323 Cbip Mannual On Transmission Line PDF

Research Report / Publication No.
323
Manual on
Transmission Lines
Editors
M.L. Sachdeva, V.K. Kanjlia, P.P. Wahi
CENTRAL BOARD OF IRRIGATION & POWER

More than 8 Decades of Service to the Nation
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110 021
July 2014
Research Report / Publication No. 323
Manual on
Transmission Lines
Editors
M.L. Sachdeva
V.K. Kanjlia
P.P. Wahi
CENTRAL BOARD OF IRRIGATION & POWER

More than 8 Decades of Service to the Nation
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110 021
July 2014
2014
ISBN 81-7336-330-7
“Reproduction of any part of this publication in any form is permissible subject to proper acknowledgement
and intimation to the publisher. The publisher/author/editors have taken utmost care to avoid erros in the
publication. However, the publisher/author/editors are in no way responsible for the authenticity of data or
information given in the book.”
Disclaimer:
Technical data presented and views expressed by the Expert Group Members are of their own and not of
the Organizations which they are representing. CBIP does not assume any responsibility for the above.
In addition, where extracts from Government Notification(s) are reproduced in various chapters of the
Manual, the users are advised to refer updated notifications as and when available.
Designed and Published by: Shri V.K. Kanjlia, Secretary

Central Board of Irrigation & Power
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi – 110021
Telephone +91-11-2611 5984/2611 6567/2410 1594
Fax: +91-11-2611 6347 E-mail: cbip@cbip.org
Website: www.cbip.org
MESSAGE
v
v
MESSAGE
vii
vii
FOREWORD
ix
ix
Preface
The Transmission sector in India has progressed by leaps and bounds in
the past years. The length of transmission lines of rating 220 kV, 400 kV,
765 kV and HVDC is 2,92,000 circuit kms as on April 2014. The addition
of transmission lines during 12th Plan and 13th Plan is expected to be about
1,10,000 ckt. kms and 1,30,000 kms respectively. Presently, India is the
only country who has set up 1200 kV National Test Station, i.e., the highest
voltage in the world. The credit for the same goes largely to the team of
POWERGRID Engineers headed by Shri R.N. Nayak, CMD and also to
the 35 manufacturers, who have contributed equipment and their services
setting up the 1200 kV Test Station.
Since, Transmission Lines are the vehicles for optimum transmission

and utilization of power produced at Power Projects, yet these suffer from limitless insurmountable
handicaps - Funds, Environment, Ecology, Proximity of Objects. Forests, Right of Way, Changing
Hostile Terrains, Uncertainties of Wind, Temperature, Snow and Lightning, and above all requirements
of Reliability, Security and Safety. Overcoming all these adversities, Transmission Lines have to deliver
power to the consumers at minimum cost and with maximum reliability.
CBIP had brought out the first ‘Manual on Transmission Lines’ in 1977 which was updated in 1998.
Since then, there have been many fast technological and specific developments during the last two
decades. National standards, Regulations and Code of practice have been evolved. New series of IEC
standards have been published replacing the old standards. For updating this Manual, CBIP constituted
an Expert Group during 2012 headed by Shri I.S. Jha, Director (Projects), Power Grid Corporation of
India Ltd. Representatives from various sectors across the country, comprising manufacturers, power
utilities, testing laboratories, Central organizations like CEA & BIS, deliberated several times on the
subject and based on valuable comments, this new edition of the Manual has been published. The
Expert Group precisely did the brainstorming for nineteenth (19) times within a span of two years,
which has helped CBIP in updation of this document covering all aspects of Transmission lines.
The Manual aims at providing complete technology and best practices adopted by Indian Engineering
Fraternity in the engineering, design, construction, testing and commissioning of Transmission Lines
upto 1200 kV ac and ±800 kV HVDC in India and the projects taken up in developing countries.
The Expert Group has updated eleven (11) existing chapters namely Tower Types and Shapes,
Tower Geometry, Electrical Clearances, Design Parameters, Loadings, Design of Tower Members,
Testing of Towers, Material, Fabrication, Galvanizing, Inspection and Storage, Design of Foundations
and Construction of Transmission Lines.
To capture the latest developments and innovations five new chapters viz. ‘Multi Circuit and Narrow
Base Towers’, ‘Uprating and Upgradation of Transmission Lines’, ‘Mono Polo Towers’, ‘New Generation
Conductors’ and ‘Polymer Insulators’ have been added.
The revised Chapter on Foundations includes optimal solutions for foundations as it also gives illustrative
examples on adoption of latest methodology on foundation design to facilitate practicing engineers
to perform/ verify the designs of the tower foundation design of different types of soil including rock
foundations. The isolated normal type footing of conventional towers are not to be checked for sliding
and overturning.
xi
CBIP wishes to acknowledge the valuable contributions made by Expert Group under the Chairmanship
of Shri I.S. Jha, Director (Projects), Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. well supported by Shri
Rajesh Kumar, General Manager, POWERGRID for revision of this Manual. Our thanks are due to
both of them.
We also feel indebted to Shri M.L. Sachdeva, Former Chief Engineer, Central Electricity Authority/
Sr. Consultant, M/s Skipper Electrical (India) Ltd. for his excellent contribution in preparation of this
important document. He has not only contributed in revision & updation of the manual as acting
Chairman of the Expert Group but has also worked day & night for synthesizing the same.
Our special thanks are also due to renowned Expert Group Members who are Specialists in their
respective fields namely Shri M. Krishnakumar, Director-Projects, NETC Ltd., Shri D. Chowdhury,
Executive Director, Shyama Power India Ltd., Shri Pankaj Kumar, General Manager, Power Grid
Corporation of India Ltd., Shri Gopalji, General Manager, Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd., Shri
Karnail Singh, Former Chief Engineer, CEA, ED, Kadevi Industries Ltd., Shri S.K. Ray Mohapatra,
Member Secretary, NERPC, CEA, Shri S.M. Takalkar, Director, Takalkar Power Engineers and
Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Shri C. Suresh B. Reddy, Head – Engineering, L&T ECC, Shri B.B. Shah, Vice
President-Engg., Kalpataru Power Transmission Ltd., Shri J.B. Mondal, Isolux , Shri E.V. Rao, Vice
President, KEC International Ltd., Shri L.N. Agarwal, Sr. VP, Essel Infra Projects Ltd. and Shri A.K.
Jain, Chairman, Ganga Flood Control Commission. They have extended tremendous contribution and
support for revision of this Manual.
We are also thankful to other specialists namely Shri Gorokh Thakur, Chief Engineer, CEA, Shri
A.K. Vyas, DGM, POWERGRID, Dr. Hemlata Vyas, AVP, GMR Energy Ltd., Ms. Renu Singhal, GM,
Reliance Power Transmission Ltd., Shri Neeraj Kumar, Director, CEA, Shri Siraj Bhattacharya, Head-
TM&BD, Sterlite Technologies Ltd. and Shri Dayanand Swamy, DGM, Valmont Structures Pvt. Ltd. for
their contribution on the subject.
Preciously speaking, the work involved in completion of this Manual could be accomplished by the
untiring efforts and invaluable contribution of all the Members of the Experts Group, other concerned
professionals and Special Invitees who have directly or indirectly contributed in bringing up this manual.
We also express our grateful thanks to them.
I also appreciate very sincere efforts and contribution made by Shri P. P. Wahi, Director and Shri S.K.
Batra, Sr. Manager, CBIP for getting this document revised & finalized.
It is hoped that this Manual would serve as a useful and valuable guide for all the professionals &
stakeholders including Power utilities, Industries and Educational Institutions etc.
V.K. Kanjlia
Secretary
Central Board of Irrigation and Power
xii
EXPERT GROUP
Chairman
Shri I.S. Jha
Director – Projects
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited
Saudamini, Plot No 2, Sector 29
Gurgaon 122 001
Members
Shri M.L. Sachdeva Shri D. Chowdhury

Former Chief Engineer, CEA Executive Director
& Sr. Consultant Shyama Power India Limited
Skipper Electricals (India) Ltd. 421, Udyog Vihar, Phase-IV
601, 6th Floor, Tower B Gurgaon 122015
Medicity Support Area Haryana
Sector-38, Gurgaon 122001
Shri Karnail Singh Shri Umesh Chandra

Executive Director – Transmission T&D Managing Director
Kadevi Industries Limited North East Transmission Company Ltd.
(Formerly Kadevi Engg. Co. Pvt. Ltd.) 1st Floor, Ambience Corporate Tower
A1-A2, Electronic Complex, Kushaiguda Ambience Mall, Ambience Island
Hyderabad 500 062 NH-8, Gurgaon 122001
Shri M. Krishnakumar Shri Rajesh Kumar

Director General Manager
North East Transmission Company Ltd. Power Grid Corporation of India Limited
1st Floor, Ambience Corporate Tower Alankar Place, Boring Road
Ambience Mall, Ambience Island Patna 2333140
NH-8, Gurgaon 122001 Bihar
Shri Pankaj Kumar Shri Gopal ji

General Manager General Manager
Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.
Saudamini, Plot No 2, Sector 29 Saudamini, Plot No. 2, Sector 29
Gurgaon 122 001 Gurgaon 122 001
Shri J.B. Mondal Shri S.K. Ray Mohapatra

Isolux Corsán India Member Secretary – Incharge
Engineering & Construction Pvt. Ltd. North Eastern Regional Power Committee (CEA)
Vatika Business Park Ministry of Power (Govt. of India)
2nd Floor, Block Two, Sector - 49 MSHFCS Ltd. Building, Nongrim Hills
Sohna Road, Gurgaon 122 001 Shillong 793 003
xiii
Shri A.K. Jain Shri L.N. Agarwal
Chairman Sr. Vice President – Power Transmission
Ganga Flood Control Commission Essel Infra Projects Limited
Former Chief Engineer – TCD 18, Ramnath House
Central Electricity Authority 5th Floor, Yusuf Sarai
Sewa Bhavan, R.K. Puram New Delhi 110049
New Delhi 110066
Shri S.M. Takalkar Shri C. Suresh Babu Reddy

Director Head – Engineering
Takalkar Power Engineers & Transmission Line Business Unit
Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Larsen & Toubro Limited
A-198, Vishwamitri Township Mount Poonamallee Road
Opp. Gujarat Tractor, Vishwamitri Manapakkam, PB No. 979
Vadodara 390 011 Chennai 600 089
Shri B.B. Shah Shri E.V. Rao

Vice President – Engg. Vice President
Kalpataru Power Transmission Limited KEC International Limited
101, Part III, GIDC Estate, Sector - 28 B -502, 247 Park, LBS Marg
Gandhinagar 382023, Gujarat Vikroli (West), Mumbai 400083
Dr. Hemlata Vyas Ms. Renu Singhal

AVP Contracts & Procurement General Manager – Engineering and Quality
GMR Energy Ltd. Reliance Power Transmission Ltd.
Airport Building 302 12th Floor, Tower 10B
New Udaan Bhawan Complex DLF Cyber City
IGI Airport, New Delhi 110037 Gurgaon 122002
Shri V.K. Kanjlia Shri Siraj Bhattacharya

Secretary Head - TM & BD, Power Transmission Business
Central Board of Irrigation and Power Sterlite Technologies Limited
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri 4th Floor, Rider House, 136P, Sector 44
New Delhi 110021 Gurgaon 122003
Shri P.P. Wahi Shri S.K. Batra

Director Sr. Manager - Technical
Central Board of Irrigation and Power Central Board of Irrigation and Power
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri
New Delhi 110021 New Delhi 110021
xiv
Special invitees
Shri Gorokh Thakur Dr. Prabhat Mohan

Chief Engineer - TCD Chief Engineer, SE&TD Division
Central Electricity Authority Central Electricity Authority
Sewa Bhavan Sewa Bhawan
R.K. Puram R.K. Puram
New Delhi 110066 New Delhi 110066
Dr. V. Kalyanaraman Shri S. Arun Kumar

Chairman Scientist
CED – 7 Civil Engineering Department
Bureau of Indian Standards Bureau of Indian Standards
& Former Prof. IIT Madras 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg
Chennai New Delhi 110 002
Shri A.K Vyas Shri P.K. Mishra

Dy. General Manager Director, SE&TD Division
Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. Central Electricity Authority
Saudamini, Plot No 2, Sector 29 Sewa Bhawan, R.K. Puram
Gurgaon 122 001 New Delhi 110066
Shri Rajiv Gandhi Shri Neeraj Kumar

Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd Director
Saudamini, Plot No 2 Central Electricity Authority
Sector 29 Sewa Bhavan, R.K. Puram
Shri Surendra Kumar Shri Sidhartha Mitra

Chief Manager Deputy Director - TCD
Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. Central Electricity Authority
Saudamini, Plot No 2, Sector 29 Sewa Bhavan, R.K. Puram
Shri P. Bhattacharya Shri Sujalkumar B. Shah

Independent Consultant – Assistant General Manager
Transmission Kalpataru Power Transmission Limited
(Retired from SAE Transmission) 101, Part III, GIDC Estate, Sector 28
Gandhinagar 382023, Gujarat
Shri Nitin S. Deshpande Ms. Dhwani Shah

Sr. Manager – Engineering Services Sr. Manager
KEC International Limited Kalpataru Power Transmission Limited
B -502, 247 Park, LBS Marg 101, Part III, GIDC Estate, Sector 28
Vikroli (West) Gandhinagar 382023
Mumbai 400083 Gujarat
xv
Shri Alpesh P. Mohite Shri Dayanand Swamy. K
Takalkar Power Engineers & Dy. General Manager - Engineering
Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Valmont Structures Pvt. Ltd.
A-198, Vishwamitri Township, Unit 403, 4th Floor, Pentagon 4
Opp. Gujarat Tractor, Vishwamitri Magarpatta City
Vadodara 390 011 Hadapsar, Pune 411014
Shri Kishore Gaikwad Shri C. N. Devarajan

Takalkar Power Engineers & Central Electricity Authority
Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Sewa Bhavan
A-198, Vishwamitri Township R.K. Puram
Opp. Gujarat Tractor, Vishwamitri New Delhi 110066
Vadodara 390 011
xvi
ContenTs
Page
Messages (v)
Foreword (ix)
Preface (xi)
Chapter 1 - Introduction 1
1.1 Preamble 1
1.2 Development of Power Systems in India 2
1.3 Transmission Line Support Structures 3
1.4 Environmental and Ecological Awakening 4
1.5 Philosophies in Design of Transmission Lines 4
1.6 Concepts Used in Transmission Line Design 4
1.7 General 5
1.8 Brief of Topics Covered in the Manual 5
1.9 Recent Development and R&D in Transmission System in India 8
Chapter 2 - TOWER TYPES AND SHAPES 11

2.1 Scope 11
2.2 Types of Towers 11
2.3 Towers Shapes 14
2.4 Tower Designation 14
Chapter 3 - TOWER GEOMETRY 24

3.1 Scope 24
3.2 Tower Anatomy 24
3.3 Bracing System 26
3.4 Tower Extensions 28
3.5 Tower Outline 29
3.6 Tower Height 29
3.7 Tower Width 58
3.8 Cross-Arm Spread 61
3.9 Typical Lengths of Insulator Strings on Transmission Lines in India 63
Chapter 4 - ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES 74

4.1 Background 74
4.2 Introduction 74
4.3 Electrical Clearances — General Considerations 74
4.4 Types of Air Clearances 76
4.5 Minimum Electrical Clearance above Water Bodies 80
4.6 Clearances at Power Line Crossings 82
4.7 Power Line Crossing Railway Tracks 83
xvii
4.8 Minimum Clearance between Highest Traction Conductor &
Lowest Crossing Conductor 84
4.9 Power Lines Crossing Communication Lines 84
4.10 Clearance from Air Ports/ Aerodromes/ helipads 85
4.11 Miscellaneous 85
Annexure-1 : Over Voltages Experienced in Transmission system 86
Chapter 5 - DESIGN PARAMETERS 90

5.0 Scope 90
5.1 Transmission Voltage 90
5.2 Number of Circuits 91
5.3 Climatic Conditions 92
5.4 Reliability Considerations 92
5.5 Environmental and Ecological Consideration 105
5.6 Conductor 106
5.7 Earthwire 106
5.8 Insulator Strings 107
5.9 Span 112
Annexure 1 : An example of Sag-tension calculation of conductor 115
Chapter 6 - LOADINGS 118

6.1 Introduction 118
6.2 Requirements of Loads on Transmission Lines 118
6.3 Nature of Loads 119
6.4 Loading Criteria 119
6.5 Transverse Loads (Tr) - Reliability Condition (Normal Condition) 119
6.6 Transverse Loads (Ts) - Security Condition 124
6.7 Transverse Load (Tm) During Construction and Maintenance—Safety Condition 124
6.8 Vertical Loads (Vr) — Reliability Condition 125
6.9 Vertical Loads (Vs) – Security Condition 125
6.10 Vertical Loads During Construction and Maintenance (Vm) – Safety Condition 125
6.11 Longitudinal Loads (Lr) — Reliability Condition 126
6.12 Longitudinal Loads (Ls) - Security Condition 126
6.13 Longitudinal Loads During Construction and Maintenance (Lm) — Safety condition 127
6.14 Loading Combinations Under Reliability, Security and Safety Conditions 127
6.15 Anti-Cascading Checks 128
6.16 Brokenwire Condition 128
6.17 Broken Limb Condition for ‘V’ Insulator String 129
6.18 Tension Limits 129
6.19 Ice Loading 129
Annexure - A Design Stresses- Circular Hollow Sections (As per IS: 802) 131
xviii
Chapter 7 - DESIGN OF TOWER MEMBERS 134
7.1 Scope 134
7.2 Stress Analysis 134
7.3 Member Selection 136
7.4 Selection of Material 137
7.5 Slenderness Ratio Limitations (Kl/R) 137
7.6 Computation of L/R for Different Bracing Systems 137
7.7 Permissible Stresses in Tower Members 138
7.8 Selection of Members 138
7.9 Bolts and Nuts 139
ANNEXUREs 140
1 Conductor Details 140
2 Earthwire 141
3 Design Loads 142
4 Graphical Diagram Method 144
5 Analytical Method 146
6 Computer Aided Analysis 154
7 Input for 3D Analysis 157
8 Output Giving Summary of Critical Stresses 161
9 Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of Mild Steel 165
10 Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of High Tensile Steel 166
11 Section List Equal Section Commonly Used for Towers & as per is:808 (Part-V)-1989 167
12 L/R Consideration for Bracing System in a Transmission Tower 169
13 Permissible Axial Stress in Compression 171
14 Reference Table for Maximum Permissible Length of Redundant Members 176
15 Dimensions for Hexagon Bolts for Steel Structures 177
Chapter 8 - TESTING OF TOWERS 180

8.2 Testing Requirements 180
8.3 Description of a Tower Testing Station 180
8.4 Calibration 182
8.5 Assembly of Prototype Tower 182
8.6 Rigging Arrangements and Location of the Load Cells 182
8.7 Test Procedure 182
8.8 Testing of Prototype Tower 182
8.9 Special Requirements 185
8.10 Acceptance of Test Results 186
8.11 Material Testing 186
8.12 Presentation of Test Results 186
8.13 List of Transmission Tower Test Beds in India 187
APPENDIX - 1 : Calibration Chart 188
xix
Chapter 9 - Material, Fabrication, Galvanizing, Inspection And Storage 189
9.1 Scope 189
9.2 Material Quality Control 189
9.3 Specific Requirements of Fabrication 189
9.4 Operations in Fabrication 190
9.5 Tolerances 192
9.6 Shop Erection /Proto-Type Tower Assembly 193
9.7 Galvanising 193
9.8 Inspection 193
9.9 Packing and Storage 193
Annexures 194
I Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of Mild Steel - Product 194
II Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of High Tensile Steel Product 195
Iii (a) Properties of Equal Angle Sections as per is: 808 - 1989 196
(b) Properties of Unequal Angle Sections (as per is: 808 -1989) 198
(c) Properties of Channel Sections 198
IV Unit Weight of Plates 199
V Dimensions of Hexagonal Bolts and Nuts for Steel Structures 200
Vi Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of Hexagonal Bolts 201
Vii Properties of Tower Bolts Metric Screw Threads as
per is 4218-1:2001 & is 4218-3:1999 204
Appendix - I : Quality Assurance Plan 205

Appendix - II : List of Machines Required for a Well Equipped Tower-Fabricating Workshop 243
Appendix - Iii : Workshop Chart 244
Appendix - Iv : Process Flow Chart for Fabrication of Tower 245
Chapter 10 - Design Of Foundations 246

10.1 General 246
10.2 Types of Loads on Foundations 246
10.3 Basic Design Requirements 247
10.4 Soil Parameters 247
10.5 Soil Investigation 247
10.6 Types of Soil and Rock 248
10.7 Types of Foundations 249
10.8 Revetment on Foundation 277
10.9 Soil Resistances for Designing Foundation 277
10.10 Design Procedure for Foundation 283
10.11 Concrete Technology for Tower Foundation Designs 296
10.12 Pull-Out Tests on Tower Foundation 296
10.13 Skin Friction Tests 300
10.14 Scale Down Models of Foundation 300
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10.15 Tests on Submerged Soils 300
10.16 Investigation of Foundation of Towers 303
10.17 Investigation of Foundation of a Tower Line in Service 303
10.18 Repairs of FoundaTions of a Tower Line in Service 304
10.19 Foundation Defects and Their Repairs 305
Annexures
I Soil Properties to be considered in Foundation Designs for various types of Soil 308
II List of Soils Tests 309
III Guidelines for classification of Foundations in different Soils 310
IV Bond Stresses 312
Typical Examples of Design Calculation 313
Chapter 11 - Construction Of Transmission Line 334

11.1 Survey 334
11.2 Environmental Consideration 334
11.3 Statutory Regulation for Crossing of Roads, Power Lines,
Telecommunication Lines, Railway Tracks etc 335
11.4 Surveying Methods 336
11.5 Foundations 345
11.6 Erection of Super Structure and Fixing of Tower Accessories 356
11.7 Earthing 358
11.8 Stringing of Conductors 359
11.9 Hot-Line Stringing of E.H.V. Lines 368
11.10 Protection of Tower Footing 370
11.11 Testing and Commissioning 370
11.12 Renovation & Modernization of Transmission Lines 371
11.13 Residual Life Assessment of Transmission Line 371
11.14 Manpower, Tools and Plants and Transport Facilities 371
11.15 References 377
Annexures 379
Appendix - A : Modern Methods of surveying 402
Chapter 12 - Multi Circuit & Narrow Base Towers 415

12.2 Multi Circuit Tower - Configuration 415
12.3 Narrow Base Tower 418
12.4 Design 423
12.5 Conclusion 424
Chapter 13 - Uprating And Upgrading Of transmission Lines 425

13.2 Uprating 427
xxi
13.3 Upgrading 436
13.4 Conclusion 444
Chapter 14 - Mono Pole Towers 445

14.2 Definitions 447
14.3 Pole Types and Shapes 450
14.4 Loading, Pole Geometry and Analysis 452
14.5 Design of Utility Poles 453
14.6 Assembly and Erection 457
14.7 Testing of Poles 457
14.8 Foundations 460
Chapter 15 - New Generation Conductors 477

15.2 Low Resistant Conductors- Al59 Alloy Conductors 478
15.3 Htls (High Temperature Low Sag) Conductors-Tacsr 480
15.4 Htls (High Temperature Low Sag) – Acss (Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported) 482
15.5 Htls (High Temperature Low Sag) Conductors-Acss Tw 485
15.6 Htls (High Temperature Low Sag) Conductors-Stacir 488
15.7 Htls (High Temperature Low Sag) Conductors-Accc 489
15.8 Htls (High Temperature Low Sag) Conductors-Gztacsr 492
15.9 Recommendations on Selection of New Generation Conductors 495
Chapter 16 - Polymer Insulators For Use On Transmission Lines 497

