SOILS

prof. dr. ir. André A. A. Molenaar

March 16, 2019

Vermelding onderdeel organisatie

Composition of a soil

Particles; gradation,
characteristics
of the fines

Voids

Moisture

March 16, 2019 2

Idealized three phase soil system
Dry density
d = Ws / V

Moisture content
w = Ww / Ws
Void ratio
e = Vv / Vs

Porosity
n = Vv / V = 1 / (1 + e)

Degree of saturation
Sr = Vw / Vv

March 16, 2019 3

Three physical states of soil
aggregate mixtures

High stability when High stability when High stability when

confined confined confined AND dry
No cohesion High cohesion when High cohesion when
dry dry, low when wet
High angle of internal High angle of internal No angle of internal
friction friction friction when wet
Not affected by Moderately affected by Greatly affected by
moisture conditions moisture conditions moisture conditions
Very difficult to Moderately dificult to Not difficult to compact
compact compact at right moisture level
March 16, 2019 4
 Previous slide indicated importance of
gradation and characteristics of the fines

March 16, 2019 5

 Collapsing soil

House of cards is kept

together by electrical
bonds between
particles. Excessive
moisture and dynamic
loads might result in
catastrophic failure.

One can recognize these soils by knowing bulk density of the

soil and specific density of the grains
March 16, 2019 6
Particle size distribution curves
for sands and gravels

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Fuller curve

• If particle size distribution curve is according to

Fuller, then the particles fit so nice together
that one has the densest packing and so the
highest stability.
• Equation: px = (Dx / Dmax)
px = percentage by mass having
diameter smaller than Dx
Dmax = maximum particle size

March 16, 2019 8

Particle size distribution curves
for sands, silts and clays

March 16, 2019 9

 Peptisator might be needed to seperate
fine particles from each other. For details
see lecture notes.

March 16, 2019

10

Vermelding onderdeel organisatie

Important ASTM sieve sizes

• No 200 = 75 m
• No 40 = 425 m
• No 10 = 2 mm

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Characterisation of the fine particles

• From experience we know that clays “react”

with water. They are hard and stiff when dry
and muddy when wet.
• We also know that not each clay reacts
the same.
• Sensitivity of fine grained materials to changes
in moisture content is determined by means of
plasticity (viscosity/consistency) tests.
• The liquid limit and plastic limit are called
Atterberg’s limits.

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Atterberg limits

• Determined on material passing No 40 sieve

(425 m).

March 16, 2019 13

Soil phases and Atterberg limits

March 16, 2019 14

Casagrande device for liquid limit
(LL) assessment

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Liquid limit can also be determined by
means of penetrometer test

March 16, 2019 16

Plastic limit (PL)

Plastic limit is moisture content

at which threads of 3 mm dia-
meter can just be rolled.

3 mm

March 16, 2019 17

 Plasticity index PI

PI = LL - PL

March 16, 2019

18

Vermelding onderdeel organisatie

Meaning of Atterberg’s limits

• Soils with a high LL and high PI can take up

and loose large quantities of moisture.
• Losing moisture means increase in strength
but also loss in volume (shrinkage).
• Soils with high PI exhibit large amount of
shrinkage and swell and can therefore cause
large damage to structures, buildings and roads.
• High LL and high PI are indicators of a problem
soil.

March 16, 2019 19

Simple method to calculate heave
due to swelling

= i=n F H
i=1 i i

where: = total heave [%],

Hi = heave potential of layer i [%],
Fi = reduction factor in relation to the
depth of layer i below the surface.

March 16, 2019 20

Heave potential

PI of whole fraction is PI
as determined multiplied
by percentage passing
No 40 sieve

Example: PI = 54,
P40 = 93%
Pclay = 43%
PI whole fraction = 0.93*54
= 50.22

From graph we read that

swell potential is 8%

March 16, 2019 21

Depth factor

Depth [m] Depth Factor F

0.0 1
0.5 0.84
1.0 0.68
1.5 0.56

Swell over top 2 m =

8*(1+0.84+0.68+0.56)=24.6%

March 16, 2019 22

Soil classification systems

• By now we have seen that the gradation,

amount of fines and characteristics of the
fines determine how suitable a soil is for road
construction.
• Systems have been developed to classify this
suitability.
• One of these systems is the
AASHTO classification system.
• A-1 very suitable, A-7 not suitable.

