1 

School Improvement 
The Strategy Game Handbook 
 

Beth Gulewich 
ELP 551: Context and Challenges of School Improvement 
Dr. Tim Drake   

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   2 

 
GAME STORY 3 

PLAYER OBJECTIVES 3 
MISSION STATEMENT 4 
VISION STATEMENT 4 

GAME RULES 4-6 

NUMBER OF PLAYERS 6 
1. Group building considerations 6 
2. Partnership building 7 
3. Decision making 7-8 
AGE RANGE 8 
PLAYING TIME 8 

COMPONENTS / FRAMEWORKS 8 
1. Bryk's Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle (PDSA) 8 
2. Bernhardt's Continuous School Improvement Framework 9-10 
3. Murphy's Framework for School Improvement 11 

SETUP 1​2 
GAME CHARACTERS 12 
TOOLS 13 
1. NCStar 13 
2. NC School Report Cards 1​3 
3. NC Teacher Working Conditions survey with tips 13 
4. Two-Way Communication 13 

STRATEGIES OF PLAY 13 

Data in Context 1​4 
Alignment 15 
Coherence: planning, coordinating, and evaluating teaching and the curriculum 1​5-16 
Opportunity Culture 1​6 
Support / Professional Development 17​-18 

PLAY PITFALLS 1​8 

Pitfall 1: Structural Changes 18-​1​9 
Pitfall 2: Teacher Turnover 19 
Pitfall 3: Multiple, disjointed Initiatives 19-20 
Pitfall 4: Compartmentalization of the School from the District 2​0 
Pitfall 5: Solutionitis 21 

VICTORY OUTCOMES 21 

REFERENCES 2​2-23 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 
School Improvement Plan (SIP) 
School Improvement Team (SIT) 

 
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GAME STORY  
Dear School Improvement Game players,   

This is no game! We as a team of educators directly impact the educational 

outcomes and future of our students. We carry a weighty responsibility to 
our students, their parents, each other, our community, and our society. 
Public education is based on our democratic ideals and the belief that life, 
liberty and the pursuit of happiness is a fundamental right for all. Under 
these democratic ideals, ​each​ student must learn and achieve under our 
watch. Proceed with caution, strategic thoughtfulness, and gracious space for 
all. 

“School improvement is primarily about the development and inclusion of 

norms and values. These cultural elements need to be carried by the 
components of school improvement and set in place with structures, policies, 
systems, and practices. But it is the DNA that is being carried and set that is 
most critical.” (Murphy, 2014, p.82) 

PLAYER OBJECTIVES 
School leaders must define the SIT and process. This team will develop a SIP 
and accompanying budget that aligns with the school's mission and vision. 
The SIP must be approved via secret ballot vote by the majority of school staff. Then, the principal 
must present the SIP to the Board of Education and receive the Superintendent's recommendations on 
safety components of the plan. After official adoption of the SIP by the Board, the entire school as a 
team implements and evaluates the SIP within the next two years before this cycle begins again. 
Establishment of the SIT and development of the SIP will be defined by all requirements described 
under Game Rules. 

 
Figure 1: School Improvement Plan Development and Approval Process

 
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School leaders must first explicitly analyze and state a school faculty's shared mission, vision and 
values. Murphy (2013) reminds us with his essential lesson, The Paradox of Structure, that "in order to 
capture and employ reform, good ideas need to assume a form, that is, structure...ensure that form 
follows values and principles" (p. 71.) 

SCHOOL'S MISSION STATEMENT 

WCPSS will provide a relevant and engaging education and will graduate students who are 
collaborative, creative, effective communicators, and critical thinkers. 
SCHOOL'S VISION STATEMENT 
Through rigorous and innovative lessons that invite risk-taking, students will become global citizens 
who value diversity, collaborate effectively, and share their talents to improve the world. 
SCHOOL'S VALUE STATEMENT 
We value a safe, welcoming, learning environment that empowers students and educators alike to 
develop fully their intellectual, artistic, and altruistic capacities. 

GAME RULES 
The following rules are also published in their entirety in name of the North Carolina General 
Assembly as "Chapter 115C. Elementary and Secondary Education" at 
https://www.ncga.state.nc.us/enactedlegislation/statutes/html/bychapter/chapter_115c.html​. While 
Rules 1 & 2 establish beliefs and an accountability structure, the development guidelines for your 
School Improvement Plan begins with Rule 3 below: 

1. § 115C-105.20. School-Based Management and Accountability Program. 

a. The  General  Assembly  believes  that  all  children  can  learn.  It  is  the  intent  of  the  General 
Assembly  that  the  mission  of  the  public  school  community  is  to  challenge  with  high 
expectations  each  child  to  learn,  to  achieve,  and  to  fulfill  his  or  her  potential.  With  that 
mission  as  its  guide,  the  State  Board of Education shall develop a School-Based Management 
and Accountability Program. 