16.2 Pollution Phenomenon 498
16.3 Polymer Insulators 498
16.4 Mechanism of Pollution Flashovers - A Comparison of
Porcelain / Glass Insulators & Polymer Insulators 499
16.5 Components of Composite Insulators 501
16.6 Comparison of Porcelain, Glass and Composite Insulators 504
16.7 Operational Experiences/Failures 505
16.8 Handling, Cleaning & Packaging 507
Annexure 1 : Classification of Pollution Categorization for AC and DC System 508
xxii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 PREAMBLE
1.1.1 Electricity is a concurrent subject at Entry 38 in List III of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution
of India. In India’s federal governance structure, this means that both the Central government and
India’s State governments are involved in establishing policy and laws for its electricity sector. This
principle motivates Central Government of India and individual State Governments to enter into
memorandum of understanding to help expedite projects and reform electricity sector in respective
state. With Infrastructure open to Private Sector participation, the major players in power sector
now stands as Centre, State and Private. These three are further cooperating among themselves
to make optimal use of their resources to take up Mega Power Projects.
1.1.2 Electricity is most versatile and convenient form of Energy. Per Capita consumption of electricity is
considered to be a yard stick for assessing the growth of economy of any state or a country. Power
Generation, Transmission and Distribution (Utilization) system is therefore growing exponentially
all over the world.
For meeting the ever increasing power demand and for evacuating power from far flung generating
units in areas having concentration of coal or hydro potential, infinite grid is required. The high
voltage, extra high voltage and ultra high voltage AC & DC lines forms the infinite grid. The popular
voltage levels in India are as follows:
(a) Alternating current EHV lines – 66 kV, 110 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV, 765 kV. The indigenous
development of 1200 kV is taken up through setting up Test Station at Bina in MP
(b) Direct current HV Lines - + 500 kV, + 600 kV and + 800 kV
1.1.3 Land Mark Events of Transmission System in the Power Sector
India has been demarcated into 5 regions namely Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern
and Southern region as far as power system in concerned.
1950-1960 Growth of State grids and introduction of 220 kV Voltage Level
1977 Introduction of 400 kV Voltage level

1989 HVDC Back to Back system
1990 Introduction of +/-500 kV HVDC back to back bi-polar Line
1991 North Eastern and Eastern grids were connected.
2000 765 kV Transmission Line (Initially charged at 400 kV)
2003 WR and ER-NER were interconnected
2006 North and East grids were interconnected
2007 Operation of 765 kV Sipat S/S and 765 kV TL
2012 (Feb) Pilot 1200 kV S/c line was successfully test charged at 1200 kV UHVAC National Test
Station at Bina, Madhya Pradesh.
2013 (Dec) Southern Region was connected to Central Grid in Synchronous mode with the
commissioning of 765 kV Raichur-Solapur Transmission line thereby achieving
‘ONE NATION’-’ONE GRID’
1
2 Manual on Transmission Lines
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF POWER SYSTEMS IN INDIA
1.2.1 The independent India has witnessed phenomenal rise in Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution over the years. The pre-independence generation was 1362 MW and the highest
transmission voltage was 132 kV. The following comparison indicates the growth.
Year VIII Plan End IX Plan End X Plan End XI Plan End
(March 1997) (March 2002) (March 2007) (March 2012)
Power Generation 85,797 1,05,046 1,32,329.81 1,99,877
Capacity (MW)
Transmission Net Work (Ckm)
765 kV A.C. 0 1160 2184 5250
HVDC 1634 4738 5872 9432
400 kV A.C 36142 49378 75722 106819
230/220 kV A.C 79600 96993 114629 135980
Total TLs 117376 152269 198407 257481
Substations (MVA)
765 kV A/C 0 0 0 25000
400 kV AC 40865 60380 92942 151027
230/220 kV AC 84177 116363 156497 223774
Total AC S/S 125042 176743 249439 399801
Capacity (MVA)
HVDC 0 5200 8200 9750
Total AC+HVDC 125042 181943 257639 409551
The generation capacity addition planned for 12th plan and 13th plan period is 118537 MW and
116900 MW respectively. This includes 30,000 MW and 30,500 MW from renewable energy sources
during the above period.
1.2.2 Open access in the power sector has made private sector participation in the construction of
Transmission network a reality. Long term concession agreements are entered into for construction
and maintenance of the Extra High Voltage transmission lines for en-block power transfer. Thus
there is a competitive market for construction and long term maintenance of transmission lines.
This is bound to help in adding more circuit km of various voltage class along with the expansion
plans of state power utilities and the Power Grid Corporation of India (PGCIL). The private sector
power generators also need to construct transmission lines for connectivity to infinite grid.
Power Grid Corporation of India (CTU) a major public sector Company in the country in Transmission
system has the largest transmission network. The details of network owned by Power Grid is given
as under:
Particulars Xth Plan (2002-2007) XI Plan (2007-2012) XII Plan (2012-17)

Transmission network 59,461 92,981 39284
(ckm)
Sub-stations (nos.) 104 150 60
Transformation Capacity 54915 124525 101595 MVA+
(MVA) 12000 MW (HVDC)
Inter-regional Capacity 14100 28000 N.A.
(MW)
Introduction 3
1.2.3 Development of Super Voltage Transmission Line
(i) ±-800 kV Multi-Terminal System
+/-500 kV HVDC bipolar lines are in operation over a period of two decades and have good
experience in design, operation and maintenance. Development and Implementation of
±-800 kV, 6000 MW multi-terminal HVDC system of around 2000 km from North Eastern
Region (Biswanath Chariali in Assam and Alipurduar of West Bengal) to Northern Region
(Agra in Uttar Pradesh) is under construction. It shall be amongst world’s largest ±800 kV
multi-terminal HVDC system.
(ii) 1200 kV UHVAC Transmission System
To meet the long-term bulk power transfer requirement an overlaying super grid with 1200 kV
UHVAC system has been envisaged. The 1200 kV UHVAC technology, the highest voltage
level in the world, is being developed by Power Grid Corporation in collaboration with 35
Indian manufacturers.
This is one of the unique R&D projects in public-private partnership model. The pilot 1200 kV
S/c line was successfully test charged and 1200 kV D/c line erected at 1200 kV UHVAC
National Test Station at Bina, Madhya Pradesh in February, 2012. The 1200 kV UHVAC
technology is currently under field testing.
This endeavour shall benefit Indian power sector to enter into new era of a1200 kV level
with 1200 kV class equipment from the manufacturer with in the country.
The pilot 1200 kV S/c line was successfully test charged and 1200 kV D/c line erected
at 1200 kV UHVAC National Test Station at Bina, Madhya Pradesh in February, 2012 by
Power Grid. The 1200 kV UHVAC technology is currently under field testing.
(iii) Power Grid has operationalised 765 kV EHVAC level by charging Sipat-Seoni transmission
line at its rated voltage in October, 2007. Additionally, during XI Plan, seven (7) number of
765 kV sub-stations and about 3500 ckm. of 765 kV transmission lines have been added.
Further, the highest voltage level in the world, 1200 kV UHVAC Test Station has been test
charged.
1.3 Transmission Line Support Structures
1.3.1 The transmission lines are normally supported by latticed towers. Therefore the reliability of
these lines depends much on the reliability of the towers and their foundations. The towers
support the conductor, insulators and earth wire and /or Optical Fibre Ground Wire and also
help in maintaining vertical & horizontal Electrical clearances from the live conductor to ground
(Phase clearance) and live conductor to live conductor (Phase to Phase Clearance). The
ground clearance after accounting for maximum sag and maximum conductor temperature
under no wind condition is a statutory requirement and one of the important stipulation of the
specification.
1.3.2 Due to the high cost of Right of Way (ROW), the emphasis is on transfer of large quantum of power
through an optimum corridor. This has resulted into increase in the voltage levels of transmission
lines and use of narrow base towers & poles. Besides, the Hydro Power potential in Northern &
North-Eastern Himalayan regions have prompted planners to construct Ultra High Voltage (UHV)
lines like 765 kV A.C. & 1200 kV A.C. Limitation of bulk power transfer capability of ac transmission
lines over a longer distance, the High voltage D.C. lines have been inducted to transfer a big chunk
of power over a very long distance (say 2500 MW over 1500 km). All the above reasons lead to the
design, fabrication and construction of very tall and broad towers. Optimization of designs of towers
results into the cost optimization of transmission lines.
1.3.3 The weight of a tower required for any specific application is influenced to a great extent by the
selection of tower configuration, choice of steel structural for tower members, type of tower, types
of connections etc. On the basis of experience and designing skill,a tower designer can produce
tower designs conforming to the governing specifications and bring about optimization in tower
weight without sacrificing stability and reliability features of the finished tower, which are very
important for structural reliability of a transmission line. This depends not only on the designs of
tower and its foundation but also on the type of tower, development of structural arrangement of
tower member, detailing of connections, quality of steel structural, accuracy in fabrication, proper
soil investigations, use of foundations according to soil conditions at sites of tower installation,
accuracy and adequate care in tower erection and stringing as well as proper maintenance of the
erected towers.
1.3.4 Depending on the manner in which the towers are supported, they fall in the following two broad
categories.
1. Selfsupporting Towers
2. Mono Poles / Narrow base towers
3. Guyed Towers
This Manual covers all aspects of designs of self supporting towers and mono poles and their
foundations in a comprehensive manner.
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL AWAKENING
1.4.1 Environmental and ecological aspects were not given so much importance in the past in the
designs of transmission lines and their routing. However, availability of more sophisticated facilities
has made it possible to investigate into the effects of electric and magnetic fields associated with
transmission lines and understand and better appreciate the possible adverse effects of the above
fields. In order to ensure that these fields least affect the way of the life and ecology, the conductor
configuration, tower shapes and transmission line corridors are so chosen that the magnitudes
of radio interference (RI), television interference (TVI), audio noise (AN) and electrostatic fields
radiated by the transmission lines are within safe limits and ecology is least affected.
1.4.2 While planning the construction of transmission line, impact on the environment & ecology has
to be given importance. The tower and line design shall be such that it will minimize the impact
on environment and ecology. The present day softwares and information technology affords high
accessibility of the route on computer desktop. This is able to optimize the design and engineering
as well as cost of the transmission line. It also hastens selection of route.
1.5 PHILOSOPHIES IN DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINES
1.5.1 The philosophy of design is based on the probabilistic concept. Manual is based on guidance taken
from IEC:826 and IS:802-1995 (Part 1/Section 1) 1995 “Code of practice for use of structural steel
in overhead transmission line towers” and is now taken up for updating based on users and industry
experience. IS: 802 is also under revision and there is some difference in design approach and the
same is under discussion for arriving at mutually acceptable solution.
1.6 concepts used in transmission line design
1.6.1 The design concept is based on the following :
(i) Design based on limit load concept.
(ii) Use of probabilistic method of design.
(iii) Use of Reliability levels in transmission lines design.

Introduction 5
(iv) Use of Co-ordination in strength of line components.
(v) Use of six basic wind speeds converted to 10 minutes average speeds corresponding to 10
metre height over mean retarding surface as the basis for wind loads on transmission lines.
(vi) Consideration of the effects of terrain category and topography of transmission line corridors
in the design wind speeds: and
(vii) Carrying out anticascading checks on all angle towers.
1.7 GENERAL
1.7.1 This revision in Manual includes additions and modifications and corrections in the text of chapters
2 – 11 of earlier Manual and addition of chapters 12 – 16 to keep pace with the latest technological
development in transmission line segment of the power system.The revision also aims at material
and cost optimization in transmission line network.
1.7.2 The Manual is drafted making its optimal use to the practicing engineers of States, Central and
Transmission Utility engineers as well as the new entrants to the power transmission segment.
The manual will also be useful to the academic institutions and training institutions to up-keeping
engineers.
1.7.3 The Manual is also likely to be useful to the Transmission Engineers from other parts of the world
due to its versatility & simple presentation.
1.8 BRIEF OF TOPICS COVERED IN THE MANUAL
1.8.1 The chapter number 2 to 11 covered in the Manual published by CBI&P in 1998 (publication number
268) have been revised covering new technologies and approach to the design.
1.8.2 In addition to above, five new chapters have been introduced on Polymer Insulators, Multi Circuit
Towers / Narrow Base Towers,Uprating-Up-gradation of Transmission Lines, Monopole Towers,
New Generation Conductor. These chapters are included keeping update on latest technologies.
1.8.3 Chapter 2 – 11 of Manual published in 1998 (CBI&P Publication No. 268)
1.8.3.1 Chapter 2 – Tower Types and Shapes
1.8.3.1.1 This chapter describes fully the types of towers, tower shapes and designation of towers and
brings out the essential differences between the various types of towers and the factors for
preference of a particular type of tower over other types, for some specific considerations.
1.8.3.1.2 The revised chapter contains improved drawings presentation, alternatives arrangement of
transposition tower, arrangement of crossing gantry structure, etc.
1.8.3.2 Chapter 3 – Tower Geometry
1.8.3.2.1 This chapter describes the various portions of towers and details the factors which determine
tower height, tower width at various levels and the spread of cross-arms. It also describes the
various types of bracing systems, insulator stings and gives details of their composition, typical
details of insulator strings, values of angles of swing and corresponding electrical clearances
for insulator strings and jumpers for transmission lines of different voltage class already in
service in India, analytical calculations of electrical clearances on transmission lines etc.
1.8.3.3 Chapter 4 – Electrical Clearances
1.8.3.3.1 This chapter covers the requirements regarding the minimum electrical clearances to be
maintained at tower and at mid span between live parts of transmission line and from live parts
to tower members for the various types of over voltages to which transmission lines of different
voltage levels are subjected in service. It also deals with the minimum ground clearances,
effect of span length on clearances and the requirements regarding electrical clearances of
power line crossing over telecommunication circuits, railway tracks, rivers, lakes etc. The
details have been given for different voltage level.
1.8.3.3.2 The revised Chapter contains data mentioned above as applicable to 800 kV and 1200 kV ac
system and HVDC +/500 kV and 800 kV transmission Lines in addition to modifications in mid
span clearances, angle of shield, latest railway track crossing clearance ac and dc, dielectric
parameters for 800 kV and 1200 kV ac.TL and HVDC +/- 800 and 500 kV, limit of distance on
point of blasting from tower, Minimum distance of digging from tower and construction of brick
kiln, etc.
1.8.3.4 Chapter 5 – Design Parameters
1.8.3.4.1 This chapter covers the electrical clearances on of 800 kV and 1200 kV ac and +/-800 kV
HVDC and geological environmental and ecological considerations which influence the
designs of transmission lines. It deals with the effects of shielding of lee-ward conductors by
the wind-ward conductors of bundle conductors, insulator strings details, span limits and their
significance in tower design, conductor creep allowance etc.
1.8.3.4.2 The revised chapter covers revised max temp limits of conductor, minimum temp.angle of
shield, corridor requirement, PTCC requirement, types & nos of conductor in bundle, ground
wire, insulator strings 400 kV and above Voltage lines and HVDC lines, etc.
1.8.3.4.3 The revised chapter provides for procedure to sag- tension calculations for conductor and
earth wire / OPGW.
1.8.3.5 Chapter 6 – Loadings
1.8.3.5.1 This chapter defines the various types of loads including oblique wind and narrow front wind,
gives methods for their estimation for snow-free regions, deal with the Reliability Requirements
– climatic loading under normal condition security requirements – Failure containment under
broken wire condition, safety requirements under construction and maintenance loads and
anti-cascading requirements.
1.8.3.5.2 The revised Chapter also covers loads with ice (Snow region) in addition to Loading criteria
under normal condition and also provides for loading combination under various combination
of ice and wind& temperature.
1.8.3.5.3 The revised chapter also covers important provision on modified loading criteria for BWC on
suspension tower (Nil wind at 32 degree C to 75% of max wind pressure at 32 degree C) and
tension towers (100% wind at 32 degree C to 75% of max wind pressure at 32 degree C)under
Security/Failure containment Load criteria to improve the stability of suspension tower and to
effect economy in the weight of tension towers, etc.
1.8.3.6 Chapter 7 – Design of Tower Members
1.8.3.6.1 This chapter describes the methods of analysis of stresses in plane trusses and space frames,
and deals with selection of grades and sizes of steel structural for tower members, use of high
tensile steel and mild steel sections slenderness ratio limits for members with calculated and
uncalculated stresses, built-up members, permissible stresses in tower members and bolts,
design of tower members and member connections.
1.8.3.7 Chapter 8 – Testing of Towers
1.8.3.7.1 This chapter deals with the purpose of testing of towers, describes a typical tower testing
station, calibration of load cells, rigging arrangements, locations of load cells in the test set-up,
testing procedure, sequence of test loading cases, acceptance of test results and testing of
tower material.
Introduction 7
1.8.3.8 Chapter 9 – Tower Materials, Fabrication, Galvanization, Inspection & Storage
1.8.3.8.1 This chapter deals with material quality control, specific requirements of fabrication covering
preparation of structural assembly drawings, shop drawings and bill of materials, cutting
means, operations in fabrication such as straightening, cutting (i.e., cropping, shearing, cutting
or saucing), bending, punching, drilling and marking tolerances, shop erection (horizontal
or vertical), method of galvanizing, inspection as per quality assurances plan, packaging of
finished members and their storage. The chapter highlights the significance of planning as it has
great bearing on optimum utilization of material and limiting the wastage. The chapter contains
data on permissible Edge Security and Bolt Gauges, chemical and mechanical properties of
Mild and high tensile steels, properties of Equal/Unequal Angles, Channels, Plates, Bolts/Nuts
and Anchor Bolts, it also contains a sample QAP, list of tower fabricating machinery, details of
galvanizing plant and the tests to be conducted on fabricated members.
1.8.3.9 Chapter 10 – Design of Foundations
1.8.3.9.1 This chapter deals with design requirements for various types of foundations for self-supporting
towers. It brings out the importance of soil investigations and testing, classification of soils and
excavations, types of foundations and their application areas, procedure for their designs etc.
The chapter contains the permissible values of soil bearing capacities, permissible stress values
for concrete, reinforcement bar details and procedure for testing of foundation. Application of
design methods is demonstrated by typical detailed calculations of designs for different types
of foundations. The chapter describes methods for investigating foundations and carrying out
their repairs during construction stage and on the lines in service.
1.8.3.9.2 The revised Chapter includes example for design of chimney with stub contribution, 10% margin
over the loads derived from tower for considerations of limit loads for design of foundations, in
case of unreinforced or reinforced chimney but stub anchored in bottom slab or chimney, stub
angle to be considered as reinforcement for additional reinforcement for design of chimney,
for stub in chimney designed for development length, the full reinforcement as per design
requirement will be provided neglecting stub, etc.
1.8.3.9.3 The isolated normal type footings of conventional towers are not to be checked for design for
sliding and overturning. Foundations with combine footing to be checked for sliding and over
turning.
1.8.3.9.4 The Chapetr gives illustrative examples for design of foundations for various types of soil
taking into consideration the proposed modifications in design approach.
1.8.3.10 Chapter 11 – Construction of Transmission Lines
1.8.3.10.1 This chapter covers all the stages from reconnaissance survey up to commissioning of lines.
It deals with statutory regulations, line corridor selection from environment angle, methods
of tower erection, paying out of conductors under uncontrolled and controlled tension, final
sagging, clamping in, installation of spacer/vibration damper/ spacer damper, jumpering live
line stringing of EHV lines, protection of tower footings etc. It also covers the tests to be
conducted before line energization.
1.8.3.10.2 The revised Chapter has been updated to include latest statutory regulations and other
modifications carried out in corresponding chapters, etc.
1.8.4 New Chapters added in this manual
1.8.4.1 Chapter 12 – Multicircuit & Narrow Base Towers
Multicircuit - Chapter covers Multi circuit configurations, clearances between circuits, Loadings
& Typical Single Line diagram of Multi Circuit towers.
1.8.4.2 Narrow Base Tower - Chapter covers approach to the design of Narrow base tower
structure and its foundation.
1.8.4.3 Chapter 13 – Uprating-Up-gradation of Transmission Lines
1.8.4.3.1 This chapter covers the need for uprating and up-gradation methodology for uprating, hardware
and accessories and case studies for uprating. The chapter also includes the methodology for
upgrading, electrical feasibility studies and some case studies on up-gradation.
1.8.4.4 Chapter 14 – Monopole Towers
1.8.4.4.1 The chapter covers advantages of Monopole, pole configuration, design methodology, loads on
the poles, poles design, pole deflection, software for analysis and design & design calculations
for pole.
1.8.4.5 Chapter 15 – New Generation Conductors
1.8.4.5.1 Chapter covers Low Resistant Conductors - AL59 Alloy Conductors, HTLS (High Temperature
Low Sag) Conductors-TACSR (Thermal Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced), Parameters for
Selectionof New Generation Conductors.
1.8.4.6 Chapter 16 – Polymer Insulators for use on Transmission Lines
1.8.4.6.1 The chapter covers brief History of Polymeric Insulators statistical data of use of polymeric
insulators, mechanism of pollution of flashover and comparison of polymeric insulator with
porcelain and glass insulator.Components of polymeric insulators, operational experience of
polymeric insulator as well as handling, cleaning & packing.
1.9 Recent Development and R&D in Transmission System in India
1.9.1 National High Power Test Laboratory Private Limited (NHPTLPL)
POWERGRID, NTPC, NHPC, DVC have entered into a Joint Venture Agreement in April, 2009 and
CPRI in Feb 2012 with equal participation with each other for setting up an On-line High Power Test
Laboratory namely ‘National High Power Test Laboratory Private Limited’ for short circuit test facility
in India.
A fully independent, stand alone, state-of-the-art, professionally managed, international class, “On
Line High Power Short Circuit Test Facility” is being established by NHPTLPL: at Bina (M.P.) to
provide a full range of short circuit testing for the electrical equipment manufacturing industry and
power utilities in conformance to Indian and International Standards.
1.9.2 Formation of Unified Grid wef 1st January 2014
Four regional grids viz Northern Grid, North Eastern Grid. Eastern Grid, Western Grid have been
in synchronous operation since long. Southern region grid has amalgamated from January 1, 2014
making India’slargest integrated grid as the biggest world grid.
New Year’s Day (2014) brought out a long-awaited landmark in Indian history - for the first time
ever, India’s electrical power system is a unified as a whole. On January 1, the commissioning of
a single line - from Raichur (Karnataka) to Sholapur (Maharashtra) - allowed the GOI to claim that
the southern states have been integrated with the national grid right on schedule. The Indian grid
is now truly national and has around 232 GW of installed generation capacity, making it one of the
largest in the world.
Southern Regional grid, which is presently connected through various High Voltage Direct Current
(HVDC) links with rest of the grid is planned to be connected synchronously by early 2014 through
high capacity Raichur–Sholapur 765 kV (2xS/c) lines.
Introduction 9
To further strengthen the National Grid, various high capacity HVDC and EHV Alternating Current
(EHVAC) inter-regional links with total capacity of 65,550 MW have been planned to take care
of inter-regional power transfer requirement of various planned generation projects including
Independent Power Producers (IPPs) scheduled for commissioning in XII Plan.
1.9.3 Smart Grid
The Ministry of Power shortlisted 14 Smart Grid pilot projects across the country to implement 7
different smart grid functionalities. Out of 14, PGCIL has been appointed as consultant for 8 of
these projects.
Specialised “Smart Grid” Department has been set up by Power Grid to take up implementation
of Smart Grid / Smart City Projects. Detailed Project Report (DPR) for a number of cities like
Amritsar, Raipur (Satara), Puducherry, Agartala, and Panipat for pilot smart grid projects have
been submitted under India Smart Grid Task Force. Further, project reports for implementation
of Smart grid/ cities for Firozabad and Katra have been submitted and for Bidhuna, Shikohabad,
Jammu (Gandhinagar Division), Baghat, Gulmarg, Pahalgam, Charar-i-Sharief, Chitradurga
(Karnataka), District/cities of Tripura, Chhatisgarh, Haryana, Punjab,Bihar etc. are under
preparation.
The pilot Smart grid/ Smart city project in Puducherry has been taken up for which an MOU has
been signed with Electricity Dept., Govt. of Puducherry in March 2012. In all, 63 organizations have
joined hands with Power Grid for implementation of this pilot project.
1.9.4 National Knowledge Network (NKN) Project
Prestigious National Knowledge Network (NKN) project with Power Grid is one of the implementing
agencies through which Government plans to connect all knowledge centers across the Country
such as IITs, IISc, etc. on high speed connectivity.
1.9.5 SAARC Grid
The details are given as under:
(i) At present, electrical interconnections exist between India & Bhutan and India & Nepal and these
are being further strengthened for substantial exchange of power across the borders.
(ii) An asynchronous interconnection between India & Bangladesh has already been established by
linking Barhampur (India) and Bheramara HVDC station (back to back) in Bangladesh.
(iii) Feasibility study for an under-sea interconnection between India and Sri Lanka is under
finalization.
(iv) 500 MW Amritsar (India) - Lahore (Pakistan) HVDC link between India and Pakistan is under
discussion.
1.9.6 +/- 800 kV HVDC Bipolar Line from Chamba to Kurukshetra with Metallic Return
For conventional HVDC Transmission system, ground return arrangement is being used as a part
of HVDC Bi-pole system to facilitate the Mono-pole Operation by providing return path under a
condition when one of the high voltage DC line is under maintenance.
In case of Dedicated Metallic Return (DMR), a third conductor is laid on the same tower carrying
the line conductor, instead of having a ground electrode as return path.
The various advantages of the having the third conductor as a return path are following:
• It eliminates the element of uncertainty about the proper functionality of the earth electrode
station.
• It avoids acquisition of separate land (500 x 500 m for electrode for 2000 A) for each earth
electrode stations, construction of electrode stations which involves requirement of large
amount of steel rods and coke.
• The construction of new transmission line between earth electrode station and respective
HVDC terminal station is also avoided.
Rhv Conductor
Rhv Conductor
+/-800 kV HVDC Bipolar Line from Chamba to Kurukshetra with Metallic Return
The provision of return conductor marginally increases the cost and Transmission line losses of
project. However, it provides a prudent solution to the issues of uncertain soil characteristics, land
acquisition corrosion etc. with the conventional earth return line/electrode station
Chapter 2
TOWER TYPES AND SHAPES

