED, Hyderabad
are as follows.

63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
CHAPTER 6
6.1 CONCLUSIONS:

The design and manufacturing of E-Glass fiber based cylindrical shell with epoxy resin
on circular cross section mandrel was successfully manufactured using hand layup method at
room temperature and then tested on UTM for analyzing the Pressure values of shells made by
considering two parameters namely p1(diameter of mandrel) and p2(stacking sequence ).By the
Tensile test results obtained we came to know that when the diameter of mandrel is 4 inch,
Radial Tensile strength is more. When Helix layers were separately wounded i.e, 45/45/45 the
Radial Tensile strength is more. By the analysis of varience we also concluded that, assumed
parameters p1 (diameter of mandrel) and p2 (stacking sequence) are not significant parameters
affecting the Radial Tensile strength.

6.2 Future scope:

More parameters can be considered for optimization and significance analysis (like
Length of the shell, contour of the shell, type of resin, type of fibre etc…)

73
TERMINOLOGY:
 Composite: A substance consisting of two or more materials, insoluble in one or
another, which are combined to form a useful engineering material possessing certain
properties not possessed by the constituents..
 Fabrication: The process of manufacturing forming, constructing or assembling a
product or component.
 Manufacturing: The process of converting raw materials, components,
or parts into finished goods that meet a customer's expectations or specifications.

 Buckling: is a mathematical instability that leads to a failure modeWhen a structure is

subjected to compressive stress
 Fiber: one or more filaments in an ordered assemblage.
 Lay up (n): i) the stack of piles in a specified sequence and orientation before cure or
consolidation; ii) the complete stack of piles, bagging material, breather material, and so
on before cure or consolidation; and iii) a description of the composite materials,
geometry, and so on of a laminate.
 Lay up (v): To stack plies of material in specified sequence and orientation.
 Laminate: Any fiber or fabric reinforced composite consisting of laminate (plies) with
one or more orientation with respect to some reference direction.
 Matrix: The continuous constituents or a composite material surrounds or engulfs
embedded filler or reinforcement.
 Matrix content: The amount of matrix present in a composite expressed either as a
percent by weight or percent by volume. For polymer matrix composites this is resin
content.
 Mandrel: The support structure that holds the laminate or lay up during laminate
consolidation process.
 Ply: (in laminar composites) the constituent single layer as used in fabricating, or
occurring within a composite structure.
 Pre peg: the admixture of fibrous reinforcement and polymeric matrix used to fabricate
composite materials. Its form may be sheet, tape or tow for thermosetting matrices, it has
been partially cured to a controlled viscosity called “B stage”.

74
 Reinforcement: In a composite material, the discrete constituent of a composite material,
either fiber or particle, which is contained within the matrix, with a purpose of increasing
the strength, or stiffness, or both.
 Resin: A solid or pseudosolid organic material often or high molecular weight, which
exhibits a tendency to flow when subjected to stress, usually has a softening or melting
range, and usually fractures conchoidally.
 Roving: In fibrous composites, large filament count tow.
 Thermoplastic: A plate that repeatedly can be soften by heating and hardened by cooling
through a temperature range characteristic of the plastic, and that in the softened state can
be shaped by flow into articles by molding or extrusion.
 Thermo set: A class of polymers that when cured using heat, chemical or other means,
change into substantially infusible and insoluble material.
 Winding: A process in which continuous material is applied under controlled tension to
form in a predetermined geometric relationship to make a structure. A matrix material to
bind the fibers together may be added before, during or after winding. Tape winding is
the most common type.

75
REFERENCES:

1. M. S. Qatu, “Vibration of Laminated Shells and Plates,” Elsevier, Amsterdam,

2004.
2. M. S. Qatu, “Recent Research Advances in the Dynamic Behavior of Shells:
1989-2000, Part 1: Laminated Composite Shells,” Applied Mechanics Reviews,
Vol. 55, No. 4, 2002, pp. 325-350. doi:10.1115/1.1483079
3. M. S. Qatu, R. W. Sullivan and W. Wang, “Recent Research Advances in the
Dynamic Behavior of Composite Shells: 2000-2009,” Composite Structures, Vol.
93, No. 1, 2010, pp. 14-31. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2010.05.014
4. M. S. Qatu, “Accurate Theory for Laminated Composite Deep Thick Shells,”
International Journal of Solids and Structures, Vol. 36, No. 19, 1999, pp. 2917-
2941. doi:10.1016/S0020-7683(98)00134-6
5. P. K. Kapania, “Review on the Analysis of Laminated Shells,” Journal of
Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 111, 1989, pp. 88-96.
6. A. K. Noor and W. S. Burton, “Assessment of Computational Models for
Multilayered Composite Shells,” Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol. 43, No. 4,
1990, pp. 67- 97.
7. A. K. Noor and W. S. Burton, “Computational Models for High-Temperature
Multilayered Composite Plates and Shells,” Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol.
45, No. 10, 1992, pp. 419-446. doi:10.1115/1.3119742
8. A. K. Noor, W. S. Burton and J. M. Peters, “Assessment of Computational
Models for Multilayered Composite Cylinders,” International Journal of Solids
and Structures, Vol. 27, No. 10, 1991, pp. 1269-1286. doi:10.1016/0020-
7683(91)90162-9
9. K. P. Soldatos, “Mechanics of Cylindrical Shells with Non-Circular Cross-
Section,” Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol. 52, No. 8, 1999, pp. 237-274.
doi:10.1115/1.3098937
10. A. K. Noor, W. S. Burton and C. W. Bert, “Computational Models for Sandwich
Panels and Shells,” Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol. 49, No. 3, 1996, pp. 155-
200. doi:10.1115/1.3101923

76
11. A. K. Noor and S. L. Venneri, “High-Performance Computing for Flight
Vehicles,” Proceeding of the Symposium of Computer Systems Science and
Engineering, Washington DC, 7-9 December 1992, pp. 1-4.
12. E. Carrera, “Historical Review of Zig-Zag Theories for Multilayered Plates and
Shells,” Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol. 56, No. 3, 2003, pp. 287-309.
doi:10.1115/1.1557614
13. E. Carrera, “Theories and Finite Elements for Multilayered, Anisotropic,
Composite Plates and Shells,” Journal of Archives of Computational Methods in
Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2002, pp. 87-140. doi:10.1007/BF02736649
14. J. N. Reddy, “Mechanics of Laminated Composite Plates and Shells: Theory and
Analysis,” 2nd Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003.
15. J. Ye, “Laminated Composite Plates and Shells: 3D Modeling,” Springer,
London, 2003. doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-0095-9
16. C. Y. Lee, “Geometrically Correct Laminated Composite Shell Modeling,” VDM
Verlag, Lagos, 2008.

77