2. § 115C-105.21. Local participation in the Program.  

a. Local  school  administrative  units  shall  participate  in  the  School-Based  Management  and 
Accountability Program. 
b. The  School-Based  Management  and  Accountability  Program  shall  provide  increased  local 
control of schools with the goal of improving student performance.  
c. The  School-Based  Management  and  Accountability  Program  shall  be  based  upon  an 
accountability,  recognition,  assistance, and intervention process in order to hold each school 
and the school's personnel accountable for improved student performance in the school.  
3. § 115C-105.27. Development and approval of school improvement plans. 
a. School  Improvement  Team.  -  The  principal  of  each  school,  representatives  of  the  assistant 
principals,  instructional  personnel,  instructional  support  personnel,  and  teacher  assistants 
assigned  to  the  school  building,  and  parents  of  children  enrolled  in  the  school  shall 
constitute  a  school  improvement  team.  The  team  shall  develop  a  school  improvement  plan 

 
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to improve student performance. 

b. Unless  the  local  board  of  education  has  adopted  an  election  policy,  parents  shall  be  elected 
by  parents  of  children  enrolled  in  the  school  in  an  election  conducted  by  the  parent  and 
teacher  organization  of  the  school  or,  if  none  exists,  by  the  largest  organization  of  parents 
formed  for  this  purpose.  Parents  serving  on  school  improvement  teams  shall  reflect  the 
racial  and  socioeconomic  composition  of  the  students  enrolled  in  that  school  and  shall  not 
be members of the building-level staff. 
c. Parental  involvement  is  a  critical  component  of  school  success  and  positive  student 
achievement;  therefore,  it  is  the  intent  of  the  General  Assembly  that  parents,  along  with 
teachers,  have  a  substantial  role  in  developing  school  improvement  plans.  To  this  end, 
school  improvement  team  meetings  shall  be  held  at  a  convenient  time  to assure substantial 
parent participation. 
4. §  115C-105.27  (b)  School  Improvement  Plan.  ​-  In  order  to  improve  student  performance,  the 
school  improvement  team  at  each  school  shall  develop  a  school  improvement  plan  that  takes 
into  consideration  the  ​annual  performance  goal  for  that  school...  and  the ​goals set out in the 
mission  statement  for  the  public  schools  adopted  by  the  State  Board  of  Education.  All  school 
improvement  plans  shall  be,  to  the  greatest  extent  possible,  ​data-driven​.  School  improvement 
teams  shall  use  the  Education  Value-Added  Assessment  System  (EVAAS)  or  a  compatible  and 
comparable  system  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  to  (i)  ​analyze  student  data  and 
identify  root  causes  for  problems,  (ii)  ​determine  actions  to  address  them,  and  (iii) 
appropriately  place  students  in  courses  ...  School  improvement  plans  shall  contain  clear, 
unambiguous  targets,  explicit  indicators  and  actual  measures,  and  expeditious  time  frames  for 
meeting the measurement standards. 
 
5. §  115C-105.27  (b)  School  Improvement  Plan.  ​The  strategies  for  improving  student 
performance: 
(1)  Shall  include  a  plan  for  the  ​use  of  staff  development  funds  that  may  be made available to 
the  school  by  the  local  board of education to implement the school improvement plan. The plan 
may provide that a portion of these funds is used for ​mentor training and for ​release time and 
substitute teachers​ while mentors and teachers mentored are meeting; 
(2) Shall include a plan to address ​school safety and discipline concern​s; 
(4)  Shall  include  a  plan  that  specifies  the  ​effective  instructional  practices  and methods to be 
used  to  improve  the  academic  performance  of  students  identified  as  at risk of academic failure 
or at risk of dropping out of school; 
(6)  Shall  include  a  plan  to  provide  a  ​duty-free  lunch  period  for  every  teacher  on  a  daily  basis 
or as otherwise approved by the school improvement team; and 
(7)  Shall  include  a  plan  to  provide  ​duty-free  instructional  planning  time  for  every  teacher 
under  G.S.  115C-301.1,  with  the  goal  of  providing  an  average  of  at  least  five  hours  of  planning 
time per week; [and] 
(8)  Shall  include  a  plan  to  ​identify  and  eliminate  unnecessary  and  redundant  reporting 
requirements  for  teachers  and,  to  the  extent  practicable,  streamline  the  school's  reporting 

 
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system and procedures... 

6. §  115C-105.27  ​(a2)  Public  Records.  -  The  school  improvement  plan,  except  for  the  school  safety 
components  of  the  plan,  is  a  public  record  subject  to  Chapter  132  of  the  General  Statutes  and 
shall  be  posted  on  the  school  Website​. The names of the members of the school improvement 
team, their positions, and the date of their election to the school improvement team shall also be 
posted on the Website. 
7. §  115C-105.25.  Budget flexibility. ​To ensure that parents, educators, and the general public are 
informed  on  how  State  funds  have  been  used  to  address  local  educational  priorities, each local 
school  administrative  unit  shall  publish  information  from  the  prior  fiscal  year  on  its  Web  site 
by October 15 of each year 
8. §  115C-81.50.  Student  councils.  All  high  schools  and  middle  schools  shall  be  encouraged  to 
have  elected  student  councils  through  which  students  have  input  into  policies  and  decisions 
that  affect  them...The  purpose  of  these student councils is to build civic skills and attitudes such 
as  participation in elections, discussion and debate of issues, and collaborative decision making. 
Schools shall encourage active, broad-based participation in these student councils. 
9. §  115C-105.32.  Parent  involvement  programs  and  conflict  resolution  programs  as  part  of 
school  improvement  plans.  A  school  is  encouraged  to  include  a  comprehensive  parent 
involvement  program  as  part  of  its  school  improvement  plan...  The  State  Board  of  Education 
shall  develop  a  list  of  recommended  strategies that it determines to be effective, which building 
level  committees  may  use  to  establish  parent  involvement  programs  designed  to  meet  the 
specific  needs  of  their  schools.  The  Board  shall  make  the  list  available  to  local  school 
administrative units and school building... 
A  school  is  encouraged  to  review  its  need  for  a  comprehensive  conflict  resolution  program  as 
part  of  the  development  of  its  school  improvement  plan...  If  a  school  determines  that  this 
program  is  needed,  it  may  select  from  the  list  developed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education...  or 
may develop its own materials and curricula to be approved by the local board of education. 