2.1 SCOPE
2.1.1 The tower of various shapes had been used in the past without considering its impact on the
environment. With conservation environmentalists attracting the highest attention and the public
becoming more and more conscious of the detrimental effects of transmission line towers on the
environment and occupation of land, transmission line tower designers have been endeavouring to
develop towers with such shapes which blend with the environment. Other factors responsible for
changes in shapes of towers are the need for the use of higher transmission voltages, limitation of
right-of-way availability, audible noise level, radio and T.V. interference, electrostatic field aspects,
etc. The types and shapes of Transmission Line Towers used in India and in other countries are
discussed in this chapter.
2.2 TYPES OF TOWERS
2.2.1 The types of towers based on their constructional features, which are in use on the power
transmission lines are given below.
(i) Self-Supporting Towers
(ii) Conventional Guyed Towers
(iii) Chainette Guyed Towers
These are discussed in the subsequent paragraphs.
2.2.2 Self-Supporting Towers
Self-supporting broad-based/narrow-based latticed steel towers are used in India and other
countries. This type of tower has been in use in India from the beginning of twentieth century
for EHV transmission lines. Self-supporting towers are covered under Indian Standard (IS: 802)
and other National and International Standards. These were fabricated, using each billet tested mild
steel towers structural conforming to IS 226(till it was withdrawn in 1992) and now fabricated out
ofmild steel or a combination of mild steel and High tensile structural steel conforming to IS:2062.
The steel conforming to BS:EN 10025 355JR /ASTM A 572/JISor any other International/National
standards equivalent to latest IS-2062 can be used.However it is recommended not to use more
than two grades of steel in a tower of a Transmission line. Some of the countries such as Japan,
USSR, Austria, Canada, France, etc., have explored use of other material such as steel formed angle
sections, tubular sections, aluminumsections, etc., for fabrication of towers. In the case of large angle
and long span crossing towers, some of the countries namely Russia, Norway, France, etc. are
using single phase self-supporting towers. Self-supporting towers usually have square/rectangular
base and four separate footings. However for narrow-based towers having combined monoblock
footings may be used depending upon overall economy. Self-supporting towers as compared to guyed
towers have higher steel consumption. Self-supporting towers are also used for compact line design.
Compact tower may comprise fabricated steel body, cage and groundwire peak, fitted with insulated
cross-arms. Compaction is also achieved by arrangement of phases, using V insulator strings, etc.
Compact towers have reduced dimensions and require smaller right-of-waydue to comparatively
shorter span and are suitable for use in congested areas and for upgrading the voltage of the
existing Transmission Lines also.
Self-supporting towers are shown in Figures 1 & 2.
2.2.3 Conventional Guyed Towers
2.2.3.1 These towers comprise portal structures fabricated in ‘Y’ and ‘V shapes and have been used in some
of the countries for EHV transmission lines upto 800 kV. The guys may be internal or external. The
11
Fig. 1 : Self Supporting Tower

Tower Types and Shapes 13
Fig. 2 : Self Supporting Tower

guyed tower including guy anchors occupy much larger land as compared to self-supporting towers
and as such this type of construction finds application in long unoccupied, waste land, bush tracts in
Canada, Sweden, Brazil, USSR etc.
2.2.3.2 Compact guyed towers are used on compact lines. The phases are arranged in such a way that the
phase are not interspersed by grounded metal parts of Tower. The phases can be placed in different
configuration and are insulated from the supports. The conventional guyed towers and compact guyed
towers are shown in Figure 3.
2.2.4 Chainette Guyed Towers
Chainette guyed tower is also known as cross rope suspension tower, and consists of two masts each
of which is supported by two guys and a cross rope which is connected to the tops of two masts and
supports the insulator strings and conductor bundles in horizontal formation.
For angle towers, the practice is to use three separate narrow based masts each for carrying one set
of bundle conductors or use self-supporting towers. Each narrow based mast is supported with the
help of two main guys. Typical chainette guyed towers for suspension and angle location are shown
in Figure 4.
2.2.5 Guyed / Chainettetowers are not covered in this Manual.
2.3 TOWERS SHAPES
Tower shapes in use are as follows:
(i) Vertical/Barrel Type

(ii) Horizontal/Wasp Waist Type
(iii) Delta/Cat Head
(iv) H-Structure Type
(v) Danube configuration
In India, tower shapes at (i), (ii) and (iii) are used for single circuit lines whereas tower shape at (i) has
been used for double circuit and multi-circuit lines. In other countries all the above shapes have been
used.
2.4 TOWER DESIGNATION
2.4.1 Broadly, towers are designated as under.
(i) Suspension Tower

(ii) Tension Tower
(iii) Transposition Tower
(iv) Special Tower
2.4.2 Suspension Towers
These towers are used on the lines for straight run or for small angle of deviation upto 2° or 5°or
up to 15°(with inclined V strings). Conductor on suspension towers may be supported by means of
l-Strings, V-Strings, Y –stringor a combination of I& V Strings.
2.4.3 Tension Towers
Tension towers also known as angle towers are used at locations where the angle of deviation
exceeds that permissible on suspension towers and/or where the towers are subject to uplift
loads. These towers are further classified as 2°/5°-15°, 15°-30°, 30°-60°/Dead-end towers and
are used according to the angle of deviation of line. In some countries, 90° angle towers are also
used. One of the classes of angle towers depending on the siteconditions is also designated as
Section Tower.
The section towerwith 0° angle deviationis introduced in the line after 15 suspension towers or 5 km in
plain terrain and 10 towers or 3 km in hilly terrainto avoid cascade failure. The design of such towers is
checked for adequacy both for angle location requirements as well as for arresting cascade failure.
2.4.4 Transposition Towers
Transposition towers are used to transpose the phase conductors in three sections in such a way
that each phase by rotation occupies each of the three phase positions in a circuit.Some typical
transposition arrangementsare shown in Figures 5,6,7 and 8.Generally Transposition of phases
are required for the line length above 100 km or as per system study. While carrying out the
Transposition arrangements, availability of adequate electrical clearances should be ensured.
2.4.5 Special Towers
These towers are used at locations such as those involving long span river and valley crossings, creek
crossings, cable terminationtowers etc. falling on the line route.These towers are specially designed
to meet the site specific requirements.
2.4.6 Crossing Gantry Structures
Existing power lines are crossed from above the existing line by providing towers with required
extension, or from below by using low height Gantry structures. Some typical shapes of power line
crossing Gantry structures are shown in Figure 9. Existing lines from above are also crossed by
removing the earth wire from existing line and providing diamond configuration of earth wire system
as shown in Figure 10.
Fig. 3 : Guyed Towers

Tower Types and Shapes
Fig. 4 : Chainette Guyed Tower

17
Fig. 5 : Transposition Tower

Fig. 6 : Transposition Arrangement for Delta Towers

Fig. 7 : Transposition Arrangement for S/C Towers

(Horizontal Configuration)
Fig. 8 : Transposition Arrangement for D/C Transmission Line

21
22
Manual on Transmission Lines
Fig. 9 : Schematic Diagram of Power Line Crossing Gantry

Fig. 10 : Diamond Configuration of Earthwire at Power Line Crossing

23
Chapter 3
TOWER GEOMETRY
3.1 SCOPE
3.1.1 The Chapter describes anatomy of tower and factors involved in determining the outlines of the
towers. The selection of an optimum outline together with right type of bracing system contribute
to a large extent in developing an economical design of transmission line tower. The geometry of a
tower has also a bearing on aesthetic outlook. The tower anatomy and tower outline are discussed
below.
3.2 TOWER ANATOMY
3.2.1 A tower is constituted of the following components as shown in Figure 1.
- Peak
- Cross Arm
- Boom
- K - Frame
- Cage
- Tower Body
- Body Extension
- Leg Extension
- Stub/Anchor Bolts and Base Plate Assembly
A brief description of each component of the tower is given as under:
3.2.2 Peak
3.2.2.1 It is the portion of tower above the top cross arm in case of vertical configuration tower and
above the boom in case of horizontal configuration tower. The function of the peak is to support
the ground wire/OPGW in suspension clamp and tension clamp at suspension and angle tower
locations respectively. The height of the peak depends upon specified angle of shield and mid span
clearance.
3.2.3 Cage
3.2.3.1 The portion between peak and tower body in vertical configuration towers in called Cage. The
cross-section of cage is generally square and it may be uniform or tapered throughout its height
depending upon loads. It comprises tower legs interconnected by bracings that are used in the panel
of cage where cross-arms are connected to the cage and slope changes for proper distribution of
torsion.
3.2.3.2 In case of Special tower or tall tower, the dimension of cage shall be fixed taking into account
provision of ladder for climbing up on the tower for maintenances purposes.
3.2.4 Cross-Arm
3.2.4.1 The function of a cross-arm in case of vertical configuration tower is to support conductor/ground
wire/OPGW. The number of cross arms depends upon number of circuits, tower configuration and
conductor/ ground wire/OPGW arrangement. The cross-arm for ground wires/OPGW consists of
fabricated steel work and that for conductor may be insulated type or consist of fabricated steel work
provided with insulator string. The dimensions of a cross-arm depend upon the line voltage, type
and configuration of insulator string, minimum framing angle from the requirement of mechanical
stress distribution etc. At large angle line deviation, rectangular/ trapezoidal cross-arms with pilot
24
Tower Geometry 25
string on outer side are used to maintain live conductor to grounded metal clearance. The lower
members of the cross-arm are called main members and the upper members as tie members/
compression members depending upon direction of vertical loads.
window
Fig. 1 : Tower Anatomy

3.2.5 Boom
3.2.5.1 It is generally a rectangular beam of uniform cross-section or tapered towards the middle of the
beam, forms part of horizontal configuration towers (self supporting, guyed etc.). The boom is
attached to the lower body and it supports power conductors.
3.2.6 K-Frame
3.2.6.1 It is a K-Shape Frame twin in numbers and provided on transverse face between waist and boom
level generally for horizontal configuration towers. The window in the Center is meant for passing
the middle phase conductor.
3.2.7 Tower Body
3.2.7.1 Tower body is the main portion of the tower for connecting cage/K-Frame to the tower foundation
or body extension or leg extension. It comprises tower legs inter-connected by bracings and
redundant members. It is generally square or rectangular in shape depending on the economics
and behavior.
3.3 BRACING SYSTEM
3.3.1 Peak, cage, tower body, body extension, leg extension, etc. comprise legs, bracings and redundant
members. The bracing and redundant members are provided for inter-connecting the legs as also
to achieve desired slenderness ratio for economical tower design. The Framing Angle between
bracings, main leg members and (both bracing and leg member) shall not be less than 15°. Bracing
patterns are single web system, double web or warren system, Pratt System, Portal System,
Diamond Bracing system, and multiple bracing system. Each of the bracing systems, shown in
Figure 2, is described below.
3.3.2 Single Web System
3.3.2.1 It comprises a system either of diagonals and struts or of diagonals only. In diagonal and strut
system, struts are designed in compression and diagonals in tension, whereas in a system with
all diagonals the members are designed both for tension and compression to permit reversal of
the applied external shear. This system is particularly used for narrow base towers, in cross-arm
girders and for portal type towers. This system can be used with advantage for 66 kV single circuit
line towers.
It is preferable to keep the four faces identical in case of 66 kV single circuit tower using single web
system as it results in lighter leg members. Single web system has little application for wide base
HV and EHV towers.
3.3.3 Double Web or Warren System
3.3.3.1 This system comprises diagonal cross-bracings. Shear is equally distributed between the two
diagonals with one in compression and the other in tension. Both diagonals are designed for tension
and compression in order to permit reversal of externally applied shears. The diagonal bracings are
connected at their crossing points. The tension diagonals give effective support to the compression
diagonals at the point of their connections and reduce the unsupported length of bracings which
results in lighter sizes of bracing members. This system is used for both large and small towers and
can be economically adopted throughout the cage and body of suspension and small angle towers
and also in wide base large towers. In the tower one or two panels in case of wide base towers,
diamond or portal system of bracing is generally more suitable from the consideration of rigidity.
These bracings result in better distribution of loads in legs and footings.
3.3.4 Pratt System
3.3.4.1 Shear is carried entirely by one of the diagonal members under tension. Other diagonal is assumed
to be carrying no stress Struts, i.e. horizontal members in compression are necessary at every
Tower Geometry 27
Fig. 2 : Bracing System

panel to provide continuity to the bracing system. Advantage of this system is that the sizes of
diagonal members would be small because these are designed for high slenderness ratio. This
type of bracings results in large deflection of tower under heavy loadings, because the tension
members are more slender in cross-section than compression members for similar loading. If such
a tower is overloaded, the in-active diagonal will fail in compression due to large deflection in the
panel, although the active tension member can very well take the tension loads. This system of
bracing imparts torsional stresses to leg members of the square based towers and also results in
unequal shears at the top of four stubs.
3.3.5 Portal System (Shear Divided 50:50 between Diagonals-K-System)
3.3.5.1 The diagonals and horizontal members are designed for both tension and compression forces.
The horizontal members are supported at mid-length by the diagonals, one half of the horizontal
members is in compression and the other half in tension. The portal system is used for panels
of approximately the same size as those for which Pratt System of bracings in conjunction with
warren system of bracings is used. It has been found advantageous to use the portal system for
bottom panels, extensions and heavy river crossings towers when rigidity is a prime consideration.
If hill side or corner extensions are anticipated, the portal panel is particularly attractive due to its
versatility of application.
3.3.6 Diamond Bracing System
3.3.6.1 Somewhat similar to the Warren system, this bracing arrangement can also be derived from the
Portal system by inverting every second panel. As for each of these systems, all diagonals are
designed for tension and compression. Applicable to panel of approximately the same size as the
pratt and portal systems, this arrangement has the advantage that the horizontal members carry no
primary loads and are designed as redundant supports.
3.3.7 Multiple Bracing System
3.3.7.1 In EHV towers where the magnitude of torsional loads is high, the cage width is kept large to
withstand the torsional loads. Standard Warren system, if used, gives longer unsupported lengths
of legs and bracings which increases the weight of tower disproportionately. For such towers,
multiple system of bracings is used. The advantage of this system, in addition to reduction in
forces in the bracings, is that the unsupported lengths of leg members and bracings are reduced
substantially thereby increasing their strength and reducing the member sizes. Although there is an
increase in the number of bolts, fabrication and erection cost, yet the above system gives overall
reduction in weight and cost of steel.
The bracings on the transverse and longitudinal faces may be staggered as reduction in tower
weight is achieved by staggering the bracings. The system is preferable only for suspension and
medium angle towers. In heavy angle and dead end towers, in order to have more rigidity, bracing
on transverse and longitudinal faces should not be staggered.
3.4 TOWER EXTENSIONS
3.4.1 Body Extension
Body extension is used to increase the height of tower with a view to obtaining the required minimum
ground clearance over road crossings, river crossings, ground obstacles etc. Body extensions upto
9.0 m height in steps of normally 1.5 m may be used. For body extensions having heights greater
then 9 m (say 12, 15, 18, 21, 25 m etc.), the suitability of the loading of standard tower has to be
checked by reducing the span length and/or angle of deviation. Practice in the tower industry is also
to specify negative body extension, i.e., a portion of the tower body is truncated.
For lines traversing in hilly terrain, negative body extensions can be used in tension towers from the
consideration of economy.
Tower Geometry 29
3.4.2 Leg Extensions
3.4.2.1 Leg extensions are used either with anyone leg or combination of legs at locations where footings
of the towers are at different levels. Leg extensions are generally used in hilly regions to reduce
benching or cutting. The alignment of leg extension is done with the first section of a tower.
Installation of leg extension calls for high degree of expertise in tower erection.
Leg Extensions are also used with negative and positive body extension in suspension and tension
towers from the consideration of economy
3.4.3 Stubs/Anchor Bolts and Base Plate Assembly
3.4.3.1 Stubs/anchor, bolts and base plate assembly connect the tower body/body extension and leg
extensions to the foundations. Cleats are provided on the stubs to offer resistance against uprooting
of the stubs. A sub set consists of four members whereas the number of anchor bolts depends upon
uplift and shear on the bolts.
A cleat is also provided between the last leg and stub to strength the unsupported portion of stub
above concrete chimney and portion of leg upto to the last bracing to take care for bending due to
shear load and direct load.
3.5 TOWER OUTLINE
3.5.1 Tower Outline is fixed from the requirement of minimum ground clearance, terrain type, right of way
limitation, electrical clearances etc. Tower outline is defined in terms of the following parameters:
3.5.1.1 Tower Height
- Minimum ground clearance

- Maximum sag including creep effect of conductor
- Length of suspension insulator string assembly including hanger length
- Vertical spacing between power conductors
- Conductor Take-off Angle
- Vertical spacing between sub-conductors in multi conductor bundles.
- Conductor in vertical bundle.
- Location of ground wire
- Angle of shield
- Minimum mid span clearance
- Tension insulator Drop
3.5.1.2 Tower Width
- At Base or Ground level

- At Waist level
- At Cross-arm/Boom level
3.5.1.3 Cross Arm Spread
- Type of insulator string assembly Suspension: I-string / V-string./ Y string Tension Pilot
- Swing angle Suspension String Assembly Conductor jumper
- Phase to phase horizontal spacing
Each of the above parameters is discussed in the subsequent paragraphs.
3.6 TOWER HEIGHT
3.6.1 Minimum Ground Clearance
The minimum ground clearance is determined in accordance with the stipulations of Chapter 4
(Electrical clearances) of this manual.
3.6.2 Maximum Sag and Conductor Creep
3.6.2.1 The size and type of conductor (AAC, ACSR, AAAC, ACAR, AACSR ), climatic conditions (wind,
temp, snow) and span length determine the conductor sag. The maximum sag of a conductor
occurs under maximum temperature and still wind condition. The maximum; sag is considered in
fixing the height of a line support. In snowy region, the maximum sag may occur at 0° and nil wind
for ice coated conductors. Appropriate provision for sagging error (generally 150 mm) is also to be
considered.
3.6.2.2 Creep in a conductor is defined as permanent set in the conductor. It is a continuous process and
takes place throughout its life. The rate of creep is higher initially but decreases with time. Creep
compensation is provided by one of the following methods :-
(i) Pre-tensioning of conductor before stringing

(ii) Over tensioning of the conductor in the form of temperature correction
(iii) By providing extra ground clearance
(iv) By a combination of partly over tensioning of conductor and partly providing extra Ground
clearance.
The present practice is not to make any provision for creep compensation for 66 kV, 132 kV, and
220 kV lines. For transmission lines of 400 kV and above, the creep is compensated by adopting
negative temperature compensation. For example negative temperature compensation of 26°C is
considered at the time of stringing of 61 strands ACSR Moose/Bersimis conductor 400 kV or higher
voltage lines.
3.6.3 Maximum Sag of Ground wire /Minimum Mid Span Clearances/Angle of Shield
The function of ground wire/OPGW is to provide protection to the power conductors against direct
lightning stroke and to conduct the lightning current to the nearest earthed point when contacted
by a lightning stroke. The above functions are performed by the ground wire(s) based on selection
of angle of shield, mid span clearance and coordination of ground wire / OPGW sag with that of
conductor. The material and size of ground wire/OPGW (galvanized stranded steel, alumoweld,
ACSR, ACAR, AAC, AACSR) depends upon the criteria for sag coordination and extent of mutual
coupling required. The effect of creep in galvanised stranded steel ground wire/OPGW being
negligible is not taken in account while deciding the sag. The location of ground wire/OPGW
determines the height of ground wire peak. Single ground wire/OPGW has been used in India for
transmission line towers upto 220kV having vertical/barrel type configuration and two ground wires/
OPGW have been used for horizontal/wasp waist type towers of all voltages and for 400 kV and
above vertical/barrel type towers.
The coordination of ground wire/OPGW sag, with that of power conductor and values of mid span
clearances and angle of shield are given in Chapters 4 and 5.
3.6.4 Length of Insulator String Assembly
3.6.4.1 The length of suspension insulator string, minimum ground clearance and maximum conductor sag
determine the height of (i) lowest cross-arm in case of vertical/barrel/Delta type suspension tower
and (ii) boom in case of horizontal and wasp waist type suspension tower whereas the length of
suspension insulator string and phase to grounded metal clearance determines the spacing between
cross-arms in case of vertical/barrel type tower. The length of an insulator string is a function of
insulation level (LIWL and SIWL), power frequency voltage (service voltage dynamic over voltage)
and service conditions (Pollution, altitude, humidity). The depth of the jumper is affected by phase
to grounded metal clearance which also is determined on the basis LIWL, SIWL service voltage,
short circuit level, altitude, humidity, etc. For determining electrical clearances, the length of the
suspension insulator string is defined as the distance between the center line of conductor and the
point of contact of ball hook/anchor shackle with the hanger/U-bolt whereas the length of tension
insulator string is defined as the distance between the point of attachment of the string to the strain
Tower Geometry 31
plate at cross arm up to the jumper take off point of tension clamp. The length of V string for the
purpose of determining the height of tower is the vertical distance between the lower main member
of cross arm and center of lowest conductor. For preparing clearance diagram the nearest live part
from the grounded metal has to be considered. The number and size of discs, length of single and
double suspension and tension string for various system voltages are given in Table 3.3.
Typical arrangements of Insulator Strings are shown in Figures listed below:
Figure 3 Typical Insulator String Arrangements for 220 kV AC Transmission Line

Figure 4 Single Suspension Insulator String for400 kV AC Transmission Line with grading
rings.
Figure 5 Typical Arrangement of Single Suspension String for 400 kV Lines with corona control
rings
Figure 6 Typical Arrangement of Double Suspension String (For 400 kV Lines with Twin
Bundled Conductor)
Figure 7 Single Tension Insulator String for 400 kV AC Transmission Lines
Figure 8 Typical Arrangement of Double Tension String for 400 kV Lines with Twin Bundled
Conductor
Figure 9 400 kV AC “V” Suspension with AGS Clamp for Twin Moose
Figure 10 400 kV AC “V” Suspension Set for Quadruple ACSR Bersimis (35.10 mm dia)
Figure 11 Quadruple Dead end Assembly for 400 kV AC ACSR Bersimis
Figure 12 800 kV Single V-Suspension Insulator String for Quad “Moose” Bundle-300 kNx2(31
pes. per String)
Figure 13 800 kV Single V-Suspension Insulator String for Quad “ Moose”Bundle-400 kNx2 (29
pes. per String)
Figure 14 800 kV Double V-Suspension Insulator String for Quad “Moose” Bundle-300 kNx2
(31 pes. per String)
Figure 15 ± 500 kV DC “V” Suspension Insulator Strings for Four ACSR Bersimis (35.1mm
Dia)
Figure 16 ± 500 kV DC Quadruple Tension Insulator String Four ACSR Bersimis
Figure 16A 400 kV Double Suspension String For AAAC Quadruple Moose (61/3.55 mm)
Figure 16B 400 kV Quadruple Tension String For AAAC Quadruple Moose (61/3.55 mm)
Figure 16C 765 kV Double ”I” Suspension Insulator string For Hexagonal ACSR ”ZEBRA”
Conductor
Figure 16D 765 kV Single Suspension (Pilot) Insulator String For Hexagonal ACSR “ZEBRA”
Figure 16E 765 kV Single Tension Insulator String For Hexagonal ACSR ”ZEBRA”
Figure 16F 765 kV Quadruple Tension Insulator String For Hexagonal ACSR ”ZEBRA”
Figure 16G 765 kV Double “I” Suspension Insulator String For Quadruple ACSR”BERSIMIS”
Conductor
Figure 16H 765 kV Single “V” Suspension Insulator String For Quadruple ACSR”BERSIMIS”
Conductor
Figure 16I 765 kV Double “V” Suspension Insulator String For Quadruple ACSR”BERSIMIS”
Conductor
Figure 16J 765 kV Single “I” Suspension Pilot Insulator String For Quadruple ACSR”BERSIMIS”
Conductor
Figure 16K 765 kV Single “V” Suspension Pilot Insulator String For Quadruple ACSR”BERSIMIS”
Conductor
Figure 16L 765 kV Quadruple Tension Insulator String For Quadruple ACSR”BERSIMIS”
Conductor
3.6.5 Vertical Spacing between Power Conductors/Minimum Vertical Phase to Phase Clearances/
Minimum Phase to Grounded Metal Clearances
3.6.5.1 The vertical spacing between power conductors and between power conductor and ground wire/
OPGW is controlled by mechanical considerations (galloping/clashing) and electrical considerations
32
Fig. 3 : Typical Insulator String Arrangements for 220 kV Transmission Line