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 AASHTO soil classification system
px = percentage pasing sieve number x

• If p200 < 35% then soil is coarse grained (A-1, A-

2 or A-3)
• If p200 < 15% AND p40 < 30% AND p10 <
50% AND PI < 6 then soil is A-1-a
• If p200 < 20% AND p40 < 50% AND PI < 6
then soil is A-1-b
• If p200 < 10% AND p40 50% AND soil is not
plastic then soil is A-3
• If soil is coarse grained but not an A-1 or A-3,
then it is an A-2 soil

March 16, 2019 24

Classification of A-2 soil

• Use plasticity chart to determine whether the

soil is A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6 or A-2-7

March 16, 2019 25

 AASHTO plasticity chart

70

PI [%] A6 A7

10
A4 A5
0 40 LL [%] 100

March 16, 2019 26

Classification of fine grained soils

• Use plasticity chart to determine whether soil is

an A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 soil
• If soil has high LL further classification can
be done using Group Index (GI). For details
see lecture notes.

March 16, 2019 27

Activity

• Atterberg’s limits reflect the combined effect

of partical size and mineralogical composition
(type of fines).
• To get more insight in the colloidal activity the
ratio PI / % clay is determined. This ratio is
called the Activity (Ac) of the clay.
• Ac < 0.75 inactive clay
• 0.75 < Ac < 1.25 normal clay
• 1.25 < Ac < 2 active clay
• Ac > 2 highly active clay
March 16, 2019 28
Now we know how to classify soils and we
know why gradation and plastic limits are
important.
But how do soils develop?

• Distinction should be made in:

- sedimentary soils
- residual soils.

March 16, 2019 29

Basic geology

• Earth formed about 4,5 billion years ago

• Earths crust probably formed about 4 b y ago
• Cooling and crystallisation of surface to form
rocks
• Oldest dated rocks are about 3,8 billion years
• Some are of sedimentary origin !!

March 16, 2019 30

Minerals

• Rocks are composed of mineral grains

• 99 % of average igneous rock consists of

• Oxygen (46.6% by mass; 94% by volume)

• Silicon (27.7 % by mass; 0.9% by vol)
• Aluminium (8.1 % by mass; 0.5% by vol)
• Iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium (< 5% by mass)

March 16, 2019 31

 Rock forming minerals

• 7 primary mineral families make up 99 %

of igneous rocks using these 8 elements

• Quartz – SiO2
• Feldspars – K, Na, Ca, Al(1-2) Si(2-3)O(8)
• Feldspathoids - Na, K, Al Si(1-2)O(4-6)
• Pyroxenes - Na, Ca, Mg, Al Si(2)O(6)
• Micas - K, Mg, Fe, SiAl(4) O(10) OH
• Amphiboles – Ca, Na, K, Mg, Fe, SiAl(8) O(22) OH
• Olivines – Mg, Fe, SiO4

March 16, 2019 32

 Igneous rocks

Silica/ Acid Intermediate Basic

Grain size (> 66% Si) (52-66% Si) (45-52% Si)
(< 10% quartz)
Coarse granite diorite gabbro
(peridotite)

Medium microgranite syenite dolerite

diabase

Fine rhyolite andesite basalt

quartz porphyry
March 16, 2019 33
 Sedimentary rocks

Clastic Organic Chemical

Rudaceous Limestone Limestone/dolomite

Arenaceous Chert Chert
Argillaceous Coal Evaporites
Tillite Phosphates Iron ores
Bone beds

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Sedimentary soils

• Formation
• Transportation
• Deposition

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Formation

• Physical weathering is usually the basis for

the formation of gravels and sands.
• Chemical weathering is usually the basis for
the formation of clays.

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Transportation

• Water
• Air
• Ice
• Gravity
• Organisms
• Transportation has two major effects
- alters particle size, shape and texture
- sorts the particles

March 16, 2019 37

Residual soils

• Develop when products of wheatering are not

transported but accumulate in place.
• Influence factors
- parent material
- climate (temperature and rainfall)
- drainage
- time
- vegetation
- topography
- bacterial activity

March 16, 2019 38

Where do sedimentary and residual
soils appear

• Residual soils mostly in warm and humid

regions where conditions for chemical
weathering are favorable and vegetation
doesn’t allow easy transportation.
• Sedimentary soils mostly in areas which have
been affected by the ice-times (northern
hemisphere).

March 16, 2019 39

Parent material, types of rock

• Intrusive igneous rock is formed below the

surface under pressure and slow cooling rates.
Exposed when overlaying material is eroded.
Examples: Granite, Dolorite
• Extrusive igneous rock is formed due to rapid
cooling of lava at the earth surface. Example:
Basalt

March 16, 2019 40

Igneous rocks

March 16, 2019 41

 Tabulation of
common intrusive
and extrusive
igneous rock

March 16, 2019 42

Sedimentary rock

• Formed at the earth surface or under water as a

result of consolidation of sedimentary materials
which are formed by processes causing physical
reduction of rock particle size by wind, water,
ice or gravity (clastic processes).
• Also formed as a result of consolidation of
chemical precipitates.