NUMBER OF PLAYERS 
Group building considerations for the SIT 
Establish group's purpose, goals, and length of work.  
Consider group member selection by weighing the goal of group cohesiveness including power 
relations and the role of each member in the group's success.  
Consider (sub)groups who might contribute a unique perspective. 
Consider parents as important allies in coalition building, not cooptation or placation. 
Determine member numbers by considering balance between representation and efficiency. 
Consider ways to broker and guide relationships with community members.  
(Drake & Goldring, 2014, pp. 49-50) 
Partnership building with the SIT  
The way school leaders exercise and distribute power is reflected in the way leaders view 
partnerships. Auerbach (2012) describes a four partnership types on that describe how school leaders 
share power, information, and decision making (p. 41).  
 

 
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Power of equitable decision making: 

0 Power Unit​: School leaders ​prevent partnerships​ by maintaining control over goals; unilateral 
power over other groups such as the PTSA by limiting information sharing. This is a long-standing, 
intensional practice to silo school, home, and community. 
  
1 Power Unit​: School leaders practice ​nominal partnerships​; from school leaders who routinely 
communicate more with stakeholders through norms and policies in order to maintain power over 
information. Family and community are perceived as a liability to the school leader's power. 
Information is closely guarded and trusting relationships with parents and community is minimal.  
 
2 Power Units​: ​traditional partnerships​ which strive to enhance student achievement by enhancing 
home-school communications, family education culture through school-linked services. School leaders 
make a choice to prevent partnerships, establish nominal, traditional, or authentic partnerships based 
leadership models that control information in order to maintain power or share information and 
power. Focusing on the shared goal of helping all students with academic success will help all 
stakeholders and school leaders work toward coherence. 
 
3 Power Units​: ​Authentic partnerships​ are "respectful alliances among educators, families and 
community groups that value relationship building, dialogue across differences, and sharing power in 
pursuit of a common purpose in socially just, democratic schools" (p. 5). All stakeholders are viewed as 
full participants in school goal setting with relational power to act. 
Auerbach (2012) promotes authentic partnerships in which families and community members are 
viewed as full partners in school decision making. Authentic partnerships are best fostered when 
school leaders are dedicated to transformation, inclusion, and social justice. Authentic partnerships 
model and promote equity and reach out to marginalized students and families.  

Decision making with the SIT 

Rational approach 
Follow a logical pattern of steps to arrive at a decision: "(a)setting the goal; (b) identifying the problem; 
(c) determining the decision type (programmed or unprogrammed); (d) collecting data and 
information, generating, evaluation, and choosing among alternatives; (e) then implementing the plan" 
(Drake and Goldring, 2014, p. 49). Caution: based on assumed objectivity and complete and accurate 
information. 
Behavioral approach 
Choosing between alternatives that might bring about less than best outcomes while recognizing that 
information might be inconclusive and/or subjective. Utilizes experience or best practices to decide. 
Mixture​ of Rational & Behavioral: influenced by time constraints and power relations within group. 
 
School leaders should carefully consider participation through structures, norms and practices that 
intercept: 
group polarization​: influence of members with strong views to dominate or sway group opinions to 
an extreme. 

 
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groupthink​: group cohesiveness that weakens the groups ability to weigh alternative options and 
predict unexpected outcomes. (Drake & Goldring, 2014, pp. 51-52) 

AGE RANGE​: 14+ (at a comprehensive high school) 

PLAYING TIME​: 2 years; 3-5 years for a Strategic Plan 

COMPONENTS / FRAMEWORKS 
1. Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle (PDSA) 
Bryk et al. (2015) proposes a flexible and clear Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle (PDSA) shown below in Figure 2 
to gain insights into improvement plans. By using this cycle, teams can learn quickly and efficiently to 
implement small-scale strategies to a systemwide scope. This PDSA cycle allows for an examination in 
implementation gaps between predicted and real outcomes as well as context issues that arise. The 
multiple use of this cycle with pilot or small-scale strategic improvements aids learning first about 
unforeseen outcomes and context issues. Then, the strategies can be expanded to a larger scale with 
more predictability and efficiency. 

 
Figure 2. Bryk et al. (2015), Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle (PDSA) (p. 122).

2. Continuous School Improvement Framework 

Bernhardt (2013) outlines the ongoing process of school improvement with the simple steps of 
Plan-Implement-Evaluate-Improve as shown in Figure 3 within the traditional plan-do-study-adjust 
model. This framework shows the whole process for teacher understanding and commitment.   