Tower Geometry
Fig. 4 : Single Insulator String for 400 kV AC Transmission Lines with Grading Ring
33
(All dimensions are in mm)

Fig. 5 : Typical Arrangement of Single Suspension String for

400 kV Lines with Corona Control Ring
Tower Geometry 35
Fig. 6 : Typical Arrangement of Double Suspension String

(for 400 kV Lines with Twin Bundled Conductor)
36
Fig. 7 : Single Tension Insulator String for 400 kV AC Transmission Lines

Tower Geometry
Fig. 8 : Typical Arrangement of Double Tension String for 400 kV lines with Twin Bundled Conductor
37
38
Fig. 9 : V Suspension with AGS Clamp for Twin Moose

Tower Geometry
Fig. 10 : 400 kV AC V Suspension Set for Quadruple ACSR Bersimis (35.1Ф)

39
40
Fig. 11 : Quadruple Deadend Assembly for 400 kV AC ACSR Bersimis

Tower Geometry
Fig. 12 : 800 kV Single V-Suspension Insulator String for Quad ‘Moose’ Bundle 300 KN x 2 (31 pcs./String)
41
42
Fig. 13 : 800 kV Single V-Suspension Insulator String for Quad ‘Moose’ Bundle 400 KN x 2 (29 pcs./String)
Tower Geometry
Fig. 14 : 800 kV Double Insulator String for Quad ‘Moose’ Bundle 300 KN x 2 (31 pcs./String)
43
44
Fig. 15 : 500 kV DC ‘V’ Suspension Insulator String for Four ACSR BERSIMIS (35.1 mm dia)
Tower Geometry
Fig. 16 : ± 500 kV DC Quadruple Tension Insulator String Four ACSR BERSIMIS

45
Fig. 16-A
Tower Geometry 47
Fig. 16-B
Fig. 16-C
Tower Geometry 49
Fig. 16-D
Fig. 16-E
Tower Geometry 51
Fig. 16-F
Fig. 16-G
Tower Geometry 53
Fig. 16-H
Fig. 16-I
Tower Geometry 55
Fig. 16-J
Fig. 16-K
Tower Geometry 57
Fig. 16-L
(phase to phase and phase to grounded metal clearance requirements). The minimum phase to
phase and phase to grounded metal clearances are generally determined on the basis of lightning
impulse levels for lines of voltages up to 300 kV. Minimum phase to phase clearances for different
voltage level are given in Chapter – 4 (Electrical Clearances) of the Manual.
Calculations for estimating the spacing between two adjacent cross-arms or two power conductors
of suspension and tension towers are given in Figures 17(a) and 17(b).
Wherever elevation difference between two successive towers is considerable, the vertical
clearances between phases at the tension tower is determined by phase to phase switching/
lighting impulse clearance between the highest point of the shielding ring/arcing horn of the tension
insulator string of the lower phase and the lowest point of the jumper of the upper phase.
3.6.6 Tension Insulator Drop
3.6.6.1 The tension string assumes position along the line of catenary of the conductor and therefore its
inclination with respect to horizontal varies with change in sag. The Tension Insulator Drop is the
vertical displacement of the jumper lug point with respect to attachment point of tension string at strain
plate. The drop is maximum under the maximum sag condition and minimum under the minimum sag
condition. While drawing clearance diagram it is necessary to check the clearance of jumper for the
minimum as well as maximum drop conditions of insulator string.
3.6.6.2 In case of considerable difference in the elevations of successive towers, the jumper lug end of
insulator string of the tower at lower elevation may go up due to null point lying outside the span and
the insulator drop may be negative leading to insufficient live conductor to grounded metal clearance
between the jumper and the cross-arm. For such cases, the jumper may be modified to obtain the
appropriate clearance.
3.7 TOWER WIDTH
3.7.1 The width of the tower is specified at base, waist and cross-arm/boom levels.
3.7.2 Base Width
3.7.2.1 The spacing between the tower footings, i.e., base width at concrete level is the distance from the
center of gravity of the corner leg angle to that of the adjacent corner leg angle. The width depends
upon the magnitude of the physical loads imposed upon the towers by conductors, wind loads and
the height of application of the loads from ground level. Towers with larger base width result in low
footing cost and lighter main leg members at the expense of longer and heavy bracing members.
There is a particular base width which gives the best compromise and for which total cost of the
tower and foundations is the minimum. Based on experience extending over a number of years, certain
empirical relations have been developed which are good guide in determining the base width. The
base width of the tower is determined from the formula given below.
B = K M
B = Base width of tower at ground level in Centimeters
M = Overturning moment, in kg-m
K = A constant
The value of K varies from 1.35 to 2.5 and 1.93 is an average value.
Under the values of constant K for suspension and angle towers are chosen correctly, the
wide range suggested for K can lead to conflicting results. With a view to arriving at a simpler
relationship, figures relating to total weight of tower and their base widths are tabulated in
Table 3.2 for typical single and double-circuits towers of all voltage classes. It is seen that the
Tower Geometry 59
Fig. 17(a) : Vertical Spacing Between Two Adjacent Cross-arms or

Two Power Conductors of Suspension Tower
Fig. 17(b) : Vertical Spacing Between Two Adjacent Cross-arms or Two Power Conductors of Tension Tower
Tower Geometry 61
base width generally varies between 1/4 to 1/6 of the overall heights of the towers above
concrete level, the values being 1/6 for suspension tower, 1/5 for medium angle towers and
1/4 for heavy angle towers. Where the way leave is a problem, the design is optimized with the
maximum permissible base width.
Typical slopes of bottom-most leg members with the vertical for towers various voltage ratings are
given in Table 3.1
Table 3.1
Typical Slopes of Tower Legs for Various Voltages
Voltage Rating Type of Towers Slope of Leg
Upto 220 kV Suspension 40 - 90
400 kV and above Angle 7°-11°
Dead end 8°-13°
Suspension 8°-12°
Angle 10°-17°
Dead end 11°-15°
3.7.3 Width at Waist Level
3.7.3.1 Width at the waist level is defined as the width at waist line in case of horizontal/wasp waist towers.
For horizontal configuration, the width at the waist level is found to vary from 1/1.5 to 1/2.5 of base
width depending upon the slope of the leg.
3.7.4 Width at Cross-Arm/Boom Level
3.7.4.1 Width at cross-arm level is defined as the width of the tower at the level of lower member of cross-
arm/boom. This width is mainly decided by torsion loading. The torsional stresses are distributed in
the four faces of the tower. Larger width reduces torsional forces transmitted to the bracings below
that level and thus helps in reducing the forces in bracings of the tower body. The cage width is decided
in a manner that the angle between lower main member and the tie member of the same cross-arm
and that between bracings and belts is not less than 15° in line with the general structural engineering
practice, as an angle less than 15° may introduce bending stresses in the members.
3.8 CROSS-ARM SPREAD
3.8.1 The cross arm spread is a function of lightning Impulse withstand Level/Switching Impulse withstand Level
and power frequency dynamic over voltage/ power frequency withstand voltage level, configuration of
insulator strings and angles of swing of suspension string in the case of suspension towers and that of
jumper in the case of tension towers, phase to phase spacing etc. These parameters are covered in
Chapter 4 of the Manual.
3.8.2 Length of Cross-arm for Suspension Towers
3.8.2.1 Alternative- 1: Insulator String-“I” Configuration
The length of the cross-arm is determined corresponding to nil and two swing angles and the
corresponding electrical air clearances (LIWL/SIWL and P.F. withstand voltage) and clearances
required from mechanical requirement (galloping/clashing of conductors). The two swing angles
correspond to maximum transverse load and vertical load, and average transverse load and
vertical load. At nil and medium swing angle the electrical air clearance corresponds to lightning
impulse level for lines having voltages up to 245 kV and to switching impulse level for lines
having voltages above 245 kV and at the maximum swing angle the electrical air clearance
corresponds to power frequency rated voltage/ power frequency dynamic over voltage (Ref:
Chapter 4 of this Manual).
In case where weights are used for restricting the swing of the insulator string, the width of cross
arm shall be determined taking cognizance of the same.
Table 3.2
Base width top hamper width and height for typical 66/132/220/400kV ac and 500 kV HVDC standard towers
SI. Type of Tower Width at Top Width Total Base width Vertical Horizontal Tower
No. Concrete Hamper at top height at concrete spacing distance weight
level (mm) (mm) hamper/ above level: Total between between (kgs)
width at ground height above conductors conductors
concrete level concrete (mm) (mm)
level (mm) level
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. 66 kV: Double Circuit 3.075 1,000 1:3.08 19,600 1:6.1 2,170 4,270 1,382
A (0-2°) 4,400 1,075 1:4.10 18,895 1:4.3 2,060 4,880 2,100
B(2°~30°) 4,500 1,150 1:3.91 20,090 :4.4 2,440 6,000 2,782
C(30°-60°)
2. 66kV: Single Circuit 1.675 760 915 1:2.20 15,910 1:9.5 1,030 4,040 1.064
A (0-2°) 2, 590 1,220 1:2.80 15,425 1:6 1.030 4,270 1,283
B(2°-30°) 3, 050 1:2.50 16,240 1:5.3 1,220 4,880 1,783
C(30°-60°)
3. 132kV Double Circuit 4,050 1,250 1:3.24 26,230 1:6.4 3,965 7,020 3.10
A (0-2°) 5,490 1,540 1:3.56 26,545 1:4.83 3,965 7,320 3.97
B(0-15°) 4,880 1,665 1:2.87 26,545 1:5.44 3,965 7,320 4.60
C(15°-30°) 4,880 1,665 1:2.87 26,545 1:5.44 3,965 7,320 4.60
D(30°-607D.E.) 6,400 1,840 1:3.7 28,060 1:4.38 4,270 8,540 6.00
4. 132 kV: Single Circuit 3,920 1,300 1:3.0 23,140 1:64,200 7,140 2.17 2.89
A (0-2°) 4,224 1,400 1:3.0 22,060 1:5.2 4,200 6,290 3.74
B(0-15°) 4,828 1,600 1:3.0 22,685 1:4.7 1:4 4,200 7,150 4.82
C(15°-30°) 6,135 2,000 1:3.0 24,060 4,200 8,820
D(30°-607D.E.)
5. 220 kV-Double Circuit 7,000 2,260 1:3.09 31,650 1:4.52 5,200 9,900 4.15
A “ “ 8,900 2,500 1:3.56 31,300 1:3.52 5,200 10,100 6.04
B “ “ 10,344 3,000 1:3.45 29,900 1:2.90 5,200 9,700 8.69
C “ “
6. 220 kV Single Circuit 4,500 1,500 1:3.0 28,555 1:6.3 5,200 8,500 2.57
A “ “ 5,300 1,700 1:3.12 29,080 1:5.48 5,250 10,500 3.60
B “ “ 7,000 2,000 1:3.50 31,680 1:4.52 6,700 12,600 5.04
C “ “
7. 220 kV Single Circuit 4,000 2,640 1:1.5 18,050 1:4.51 - 7,400

Horizontal Configuration 4,800 3,300 1:1.5 18,600 1:3.9 8,800
A “ “ 5,800 3,600 1:1.61 20,200 1:3.5 8,800
B “ “
C “ “
8. 400 kV: Single Circuit 5,000 2,000 1:2.5 34,100 1:6.82 7,800 12,760 6,517
A(0-2°) 6,700 2,000 1:3.35 33,100 1:4.9 7,800 12,640 11,261
B(2°-15°) 6,900 2,200 1:3.13 33,010 1:4.78 7,800 14,000 14,473
C(15°-30°) 6,900 2,200 1:3.13 33,010 1:4.78 7,800 14,000 14,473
D(30°-607D.E.) 7,500 2,400 1:3.12 33,410 1:4.45 8,10 16,200 17,603
9. +500kVDC 10,000 2,200’ 0.220 35,900 0.2803 - 12,800 -

A+0(Susp.) 10,000 2,600 0.260 35,400 0.2843 13,300
B+0(Susp.) 10,000 2,600 0.260 35,750 0.2815 15,400
B+0 (Tension) 11,400 3,000 02632 35,925 0.3193 14,300
C+0 (Tension) 11,400 3,000 0.2632 35,875 0.3198 18,700
D+0 (Tension)
3.8.2.2 Alternative- 2: Suspension Insulator String- “ V “ Configuration
The length of the cross-arm is determined corresponding to electrical clearances and included angle
of the V-insulator string The criteria for determining electrical clearances in case of lines up to 245
kV and those exceeding 245 kV are the same as applicable in case of “l“ -insulator string.
Tower Geometry 63
The electrical clearance diagrams considering length and configuration of string and electrical air
clearances (Ref. Chapter 4) are drawn to determine the length of cross arm and the same is checked
against galloping/clashing depending upon the exposure of the lines to such conditions.
The electrical clearance diagrams for suspension tower with “ I “ and “ V “ - string are given in Figure
18. The analytical calculations for electrical clearances are given in Annexure-I where reference is to
be made to Figure 20.
In case where weights are used for restricting the swing of the insulator string, the width of cross
arm shall be determined taking cognizance of the same
3.8.4 Length of Cross-arm for Tension Towers
3.8.4.1 On tension tower without the pilot string, the length of cross-arm is determined corresponding to Nil
swing and swing angles specified for the jumper and the applicable electrical air clearances. The
length of cross-arm is also determined with jumper swing limited to 15° with the use of pilot string and
the required electrical air clearance.
3.8.4.2 The electrical clearance diagrams considering length of tension string, jumper swing angle, electrical
air clearances, angle of deviation of the line are drawn and cross arm length is arrived at. For large
angle towers (60°)/and dead end towers, provision of unequal cross-arms, rectangular/trapezoidal
cross-arm and use of pilot Insulators Strings and links may be considered where necessary for
determining the cross-arm length.
The electrical clearance diagram of a tension tower is given in Figure 19. The analytical calculations
for electrical clearances on tension towers also are given in Annexure-I where reference is to be made
to Figure 21.
3.8.4.3 In case where weights are used for restricting the swing of the insulator string, the width of cross
arm shall be determined taking cognizance of the same
3.9 TYPICAL LENGTHS OF INSULATOR STRINGS ON TRANSMISSION LINES IN INDIA
3.9.1 Typical details of the insulator strings adopted in India on Transmission line at 66 kV to 800 kV AC
and ± 500 kV HVDC are gven in table 3.3
Typical swing angles and Electrical clearances for suspenion string and for tension string jumper
adopted in India on transmission lines at 66 kV to 1150 kV AC and ± 800 kV HVDC are given in
Tables 3.4 & 3.5 respectively.
Fig. 18 : Electrical Clearance Diagram Suspension Tower

Tower Geometry 65
Fig. 19 : Electrical Clearance Diagram Tension Tower

Fig. 20 : Electrical Clearance Diagram - Suspension Tower

(Annexure-1 : Analytical Calculations)
Tower Geometry 67
Fig. 21 : Electrical Clearance Diagram - Tension Tower

(Annexure-1 : Analytical Calculations)
Table 3.3
Typical Details of the Insulator Strings adopted in India on Transmission Lines
at 66 kV to 800 kV AC and ± 500 kV HVDC
Line Suspension String Tension String
Voltage
(kV)
Type No. of Length (mm) Types No. of Length
Discs discs (mm)
66 S/S D/S 5 965 S/T 6 2x6 1070
2x5 1255 D/T 1575
132 S/S D/S 9 2x9 1630 S/T 10 2x10 1820
1915 D/T 2175
220 S/S D/S 13 or 2340 S/T 14 or 2915
14 2640 D/T 15 3345
2x14 2x15
400 S/S 23 3850 D/T 2x23 5450
± 500 DC V/S 2x38 7120 Quad/T 4x38 8450
800 D/S 2x40 7000 Quad/T 4x35 9800
POWER V(A Towers) 2x35 7550
GRID V(B&C Towers) 4x35 7800
S/S (Pilot D&E Towers) 1x40 7000
V (Pilot D&E Towers) 2x40 7250
UPSEB V 2x29 See Quad/T 2x31
2x31 Fig. 13 & 12
Note : (i) Size of discs for insulator strings for voltage up to and including 220kV is 255x145mm.
(ii) Size of discs for suspension and tension strings for 400kV is 280x145mm/255x145mm and
280x170mm respectively.
(iii) Sizes of discs for 800kV system of POWERGRID are 255x145mm (120 KN) for D/S and
S/S (Pilot for D&E towers) and V (Pilot for D&E towers) and 280x170mm (210 KN) for V (A,B
& C towers) and quad tension strings. In case of UPSEB, the size of disc is 320x195mm
(300KN) both for suspension and tension strings.47
Tower Geometry 69
Table 3.4
Swing Angles and Electrical Clearances for “I” Suspension Strings
A.C Voltage level Clearance in Swing angle in degrees

(Nominal/Highest) metres
66/72.5 0.610 60
0.610 45
0.760 30
0.915 15
0.915 0
110/125 & 132/145 1.07 60
1.22 45
1.37 30
1.53 15
1.53 0
220/245 1.675 45
1.83 30
1.98 15
2.13 0
WZ-1 WZ-2 WZ-3 WZ-4 WZ-5 WZ-6
400/420kV 1.2 36.5 46.2 53 56.7 60.2 65
3.05 12.2 16.6 20.55 23 25.6 29.9
3.05 0
765/800kV 1.3 55
4.4 25
5.6 (S/C) 0
6.1 (D/C)
1150/1200kV 2.4 41.0
8.0 10.0
8.0 0
D.C Voltage level Clearance(m) Swing angle in degrees
(Nominal/Highest)
500/525 Twin Lapwing 3750 0
(V insulator string)
800/840 Hexa WZ-1 WZ-2 WZ-3 WZ-4 WZ-5 WZ-6
Lapwing 2.0 34 44 51 54 58 62
(Y insulator string)
6.5 10 14 17 20 22 26
7.7 5 9 9 10 12 14
7.7 0
Table 3.5
Swing Angles and Electrical Clearances for Jumper

A. C. Voltage level (Nominal/ Clearance in Swing angle in degrees
Highest) metres Jumper without pilot Jumper with pilot string
string
66/72.5 0.610 30 -
0.610 20 -
0.915 10 -
0.915 0 -
110/125 & 132/145 1.07 30 -
1.22 20 -
1.53 10 -
1.53 0 -
220/245 1.675 20 -
2.13 10 15
2.13 0 0
400/420kV 3.05 25 15
3.05 0 0
765/800KV 1.3 55 #
4.4 25
5.6 (S/C) 0
6.1 (D/C)
1150/1200kV 2.4 60 #
8.0 23
8.0 0
D.C Voltage level (Nominal/ Clearance in Swing angle in degrees
Highest) metres Jumper without pilot string Jumper with pilot string
500/525 Twin Lapwing 1.15 57
(V insulator string) 3.15 15 #
3.75 0
800/840 Hexa Lapwing 2.0 72
(Y insulator string) 6.5 25 #
7.7 0
# There are various means of limiting jumper swing by making use of (i) custom made jumpers (Rigid, ladder type etc),
(ii) appropriate configuration of Pilot Insulator string (I, V, Y, Strut), (iii) suitably designing the cross arm & (iv) suitably
positioning the pilot string attachment point. For 765kV & above voltage lines these alternatives can provide overall
techno- economics and therefore need serious consideration during designClearance depends on type of pilot sting
and position of pilot string and construction of jumper.
Tower Geometry 71
N = Width of Corona control Ring
Cv = Vertical spacing of sub-conductors in bundle conductors
Ch = Horizontal spacing of sub-conductors in bundle conductors

2.0 ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE ON SUSPENSION STRINGS
2.1 Underneath the Cross-arm
2.2 Electrical clearance from Tower Body
2.3 Electrical clearance from Tower Cross-ARM Tie (inclined) Member
2.4 Similar check shall be made for θ2

Tower Geometry 73
Chapter 4
ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES
4.1 Background
The chapter on electrical clearances in the earlier CBIP publication referred I.E Rules 1956 and its
latest amendment. These rules have since been replaced by Central Electricity Authority (Measures
relating to Safety and Electricity Supply) Regulations, 2010. New regulations on construction of
Electric lines have also come into force. Similarly some new regulations like electrical clearances
for navigable rivers, railways etc. have been stipulated by respective authorities. Experience in the
fields of Design, Construction and Operation of various transmission lines of 800kV have also been
obtained which was lacking at the time of earlier CBIP publication. Further, transmission lines at
UHVAC and UHVDC levels are also being planned and constructed. Keeping the above in view, the
chapter on electrical clearances has been revised.
4.2 Introduction
The electrical and mechanical performance of transmission line influence the reliability and security
of an electrical power system. The contributing factors in mechanical performance viz., mechanical
loads, structural design of towers and foundations etc. are dealt with in relevant chapters of this
manual. The contributing factors in electrical performance are electrical stresses, air gap clearances,
insulation coordination etc. Besides restricting line outage rates, the electrical clearances provided
should also satisfy the safety of public and maintenance crew during operation and maintenance of
transmission lines.
The mechanical and electrical designs of a transmission line are interdependent as increase or
decrease in electrical clearances will require change in the tower configuration/geometry and
consequently the structural design of towers and foundations and vice versa. Optimizing of electrical
clearances and tower configuration also offer overall economics of the transmission line.
As such selection of electrical clearances is important from the perspective of reliability, security,
safety and economy of the transmission lines.
The electrical clearance design of transmission line involves selection of suitable air gap clearances,
insulation length and insulator strings to:
(i) prevent disruptive discharges between live parts and earthed parts of the transmission line or
between live phases of transmission line under the influence of different electrical phenomena/
stresses viz. power frequency steady state voltage; power frequency over voltages, lightning and
switching over voltages.
(ii) prevent disruptive discharges between live part of the transmission line and any other earthed
objects other than transmission line components under the influence of different electrical
phenomena/stresses viz. power frequency steady state voltage; power frequency, lightning and
switching over voltages.
(iii) maintain interference levels viz. conductor surface gradient, electric field, Audible Noise,
Corona , RIV etc within acceptable limits.
(iv) ensure electrical safety during operation and maintenance.
4.3 Electrical Clearances — General Considerations
A transmission line is exposed to various kinds of electrical stresses which include steady state
operating voltage of the system as well as various over voltages that generally occur in the system.
These are discussed below:
74
Electrical Clearances 75
Steady state operating voltage
The steady state operating voltage is expressed in terms of service voltage, i.e., Nominal or
Maximum AC or DC voltage.
Over voltages
Power frequency Over Voltage/Temporary Over Voltage/Dynamic Over Voltage
This is service voltage(50 Hz) modified by events such as faults, sudden change of loads, Ferranti
effect, linear resonance, Ferro-resonance, open conductor, induced resonance from coupled
circuits, etc and is termed as Dynamic/Temporary Over Voltages. Its value is generally 1.5 to 2.0
PU (where 1PU = System Voltage/v3)
In case of interconnected network with auto reclosing facilities, the temporary / dynamic service
voltage is considered the same as service voltage.
Switching Over voltages:
These are slow front over voltages (250 x 2500µs) which originate from events like line energisation,
line reclosing, fault occurrence and clearing, switching off capacitive current (restriking effect)
including line dropping and capacitor bank switching, switching of inductive currents (current
chopping effect) including transformer magnetising currents and reactor switching, special switching
operations including series capacitors, resonant ferro resonant circuits and secondary switching. In
a transmission line, switching over voltage is represented by a probability distribution. Its value is
generally 2.0 to 3.0 PU (where 1PU = System Voltage x v2/v3)
Lightning Over voltages:
These are fast front over voltages (1.2 x 50µs) to which transmission lines get exposed to under
thunder storm conditions when lightning current strikes on shield wire, tower and/ or on power
conductor directly(due to shielding failure) back flashover from tower to power conductors,.
The location of the earth wire(s) and their distance and angle w.r.t the conductors influence
the shielding level of the line against direct flashes to conductor and also flashover probability
at mid span. For a transmission line, the magnitude of lightning over voltages depends on the
intensity and probability of thunder storms in the regions through which the transmission lines are
constructed.
For systems upto and including 245 kV voltage rating, the line insulation is determined from the
power frequency voltage and lightning impulse voltage requirement whereas for system above
245 kV rating, the power frequency voltage and switching impulse voltage are the governing
criteria.
The other factors which affect the electrical insulation are climatic conditions i.e altitude, relative
humidity, pollution, etc.
In probabilistic approach of line insulation design the probability distributions of over voltages are
coordinated with distributions of withstand strengths of air gaps and the electrical clearances are
accordingly selected.
The Over Voltages experienced due to various events in electrical system is given in Table-A1 at
Annexure-1
The Power frequency, lightning impulse and switching impulse levels for which transmission lines
are designed are generally as per the following:
Table 1
AC Voltage (kV) Power Frequency Lightning Impulse Switching Impulse

