Math 102: Lecture 1

M. K. Vemuri

Thursday, 3 January 2019

Course Information

TEXT BOOKS
1. Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Erwin
Kreyszig, Wiley
2. Linear Algebra by K. Hoffman and Ray Kunze
3. Introduction to Linear Algebra by Serge Lang,
Springer
4. Differential Equations with Applications and
Historical Notes by George F. Simmons
5. Complex Variables and Applications by J. W.
Brown and R. V. Churchill
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Schaum’s Outlines: Linear Algebra
2. Schaum’s Outlines: Differential Equations
3. Schaum’s Outlines: Complex Variables
4. Integral Calculus by Gorakh Prasad
Course Information (contd)

WEIGHTAGE OF MARKS
Home Assignments: 10% GRADE
Quizzes: 10% GRADE
Mid Sem Exams: 30% GRADE
Final Exam: 50% GRADE
Cartesian product of sets
Definition
If s and t are two objects, (s, t) denotes the ordered pair of s and
t. This notation is meant to distinguish it from the unordered pair
{s, t}. Thus, (3, 7) 6= (7, 3) whereas {3, 7} = {7, 3},
If S and T are sets, the Cartesian Product of S and T is the set of
all ordered pairs (s, t), where s ∈ S and t ∈ T , and is denoted
S × T , i.e.,
S × T = {(s, t) | s ∈ S, t ∈ T }.

Example
If S = {1, 2} and T = {2, 3, 4}, then
S × T = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}. Observe that
there are 6 = 2 · 3 elements in S × T .

Example
If S = R and T = R, then S × T = R2 , i.e., the Cartesian product
of two copies of the real line is the Euclidean plane.
Cartesian product of sets (contd)

More generally, if S1 , . . . , Sn are sets, then

S1 × S2 × · · · × Sn = {(s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) | s1 ∈ S1 , s2 ∈ S2 , . . . , sn ∈ Sn },
where (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) is an ordered n-tuple.
Example
If S1 = S2 = S3 = R, then S1 × S2 × S3 = R3 .
Equivalence relations

In mathematics, we often run into the following kind of situation.

We have a set S and we wish to identify certain elements of S
with each other, i.e. to regard certain elements as being
“essentially the same” even though they are different elements.
This comes about when we are considering some relationship that
may or may not hold between two elements of S, and we wish to
“lump together” any two elements between which the relationship
holds. For example, if we were considering the set of triangles in
the plane, we might want to regard as “the same” any two
triangles that were congruent to each other.
Equivalence relations (contd)

Let’s examine the general situation precisely.

Definition
By a relation R on a set S, we mean a set of ordered pairs of
elements of S, i.e. R ⊆ S × S.
If s1 , s2 ∈ S, then s1 is in the relationship R to s2 iff (s1 , s2 ) ∈ R.
For example, if S = Z and R is the set of all pairs (m, n) such that
m and n are both even or both odd, then 2 is related to 6 by R
[because (2, 6) ∈ R] but 2 is not related to 3 [because (2, 3) ∈ / R].
For convenience, we usually express the fact that (s1 , s2 ) ∈ R by
writing s1 Rs2 ; thus in our example, 2R6 but not 2R3.
Equivalence relations (contd)

Not every relation R on a set S is suitable for performing

identifications. For example, we certainly want to identify any
element s with itself, so if we aim to identify s1 with s2 iff s1 Rs2 ,
then we want R to have the property that sRs, for all s ∈ S.
Similarly, if we are going to identify s1 with s2 , then we want to
identify s2 with s1 , so we want R to have the property that
s1 Rs2 =⇒ s2 Rs1 . Finally, if we identify s1 with s2 , and s2 with s3 ,
then we want to identify s1 with s3 , so we want R to have the
property that s1 Rs2 and s2 Rs3 =⇒ s1 Rs3 .
Equivalence relations (contd)

These considerations lead us to the following definition:

Definition
A relation R on S is called an equivalence relation on S if R has
the following three properties:
Reflexivity: For all s ∈ S, sRs.
Symmetry: For all s1 , s2 ∈ S, s1 Rs2 =⇒ s2 Rs1 .
Transitivity: For all s1 , s2 , s3 ∈ S,
s1 Rs2 and s2 Rs3 =⇒ s1 Rs3 .
Equivalence relations (contd)

Examples:
1. Let S be any set and let R be the relation of equality on S,
that is s1 Rs2 iff s1 = s2 . Clearly R is an equivalence relation
on S.
2. Let S = Z and let aRb iff a < b. Then R is not an
equivalence relation, since the fact that 1 6< 1 means that
reflexivity fails. Symmetry fails too; we have 1 < 2 but 2 6< 1.
3. Let S be the set of all triangles in the plane and for two
triangles ∆1 and ∆2 , let ∆1 R∆2 iff ∆1 is congruent to ∆2 .
Then R is an equivalence relation.
4. Let S = Z and let aRb iff a and b are both even or both odd.
Then R is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence relations (contd)

Definition
For any s ∈ S, the set s = {x ∈ S | xRs} is called the equivalence
class of s under R.