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   9 

 
Figure 3. Bernhardt. (2013), Continuous School Improvement Cycle, (p. 19). 

The five broad guiding questions located on the outside of Figure 4 address each of the continuous 
improvement principles of plan, implement, evaluate, and improve. 

Question 1: "Where are we now?" and subquestions; help school leaders assess where the school 
is currently using a variety of data. Four types of data: longitudinal demographic data, perceptions 
and organizational assessments (culture and climate), formative and summative assessments (school 
learning), and summary of programs and processes.  

Question 2: "How did we get to where we are?"; examines what is (not) working and how the 
data is relational. The answers to these questions lead to a needs assessment that inform planning. 
Processes that are making an improvement should be replicated while those that are not should be 
eliminated. 

Question 3: "Where do we want to be?"; prioritizes planning on shared values and beliefs 
through explicit statements of mission, vision, and goals. 

Question 4: "How are we going to get where we want to be?"; concentrates on "goals, objectives, 
strategies, activities, measurement of strategies and activities, person(s) responsible, due dates, 
timelines, and required resources" (p. 18). Only these specifics can link the mission and vision to 
predictable improvement outcomes. Bernhardt (2013) recommends maximizing staff commitment 
through leadership structures, collaborative PD that shares data, and partnership involvement. 

Question 5: "Is what we are doing making a difference?"; emphasizes continuous evaluation and 
reflection that refers back to the mission and vision. This reflection must also evaluate the entire 
system as well as the individual contributing parts and their alignment to the vision. 

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   10 

 
Figure 4. Bernardt (2013) Continuous School Improvement Framework (p. 14).

 
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3. Murphy's Framework for School Improvement 

Murphy (2013) provides a framework for school improvement that starts with the ​Essential 
Equation​, "School Improvement = Academic Press + Supportive Community" (p. 27). This equation is 
reminiscent of the school's mission and vision statements that call for "providing a relevant and 
engaging education" (​Mission​ statement) "through rigorous and innovative lessons...students who 
value diversity, collaborate effectively, and share their talents to improve the world" ( ​Vision 
statement). This is our Why. 

The ​Building Material​ of improvement as described and supported by research is quality 

instruction, curriculum, personalized learning environment for students, profession learning 
environment for educators, learning-centered leadership, learning-centered linkages to the school 
community, and monitoring of progress and performance accountability. See Murphy (2013) Table 1, 
p. 29 for a descriptor breakdown. This is our What. 

Construction Principles​ vary greatly and are not well-researched. Guidelines are provided by the 
NC General Assembly and are highlighted in this Handbook under ​Game Rules​. One interesting 
alternative to the standard small committee SIT at a comprehensive high school is the participation of 
many teacher leaders in SIT goal committees such as Continuous Staff Improvement, Academic 
Planning, Student Culture, and Student and Teacher Recruitment and Retention, and then PD sessions 
with all staff participating in one of these committees to conceptualize the why, what and how of their 
strategic plan. In this way, the construction principles are utilizing and strengthening positive 
components of school culture, mainly relationships. This is our How. 

The​ Integrative Device​ is the patterns of leadership which provides direct support to the entire 
framework. Leadership does not play a central role, just as the heroic leader has been stripped of his 
cap. These patterns of leadership are described as "integrative dynamic" and is the "essential enabling 
element" (Murphy, 2013, p. 31) of school improvement. This is a plural Who. 

Organizational supports or tools are described as organizational structures, operating systems, 

policies, and practices all with examples listed on p. 31 that "can be employed either to help or hinder 
school improvement work" (p. 30). This is the How. 

 
Figure 5. Murphy, J. (2013) The Architecture of School Improvement (p. 28). 

   

 
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SETUP 

GAME CHARACTERS 
CHARACTE
CHARACTER  RESPONSIBILITY  R POWER   POWER PLAYS 
(1-10) 

Accepts responsibility for own 

learning  -Feedback to classroom teacher 
Provides positive peer supports  -Surveys 
Student learner  10 
Engages in environment:  -Student Government 
classroom, school, home,  -Engage in Community Service 
community 

Provide quality instruction, timely  -Quality teaching including common 

feedback, and opportunities for  assessments 
Classroom  remediation. Provides a safe  -Effective Communicator with students 
10 
teacher  classroom environment that  and parents 
promotes healthy social-emotional  -Contributing member of SIT 
growth.  -SpEd teachers as Case Managers 

-Member of SIT 
Instructional leader who supports 
-Developer & Communicator of mission 
teachers, provides for a safe and 
& vision 
Principal  healthy school environment while  9 
-Coherence builder: Establishes a 
fostering dialogue between all 
growth mindset, distributive leadership 
stakeholders. 
practices 

(Step)parents 
-Home educational support 
Siblings 
Parents &  -Members of PTSA, Capital Foundation, 
Extended family  8 
Family  Academic Boosters, Principal Advisory 
Neighbors 
Council 
Close family friends 

5 Assistant Principals, Department  -Founding members of SIT 

School leaders  Heads, Dean of Students, Magnet  7  -Department Chair/ Principal Advisory 
Coordinator, CTE Coordinator  Board 