Nominal /Highest Withstand Voltage level level
(System) (kV rms) (kV peak) (kV peak)
66/72.5 140 325 -
110/125 &132/145 275 650 -
220/245 460 1050 -
400/420 680 1550 1050
765/800 830 2400 1550
1150/1200 1200 2400 1800
4.4 Types of Air Clearances
The electrical clearances applicable for transmission lines are :
(i) Ground clearance,

(ii) Phase to ground metal clearance (Live- Metal Clearance)
(iii) Phase to phase clearance,
(v) Clearance between power conductor and ground / Shield wire/ OPGW,
(vi) Clearance of power lines crossing over water bodies
(vii) Clearance between power lines crossing each other
(viii) Clearance of power lines crossing railway tracks (Electrified / Non Electrified)
(ix) Clearance of power lines crossing telecommunication lines
4.4.1 Ground Clearance
The minimum clearance to be provided above ground as per regulation 58 (4) of CEA regulations
on Safety and Electricity Supply - 2010 for A.C Transmission lines is stipulated as 5.2 m plus
0.3 metre for every 33000 Volts or part thereof by which the voltage of the line exceeds 33000
Volts; provided that the minimum clearance along or across any street shall not be less than
6.1 m. Accordingly the minimum electrical clearances above ground to be provided for A.C
transmission lines is as under:
Table 2
AC Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance above ground (mm)*
Nominal /Highest (System)
66/72.5 5500 (6100 along or across street)
132/145 6100
220/245 7000
400/420 8840
765/800 12100
1150/1200 15400
* Based on Nominal Voltage
The minimum clearance to be provided above ground as per regulation 58 (5) of CEA Regulations
on Safety and Electricity Supply - 2010 for D.C. Transmission lines is stipulated as under:
Table 3
DC Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance above ground (mm)
100 6100
200 7300
300 8500
400 9400
500 10600
600 11800
800 13900
The minimum ground clearance for transmission lines is also dependent upon interference limits
including Electric Field, Audible Noise, RIV, TVI etc.and become ruling condition specifically for
transmission lines of Voltage levels above 400 kV. ICNIRP guidelines are generally being followed
for the electro static field effect which are 5 kV/m for general exposure (at edge of ROW) and
10 kV/m for exposure within the Right of Way.
Accordingly the minimum ground clearances being kept by the utilities in India are as follows:
AC Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance above ground (mm)*

66/72.5 5500 (6100 along or across street)
110/125 &132/145 6100
220/245 7015
400/420 8840
765/800 15000
1150/1200 24000
*Based on Nominal Voltage

Table 4
DC Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance above ground (mm)
500 12500
800 18000
Note: The minimum clearances given above are Normative as these are dependent upon conductor
configuration, phase to phase distances, other mitigation measures etc
Maximum of ground clearance value given in Table 2 & Table 4 for AC transmission line and
maximum of ground clearance value given in Table 3 & Table 4 for DC transmission line may be
considered.
4.4.2 Phase to Ground Metal Clearances (Live – Metal Clearances)
The maximum over voltage occurs very rarely and likewise insulation strength of an air gap very
rarely decreases to its lowest value. The likelihood of both events occurring simultaneously is
very limited. Therefore considerable economy may be achieved by recognizing the probabilistic
nature of both voltage stress and insulation strength and by accepting a certain risk of failure. The
decrease in line cost must be weighed against the increased risk of failure(i.e., service interruptions)
and affordability/cost of such failures/ interruptions. This philosophy of insulation coordination is
considered while deciding Live- Metal electrical clearances corresponding to various swing angles
of conductor.
The System Voltage (Power Frequency Voltages or DC) are permanent (probability =1.0) and hence
combined with least probable event viz. maximum swing of insulator string or jumper where the
air gap between live & grounded metal parts and consequently the insulation strength of the gap
reduces to its minimum level. Maximum swing angle is generally considered with reference to 25
- 50 years return period of wind. Similarly the switching or lightning over voltages are less probable
and are hence generally combined with the maximum probable air gap length and corresponding
insulation strength. For this, generally, swing angle corresponds to stationary wind conditions (zero
swing angle) or moderate wind conditions ( swing angle generally corresponding to 5 days to 2 years
return period ). Intermediate combination corresponding to lower switching/lightning over voltage and
medium level of swing angles or higher power frequency temporary voltage and lower swing angles
are also sometimes considered.
The aspect of probabilistic design becomes more pertinent with increase in voltage levels. The swing
angles and corresponding live metal clearances being followed at present in the country considering
system voltages & impulse levels (indicated in Table-1) and line altitudes up to 1000 m above Mean
Sea Level (MSL) for Single ’I’ suspension string and for jumper (with and without pilot string) are given
in Table-A2 and Table-A3 respectively.
For transmission lines up to 245 kV class, the air gap clearance at stationary and moderate wind
speeds corresponds to lightning impulse voltage requirement and for transmission line above 245
kV class, air gap clearance at stationary and moderate wind speeds corresponds to switching impulse
voltage. The other factors which influence the selection of air gap clearances are climatic conditions,
i.e., altitude, relative humidity etc. The swing angles of insulator string shall dependent upon various
factors like wind velocity, wind span, weight span, span factor, conductor type, insulator weight, ice
thickness and weight, etc. Similarly the minimum electrical clearances to be kept across air gaps
between live and metal parts depend upon the magnitude of switching overvoltage, air gap factor,
altitude corrections etc. Hence the specific swing angles and corresponding clearances are unique
to each transmission line. The swing angles and live metal clearances are therefore to be optimized/
decided based on prudent utility practices, applicable standards and codes and keeping in view
electrical system parameters and service requirements, physical location, climatic conditions, altitude
etc.
4.4.3 Phase-to-Phase Air Clearances
For the typical self supported lattice structure configurations adopted in India, the phase to phase
clearance is generally dictated by the live metal clearances. For AC lines the minimum clearance
generally adopted between conductors of different phases under stationary condition is based
upon various empirical formulae as given below:
Vertical clearance = (0.75 x sqrt of (fmax + lk)) + V/150
Horizontal clearance = ( 0.62 x sqrt of (fmax + lk)) + V/150
Where
fmax = Conductor Sag in meters at maximum continuous operating temperature of the conductor
of the transmission line considered in design. (maximum continuous operating temperature is 85
deg C for ACSR conductor and 95 deg C for AAAC conductor
lk= Vertical length of insulator string in metres
V = Line Voltage in kV
Further, the minimum phase to phase and phase to phase clearances required to be maintained as
per IEC 71-1 are as follows:
Table 5
A.C Voltage (kV) Standard Standard Minimum Minimum Minimum
Nominal /Highest Lightning Switching phase phase to phase to
(System) impulse impulse to earth phase phase
withstand withstand clearance clearance in clearance in
Voltage Voltage in mm mm mm
(kVp) (kVp) Cond- (Conductor- *Rod-
Phase-earth/ Structure Conductor) Structure)/
Phase- /(Rod- **(Rod-
phase structure) Conductor)
66/72.5 325 - 630* - 630*
110/125 &132/145 650 - 1300* - 1300*
220/245 1050 - 2100* - 2100*
400/420 - 1050/ 1680 2600/3400 3900 4600**
765/800 - 1550/ 2480 4900/6400 7600 9400**
1150/ 1200 *** 1800/ 2880# 8000#** 10800#** 13800#**
*Value corresponds to Rod-Structure configuration (Lightning Impulse) Ref: Table A1 of IEC 71 Part 2
**Value corresponds to Rod-conductor configuration (Switching Impulse) Ref: Table A2 & A3 of IEC 71
Part 2
*** Minimum clearances as per current practice in the country.
#** Value derived considering 1.6x Switching Surge Phase to Earth Voltage
For HVDC lines the pole to pole clearance adopted is based upon the interference levels to be
maintained and are generally as follows:
Table 6
Voltage level Conductor type Min. pole to pole clearance in mm
500 ACSR BERSIMIS/ ACSR 12500
LAPWING
800 ACSR LAPWING 22000
For lines traversing through snow regions, extra clearances are provided between phases through
staggering to avoid reduction of electrical clearances during conditions like galloping. Selection
of clearances in such cases are to be judiciously done taking into account snow/ ice thickness,
conductor bundle configuration, importance of the transmission line in the power system etc.
4.4.4 Clearance Between Conductor & Ground/Shield Wire and/or OPGW
4.4.4.1 Clearance between Conductor & Ground/Shield wire/OPGW “At Tower”
The height and location of ground wires shall be such that line joining the groundwire to the outermost
conductor shall make an angle with the vertical equal to desired shield angle. The angle of shield
adopted for various voltage transmission lines in India is given as under:
Table 7
AC Voltage (kV) Nominal /Highest (System) Angle of Shield of Ground wire (θ°))
66/72.5 30
110/125 &132/145 30
220/245 30
400/420 20
765/800 20 (10 for Double ckt)
1150/1200 10
Table 8
System Voltage (kV) DC Angle of Shield of Groundwire (θ°)
500 10
800 10
The location of ground wire is related to the position of power conductor which is fixed depending upon
length and configuration of insulator string, swing of insulator string, electrical clearances etc. On
transmission lines having large horizontal spacing between phases, two ground wires are provided
to achieve required angle of shield. The protective zone between two ground wires forms a semicircle
with the line connecting two ground wires forming the base diameter in case of horizontal configuration
tower. The middle phase conductor shall not fall within this semi-circle.
4.4.4 Clearance between Conductor & Ground/ Shield wire / OPGW “At Mid span”
The mid span clearance between the conductor and groundwires is kept more than the clearance at
tower to avoid flash over from ground wire to conductor when hit by the lightning stroke. The usual
practice in this regard is to maintain ground wire sag 90% of that of conductor at minimum temperature
condition for normal span. This arrangement also improves angle of shield in the middle of span. For
UHV lines (1200 kV) this clearance is dictated by the corona performance of the line.
The minimum mid-span clearances generally followed for different voltages rating lines are given
as under:
Table 9
AC Voltage (kV) Minimum mid span clearance (mm)

66/72.5 3000
110/125 &132/145 6100
220/245 8500
400/420 9000
765/800 9000
1150/1200 18000
Table 10
DC System Voltage (kV) Minimum mid span clearance (mm)
500 8500
800 12000
4.5 Minimum Electrical Clearance above Water Bodies
For navigable rivers, clearances shall be fixed in relation to the tallest mast in consultation with the concerned
navigational/port authorities. The clearances being generally followed by utilities in respect of
navigable rivers for A.C transmission lines as per 2006 Memorandum of Ministry of Shipping, Road
Transport and Highways is as follows:
4.5.1 Minimum Clearance of Power Conductor over the Highest Flood Level in Case of Navigable
Rivers
Table 11
AC Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance above H.F.L (mm)
66/72.5 19000
110/125 19000
132/145 19220
220/245 20100
400/420 21900
765/800 25550
1150/1200 29900
Table 12
DC Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance
above highest flood level (mm)
500 24030
800 27700
4.5.2 Minimum Clearance of Power Conductor over the Highest Flood Level in Case of
Non- Navigable Rivers
Table 13 (Normative)
System Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance
Nominal/Highest above highest flood level (mm)*
66/72.5 3650
110/125 &132/145 4300
220/245 5100
400/420 6400
765/800 9400
1150/1200 11000
* (The maximum height of an object over the highest flood level of non-navigable rivers is considered as 3000 mm)
Table 14 (Normative)
DC Voltage (kV) Minimum clearance above H.F.L (mm)*
500 6750
800 11000
* (The maximum height of an object over the highest flood level of non-navigable rivers is considered
as 3000 mm)
In case of accessible frozen rivers/lakes, the minimum clearance above frozen rivers/lakes should
be equal to the minimum ground clearance.
4.6 Clearances at Power Line Crossings
The minimum electrical clearances between the lowest power conductor of crossing line over the
crossed line as per regulation 69 of CEA regulations on Safety and Electricity Supply-2010 is given as
under:
4.6.1 AC Lines crossing each other
(All values in mm)

Table 15
Nominal System Voltage / 11-66/ 110-132/ 220/ 400/ 765/ 1150/
Highest system voltage(kV) AC 12-72 121-145 245 420 800 1200*
11-66/12-72 2440 3050 4580 5490 7940 10440
110-132/121-145 3050 3050 4580 5490 7940 10440
220/245 4580 4580 4580 5490 7940 10440
400/420 5490 5490 5490 5490 7940 10440
765/800 7940 7940 7940 7940 7940 10440
1150/1200 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440 10440
*Values indicated for 1150/1200kV power line crossing being followed at present (not stipulated in CEA
Regulations)
4.6.2 AC and DC Lines Crossing Each Other
(All values in mm)

Table 16
Nominal System 100 200 300 400 500 600 800
Voltage Highest system DC DC DC DC DC DC DC*
voltage(kV) AC/DC
Low and Medium 3050 4710 5320 6040 6790 7540 9040
11-66/ 12-72 AC 3050 4710 5320 6040 6790 7540 9040
110-132 / 121-145 AC 3050 4710 5320 6040 6790 7540 9040
220/ 245 AC 4580 4710 5320 6040 6790 7540 9040
200 DC 4710 4710 5320 6040 6790 7540 9040
300 / 330 AC 5320 5320 5320 6040 6790 7540 9040
400/420 AC 5490 5490 5490 6040 6790 7540 9040
400 DC 6040 6040 6040 6040 6790 7540 9040
500 DC 6790 6790 6790 6790 6790 7540 9040
600 DC 7540 7540 7540 7540 7540 7540 9040
765/800 AC* 7940 7940 7940 7940 7940 7940 9040
800 DC 7940 7940 7940 7940 7940 7940 9040
Values indicated for 800 kV DC transmission line crossing AC power line crossing being followed
at present (not stipulated in CEA Regulations)
4.7 Power Line Crossing Railway Tracks
(1) As per latest revised Para-11(i), Chapter-I, Schedule I of SOD 2004 BG, Page-7, 8 to IRSOD
2004 of Railways the Minimum height above rail level of the lowest portion of any conductor of
crossing, including guard wire, other than telegraph, telephone and other such low tension wires
or traction trolley wire, under conditions of maximum sag are reproduced below and shall be as
follows:
4.7.1 For Existing Power Line Crossings

All values in mm
Sl. Over Head Nominal Crossing Voltage (kV) Minimum Clearances From Rail
No. Level (mm)
1 2 3
1 Above 11/12 kV & up to 66/72 kV 14100
2 Above 66/72 kV & up to 132/145 kV 14600
3 Above 132/145 kV & up to 220/245 kV 15400
4 Above 220/245 kV & up to 400/420 kV 17900
5 Above 400/420 kV & up to 500/550 kV 19300
6 Above 500/550 kV & up to 765/800 kV 23400
4.7.2 For New Power Line Crossings or Alteration to Existing Power Line Crossing in Electrified
sections
Sl. Over Head Crossing Voltage (kV) Minimum Clearances From Rail Level
No. (mm)
Clearance at OHE Clearance at Mid
structures in mm OHE span in mm
1 2 3 4
1 Above 33/36 kV & up to 66/72 kV 14960 12384
2 Above 66/72 kV & up to 132/145 kV 15560 12994
3 Above 132/145 kV & up to 220/245 kV 16460 14524
4 Above 220/245 kV & up to 400/420 kV 18260 15434
5 Above 400/420 kV & up to 500/550 kV 19160 17884
6 Above 500/550 kV & up to 765/800 kV 21860 17884
4.7.3 For Power Line Crossings in Non-Electrified sections
Sl. Over Head Crossing Voltage (kV) Minimum Clearance Minimum

No on Existing Routes Clearances
from Rail Level from Rail Level
for New Track/ for New Power
Additional Line or Line Crossing
Gauge Conversion or Alternation to
When Line is not Existing Power
Anticipated to be Line Crossing
Electrified (mm) (mm)
1 2 3 4
1 Above 33/36 kV & upto 66/72 kV 11160 14960
2 Above 66/72 kV & upto 132/145 kV 11760 15560
3 Above 132/145 kV & upto 220/245 kV 12660 16460
4 Above 220/245 kV & upto 400/420 kV 14460 18260
5 Above 400/420 kV & upto 500/550 kV 15360 19160
6 Above 500/550 kV & upto 765/800 kV 18060 21860
4.8 Minimum Clearance between Highest Traction Conductor & Lowest Crossing
Conductor
(1) It is desirable to provide maximum possible clearance in case of power line from the highest traction
conductor used for electric traction. However, based on the clearance study, reduced clearances as
under may be adopted:
Sl. Over Head Crossing Voltage (kV) Minimum Clearance Between Highest
No. Traction Conductor & Lowest Crossing
Conductor (mm)
1 2 3
1 Above 11/12 kV & upto 66/72 kV 2440
2 Above 66/72 kV & upto 132/145 kV 3050
3 Above 132/145 kV & upto 220/245 kV 4580
4 Above 220/245 kV & upto 400/420 kV 5490
5 Above 400/420 kV & upto 500/550 kV 7940
6 Above 500/550 kV & upto 765/800 kV 7940
Note:
(i) All height/clearances are in mm and under maximum sag (conditions (at maximum continuos
operating temperature).
(ii) Clearances at mid Overhead electric Traction (OHE) span (Column-4) in Para 4.7.2 can be adopted
if the OHE structure/fixed structure is beyond 6000 mm of nearest conductor of overhead crossing.
(iii) If the crossing is provided with a guarding, a minimum clearance of 2000 mm shall be maintained
between the bottom of the guard wire and highest traction conductor.
(iv) Power line crossing in yards & stations area shall be avoided
(2) Minimum clearance for 1150kV/ 1200kV power line crossing railway lines being follwed is as follows:
Over Head Crossing Minimum Electrical clearance (mm)

Voltage (kV)
For non electrified railway For electrified or proposed to be
lines (Between lowest point of electrified railway lines
crossing conductor and rail (Between highest traction
level) conductor and lowest point of
crossing conductor)
1 2 3
1150 kV/1200 kV 29700 23000
4.9 Power Lines Crossing Communication Lines
The minimum clearances to be maintained between power lines and communication lines as per
“Code of Practice for Protection of Telecommunication Line Crossings with Overhead Power Lines”
should be as follows:-
Nominal Voltage/Highest 66/72.5 110/125 220/245 400/420 765/800 1150/1200*

Voltage (kV) &
132/145
Minimum clearance between 2440 2750 3050 4480 7900 10000
power conductor crossing
telecommunication line(mm)
*Values indicated for 1150/1200kV being followed at present (not stipulated in Code of Practice for Protection
of Telecommunication Line Crossings with Overhead Power Lines)
4.10 Clearance from Air Ports/ Aerodromes/ helipads
For Transmission lines in the vicinity of Military air ports/ aerodromes/ helipads, approval of
appropriate authorities (Directorate of Flight Safety, Air HQ, Civil Aviation Authority, Govt. of India)
and other appropriate notified agencies shall be obtained prior to taking up construction of TL.
No Objection Certificate from Concerned Aerodrome Authorities in compliance with Air Craft
Act 1954 as amplified by associated Gazette Notification SO 988 Part II, Section 3, Subsection
(ii) dated 26th March 1988 is essential.
4.11 Miscellaneous
1. No blasting within 300 meter from electric supply line of voltage exceeding 650 V or tower
structure shall be permitted without written permission of owner. (Ref: Rule 65(2) of CEA
Measures relating to Safety and Electricity Supply- Regulation 2010).
2. No cutting of soil within 10 meter of tower of 132 kV or above voltage shall be permitted
without written permission of owner. (Ref: Rule 65(3) of CEA Measures relating to Safety and
Electricity Supply- Regulation 2010).
3. No construction of brick kiln or pollution unit shall be permitted near the transmission line of
220 kV and above voltage within a distance of 500 meter. (Ref: Rule 65(4) of CEA Measures
relating to Safety and Electricity Supply- Regulation 2010).
Annexure-1
Over Voltages Experienced in Transmission system
Operation event Maximum SIL Control Method Maximum SIL with

without Control (PU) Control Device (P.U.)
Energizing 2.4-2.8 Closing resistors 1.5-2.2
Multi step closing resistors 1.3-1.7
Controlled closing 1.3-1.7
Controlled closing and 1.3-1.5
closing resistors
Three phase reclosing 3.5-4.0 Removal of trapped charge 2.4 -.2.8
Closing resistors 1.5-2.2
Multi step closing resistors 1.4-1.8
Controlled closing 1.4-2.0
Controlled closing and 1.3-1.8
closing resistors
Fault initiation
Single line to ground 1.5-1.7 None
Double line to ground 1.4-1.8 None
Fault clearing 1.4-1.8 Opening resistors 1.3-1.5
Phase to phase
switching 3.0-4.0 Closing resistors 2.0-3.8
Energizing 4.0-5.0 Closing resistors 2.0-3.8
Reclosing
Table-A1
Swing Angles and Electrical Clearances for “I” Suspension Strings
AC Voltage level Clearance in Swing angle in degrees

(Nominal/Highest) metres
66/72.5 0.610 60
0.610 45
0.760 30
0.915 15
0.915 0
110/125 & 132/145 1.07 60
1.22 45
1.37 30
1.53 15
1.53 0
220/245 1.675 45
1.83 30
1.98 15
2.13 0
WZ-1 WZ-2 WZ-3 WZ-4 WZ-5 WZ-6
400/420kV 1.2 36.5* 46.2 53 56.7 60.2 65
3.05 12.2 16.6 20.55 23 25.6 29.9
3.05 0
765/800kV 1.3 55
4.4 25
5.6 (S/C) 0
6.1 (D/C)
1150/1200kV 2.4 41.0
8.0 10.0
8.0 0
DC Voltage level Clearance(m) Swing angle in degrees
(Nominal/Highest)
500/525 Twin Lapwing 3750 0
(V insulator string)
800/840 Hexa WZ-1 WZ-2 WZ-3 WZ-4 WZ-5 WZ-6
Lapwing 2.0 34 44 51 54 58 62
(Y insulator string)
6.5 10 14 17 20 22 26
7.7 5 9 9 10 12 14
7.7 0
*Sample calculation for determination of swing angle is given below.
Table-A2
Swing Angle of suspension string in degrees
Tan-1 (Wind on Conductor+ Wind Load on insulator /2)

(Vertical load of Conductor+ Vertical load of insulator string /2)
Wind load on conductor = 0.6 x Vr2 x Cd x Dia of Conductor x Wind span x
Number of sub Conductors per bundle
= 0.6 x (33/1.375)2 x ((15/10)0.16)2 x 1.0 x .03177 x 400 x 2
= 10000 N
Wind load on insulator = 0.6 x Vr2 x Cd x Gust response factor x Dia of Insulator x
Length of insulator string x 0.5
= 0.6 x (33/1.375)2 x ((15/10)0.16)2 x 1.2 x 2.25 x .255 x 3.5
= 475 N
Vertical Load of insulator (Weight) = 1844 N
Vertical load of conductor = Number of sub conductors x Weight per m x Weight span
= 2 x 2.004 x 400/1.2 x 9.81
= 13106 N
Swing Angle of suspension string in
Tan-1 (10000+ 475 /2)