Theorem
Let R be an equivalence relation on S. Then every element of S is
in exactly one equivalence class under R. That is, the the
equivalence classes partition S into a family of mutually disjoint
nonempty subsets.
Equivalence relations (contd)

Proof.
Since for any s ∈ S we have s ∈ s, by reflexivity of R, we see that
every s ∈ S is contained in some equivalence class (and that every
equivalence class is nonempty). Now we will show that if two
equivalence classes are not disjoint, then they actually coincide.
Suppose x ∈ s1 ∩ s2 . Then xRs1 and xRs2 , so s1 Rx and xRs2 (by
symmetry), and so s1 Rs2 (by transitivity). If y ∈ s1 , then yRs1 , so
yRs2 (again by transitivity). So s1 ⊆ s2 . Similarly s2 ⊆ s1 . We
have established that any two different equivalence classes are
disjoint.
Binary operations

Definition
If S is a set, then a binary operation ∗ on S is a function that
associates to each ordered pair (s1 , s2 ) of elements of S an element
of S, which we denote by s1 ∗ s2 .
Examples:
1. Addition is a binary operation on Z+ : (a ∗ b = a + b).
Subtraction (a ∗ b = a − b) is not; but subtraction is a binary
operation on Z.
2. Multiplication (a ∗ b = ab) is a binary operation on Z+ or Z
or Q. Division (a ∗ b = a/b) is a binary operation on Q+ or
R+ but not Z or Z+ or R or Q.
3. a ∗ b = a3 + b 3 + 1 is a binary operation on Z, Q, R, Z+ , Q+ ,
or R+ .
Binary operations (contd)
4. Let X be some set and let S be the set of all subsets of X .
For example, if X = {1, 2}, then

S = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.

The operation of intersection is a binary operation on S, since

if A, B are elements of S, then A ∗ B = A ∩ B is an element of
S. Similarly, union gives another binary operation on S.
5. Let S be the set of all 2 × 
2 matrices
 with real entries. Thus
a b
an element of S looks like . Define x ∗ y be be the
c d
matrix product of x and y , that is
     
a b e f ae + bg af + bh
∗ = .
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh

Then ∗ is a binary operation on S.

Binary operations (contd)

The definition of binary operation doesn’t impose any restrictions

on ∗, and in general a binary operation can be wildly misbehaved.
Ordinarily, we want to consider operations that have at least
something in common with familiar concrete examples.
Definitions
If ∗ is a binary operation on S, then ∗ is called commutative if
s1 ∗ s2 = s2 ∗ s1 for every s1 , s2 ∈ S. On the other hand, ∗ is called
associative if (s1 ∗ s2 ) ∗ s3 = s1 ∗ (s2 ∗ s3 ) for every s1 , s2 , s3 ∈ S.
Binary operations (contd)

Examples:
1. Subtraction on Z is neither commutative nor associative, e.g.

1 − 2 6= 2 − 1 and (1 − 2) − 3 6= 1 − (2 − 3).

2. Let a ∗ b = 2(a + b) on Z; then clearly ∗ is commutative. Now

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = 2(a + b) ∗ c = 2(2(a + b) + c) = 4a + 4b + 2c,

and

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ 2(b + c) = 2(a + 2(b + c)) = 2a + 4b + 4c.

Since these are not always the same, ∗ is not associative.

Binary operations (contd)

3. Let a ∗ b = 2ab on Z. Commutativity is again clear, and since

(a∗b)∗c = 2ab ∗c = 4abc and a∗(b ∗c) = a∗2bc = 4abc,

∗ is associative in this case.

4. Multiplication of 2 × 2 matrices is associative:
           
a b e f i j a b e f i j
∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗
c d g h k l c d g h k l

as may be verified by multiplying out both sides. It is not

commutative, e.g.:
           
0 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 0 1 2 1
∗ = but ∗ =
1 0 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 0 4 3
Groups

Definition
Suppose that:
i. G is a set and ∗ is a binary operation on G ,
ii. ∗ is associative,
iii. ∃e ∈ G such that x ∗ e = e ∗ x = x, ∀x ∈ G , and
iv. ∀x ∈ G , ∃y ∈ G such that x ∗ y = y ∗ x = e.
Then G , together with the binary operation ∗, is called a group.
The element e is called an identity element in G . The element y is
called an inverse of x. We’ll soon see that they are unique, so we
can dispense with the indefinite article.
We don’t assume that ∗ is commutative. If ∗ is commutative, then
G is called abelian.
Groups (contd)
Examples:
1. (Z, +). We are all familiar with the fact that + is an
associative binary operation on Z. Also, 0 is an identity
element, and −x is an inverse for x.
Similarly, (Q, +) and (R, +) are groups.
2. (Q+ , ·). Multiplication is an associative binary operation on
Q+ , 1 is an identity element, and 1/x is an inverse for x.
Similarly, (R+ , ·) is a group. Observe, however, that (Z+ , ·) is
not a group.
3. Consider the binary operation on R given by a ∗ b = 2(a + b).
Then (R, ∗) fails to be a group for several reasons. First of all,
∗ is not associative. Secondly, there is no identity element:
2(a + e) = a =⇒ 2a + 2e = a =⇒ e = −a/2 (note that in
the defn. of group, e must not depend on a).
However, R \ {0} with the binary operation a ∗ b = 2ab is a
group. We’ve seen that ∗ is associative. It is easy to check
that e = 1/2 is an identity element, and that 1/(4a) is an
inverse for a.