Media Specialists, Counselors,  -Aid in social-emotional support for 

Auxiliary  JROTC teachers, Sport coaches,  students 
6 
teachers  Club advisors, Drivers’ Ed teacher,  -Contributing member of SIT 
College Advisor, other specialists   

Area Superintendent  -Provides mechanisms for 

District leaders  Board members  6  accountability and PD/instructional 
Curriculum Leaders  support 

Receptionists, Data Manager,  -Provide for safe and orderly building, 

Non-instruction School secretary, Janitors,  policies, procedures 
4 
al staff  Cafeteria Personnel, Bus drivers  -Aid in social-emotional support for 
  students 

Wade Edwards Learning Lab  -Representative on SIT 

Community 
(WELL)  -Provides assistance to students and 
members &  4 
Cameron Village Library  parents 
agencies 
Alexander YMCA  -Instructional partners 

 
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TOOLS 
NCStar Website: ​http://ncstar.weebly.com/
NC School Report Cards: ​https://ncreportcards.ondemand.sas.com/src
NCEES SMART Goals: ​http://ncees.ncdpi.wikispaces.net/SMART+Goals
NC Teacher Working Conditions (TWC) survey: ​https://ncteachingconditions.org/

Here are some possible strategies to support response efforts of this perception data and attempt in 
avoiding fluctuation that require guess work (such as 98.66% (2018), 67.32% (2016), and 93.5% (2014)). 
1. NC TWC survey explanation provided to staff by SIP Chair prior to response window (March 
1-April 4, 2018) with tracking system as aid to teachers, "Did I already complete this 
paperwork?": Staff to email volunteer when completed, volunteer to check complete on master 
list. Google Doc would also be effective. The SIP Chair emphasize that responses are 
anonymous. 
2. NC TWC codes provided to staff by SIP Chair (March 1) 
3. PLT visits to answer questions and communicate importance of NC TWC survey. 
4. Repeated reminders published in Staff Daily Bulletin and as Action Item in Principal's Weekly 
Newsletter with help contact and "what-if" scenarios. 
5. Strategic email reminders or classroom visits to staff. 
6. Use the TWC data and present to the staff in different ways/chunks what the data 
communicated and how the SIT is responding to the TWC data.

Two-Way Communication: timely, effective, reliable

Face-to-face:​ Which school leaders are especially adept at communicating with families? How might
they be utilized as a model for a PD session? Drill vs Scrimmage, Restorative justice circles as an
alternative to suspension
Feedback​ avenues for all stakeholders for all events: Parent surveys, Students surveys, ​Survey link on
each teacher website to Electronic Community Suggestion box, Teacher Survey link on Principal's
weekly newsletter to address and publish staff questions
Communications Audit:​ utilize Central Office Support via "Specialist Feedback" (Matt Dies)
to analyze current practices for improvements

STRATEGIES OF PLAY 
Change and improvement takes strategic planning. Bryk et al. (2015) advise avoiding the traditional, 
long-standing cycle of change in public education: “implement fast, learn slow, and burn goodwill as 
you go” (p. 113).  

Three questions will keep us grounded in the work of improvement: 

What specifically are we trying to accomplish? 
What change might we introduce and why? 
How will we know that a change is actually an improvement?  
(Bryk et al. , 2015, p. 114).   

 
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School Improvement players are urged to follow the sequence of steps outlined below: 1) Data in 
Context, 2) Alignment, 3) Coherence: planning, coordinating, and evaluating teaching and the 
curriculum, 4) Opportunity Culture, and 5) Support / PD in order to stay focused on a favorable 
outcome. 

1. Data in Context 
Bernhardt (2013) reminds us that multiple data points should include both quantitative and qualitative 
data. In Figure 5, demographics, student learning and perceptions as well as qualitative data about 
process preferences are considered when trying to meet the learning needs of all students. Several 
types of qualitative and quantitative data are represented under ​Tools​ in the handbook. Careful 
consideration should be given to the collection of student and family perceptual data. While surveys 
are an efficient way of collecting varying perspectives, reliability increases greatly when students and 
school leaders interact face-to-face. Student perceptual data can still be collected in survey form while 
the school leaders is in the room to solicit more detailed information and navigate understanding. 

Figure 5. Bernardt (2013), Multiple Measures of Data (p. 17).

 
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2. Alignment 
Does the SIP align to the school's ​mission​ and ​vision​? Are we as a school faculty "provid(ing) a relevant 
and engaging education and ...graduat(ing) students who are collaborative, creative, effective 
communicators, and critical thinkers"? Are BHS students able to "through rigorous and innovative 
lessons that invite risk-taking, ...become global citizens who value diversity, collaborate effectively, 
and share their talents to improve the world." Know the school's mission and vision enough to utilize it 
as a constant reminder of the why we all work towards. Once the SIP is drafted, evaluate and 
reconsider if the data is telling the right story. All stakeholders and student groups should be 
represented in the goals of the SIP. Consider the progress towards the vision in the form of objectives 
or milestones. Is the vision so lofty that faculty are stuck in the implementation dip?  