(13106+ 1844 /2)
degrees= 36.5 deg
Assumptions:
Wind Zone: 1,
Conductor Bundle: Twin ACSR MOOSE,
Wind span: 400 mtrs,
Terrain Category: 2,
Return period: 50 years,
Wind/Weight span: 1.2,
Drag Coefficient of Conductor Cd =1.0,
Drag Coefficient of Insulator = 1.2,
Average height of conductor = 15mtrs
Note: No guest is required to be considered for conductor due to extremely low probability of guest acting
perpendicular to full span causing maximum displacement.
Table-A3
Swing Angles and Electrical Clearances for Jumper

AC Voltage level (Nominal/ Clearance in Swing angle in degrees
Highest) metres Jumper without pilot Jumper with pilot string
string
66/72.5 0.610 30 -
0.610 20 -
0.915 10 -
0.915 0 -
110/125 & 132/145 1.07 30 -
1.22 20 -
1.53 10 -
1.53 0 -
220/245 1.675 20 -
2.13 10 15
2.13 0 0
400/420kV 3.05 25 15
3.05 0 0
765/800KV 1.3 55 #
4.4 25
5.6 (S/C) 0
6.1 (D/C)
1150/1200kV 2.4 60 #
8.0 23
8.0 0
D.C Voltage level (Nominal/ Clearance in Swing angle in degrees
Highest) metres Jumper without pilot string Jumper with pilot string
500/525 Twin Lapwing 1.15 57
(V insulator string) 3.15 15 #
3.75 0
800/840 Hexa Lapwing 2.0 72
(Y insulator string) 6.5 25 #
7.7 0
# There are various means of limiting jumper swing by making use of (i) custom made jumpers (Rigid, ladder type etc),
(ii) appropriate configuration of Pilot Insulator string (I, V, Y, Strut), (iii) suitably designing the cross arm & (iv) suitably
positioning the pilot string attachment point. For 765 kV & above voltage lines these alternatives can provide overall
techno- economics and therefore need serious consideration during designClearance depends on type of pilot sting
and position of pilot string and construction of jumper.
Chapter 5
DESIGN PARAMETERS
5.0 Scope
This chapter covers the design of transmission line towers and the design is entirely dependent
on the selection of correct inputs (data/ parameters). It is essential to collect all the necessary
design parameters in consultation with the power utility before starting the design work. The design
parameters required for developing a transmission line tower design are described hereunder
in this chapter. These design parameters should be correct and authentic to ensure reliability of
transmission line under given conditions.
5.1 Transmission Voltage
The transmission capacity of a transmission line is a function of voltage rating of transmission

line and as such is vital parameter. All the electrical parameters such as air gap clearance from
conductor to steel structure, phase to phase clearance, ground clearance above ground etc. are
fully dependent on the voltage level.
The power is transmitted either through AC System (alternating current) or through DC System
(Direct Current) depending upon the requirement of power system in terms of power to be
transmitted, distance of transmission, system frequency, etc. of a particular region or country as a
whole.
In India, the following transmission voltages have been standardised for transmitting the power:
AC System DC System
(i). 66 kV (i) ± 500 kV
(ii) 110 kV (ii) ± 800 kV
(iii) 132 kV
(iv) 220 kV
(v) 400 kV
(vi) 765 kV
(vii) 1200 kV
A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct current for
the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current
systems. For long-distance transmission, HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer lower
electrical losses. For shorter distances, ever though the higher cost of DC conversion equipment
compared to an AC system, DC system may still be warranted, due to other benefits of direct
current links. HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC systems and can
increase system stability by preventing cascading failures from propagating from one part of a
wider power transmission grid to another. The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large
amounts of power over long distances with lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. The
Flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) is now becoming a competitive alternative to DC system
over a long distance transmission.
Transmission lines upto 765 AC (Class 800 kV) and ± 500 kV DC are under operation. Transmission
line voltage rating 1200 kV AC is under experimental/ development stage and ± 800 kV DC with
metallic earth return conductor is under execution.
90
Design Parameters 91
5.1.1 Configurations of DC Transmission Bipolar
In bipolar transmission, a pair of bundle conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect
to ground, in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full voltage,
transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. However, there are a
number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it attractive option.
● nder normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar transmission
U
with a metallic earth-return. This reduces earth return loss and environmental effects.
● hen a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of the line,
W
approximately half the rated power can continue to flow using the earth as a return path,
operating in monopolar mode.
● ince for a given total power rating each conductor bundle of a bipolar line carries only half the
S
current of monopolar lines, the cost of the second bundle conductor is reduced compared to a
monopolar line of the same rating.
● In very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of
transmission towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one line is
damaged.
A bipolar system with metallic earth return conductor at +/- 800 kV DC with transmission capacity
as much as 6000 MW is under execution in India.
A bipolar scheme can be implemented so that the polarity of one or both poles can be changed.
This allows the operation as two parallel monopoles. If one conductor fails, transmission can still
continue at reduced capacity.
Back to Back
A back-to-back station (B-t-B) is a plant in which both static inverters and rectifiers are in the same
area, usually in the same building. The length of the direct current line is kept as short as possible.
HVDC back-to-back stations are used for
● c oupling of electricity mains of different frequency (as in Vizag between Southern & Western
Grid)
● coupling two networks of the same nominal frequency but no fixed phase relationship.
● Different frequency and different phase relationship.
The DC voltage in the intermediate ac circuits can be selected freely at HVDC back-to-back stations
because of the short conductor length. The DC voltage is as low as possible, in order to build a
small valve hall and to avoid series connections of valves. For this reason at HVDC back-to-back
stations, valves with the highest available current rating are used.
5.2 Number of Circuits
The transmission line AC System can be classified into three categories depending on the number
of circuits.
Each circuit consists of three phases. However, each phase may further consist of single, twin or
multiple bundle of conductors. The three classifications based on the number of circuits are :
(i) Single-Circuit: The transmission line which carries only one circuit.
(ii) Double-Circuit: The transmission line which carries two circuits.
(iii) Multi-Circuit: The transmission line which carries more than two circuits of same or
different voltage ratings.
Single circuit and double circuit transmission lines are popular throughout the world. Some of the
utilities of the world have constructed multi-voltage lines which have more than two circuits of different
voltage levels. Wherever Right of Way constraints are foreseen, multi-circuit and multi-voltage lines
are preferable specifically near substations and in forest stretches.
Composite ac and dc transmission line development on existing 220 kV D/C line was also taken up
as a research project in India at 100 kV DC and 220 kV ac but further development is abandoned
5.3 Climatic Conditions
The reliability of a transmission system is largely dependent on the accuracy of the parameters related
to climatic conditions considered for design. The design of tower will vary with variation in climatic
conditions. The following are the main climatic parameters which play vital role in developing design
of transmission line towers:
1. Wind
2. Temperature
3. Isokeraunic level
4. Seismic Intensity
5. Ice formation.
5.4 Reliability Considerations
Transmission lines shall be designed for the reliability levels as given in Table below. These levels
are expressed in terms of return periods in years of climatic (wind) loads. The minimum yearly
reliability Ps, corresponding to the return period, T, is expressed as Ps= (1-1/2T)
Table : Reliability Levels of Transmission Lines

Sl.No. Description Reliability Levels
1. Return period of design loads, in years, T 50 150 500
2. Yearly reliability, Ps 1-10-2 1-10-2.5 1-10-3
Reliability level 1 shall be adopted for EHV transmission lines up to 400 kV class (Twin bundle
conductor)
Reliability level 2 shall be adopted for EHV transmission lines above 400 kV class.
Triple and quadruple circuit towers up to 400 kV lines shall be designed corresponding to the
reliability level 2.
Reliability level 3 shall be adopted for Tall River crossing towers and special towers, although these
towers are not covered in this chapter.
5.4.1 Wind
5.4.1.1 The Wind speeds have been worked out for 50-year return period based on the up-to-date wind data
of 43 dynes pressure tube (DPA) anemograph stations and study of other related works available
on the subject since 1964. The basic wind speed data have been published by Bureau of Indian
Standards in IS: 875-1988 in active cooperation with Indian Meteorological Department as shown
in Figure 1. This map represents basic wind speed based on peak gust velocity averaged over a short
time interval of about 3 seconds and corresponds to 10 m height above mean ground level in terrain
Category-2 for 50-yr return period.
Based on the wind speed map, the entire country has been divided into six wind zones with max. wind
speed of 55 m/sec. and min. wind speed of 33 m/sec. Basic wind speeds for the six wind zones are
given in Table 1 / Figure 1
Reproduced from IS 802 (Part 1/Sec 1): 1995
Fig. 1 : Design wind Speed Map of India

Based upon Survey of India Outline map printed in 1987 Based upon Survey of India Outline map printed in 1987
The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate
base line.
Responsibility for the correctness of internal details shown on the map rests with the publisher.
Table 1
Wind Zone Basic Wind Speed Vb (m/sec)
1 33
2 39
3 44
4 47
5 50
6 55
Note: 1. In case the line traverses across the border of wind zones, the higher wind speed may be considered.
However, it depends on the length of line in each section and its financial impact involving designs,
spares
2. Reference may be made to IS 875 (Part-3) for basic wind zone maps.
5.4.1.2 Reference Wind Speed VR
It is extreme value of wind speed over an average period of 10 minute duration and is to be calculated
from basic wind speed ‘vb’ by the following relationship :-
VR = Vb/K0
Where Ko is a factor to convert 3-second peak gust speed into average speed of wind during 10
minutes period at a level of 10 meters above ground. Ko is to be taken as 1.375.
5.4.1.3 Design Wind Speed, Vd
Reference wind speed obtained in 5.4.1.2 shall be modified to include the following effects to get the
design wind speed:
(i) Risk Coefficient, K1,

(ii) Terrain Roughness coefficient, K2
It is expressed as follows:-
Vd = VR . K1 . K2
5.4.1.4 Risk Coefficient K1
Table 2 gives the values of Risk Coefficient K1 for different wind zones for three Reliability Levels.
Table 2
Risk Coefficient K1 for Different Reliability Levels and Wind Zones
Reliability Coefficient K1 for wind zones
Level 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (50 yr return period) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 (150 yr return period) 1.08 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14
3 (500 yr return period) 1.17 1.22 1.25 1.27 1.28 1.30
5.4.1.5 Terrain Roughness Coefficient, K2

Table 3 gives the values of coefficient K2 of the three categories of terrain roughness corresponding to
an average 10-minute wind speed.
Table 3: Terrain Roughness Coefficient K2

Terrain Category 1 2 3
Coefficient K2 1.08 1.00 0.85
5.4.1.6 Terrain Categories
(a) Category 1 - Coastal areas, deserts and large stretches of water.

(b) Category 2 - Normal cross-country lines with very few obstacles.
(c) Category 3 - Urban built-up areas or forest areas.
Note: For lines encountering hills/ridges, value of K2 will be taken as next higher value.
5.4.1.7 Design Wind Pressure Pd
The design wind pressure on towers, conductors and insulators shall be obtained by the following
relationship:
Pd = 0.6Vd2
where
Pd = design wind pressure in N/m2 and
Vd = Design wind speed in m/s.
Design wind pressure Pd for all the three Reliability levels and pertaining to six wind zones and the
three terrain categories have been worked out and given in Table 4.
Table 4 : Design Wind Pressure Pd, in N/m2-

(Corresponding to wind velocity at 10 m height)
Reliability Terrain Wind pressure Pd for wind zones
Level Category 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 403 563 717 818 925 1120
2 346 483 614 701 793 960
3 250 349 444 507 573 694
2 1 470 681 883 1026 1182 1455
2 403 584 757 879 1013 1248
3 291 422 547 635 732 901
3 1 552 838 1120 1319 1516 1892
2 473 719 960 1131 1300 1622
3 342 519 694 817 939 1172
5.4.1.8 Wind Loads
(A) Wind Load on Tower
In order to determine the wind load on tower, the tower is divided into different panels having a height
‘h’. These panels should normally be taken between the intersections of the legs and bracings. For a
lattice tower, the wind load Fwt in Newtons, for wind normal to a face of tower, on a panel height ‘h’
applied at the centre of gravity of the panel is :-
Fwt = Pd. Cdt. Ae. GT

Pd = Design wind pressure in N/m2
Cdt = Drag Coefficient pertaining to wind blowing against any face of the tower. Values of Cdl for
the different solidity ratios are given in Table 5.
Ae = Total net surface area of the legs and bracings of the panel projected normally on face in m2.
(The projections of the bracing elements of the adjacent faces and of the plan-and-hip bracing
bars may be neglected while determining the projected surface of a face).
GT = Gust Response Factor, peculiar to the ground roughness and depends on the height above
ground. Values of GT for the three terrain categories are given in Table 6.
Table 5 : Drag Coefficient, Cdt for Towers

Solidity Ratio* Drag Coefficient, Cdt
Angles Circular Sections Single Frame like
Ladders, Railings, etc
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Up to 0.05 3.6 2.1 1.9
0.1 3.4 1.9 1.9
0.2 2.9 1.7 1.8
0.3 2.5 1.5 1.7
0.4 2.2 1.4 1.7
0.5 and above 2.0 1.35 1.6
Note: Intermediate values may be linearly interpolated.
* Solidity ratio is equal to the effective area (projected area of all the individual elements) of a frame
normal to the wind direction divided by the area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the
wind direction.
Table 6 : Gust Response Factor for Towers (GT) and for Insulators (Gl)
Height above ground Values of GT and Gl for terrain Categories
m
1 2 3
Upto 10 1.70 1.92 2.55
20 1.85 2.20 2.82
30 1.96 2.30 2.98
40 2.07 2.40 3.12
50 2.13 2.48 3.24
60 2.20 2.55 3.34
70 2.26 2.63 3.46
80 2.31 2.69 3.58
Note: Intermediate values may be interpolated. For height above 80m, refer manual for river crossing tower.
(B) Wind Load on Conductor and Ground wire / OPGW
The load due to wind on each conductor and groundwire, Fwc in Newtons applied at supporting point
normal to the line shall be determined by the following expression :
Fwc = Pd. L. d. Gc. Cdc
where:
Pd = Design wind pressure in N/m2;

L = Wind span, being sum of half the span on either side of supporting point, in metres.
d = Diameter of conductor/ground wire/ OPGW, in metres.
Gc = Gust Response Factor which takes into account the turbulence of the wind and the dynamic
response of the Conductor. Values of Gc are given in Table 7 for the three terrain categories
and the average height of the conductor above the ground.
Cdc = Drag coefficient which is given as under:
Dia of Conductor Earth Wire/ Drag Coefficient Cdt

OPGW in mm
upto 12.5 mm 1.2
above12.5 mm to 15.8 mm dc 1.1
above 15.8 mm 1.0
Note: T
he average height of conductor/groundwire shall be taken up to clamping point on tower less two third
the conductor/groundwire sag at minimum temperature and no wind.
The total effect of wind on bundle conductors shall be taken equal to the sum of the wind load on sub-
conductors without accounting for a possible masking effect of one of the sub-conductors on another.
Table 7 : Values of Gust Response Factor Gc for Conductor/G-Wires

Terrain Height Values of Gc for conductor of span, in m
Category above Up to 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 & above
ground, m
1. Up to 10 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.50 1.47
20 1.90 1.87 1.83 1.79 1.75 1.70 1.66
40 2.10 2.04 2.00 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80
60 2.24 2.18 2.12 2.07 2.02 1.96 1.90
80 2.35 2.25 2.18 2.13 2.10 2.06 2.03
2. Up to 10 1.83 1.78 1.73 1.69 1.65 1.60 1.55
20 2.12 2.04 1.95 1.88 1.84 1.80 1.80
40 2.34 2.27 2.20 2.13 2.08 2.05 2.02
60 2.55 2.46 2.37 2.28 2.23 2.20 2.17
80 2.69 2.56 2.48 2.41 2.36 2.32 2.28
3. Up to 10 2.05 1.98 1.93 1.88 1.83 1.77 1.73
20 2.44 2.35 2.25 2.15 2.10 2.06 2.03
40 2.76 2.67 2.58 2.49 2.42 2.38 2.34
60 2.97 2.87 2.77 2.67 2.60 2.56 2.52
80 3.19 3.04 2.93 2.85 2.78 2.73 2.69
Note: Intermediate values may be linearly interpolated and for height more than 80 m, refer CBIP manual for
river crossing tower.
(C) Wind Load on Insulator Strings

Wind load on insulator strings ‘Fwi’ shall be determined from the attachment point to the centre line
of the conductor in case of suspension tower and upto the end of clamp in case of tension tower, in
the direction of the wind as follows :
Fwi = 1.2. Pd. Ai. Gi
where
Pd = Design Wind pressure in N/m2
Ai = 0 Per cent of the area of Insulator string projected on a plane parallel to the longitudinal axis
5
of the string (1/2 x diameter x length).
Note: Length of Insulator shall be considered as follows:
Suspension Insulator:
- From the centre point of conductor to the connection point of insulator to the tower.
Tension Insulator:
- End of tension clamp to the connection point of insulator to the tower.

Gi = Gust Response Factor, depending on the ground roughness and height of insulator
attachment above ground. Values of Gi for the three terrain categories are given in
Table 6.
In case of multiple strings no masking effect shall be considered.
5.4.2 Temperature
To evolve design of tower, three temperatures i.e. Max. temperature, min. temperature and everyday
temperature are very important. Tower height as well as sag and tension calculations of conductor
and earth wire /OPGW vary with the change in the above three temperatures.
The temperature range varies for different parts of India under different seasonal conditions. The
absolute maximum and minimum temperatures which may be expected in different localities in
country are indicated on the maps of India in Fig 2 and Fig 3 respectively. The temperatures indicated
in these maps are the air temperatures in shade. The maximum conductor temperatures may be
obtained after allowing increase in temperature due to solar radiation and heating effect due to current
etc. over the absolute maximum temperature given in Fig 2. After giving due thought to several
aspects such as flow of excess power in emergency during summer time etc. the following three
design temperatures have been fixed:-
(a) Max. temperature of ACSR conductor = 85 deg C

(b) Max. temperature of AAAC conductor = 95 deg C
(c) Max. temperature of earthwire/OPGW = 53 deg C
(d) Min. temperature (ice-free zone) = - 5 deg C to + 10 deg C
(depends on location of the trans. line however 0°C widely
used in the country)
(e) Everyday Temperature =32°C (for most parts of the country).
For region with colder climates (-5 deg C or below), everyday temperature to be considered as
15 deg. C.
5.4.3 Lightning Consideration for Tower Design
As the overhead transmission lines pass through open country, these are subjected to the effects of
lightning. The faults initiated by lightning can be of the following three types:
(i) Back flash over: When lightning strikes on a tower or on the earthwire near the tower which
raises the tower potential to a level resulting in a discharge across the insulator string or
across live end of insulator string to earthed tower body.
(ii) Midspan flash over: When lightning strikes on earthwire raising local potential of the
earthwire such that a breakdown in the air gap between earthwire and phase conductor
results.
(iii) Shielding failure: When lightning strikes on the phase conductor directly resulting in a
flashover across the insulator string.
Based upon Survey of India Outline map printed in 1987
The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.
Responsibility for the correctness of internal details shown on the map rests with the publisher. © Government of India Copyright 1995
Chart Showing Highest Maximum Temperature Isopleths
Fig. 2
Based upon Survey of India Outline map printed in 1987.
The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.
Responsibility for the correctness of internal details shown on the map rests with the publisher. © .Government of India Copyright 1W6
Chart Showing Lowest Minimum Temperature Isopleths
Fig. 3
The above types of faults can be minimized by suitably choosing the shielding angle and keeping the
tower footing resistance to the minimum.
Lightning is a very unpredictable phenomenon. Moreover, not enough data is available, at present,
to treat them by statistical technique. The only data available are the isokeraunic levels, i.e. annual
number of thunder-storm days for a particular area; but these do not give information on the intensity
of strokes.
In the view of the above fact, the following shield angles are provided in EHV line towers as per
present practice in the country:
Voltage level Shield Angle

66 kV 30 DEG
110/132 kV 30 DEG
220 kV 30 DEG
Single Ckt. (Horizontal Configuration) Outer Ph. 20 DEG
400 kV
Inner Ph. 45 DEG
400 kV Single Ckt. (Vertical Configuration) 20 DEG
400 kV Double Ckt. 20 DEG
400 kV Multi Ckt. 20 DEG
Single Ckt. (Horizontal Configuration) Outer Ph. 20 DEG
765 kV
Inner Ph. 45 DEG
765 kV Single Ckt. (Delta Configuration) Outer Ph. 20 DEG
765 kV Single Ckt. (Vertical Configuration) 20 DEG
765 kV Double Ckt. 10 DEG
1200 kV Outer Ph. 10 DEG
± 500 kV HVDC 10 DEG
± 800 kV HVDC 10 DEG
5.4.4 Seismic Consideration
The transmission line tower is a pin-jointed light structure comparatively flexible and free to vibrate
and max. Wind pressure is the chief criterion for the design. Concurrence of earthquake and maximum
wind condition is unlikely to take place and further seismic stresses are considerably diminished
by the flexibility and freedom for vibration of the structure. This assumption is also in line with the
recommendation given in cl. no. 3.2 (b) of IS: 1893-1984. Seismic considerations, therefore, for tower
design are ignored and have not been discussed here. However in regions where earthquakes are
experienced, the earthquake forces may be considered in tower foundation design in accordance with
IS: 1893-1984.
5.4.5 Sag- Tension Computations
A conductor suspended freely between two adjacent towers/ supports take the shape known as
catenary. The dip from the center point on a line joining the two supports called Sag. The Sag of
a conductor at Null point is inversely proportional to the tension in the conductor. For all practical
purposes, the catenary is simplified as a parabola without much error. A sag-tension calculation
predicts the behavior of the conductors based on recommended tension limits under varying
loading conditions. As per IS 802, the recommended tension limits under everyday temperature
&nil wind condition and everyday temperature full wind condition are 22% / 25% and 50% / 70% of
conductorrated breaking strength. Sag and tension at all other weather conditions depends on the
initial weather conditions considered for the calculation.
For spans normally adopted for transmission line, the catenary is very nearly a parabola and hence
the sag is calculated by the formula for the supports at same levels:
S = w L2 /8T
Where,
S = Sag in m,
w = weight of loaded conductor in kg per meter
L = span length in meter, and
T = maximum working tension in conductor in kg.
When transmission lines are run on steep hills, the two ends A & B of towersmay not be at same
height. The shape of the wire strung between the supports will form a part of catenary and therefore,
the lowest point of catenary will not lie in the middle of the span. Referring to below figure, A & B
are the support ends. To have complete catenary, extend the curve BHA to A’ such that A’ is at same
level as B. H is the midpoint of A’B and hence the lowest point. Let H be at a horizontal distance of
a units from A and b units from B. The difference in levels of supports A & B is h units.
a = (L/2) + T*h/ (w*L), A' B

b = (L/2) -T*h/ (w*L), H
A S2
Therefore,
S1
Sag corresponding to smaller support
(i.e A) H
S1 = (w x (2a) 2)/ (8T) A B
Sag corresponding to taller support

(i.e B) o
S2 = (w x (2b) 2)/ (8T)
From this it is clear that S2 = S1 + h.
Where,
S1 = Sag corresponding to smaller support in meter,
S2 = Sag corresponding to taller support in meter,
w = weight of loaded conductor in kg per meter
L = span length in meter, and
T = maximum working tension in conductor in kg.
h = the difference in level of supports in meter.
Formula for Sag Tension Calculation:
Loading for Wind & Ice loading condition:
Ice load (kg/m) = 3.1415X((d/2+t)2-(d/2)2)X973/1000000
Wind load (kg/m) = p X (d+(2Xt))/ 1000

Net weight (kg/m) = Sqrt((ice load+w)2+(wind load)2)
Where,
d = Diameter of conductor in mm
t = Thickness of Ice on conductor in mm
p = Wind Pressure on conductor in kg/sq. m
Density of Ice = 973 kg/Cube m
Sag Tension Calculation
For span normally adopted in Transmission Line, length of the conductor,l is given by the
equation
Span3 (Net Weight/Unit weight of conductor )2 x (Unit weight of conductor /Area)2

Length, l = Span +
24 x (Stress)2
Using the above parabolic equation, we have length at initial temperature t1,
Initial Length, l1 = L +{(L3x (W1/w)2x(w/A)2/(24 x (f1)2)}
Similarly, at length final temperature t2,
Final Length, l2 = L+ {(L3x (W2/w) 2x (w/A) 2/ (24x (f2)2)}
Now, Unstressed Length of the conductor at temperature t1 = l1 – (l1 *T1)/(E*A)
And Unstressed Length of the conductor at temperature t2 = l2 – (l2 *T2)/(E*A)
Therefore,l2 – (l2 *T2)/(E*A) = {l1 – (l1 *T1)/(E*A) } (1+ g (t2 - t1 )
Where,
G = Coefficient of Linear Expansion per °C
E = Modulus of elasticity of conductor (Kg/Sq mm)
t2 ° C = Final Temperature
t1 ° C = Initial Temperature
A (Sq mm) = Area of cross section of conductor
W1 (kg/m) = Net weight during initial condition
W2 (kg/m) = Net weight during final condition
Thus l2 – (l2 *T2)/(E*A) = l1 – (l1 *T1)/(E*A) + g (t2 - t1 )*l1
{Neglecting the product of g (t2 - t1 ) & (l1 *T1)/(E*A) }
Therefore; l2 -l1 + (l1 *T1)/(E*A)-(l2 *T2)/(E*A)- g (t2 - t1 )*l1 = 0
Or, l2 - l1 + (l1 *f1)/(E) - (l2 *f2)/(E) - g (t2 - t1 )*l1 = 0 ( stress, f = T/A)
Substituting the value of l1 &l2 in the above equation and simplifying,
(24*L/E)f23 + [{(L3 *(W1/w)2 X (w/A)2/((f1)2)}+ 24*L g(t2-t1) - 24*(f 1X L/E)] f22 -{L3
*(W2/w)2X (w/A)2} =0
From the above equation, we get the value of final condition stress i.e. f2.
Therefore, tension corresponding to this stress may be found by T2= f2 * A
Hence, Sag can be calculated by the relation Sag, S =w L2 /8T, meter
An example of Sag- tension calculation is given in Annexure 1
Calculation for Weight Span:
Distance of “Null Point” or “Low Point” of conductor from centre of span is given by the formula:
x = (T*h)/ (w*L)
Where,
x = distance of Low point from centre of span in meter.
T =conductor tension in Kg
h = difference between conductor supports level in meter,
w = unit weight of conductor in Kg/meter
L = span length in meter.
L
B
B
h h
A A
Null Point L/2 L/2

L/2 L/2
X x
a
Null Point A b b
Fig. A : Null Point within the Span Fig. B : Null Point outside the Span
Weight Span:
For TowerA, right hand side only:
a = (L/2) – x
For Tower B, left hand side only:
b = (L/2) + x
Similarly, weight span for the other side of towers, can be calculated and total weight span obtained.
Therefore, Maximum Sag from taller support (i.e B)
S1 = (w (2b) 2)/8T, meter &

Maximum Sag from smaller support (i.e A)
S2 = (w (2a) 2)/8T, meter
If the sum of a & b calculated for particular tower is negative, the tower is under uplift.
It is also evident that the maximum weight span are obtained by worst condition of wind loading
when T is maximum, which means the vertical component of worst load sag should be taken for
cold curve in order to assess uplift on tower.
5.5 Environmental and Ecological Consideration
5.5.1 Right of Way (ROW)
Generally the transmission line corridor requirement for different voltage lines are as follows:
Voltage Level Corridor Requirement (Meters)

66 kV 18
110 kV 22
132 kV 27
220 kV 35
400 kV Single Ckt. (Horizontal Configuration) 52
400 kV Double Ckt./400 kV S/C (Vertical Configuration) 46
765 kV Single Ckt. (Horizontal Configuration) 85
765 kV Single Ckt. (Delta/ Vertical Configuration) 64
765 kV Double Ckt. 67
1200 kV 89
± 500 kV HVDC 52
± 800 kV HVDC 69
Note: D
ue to ROW constraints, generally monopole/compact tower and tall tower shall be adopted and actual
corridor requirement can be calculated separately.
5.5.2 Electrical Interference
While deciding tower and conductor configuration of Transmission Lines at 400kV and above, the
interference level should be maintained within the following limits:
(i) Rl should not exceed 50 dB at 80% of the time during the year.
(ii) TVI - The minimum signal-to-noise ratio should be 30 dB.
(iii) Audio noise level should be less than 55 dB (A).
(iv) Electrostatic field should be less than 10 kV/m below the outermost phase (2 m above the
ground) and less than 5 kV/m at the edge of the right of way.
(v) Power Telecom Committee Requirement (PTCC)
PTCC
1. Maximum value of induced electromagnetic voltage for Volts 650
fault duration equal to or less than 200 ms
2. Maximum value of induced noise (noise interference) To Microvolts 2000
be taken cognizance if noise is persistent (measured)
5.6 Conductor
Conductor normally used for up to 1200kV lines ac & ± 800 kV HVDC, ±500 kV HVDC lines are given
below with their electrical and mechanical properties:
Voltage Level 1200 kV, 765 kV, 220 765kV, ±500 ± 800 kV 400 kV 132/110 kV 66 kV
kV kV HVDC HVDC
Code Name of ACSR ACSR ACSR ACSR ACSR ACSR ACSR
Conductor “MOOSE” “ZEBRA” “BERSIMIS” “LAPWING” “MOOSE” “PANTHER” “DOG”
No. of EIGHT (Octa SIX (Hex FOUR SIX (Hex TWO (Twin ONE ONE
conductor / Bundle) Bundle), (Quad Bundle), Bundle),
Phase ONE Bundle) FOUR (Quad
Bundle))
Stranding/Wire 54/3.53 mm 54/3.18 mm 42/4.57 mm 45/4.78 mm 54/3.53 mm 30/3.00 mm 6/4.72 mm
diameter AL+7/3.53 AL+7/3.18 Al +7/2.54 Al.+7/3.18 AL+7/3.53 mm Al + 7/3.00 Al+7/1.57
mm Steel mm Steel mm steel mm steel Steel mm steel mm Steel
Total sectional 597 mm2 484.5 mm2 725 mm2 863.13 mm2 597 mm2 261.5 mm2 118.5 mm2
area
Overall 31.77 mm 28.62 mm 35.05 mm 38.22 mm 31.77 mm 21.00 mm 14.15 mm
diameter
Approx. Weight 2004 kg/km 1621 kg/km 2181 kg/km 2667 kg/km 2004 kg/km 974 kg/km 394 kg/km
Calculated d.c. 0.05552 0.06868 0.04242 0.0358 Ohm/ 0.05552 Ohm/ 0.14 Ohm/ 0.281 Ohm/
resistance at 20 Ohm/km Ohm/km Ohm/km km km km km
deg. C
Min. UTS 161.2 kN 130.32 kN 154 kN 188 kN 161.2 kN 89.67 kN 32.41 kN
Modulus of 7034 kg/mm2 7036 kg/mm2 6322 kg/ 7546 kg/mm2 7034 kg/mm2 8158 kg/ 7747 kg/
elasticity mm2 mm2 mm2
Co-efficient 19.30 x 10-6 19.30 x 10-6 21.20 x 10-6 21.50 x 10-6 / 19.30 x 10-6 / 17.80 x 10-6 19.80 x
of linear /deg C /deg C /deg C deg C deg C /deg C 10-6 /deg.
expansion C
Max. allowable 85 deg C 85 deg C 85 deg C 85 deg C 85 deg C 75 deg C 75 deg. C
temperature for 765 kV &
75deg C for
220 kV
5.7 Earthwire
The earthwire to be used for transmission line has been standardised. Continuously run galvanised
steel earthwires are to be used for lines and earthed at every tower point. The properties of the earthwire
used on 66 kV to 1200 kV lines & ± 800 kV HVDC, ±500 kV HVDC lines are as follows:
5.7.1 Galvanised Steel Earth Wire
Voltage Level 1200 kV 765 kV, 400 kV, 220 kV, 132 +800 kV HVDC
+500 kV HVDC kV, 110 kV, 66
kV
No. of continuous Two Two Two Two
earthwires
Stranding/Wire 19/3.00 mm 7/3.66 mm 7/3.15 mm 7/4.5 mm
diameter
Total sectional.area 134.24 mm2 73.65 mm2 54.55 mm2 111.33 mm2
Overall diameter 15.00 mm 10.98 mm 9.45 mm 13.5 mm
Approx. Weight 1062 kg/km 583 kg/km 428 kg/km 882 kg/km
Calculated d.c. 1.5 Ohm/km 2.5 Ohm/km 3.375 Ohm/km 1.66 Ohm/km
resistance at 20 deg. C
Min. UTS 139.3 kN 68 kN 56 kN 106.2 kN
Modulus of elasticity 19000 kg/mm2 19361 kg/mm2 19361 kg/mm2 19330 kg/mm2
Co-efficient of linear 11.5x10-6 /deg C 11.5x10-6 /deg C 11.5x10-6 / 11.5x10-6 /deg C

expansion deg C
Max. allowable 53 deg C 53 deg C 53 deg C 53 deg C
temperature
5.7.2 OPGW
Voltage Level 765 kV, 400 kV, +500 kV

HVDC
Stranding/Wire diameter 24 fibers
Total sectional.area 80.2 mm2
Overall diameter 12.5 mm
Approx. Weight 460 kg/km
Min. UTS 84 kN
Modulus of elasticity 13904 kg/mm2
Co-efficient of linear expansion 14.3 x10-6 /deg C
Max. allowable temperature 53 deg C
Note: Mechanical and other properties of OPGW vary from Supplier to Supplier. Any other OPGW, which is
compatible with Conductor/EW Suitable for the particular line, can be adopted, subject to meeting the
limitations of Sag-tension values.
5.8 Insulator Strings
The following type of insulator strings are generally used on transmission lines, depending on
actual insulation requirement and mechanical strength, other suitable insulators can also
be used.
5.8.1 1200 kV INSULATORS (For Single circuit with Octa “Moose” Conductor)
Sl. Type of Tower Type Size of No. of Electro Mechanical

No. String Disc (Dia standard Mechanical Strength of
x Spacing) discs Strength of Complete
mm Insulator Disc String (kN)
(kN)
1. Single ‘V’ Tangent Type Tower 2 x 51 320 640
Suspension (A-with 0 deg deviation)
2. Double ‘V’ Tangent Type Tower 2 x 2 x51 320 1280
Suspension (AS-with 0-7 deg
deviation)
3. Single ‘I’ Large deviation angle 280-305 x 1 x 68 120 120
Suspension Towers for restraining 145
Pilot the jumper from coming
closer to the tower body
in Outer Phase.
4. Single ‘V’ Large deviation angle 280-305 x 2 x 62 120 240
closer to the tower body
in Middle Phase.
5. Quadruple All types of Angle 4 x 51 320 1280
tension Towers. (B, C, D & E)
5.8.2 765 kV INSULATORS (For Double circuit with Hex “Zebra” Conductor)
Sl. Type of String Tower Type Size of No. of Electro Mechanical

No. Disc (Dia standard Mechanical Strength of
(kN)
1. Double ‘I’ Standard Tangent 280 - 305 x 2 x 35 160 320
Suspension Type Tower (DA) 170
2. Single ‘I’ Large deviation angle 280 - 305 x 1 x 35 160 160
Pilot the jumper from
coming closer to the
tower body. (DD)
3. Single Tension For Transposition 280 - 305 x 1 x 35 160 160
Towers. 170
4. Quadruple All types of Angle 300 - 330 4 x 35 210 840
tension Towers. (DB, DC & x170
DD)
5.8.3 765 kV INSULATORS (For Single circuit with Quad “Bersimis” Conductor)

No. String Disc (Dia x standard Mechanical Strength of
Spacing) mm discs Strength of Complete
Insulator Disc String (kN)
(kN)
1. Double ‘I’ Horz. For Tangent Type 280-305 x 145 2 x 40 120 240
Suspension Tower, A & B in
Outer Phase
Delta For Tangent Type
Tower, A, in Outer
Phase
2. Single ‘I’ Large deviation angle 280-305 x 145 1 x 40 120 120
Suspension Towers for restraining the
Pilot jumper from coming closer
to the tower body,
Horz. Outer Phase of
Tower type D & E
Delta Outer Phase of
Tower type C & D
3. Single ‘V’ Large deviation angle 280-305 x 145 2 x 40 120 120
Suspension Towers for restraining the
Pilot jumper from coming closer
to the tower body,
Horz. Middle Phase of
Tower type D & E
Delta Middle Phase of
Tower type C & D
4. Single ‘V’ Horz. Middle Phase of 300 -330 x 2 x 35 210 210

Suspension Tower Type A 170
Delta Middle Phase of
Tower Type A
5. Double ‘V’ Horz. Middle Phase of 300 -330 x 2x2 x 35 210 420
Suspension Tower Type B 170
Delta All phases of Tower
Type B
6. Quadruple Horz. All phases of Tower 300 -330 x 4x 35 210 840
tension Type D & E 170
Delta All phases of Tower
Type C & D
5.8.4 400kV INSULATORS (For Double circuit with Quad “Moose” Conductor)

x Spacing) discs Strength of Complete String
mm Insulator Disc (kN)
(kN)
1. Double ‘I’ Standard Tangent Type 280 -305 x 2x23
120 240
Suspension Tower (DA) 145
2. Quadruple All types of Angle 280 -305 x
4 x 23 160 640
tension Towers. (DB, DC & DD) 170
3. Single ‘I’ Large deviation angle 280 -305 1 x 23 120 120
Suspension Towers for restraining x145
closer to the tower body.
(DD)
4. Single For Transposition 280 -305 1 x 24 120 120
Tension Towers. x145
5.8.5 400 kV INSULATORS (For Double circuit with Twin “Moose” Conductor)

(kN)
1. Single ‘I’ Standard Tangent Type 280 -305 1 x 23 120 120

Suspension Tower (DA) x145
(DD)
4. Double All types of Angle 280 -305 2 x 23 160 320
Tension Towers. (DB, DC & DD) x170
5.8.6 400 kV INSULATORS (For Double circuit with Triple “Snowbird” Conductor)

(kN)
1. Double ‘I’ Standard Tangent Type 280 -305 x 2x23
120 240
Suspension Tower (DA) 145
(DD)
5.8.7 400 kV INSULATORS (For Single circuit with Twin “Moose” Conductor)

(kN)
1. Single ‘I’ Standard Tangent Type 280 -305 1 x 23 120 120
Suspension Tower (DA) x145
(DD)
Tension Towers. (DB, DC & DD) x170
5.8.8 220 kV INSULATORS (With Single “Zebra” Conductor)

(kN)
1. Single ‘I’ Standard Tangent Type 255 x145 1 x 14 70 70
Suspension Tower (DA)
2. Single ‘I’ Large deviation angle 255 x145 1 x 14 70 70
Suspension Towers for restraining
(DD)
3. Single All types of Angle 280-305 x 1 x 15 120 120
Tension Towers. (DB, DC & DD) 145
5.8.9 132 kV INSULATORS (With Single “Panther” Conductor)

(kN)
1. Single ‘I’ Standard Tangent Type 255 x145 1x9 70 70
2. Single ‘I’ Large deviation angle 255 x145 1x9 70 70
(DD)
3. Single All types of Angle 255 x 145 1 x 10 90 90
Tension Towers. (DB, DC & DD)
5.8.10 66 kV INSULATORS (With Single “Dog” Conductor)
Sl. Type of Tower Type Size of No. of Electro Mechanical Mechanical

No. String Disc (Dia standard Strength of Strength of
x Spacing) discs Insulator Disc (kN) Complete
mm String (kN)
1. Single ‘I’ Standard Tangent Type 255 x145 1x6 70 70

2. Single ‘I’ Large deviation angle 255 x145 1x6 70 70
(DD)
3. Single All types of Angle 255 x 145 1x6 90 90
Tension Towers.
5.8.11 ± 800 kV INSULATORS (With ACSR “Lapwing” Conductor)

No. String Disc (Dia x standard Mechanical Strength of
Spacing) mm discs Strength of Complete String
Insulator Disc (kN)
(kN)
1. Single ‘Y’ Standard Tangent 380-400 x 205 2x45 420 420 along one
Suspension Type Tower (V-portion) limb of V-portion
and along II
& 2x22
portion)
(II portion)
2. Triple All types of Angle 380-400 x 205 3 x 64 420 1260

Tension Towers.
5.8.12 ± 500 kV INSULATORS (With ACSR “Lapwing” Conductor)

(kN)
1. Single ‘V’ Standard 545-560 2x41 210 210
suspension Tangent Type
Tower (A)
2. Quadruple All types of 545-560 4x 41 210 840
Tension Angle Towers.
(B, C & D)
5.9 SPAN
5.9.1 Design Span
Normal design spans for various voltage transmission lines considered are as follows.
Voltage Normal design Span
1200 kV 400 m
765 kV 400,450 m
400 kV 400 m
220 kV 335,350,375 m
132 kV 315,325,335 m
66 kV 240,250,275 m
± 800 HVDC 400 m
± 500 HVDC 400 m
5.9.2 Wind Span
The wind span is the sum of the two half spans adjacent to the support under consideration. For
plain terrains, this equals the normal ruling span .
5.9.3 Weight Span
The weight span is the horizontal distance between the lowest points of the conductors on the two
adjacent spans. For design of towers the following weight spans are generally considered:
1200 kV
Terrain/Tower Type Permissible Weight Span (m)
Normal Condition Broken wire Condition
Max. Min. Max. Min.
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 550 200 330 100
Small/Medium Angle 1000 -200 600 -200
Large Angle 1000 -300 600 -300
765 kV
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 600 200 360 100
Small/Medium Angle 600 0 360 -200
Large Angle 600 0 360 -300
(b) Hilly Terrain

Suspension 600 200 360 100
Small/Medium/Large 1000 -1000 600 -600
Angle
400 kV
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 600 200 360 100
Large Angle 600 0 360 -300
(b) Hilly Terrain

Suspension 600 200 360 100
Angle
220 kV
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 525 200 315 100
Large Angle 525 0 315 -300
(b) Hilly Terrain

Suspension 525 200 315 100
Angle
132 kV
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 488 195 195 104
Large Angle 488 0 195 -300
(b) Hilly Terrain

Suspension 488 208 192 104
Angle
66 kV
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 375 163 150 75
Small/Medium/Large 375 0 150 -150
Angle
(b) Hilly Terrain

Suspension 375 163 150 75
Angle
± 800 kV HVDC
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 550 200 330 100
Large Angle 600 0 360 -300
± 500 kV HVDC
(a) Plain terrain
Suspension 600 200 360 100
Large Angle 600 0 360 -300
ANNEXURE 1
An example of Sag-tension calculation of conductor
(a) Input Data
Conductor Properties
Conductor Code ACSR Moose

UTS (kg) 16428
Area of Conductor (sqmm) 597
Wt. Of Conductor (kg/m) 2.004
Dia of Conductor (mm) 31.77
Modulus of Elasticity (kg/sqmm) 7034
Coefficient of linear Expansion (per deg C) 0.0000193
Data of line
Normal Span (m) 400

Wind Pressure on Cond.(kg/sqm) 112.49
Initial Condition
Conductor temperature. (deg C) 22

Ice thickness (mm) 0
Wind Pressure on Cond.(kg/sqm) 0
Tension (kg) 3614.16 kg
(22 % of UTS)
(b) Calculation
Case-I: Sag at -5° C with Ice Thickness 15 mm at no wind Condition
W1 = SQRT( (ice load+w)2+(wind load)2)
= SQRT( (0+2.004)2+(0)2) =2.004
= SQRT(((3.1415*((31.77/2+15)2-(31.77/2)2)*0.000993)+(2.004)2+(0/1000*(31.77+2*15))2) =
4.14841
Therefore, Coefficient of f23, a =(24*L/E) = 1.3648 x 10-6
Coefficient of f22 , b=[{(L3 *(W1/w)2X(w/A)2/((f1)2)}+ 24*Lg(t2-t1) - 24*(f 1X L/E)] = 6.41220
Coefficient of f2 , c =0
Coefficient of f20, d ={L3 *(W2/w)2X(w/A)2} = -3.9026 x 1015
Using above coefficient,Real value of f2 = 11737347.42 kg/sq m
Therefore, final Tension T2 = 11737347.42 x 597 x10-6 = 6833 Kg
Also, Sag = (w L2 )/8T = (4.148x4002 )/(8 x 6833) = 12.14m
Case-II: Sag at -15° C without wind & without Ice Condition

= SQRT( (0+2.004)2+(0)2) =2.004
= SQRT(((2.004)2+(0)2) = 2.004
Therfore ,Cofficient of f23, a =(24*L/E) = 1.3648 x 10-6
Coefficient of f22 , b=[{(L3 *(W1/w)2X(w/A)2/((f1)2)}+ 24*Lg(t2-t1) - 24*(f 1X L/E)] = 4.55940
Cofficient of f2 , c =0
Coefficient of f20 , d ={L3 *(W2/w)2X(w/A)2} = -7.21152 x 1014
Using above coefficient ,Real value of f2 = 7110445 kg/sq m
Therefore final Tension T2 = 7110445 x 597 x10-6 = 4245 Kg
Also, Sag = (w *L2 )/8*T = (2.004x4002 )/(8 x 4245) = 9.44 m
Case III : Sag at 0° C full wind & without Ice Condition
= SQRT( (0+2.004)2+(0)2) =2.004
= SQRT(((2.004)2+(112.49/1000*(31.77+2*0)2) = 4.09733
Therefore , Coefficient of f23, a =(24*l/E) = 1.3648 x 10-6
Coefficient of f22 , b=[{(L3 *(W1/w)2X(w/A)2/((f1)2)}+ 24*Lg(t2-t1) - 24*(f 1x L /E)] = 7.3386021
Also, Sag = (w *L2)/8*T = (2.004 x4002 )/(8 x 6839) = 5.86 m
Case IV : Sag at -5° C with 28 % wind & 15 mm Ice Condition
= SQRT( (0+2.004)2+(0)2) =2.004
SQR= SQRT(((3.1415*((31.77/2+15)2-(31.77/2)2)*0.000993)+(2.004)2+(31.497/1000*(31.77+2*15))2) =
4.5819890
Therefore, Coefficient of f23, a =(24*l/E) = 1.3648 x 10-6
Coefficient of f22 , b=[{(L3 *(W1/w)2X(w/A)2/((f1)2)}+ 24*Lg(t2-t1) - 24*(f 1X L /E)] = 6.41220
Using above coefficient,Real value of f2 = 12626889 kg/sq m
Also, Sag = (w *L2)/8*T = (4.148 x4002 )/(8 x 6839) = 11.00 m
Case V : Sag at 85° C without wind & without Ice Condition

= SQRT( (0+2.004)2+(0)2) =2.004
= SQRT(((2.004)2+(02) = 2.004
Therefore , Coefficient of f23, a =(24*l/E) = 1.3648 x 10-6
Coefficient of f22 , b=[{(L3 *(W1/w)2X(w/A)2/((f1)2)}+ 24*Lg(t2-t1) - 24*(f 1X L/E)] =23.08740219
Therefore final Tension T2 = 4919226 x 597 x10-6 = 2937 kg
Also, Sag = (w *L2 )/8*T = (2.004x4002 )/(8 x 2937) = 13.65 m
Case VI : Sag at -5° C with 28 % wind & without Ice Condition
= SQRT( (0+2.004)2+(0)2) =2.004
SQR = SQRT((2.004)2+(31.497/1000*(31.77+2*0))2) = 2.239943
Therefore, Coefficient of f23, a =(24*l/E) = 1.3648 x 10-6
Coefficient of f22, b=[{(L3 *(W1/w)2X(w/A)2/((f1)2)}+ 24*Lg(t2-t1) - 24*(f 1X L/E)] = 6.412202189
Coefficient of f2, c =0
Using above coefficient,Real value of f2 = 7389892 kg/sq m
Therefore final Tension T2 = 7389892 x 597 x10-6 = 4412 kg
Also, Sag = (w *L2)/8*T = (2.004x4002)/(8 x 4412) = 9.084 m
(c) Output
Case no. Temperature Wind Pressure Ice Resultant Resultant Sag

(deg C)) (% of full wind) Thickness Tension (m)
(mm) (kg)
Initial 22 0 0 3614 11.089
Condition
I -5 0 15 6833 12.14
II -15 0 0 4245 9.44
III 0 100 0 6839 5.86
IV -5 28 15 7538 5.32
V 85 0 0 2937 13.65
VI -5 28 0 4412 9.084
Chapter 6
LOADINGS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Tower loading is most vital input for tower design. Any mistake, omission or error in the load
assessment will make the tower design erroneous and it will lead to severe financial impact to
perform corrections / modifications at a later date. Various types of loads are to be calculated
accurately depending upon the design parameters. In the load calculations, the wind plays a vital
role. The correct assessment of wind load will lead to proper load assessment and reliable design
of tower structures.
6.2 REQUIREMENTS OF LOADS ON TRANSMISSION LINES
Overhead transmission lines are subjected to various loads during their life span which are classified
into three distinct categories:
(a) Climatic loads related to reliability requirements.