Priority concerns on the 2016-2018 SIP: 

"Our school did not meet AMO targets in both English and Math. White students score significantly 
higher on EOCs than minority students." 

"Our school had a 0.9% increase in 9th grade retention over the last two years, and is the highest rate 
in the district." 

"There has been a significant increase in both number of students who receive referrals and the 
number of written referrals in all. In addition, the majority of referrals are African American 
students." 

"In conclusion, professional development will be provided to address how teachers can differentiate 
using data and effective engagement strategies in addition to closing the achievement gap within our 
student body. Clearer school-wide expectations and systems will be put in place for instructional 
strategies and behavior. Many of these strategies can focus on the 9th grade class to improve 
promotion rate in addition to student services providing interventions for at risk 9th grade students." 

Hattie (2009) asserts that "the most powerful effects of the school relate to features within schools, such 
as the climate of the classroom, peer influences, and the lack of disruptive students in the classroom - 
all of which allow students and teachers to make errors and develop reputations as learners, and 
which provide an invitation to learn" (p. 33). 

3. Coherence: planning, coordinating, and evaluating teaching and the curriculum 

In Robinson's (2007) five leadership practices derived from studies of effects of leadership on students, 
planning, coordinating and evaluating teaching and the curriculum are prioritized behind goal setting 
and strategic resourcing. However, as a team of administrators and teacher leaders work together to 
provide "feedback to teachers, based on classroom observations that they report as useful in 
improving their teaching; and systematic monitoring of student progress for the purpose of 
improvement at school department and class level" (p. 14), these efforts need to be well-coordinated, 
logical, and consistent. Coherence in beliefs and practices will bring about improvement.  

 
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When considering professional support for all teachers, this model involving the roles of the principal, 
case manager, and support provider are well mapped out and tested using the PDSA cycle. The goals 
are to improve reliability of feedback and support, as well as to improve teacher effectiveness and 
retention (Bryk et al., 2015). 

Figure 6. Bryk et al. (2015), Prototype process map for the feedback-support-observation cycle (p. 129). 

4. Opportunity Culture 
A recently-exited high-school humanities teacher reminds us that even new teachers need 
opportunities and guidance on how to exercise "leadership within the department, school, or 
community (especially after year 1!)- what that can look like, how to go about doing it, etc. This might 
also go hand-in-hand with being civically engaged, and potentially with PD opportunities" (C. Holmes, 
personal communication, April 11, 2018). Some teachers are ready to learn and exercise leadership 
skills sooner than predicted. These opportunities should not be stalled until a senior teacher leader 
retires or relinquishes her leadership role. Here are some suggested strategies: 

○ Expand leadership opportunities in PLTs, discussion groups, SIT membership for new 
teachers 
○ Shuffle Department Chair assignments 
○ Experienced teachers with larger classes & more pay  
○ Blended learning as a solution to staffing issues (NCASA presentation: J. Bartholomew 
and Z. Chutz, personal communication, April 21, 2018) 
○ Equity Audits (Skrla, Scheurich, Garcia, & Nolly, 2004) 

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   17 

5. Support / Professional Development 

Positive changes in instruction should lead to improvement in student achievement. Teachers need 
support and professional development in order to concentrate their efforts on researched best 
practices. One such practice is a focus on academic press. Lee et al. (1999) maintain that "students 
learn most when they experience both strong academic press in their schools and strong social support 
from people in and out of their schools” (p. 10). Teacher and students both benefit as learner from 
social support in the form of personal relationships that encourage academic achievement and 
academic press. Lee et al. (1999) emphasize that "academic press focuses on the extent to which school 
members, including teachers and students, experience a normative emphasis on academic success and 
conformity to specific standards of achievement" (p. 10). What is most needed to support learners, 
both students and teacher, is “higher levels of (student) engagement in schools that combined strong 
social support and academic press” (p. 10). With increased interactions in our high schools, teacher 
leaders can help teachers assess needs, set meaningful individual goals that combine professional 
expectations, and monitor support and progress towards their goals. A Professional Development Plan 
should be more than checking the boxes. 

 
​Table 1: Drake (2018), Principles for Strategic Support / PD
 

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   18 

 
Figure 7. Drake (2018): Key Questions: PD/Support

PLAY PITFALLS 
“In the hurricane of school reform...deep down on the ocean floor, life goes on, undisturbed by the 
roiling waters and huge waves on the surface. I [compare] that ocean floor to the nation’s classrooms, 
where both change and continuity unfold in regular, undisturbed patterns” (Cuban, 2013, p. 20). 

"An iron law of school improvement is that structural changes never have, do not now, and never will 
predict organizational success...The form [of the structural change] follows values and principles. 
Going in the opposite direction, that is assuming structura will alter values, is highly 
problematic"(Murphy, J. & Torre, D. S., p. 63, 71). 

Pitfall 1: Structural Changes 

Cuban poses this important question: "With so many major structural changes in US public schools 
over the past century, why have classroom practices been largely stable with a modest blending of 
new and old teaching practices leaving contemporary classroom lessons familiar to earlier generations 
of school-goers?"(p. 113) 

His answer, "many policymakers see schooling as a collection of complicated structures that can be 
broken down into discrete segments and re-engineered through algorithms and flow charts to 
perfection" (p. 115). As in Figure 8 below, any weight applied to an individual part of the whole will 
throw the balance in a classroom off, straining the teacher, classroom, or role of the physical 
environment amounting to significant negative pressure on student learning. All classroom learning 
environments are complex. 

Dominant reform strategies that haven't worked: change teachers and we will change classroom 
instruction! Reformers' linking assumption: "structural changes would alter dominant teaching 

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   19 

practices. Teachers would adopt intellectually ambitious, inquiry-driven, skill-rich forms of teaching 
that would be superior to what has routinely occurred in classrooms" (p. 113). Established structures 
that raise the quality of teacher: recruiting, credentials for hiring, alternative credential pathways, 
accountability structures, merit-based pay, market-based choice options for families, and improving 
electronic technologies (does not guarantee that teacher-centered practices will change to 
student-centered). 

Cuban (2013) reminds us that policymakers err when they make three assumptions:  

1) "Redesigning, replacing, or renovating key structures – school governance, organization, and 

curriculum – will dramatically change teacher instruction and student learning" (p. 114),  

2) "Public schools and classrooms are complicated not complex systems" (p. 114);  

3) There is no difference between teacher quality and quality of teaching. 

 
Figure 8: Burns, A., & Knox, J. S. (2011). Classrooms as complex adaptive systems: A relational model. 

Pitfall 2: Teacher Turnover 

Bryk et al. (2015) purport that the ​quality of collegial ties​ and the ​supportiveness of principal 
positively affect teacher turnover in challenging schools. (p. 27) Teachers work hard. We need to work 
smarter and need continued support in the form of feedback, PD, and leadership opportunities. 

Pitfall 3: Multiple, disjointed Initiatives 

Adequate organizational and instructional coherence is required for improvement initiatives. 
Robinson et al. (2012) defines organization theory as "the more complex the work, the more there is a 
division of labor in which specialists complete components of the whole. The greater the 
differentiation, the more challenging the task of coordinating the constituent units so that a sufficiently 
coherent whole is produced" (p. 5). In our comprehensive high schools, 128 classroom teachers serve 

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   20 

2,165 very diverse students. The practices of daily teaching and learning are indeed complex and 
disjointed. However, school improvement efforts can be achieved when school faculty actualize their 
interdependent collective efforts towards one goal. Robinson et al. (2012) defines this as the 
coordination mechanism, an organizational structure or process. 

Focus is another key mechanism is sustaining coordination and coherence. Robinson et al. (2012) 
describe "senior leaders in the two improving schools deliberately maintained continuity of focus from 
year to year, incrementally pursuing their long-term goal...lifting achievement targets by modest but 
challenging amounts every year" (p. 22). Goals are not so scattered and lofty that progress cannot be 
perceived and frustration dictates yet another change in course. This is Krashen's second language 
​ 1, input should be one step beyond the learner's competency or 
acquisition input hypothesis of ​i+
frustration will rule the learning attempt. 

Bryk et al. (2015) promote a ​user- and problem-centered approach​ to decision making instead of the 
top-down district to school initiatives that are often not connected to the needs of a school and quickly 
lose support because of their lack of a well-considered rollout. 

Definition for user-centered:​ respecting the people who actually do the work by seeking to understand 
the problems they confront; engaging these people in designing changes that align with the problems 
they experience. 

"It is essential that all involved in the work be active agents in its improvement. This means that all 
those engaged in educating students must own the outcomes of their efforts and be actively learning 
how to improve these outcomes" (Bryk et al., 2015, p. 34). 

The design process​: 

1-observe people as they carry out their work 
2-understand how contextual factors shape this work activity 
3-visualize how individuals might engage with new tools and routines 
4-develop, evaluate, and refine changes in prototypes based on users' experiences (pilot) 
5-exploit the insights generated through these processes to engineer better goods and service 
for use effectively to scale. Small issues in the pilot will be compounded when taking it 
school-wide, so consider carefully unforeseen consequences. 

Pitfall 4: Compartmentalization of the School from the District 

A great folly is for any SIT to disregard the policies, initiatives, or resources available at the district 
level. To communicate with stakeholders that the district leadership is anything other than an 
important working partner is to minimize the the school's role in a large system. Fusarelli and 
Petersen (2014) maintain that "district-level leadership and decision making play a major role in school 
improvement and system performance" (p. 61). Principals and SIT must learn to set their own values 
aside and support the values of the community as represented in school board policies. 

   

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   21 

Pitfall 5: Solutionitis 
Bryk et al. (2015) caution that ​solutionitis​ is "the propensity to jump quickly on a solution before fully 
understanding the exact problem to be solved" (p. 24). Groupthink leads a SIT to formulate a solution 
based on past experienced, professional knowledge, and shared beliefs that is actually an incomplete 
analysis of the problem to be addressed with potential problem-solving alternatives. In short, lazy 
thinking leads a group to see complex matters through a narrow lens. ​Listen to voices of dissent​. 

VICTORY OUTCOMES  
Dear School Improvement Game players, 

You might be asking yourself, "How do I know if I've won?" The game 
can follow many roads and utilize a combination of strategies that fit 
the context of your school. Strong, clear goal setting will lead your 
team to victory. Remember your SMART goals, data, alignment to your 
team's mission and vision, providing opportunities for all teachers and 
students to grow, but most of all support in teaching and learning. 

School Culture: SIT to Entire faculty 

Sustained school improvement does not hinge on one person or group of teacher leaders. As a culture 
of improvement is developed, the practices will encourage the next teacher leader to step up and fill 
an empty seat caused by retirement, moving, or RIF. A school improvement team should be inclusive 
enough and well-advertised enough so that a teacher new to the team will be comfortable in taking the 
career risk, a risk that is viewed through the growth mindset lens. Social support and high standards 
will help the team and the entire faculty reach their SIP goals. 

Growth versus Proficiency 

When underserved student groups make growth gains and those gains can be sustained over 3 years 
(following a high school cohort), achievement outcomes are solidified in the culture of a school and its 
SIP. Student proficiency and growth have become important factors in measuring educator 
effectiveness and the effectiveness of a SIP. Is the student on track to progress to the next level? Has 
the teacher effectively spurred the student on to an ambitious but not overly ambitious pace and path 
of learning? Your team's SIP must take on similar characteristics, it must grow achievement in your 
school and met timely targets. That ninth grader only have three more years after all to become career 
and college ready. 

In conclusion, never underestimate the power of hope. Murphy's (2013) with his essential lesson, ​The 
Doctrine of Winning Early​, asserts that "school improvement goals are usually achieved in the far 
future. The distance between here and now and there and then can be quite lengthy. Change works 
best when it is chunked into manageable units so that ongoing victories are secured, especially in the 
early segments of the trip. Short term wins...undermine skepticism and doubt and nurture the sense 
of possibility" (p. 97). Victory will come at different intervals, but certainly in the near future.   

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   22 

REFERENCES 

Auerbach, S. (Ed.), (2012). School leadership for authentic family and community partnerships: Research
perspectives for transforming practice. New York: Routledge.

Bernhardt, V.L. (2013). Data analysis for continuous school improvement, 3rd Edition, New York: Routledge,
pp. 11-26.

Burns, A., & Knox, J. S. (2011). Classrooms as complex adaptive systems: A relational model. ​TESL-EJ:
Teaching English as a Second Or Foreign Language, 15​(1), 25.
Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L.M., Grunow, A., and LeMahieu, P. G. (2015). Learning to improve: How America’s
schools can get better at getting better. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, pp. 21-34, 113-140.
Cuban, L. (2013) Why so many structural changes in schools and so little reform in teaching practice? ​Journal
of Educational Administration 51:​ (2), pp. 109-125. Retrieved from:
https://doi-org.prox.lib.ncsu.edu/10.1108/09578231311304661
Day, C., Gu, Q., and Sammons, P. (2016). The Impact of Leadership on Student Outcomes How Successful
School Leaders Use Transformational and Instructional Strategies to Make a Difference. ​Educational
Administration Quarterly, 52(​ 2), pp. 240-254.
Drake, T.A. and Goldring, E. (2014). The politics of school-level community engagement and decision making.
In Jane C. Lindle (ed.) ​Political Contexts of Educational Leadership: ISLLC Standard Six,​ pp. 37-60.

Fusarelli, L. D. and Petersen, G. J. (2014). The politics of district-level decision making. In Jane C. Lindle (ed.)
Political Contexts of Educational Leadership: ISLLC Standard Six,​ pp. 61-77.

Lee, V., Smith, J., Perry, T., Smylie, M. (1999). Social support, academic press, and student achievement: A
view from the middle grades in Chicago.

Leithwood, K., Seashore Louis, K., Anderson, S., and Wahlstrom, K. (2004). Executive summary: Review of
research: How leadership influences student learning. Retrieved from http://conservancy.umn.edu/
bitstream/handle/11299/2035/CAREI?sequence=1

Murphy, J. (2013). The Architecture of School Improvement: Lessons learned. Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks,
CA.

Murphy, J. and Torre, D. S. (2014) Creating productive cultures in schools : for students, teachers, and parents.
Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Public Schools of North Carolina (2016, July), “North Carolina School Improvement Planning Implementation
Guide,” retrieved from: http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/program-monitoring/

 
SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT   23 

planning/sip-guide.pdfwake

Robinson, V. (2007) The impact of leadership on student outcomes: Making sense of the evidence. Australian

Council for Educational Research. Retrieved from:

https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=research_conference_2007

Robinson, V., Bendikson, L., Mcnaughton, S., Wilson, A., and Zhu, T. (2017). Joining the dots: The challenge

of creating coherent school improvement. Teachers College Record. 119. Retrieved from:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322220390_Joining_the_Dots_The_Challenge_of_Creating_C

oherent_School_Improvement

Skrla, L., Scheurich, J. J., Garcia, J., and Nolly, G. (2004). Equity audits: A practical leadership tool for

developing equitable and excellent schools. ​Educational Administration Quarterly 40​(1), pp. 133-161.

Mary Oliver, "Sometimes" from ​Red Bird:​

3.
Water from the heavens! Electricity from the source!
Both of them mad to create something!

The lighting brighter than any flower.

The thunder without a drowsy bone in its body.
4.
Instructions for Living a Life:
Pay attention.
Be astonished.
Tell about it.