(b) Failure containment loads related to security requirements.
(c) Construction and maintenance loads related to safety requirements.
6.2.1 Reliability Requirements — Climatic Loads under Normal Condition
6.2.1.1 Wind Loads (Non-Snowy Regions) – Transverse and Oblique direction wind
6.2.1.2 Wind Loads with Ice (Snowy Regions).
6.2.1.3 Wind loads without Ice (Snowy Regions).
Some guideline has been furnished in clause 6.19 for Transmission lines in snowy regions.
6.2.2 Security Requirements - Failure Containment Loads under Broken Wire Condition
6.2.2.1 Unbalanced Longitudinal Loads and Torsional Loads due to Broken conductors and /or
earth Wire/ OPGW
All towers should have inherent strength for resisting the Longitudinal and Torsional Loads resulting
from breakage of specified number of conductors and/or earth wire/ OPGW.
6.2.2.2 Anti-Cascading Loads
Failure of items such as insulators, hardware joints etc. as well as failure of major components such
as towers, foundations and conductors may result in cascading condition. In order to prevent the
cascading failures, angle towers shall be checked for anti-cascading loads for all conductors and
earthwire broken in the same span under Nil Wind condition.
6.2.2.3 Narrow Front Wind Loads
Only Suspension Towers to be designed under this condition. These loads are caused by higher
wind velocity in narrow width acting on tower and Insulator and no wind is considered acting on
conductor / earth wire / OPGW under this condition.
6.2.3 Safety Requirements - Loads during Construction and Maintenance
As an important and essential requirement, Construction and Maintenance Practices should be

regulated to eliminate unnecessary and temporary loads which would otherwise demand expensive
permanent strengthening of Towers.
118
Loadings 119
6.2.3.1 Loads during Construction
These are loads imposed on tower during the construction of transmission line.
6.2.3.2 Loads during Maintenance
These are the loads imposed on tower during the maintenance of transmission line.
6.3 NATURE OF LOADS
6.3.1 Transverse Loads (T)
6.3.1.1 Wind load component on tower structure, conductor, ground-wire/OPGW and insulator strings.
6.3.1.2 Component (Transverse) of mechanical tension of conductor and ground-wire.
6.3.2 Vertical Loads (V)
6.3.2.1 Loads due to weight of each conductor & ground-wire/ OPGW based on appropriate weight span,
weight of insulator strings and fittings.
6.3.2.2 Self-weight of structure.
6.3.2.3 Loads during construction and maintenance.
6.3.3 Longitudinal Loads (L)
6.3.3.1 Wind load component on tower structure and insulator strings.
6.3.3.2 Unbalanced Horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to mechanical tension of conductor and/or
ground wire/ OPGW during broken-wire condition.
6.4 LOADING CRITERIA
Loads imposed on tower due to action of wind are calculated under the following climatic criteria:
Criterion I Every day temperature and design wind pressure [(Pd) for Transverse wind & (Pd*
sin²Ω) for Oblique wind].
Criterion II Everyday temperature and 75% design wind pressure.
Criterion III Minimum temperature with 36% of design wind pressure.
Note: (1) Criterion (ii) above is to be adopted for Suspension towers under security condition.
(2) Criterion (iii) above is normally not crucial for tangent tower but shall be checked for
angle or dead-end towers, particularly for short spans.
6.5 TRANSVERSE LOADS (TR) - RELIABILITY CONDITION (NORMAL CONDITION)
6.5.1 Wind Load on Conductor/Ground-Wire/OPGW
The load due to wind on each conductor and ground-wire normal to the line applied at supporting point
shall be determined by the following expression:
Fwc = (Pd* sin²Ω) x L x d x Gc x Cdc
where
Fwc = Wind load in Newtons
Pd = Design wind pressure in N/m2 (sec 5.4.1.7 of Chapter 5)

L = Wind span in meters
d = Diameter of conductor/groundwire/OPGW in meters
Cdc = Drag Coefficient for conductor, ground-wire/OPGW depending on its diameter as tabulated
hereubder
Diameter of conductor, Earthwire / OPGW in mm Drag Coefficient, Cdc

Up to 12.5 mm Diameter 1.2
Above 12.5 up to 15.8 mm Diameter 1.1
Above 15.8 mm Diameter 1.0
Gc = Gust response factor which takes into account the turbulence of the wind and the dynamic
response of the conductor
sin²Ω = is angle between wind direction and conductor/ earthwire/ OPGW. This value is to be
considered maximum of sin²Ω1, sin²Ω2 and sin²Ω3 (See Figure 1) and to be applied on
total wind span for calculating wind load on wire. This value of sin²Ω is considering the
deviation angle of tower (Max. = Φ and Min. = 0°) to arrive at maximum possible wind
load on wire.
Note: The unbalanced tension due to different angles (Ω1 & Ω2) between wind direction and conductor
on both spans of tower is to be neglected.
ф/2 ф/2
ф/2) ф/2)
Fig. 1 : Components of Wind Load under oblique wind condition

Loadings 121
Values of Gc for three terrain categories and different heights of the conductor/groundwire/OPGW
above Ground Level are given Table 1. The average height will be taken upto the clamping point
of conductor/groundwire/OPGW on tower less two-third the sag at minimum temperature and no
wind.
6.5.2 Wind Load on Insulator String
6.5.2.1 Wind load on insulator strings shall be determined from the attachment point to the centre-line of the
conductor in case of suspension tower and upto the end of clamp in case of tension tower, in the
direction of wind as follows :
Table 1 : Values of Gust Response Factor Gc for Conductor/Groundwire

Terrain Height Above Values of Gc for conductor of span in metres upto
Category ground (meters)
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 &
above
1. Up to 10 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.50 1.47
20 1.90 1.87 1.83 1.79 1.75 1.70 1.66
40 2.10 2.04 2.00 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80
60 2.24 2.18 2.12 2.07 2.02 1.96 1.90
80 2.35 2.25 2.18 2.13 2.10 2.06 2.03
2. 10 1.83 1.78 1.73 1.69 1.65 1.60 1.55
20 2.12 2.04 1.95 1.88 1.84 1.80 1.80
40 2.34 2.27 2.20 2.13 2.08 2.05 2.02
60 2.55 2.46 2.37 2.28 2.23 2.20 2.17
80 2.69 2.56 2.48 2.41 2.36 2.32 2.28
3. 10 2.05 1.98 1.93 1.88 1.83 1.77 1.73
20 2.44 2.35 2.25 2.15 2.10 2.06 2.03
40 2.76 2.67 2.58 2.49 2.42 2.38 2.34
60 2.97 2.87 2.77 2.67 2.60 2.56 2.52
80 3.19 3.04 2.93 2.85 2.78 2.73 2.69
Note : (i) For intermediate span, values of Gust Response Factor may be linearly interpolated.
(ii) The total effect of wind on bundle conductors shall be taken equal to the sum of the wind load on sub-
conductors without considering any masking effect of one sub-conductor on the other.
Fwi TRANS = Pd x Ai x Gi x Cdi x cosθ . . . . . . . . . . in Transverse Direction,
Fwi LONGI = Pd x Ai x Gi x Cdi x sinθ . . . . . . . . . . in Longitudinal Direction,
where
Fwi = Wind load in Newtons
Fwi TRANS = Component of Wind Load (Fwi) in Transverse Direction in Newtons
Fwi LONGI = Component of Wind load (Fwi) in Longitudinal Direction in Newtons
Pd = Design wind pressure in N/m².
Ai = 50% area of insulator string in m² projected on a plane which is parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the insulator string.
Gi = Gust response factor depending upon terrain category and height of insulator attachment above
ground. Values of Gi for the three Terrain Categories are given in Table 2.
Cdi = Drag coefficient of insulator is taken as 1.2
θ is the angle of incidence of the wind direction with the perpendicular to Longitudinal face of the
tower (See Figure 1);
Table 2
Gust Response Factor for Tower (GT) and for Insulators (Gl)
Ht. above Values of GT and Gi for terrain categories
ground (m) 1 2 3
Up to10 1.70 1.92 2.55
20 1.85 2.20 2.82
30 1.96 2.30 2.98
40 2.07 2.40 3.12
50 2.13 2.48 3.24
60 2.20 2.55 3.34
70 2.26 2.62 3.46
80 2.31 2.69 3.58
Note : (i) In case of multi-string including V-string, no Masking Effect shall be considered.
(ii) The total effect of wind on multiple strings set shall be taken equal to sum of the wind load on the individual
insulator strings.
(iii) Intermediate values may be linearly interpolated.
(iv) Refer Clause 6.6.3 for Gt in Narrow Front wind condition
6.5.3 Wind Load on Towers
6.5.3.1 In order to determine the wind load on tower, the tower is divided into different panels. These panels
should normally be taken between connecting points of the legs and bracings. For square/rectangular
lattice tower, the wind load for wind normal to the face of tower, on a panel height of ‘h’ applied at the
centre of gravity of the panel is:-
Fwt = Pd (1 + 0.2 sin²2θ) (AeL *CdtL *cos²θ + AeT CdtT sin²θ) GT
To calculate wind loads separately in transverse and longitudinal directions, above formula can be
further simplified in two components as follows
Component of “Fwt” in
Transverse direction Fwt TRANS= Pd* (1+0.2 sin²2θ) (AeT*CdtT*sinθ) GT
Longitudinal direction Fwt LONGI = Pd *(1+0.2 sin²2θ) (AeL*CdtL*cosθ) GT
where
Fwt = Wind Load in Newtons
Fwt TRANS = Component of Wind Load (Fwt) in Transverse Direction in Newtons
Fwt LONGI = Component of Wind load (Fwt) in Longitudinal Direction in Newtons
Pd = Design Wind Pressure in N/m2
θ = Angle of incidence of the wind direction with the perpendicular to Longitudinal face of the
tower (See Figure 1);
CdtL, CdtT = Drag coefficients for Longitudinal and Transverse Face respectively for panel
under consideration against which the wind is blowing. Cdt L and CdtT for different solidity
ratio are given in Table 3.
Loadings 123
Solidity ratio is equal to the effective area (projected area of all the individual elements) of
a frame normal to transverse & longitudinal directions divided by the area enclosed by the
boundary of the frame normal to the transverse & longitudinal directions.
AeL, AeT =Total net surface area of the legs and bracings including cross arm members
and redundants of the panel projected normal to the longitudinal and transverse faces of the
panel in m² (The projections of the bracing elements of the adjacent faces and of the ‘plan’
and ‘hip’ bracing members may be neglected while determining the projected surface of a
windward face).
γ = Single circuit horizontal configuration towers, a part of tower frame Window above waist
level which is not shielded by the windward face shall be taken separately for wind calculation
on tower.
GT = Gust Response factor depending upon terrain category and height of CG of panel above
ground level. Values of GT for the three terrain categories are given Table 2.
Table 3
Drag Coefficient Cdt for Tower
Solidarity Ratio Drag Coefficient Cdt for
Angles Circular Sections Single frame Like Ladders, Railings, etc
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Up to 0.05 3.6 2.1 1.9
0.1 3.4 1.9 1.9
0.2 2.9 1.7 1.8
0.3 2.5 1.5 1.7
0.4 2.2 1.4 1.7
0.5 and above 2.0 1.35 1.6
Note: (i) Solidity ratio is equal to the effective area (Projected area of all the individual elements) of a frame normal
to the wind direction divided by the area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the wind
direction.
(ii) Drag coefficient takes into account the shielding effect of wind on the leeward face of the tower. However,
in case the bracing on the leeward face is not shielded from the windward face, then the projected area of
the leeward face of the bracing should also be taken into consideration.
(iii) For intermediate value of solidity ratio, drag coefficient will be interpolated.
(iv) For Design Methodology of Circular Hollow Sections, Refer Annexure – A at end of this chapter.
6.5.4 Transverse Load from Mechanical Tension of Conductor and Ground wire /OPGW due to
Line Deviation Angle
6.5.4.1 This load acts on the tower as component of Mechanical Tension of Conductor/Groundwire/
OPGW.
Fwd = 2 x T x sin ф/2
Fwd = Load in Newtons
T = Tension of conductor /Groundwire/OPGW at corresponding Wind Pressure
ф = Angle of deviation
6.5.5 Total Transverse Load (TR) under Reliability Condition

(TR) = Fwc + Fwi + Fwt + Fwd
(6.5.1) (6.5.2) (6.5.3) (6.5.4)
where “Fwc” and “Fwi” and “Fwd” are to be applied on all conductor/Groundwire/OPGW points. But
“Fwt” wind on tower is to be applied on the tower at groundwire peak and cross arm levels. For 400
kV and above, “Fwt” will also be applied at any convenient level between Bottom Cross Arm and
ground-level. In case of Normal tower with extension of any voltage rating, one more level at the
top of extension panel shall be considered.
6.6 TRANSVERSE LOADS (TS) - SECURITY CONDITION
6.6.1.1 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, ground wires/ OPGW and insulators
shall be taken as corresponding to 75% of full wind pressure at Everyday temperature.
6.6.1.2 Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on component of mechanical tension of
unbroken conductors and ground wires/ OPGW corresponding to everyday temperature and
75% of full wind pressure. For broken conductor, ground wire or OPGW, the component shall
be corresponding to 50% of mechanical tension of conductor and 100% of mechanical tension of
groundwire at everyday temperature and corresponding to 75% of full wind pressure.
6.6.2 Tension and Dead End Towers
6.6.2.1 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, groundwires and insulators shall
be computed as per clause 6.5.1 for 75% of full wind pressure. 60% wind span shall be considered
for broken-wire and 100% for intact wire.
6.6.2.2 Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be the component of 100% mechanical tension of
conductor and groundwire as defined in Clause 6.5.4 for Everyday temperature and 75% of full
wind pressure condition.
6.6.3 Narrow Front Wind Requirements
6.6.3.1 Transverse loads on account of wind on conductors, groundwires/OPGW shall be taken as nil.
6.6.3.2 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure and insulators shall be with a wind speed
of 1.5 times basic wind speed. This wind speed is to be considered as Reference wind speed (VR).
Wind load shall be calculated as prescribed in 6.5.3, but value of GT would be 1.00.
6.6.3.3 Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on component of mechanical tension of
conductors and groundwires/OPGW corresponding to everyday temperature and nil wind
condition.
6.7 TRANSVERSE LOAD (TM) DURING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE—SAFETY
CONDITION
6.7.1 Normal Condition—Suspension, Tension and Dead End Towers
6.7.1.1 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, groundwires/OPGW and insulators
shall be taken as nil.
6.7.1.2 Transverse loads due to mechanical tension of conductor or groundwire/OPGW at everyday temperature
and nil wind on account of line deviation shall be considered as follows :-
TM = 2 x T1 x sin ф/2
TM = Load in Newtons
T1 = Tension in Newton of conductor/groundwire/OPGW at everyday temperature and nil
wind.
Loadings 125
ф = Angle of deviation of the line.
6.7.2 Broken-wire Condition - Suspension, Tension and Dead End Towers
6.7.2.1 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, groundwire, insulators shall be
taken as nil.
6.7.2.2 Transverse load due to mechanical tension of conductor or groundwire at everyday temperature and
nil wind on account of line deviation shall be considered as follows :
TM = T1 x sin ф /2
where
TM = Load in Newtons
T1 = 50% of tension in Newtons of conductor and 100% of tension of groundwire/OPGW at

everyday temperature and nil wind for suspension tower and 100% for angle and dead end
towers for both conductor and groundwire.
ф= Angle of deviation of the tower.
6.8 VERTICAL LOADS (VR) — RELIABILITY CONDITION
Loads due to weight of each conductor and groundwire based on appropriate weight span, weight of
Insulator strings and accessories.
Where minimum vertical loads are stringent for any particular member, the weight of conductor/
groundwire calculated corresponding to minimum design weight span plus weight of insulator strings
& accessories only shall be taken.
6.8.1 Self - weight of Structure upto Point of Tower Panel under Consideration
6.9 VERTICAL LOADS (VS) – SECURITY CONDITION
6.9.1 SECURITY CONDITION - BROKEN WIRE CONDITION
6.9.1.1 Loads due to weight of each conductor or groundwire based on appropriate weight span, weight of
insulator strings and accessories taking broken wire condition where the load due to weight of broken
conductor/groundwire shall be considered as 60% of weight span. (For intact wire the vertical load
shall be considered as given in clause No. 6.8)
6.9.1.2 Self weight of structure upto point under consideration of tower panel.
6.9.2 NARROW FRONT WIND CONDITION
6.9.2.1 Same as Clause 6.8.1
6.10 VERTICAL LOADS DURING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE (VM) – SAFETY

CONDITION
6.10.1 Same as Clause 6.9.1.1 multiplied by overload factor of 2.0.
6.10.2 Same as Clause 6.9.1.2
6.10.3 Load of 1500 N shall be considered acting at each cross-arm tip as a provision for weight of line man
with tools.
6.10.4 Load of 3500 N at cross arm tip to be considered for cross-arm design upto 220 kV and 5000 N for
400 kV and higher voltages.
6.10.5 The cross arms of tension towers shall also be designed for the following construction loads:
Tension Tower with Vertical Lifting point distance in. from the
Load, N tip of cross-arm (mm)
Twin bundle Conductor 10,000 600
Tripple / Quadruple bundle conductor 20,000 1,000
Hex Bundle Conductor 30,000 1,000
Octa Bundle Conductor 40,000 1,000
6.10.6 All bracings and redundant members of the tower which are horizontal or inclined upto 15 deg. from
horizontal shall be designed to withstand as ultimate vertical load of 1500 N considered as acting at
centre, independent of all other loads.
6.11 LONGITUDINAL LOADS (LR) — RELIABILITY CONDITION
6.1.1 Suspension and Tension Towers
6.11.1.1 Longitudinal loads for Suspension and Tension towers due to Wind on Conductor/ Earthwire/
OPGW & Component of wire tension shall be taken as nil.
6.1.1.1.2 Under Oblique wind condition component of wind load on tower and wind load on insulator in
longitudinal direction for Suspension and Tension towers shall be considered as described in
clause 6.5.2 and 6.5.3.
6.11.1.3 Longitudinal loads which might be caused on tension towers by adjacent spans of unequal lengths
shall be neglected.
6.11.2 Total Longitudinal Load (LR) under Reliability Condition
(LR) = Fwi + Fwt

(6.5.2) (6.5.3)
where “Fwi” to be applied on all conductor/Groundwire/OPGW points. But “Fwt” wind on tower is to be applied
as described in clause 6.5.3.
6.11.3 Dead End Towers
6.11.3.2 Longitudinal loads for Dead End Towers shall be considered corresponding to mechanical tension
of conductors and groundwires/OPGW for loading criteria defined in Clause 6.4.
6.12 LONGITUDINAL LOADS (LS) - SECURITY CONDITION
The longitudinal load corresponding to 50% of the mechanical tension of conductor and 100% of
mechanical tension of groundwire/OPGW shall be considered under everyday temperature and 75%
of Full wind pressure for broken wire only.
6.12.2 Tension Towers
6.12.2.1 Horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to component of mechanical tension of conductors and
groundwire/OPGW shall be considered under everyday temperature and 75% of Full wind pressure
for broken wire(s). For intact wires these loads shall be considered as nil.
6.12.3 Dead End Towers
Horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to mechanical tension of conductors and groundwire/
OPGW shall be considered under everyday temperature and 75% of Full wind pressure for intact
wires, however for broken wires these shall be taken as nil.
Loadings 127
6.13 LONGITUDINAL LOADS DURING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE (LM) — SAFETY

CONDITION
6.13.1 Normal Condition — Suspension and Tension Towers
These loads shall be taken as nil.
6.13.2 Normal Condition - Dead End Towers
6.13.2.1 These loads for Dead End Towers shall be considered as corresponding to mechanical tension of
conductor/groundwire/OPGW at every day temperature and nil wind. Longitudinal loads due to
unequal spans may be neglected.
6.13.3 Broken Wire Condition
6.13.3.1 Longitudinal loads during construction simulating broken wire condition will be based on Stringing of
One Earthwire/OPGW or One Complete Phase of sub-conductors at one time.
6.13.3.2 Broken Wire Condition for Suspension Tower
Longitudinal loads during stringing on Suspension Tower should be nominally imposed only by the
passing restriction imposed during pushing of the running block through the Sheave. It will apply only
on one complete phase of sub-conductors or One Earthwire. It will be taken as 10,000 N per Sub-
conductor or 5,000 N per Earthwire.
6.13.3.3 Broken Wire Condition for Tension and Dead End Towers
Angle Towers used as dead end during stringing simulating broken wire condition shall be capable
of resisting longitudinal loads resulting from load equal to twice the sagging tension (sagging tension
is 50 per cent of the tension at every day temperature and no wind) for one earthwire/OPGW or
one complete phase sub-conductors which is in process of Stringing. At other earthwire/OPGW or
conductor attachment points for which stringing has been completed, loads equal to 1.5 times the
sagging tension will be considered. However, the structure will be strengthened by installing temporary
guys to neutralize the unbalanced longitudinal tension. These guys shall be anchored as far away as
possible to minimize vertical load.
6.14 LOADING COMBINATIONS UNDER RELIABILITY, SECURITY AND SAFETY CONDITIONS
Loading Condi- Tempera- Wind Wind Di- Trans- Vertical Longitudi- Remarks
Conditions tion ture Pres- rection verse Load nal Load
sure Load
° (Deg.) C θ° Clause No Clause Clause No
No
Reliability Normal Everyday 100% 0°, 30° 6.5 6.8 6.11
Wind and 45°
Normal Minimum 36% 0°, 30° 6.5 6.8 6.11 Required to
Wind and 45° check only if
wire tension is
critical in this
case
Loading Condi- Tempera- Wind Wind Di- Trans- Vertical Longitudi- Remarks
Conditions tion ture Pres- rection verse Load nal Load
sure Load
Security Broken Everyday Clause 0° 6.6 6.9.1 6.12
Wire 6.6 /
6.9.1 /
6.1275%
wind
Broken Minimum 36% 0° 6.6 6.9.1 6.12 Required to
Wire Wind check only if
wire tension is
critical in this
case
Narrow Everyday Clause 0°, 45°, 6.6.3 6.9.2 - Only
Front 6.6 / 90° Suspension
Wind 6.9.1 / towers, Wind
6.12 on tower &
insulator to
consider.
Safety Normal Everyday NIL - 6.7.1 6.10 6.13.1
(Constr. & &
Maintain.) 6.13.2
Broken Everyday NIL - 6.7.2 6.10 6.13.3
Wire &
6.13.4
Anti- - Everyday NIL - 6.15.1 6.15.2 6.15.3 Tension Towers
cascading to be checked
Check for this condition
6.15 ANTI-CASCADING CHECKS
All angle towers shall be checked for the following anti-cascading conditions with all conductors and
GW/OPGW intact only on one side of the tower.
6.15.1 Transverse Loads

These loads shall be taken under no wind condition for maximum angle of deviation.
6.15.2 Vertical Loads
These loads shall be sum of the weight of conductor/groundwire/OPGW intact only on one side of
tower, weight of insulator strings and accessories.
6.15.3 Longitudinal Loads
6.15.3.1 These loads shall be the pull of conductor/groundwire/OPGW at everyday temperature and no wind
applied simultaneously at all points on one side with zero degree line deviation.
6.16 BROKENWIRE CONDITION
6.16.3 Single Circuit Tower
Any one phase or groundwire/OPGW broken, whichever is more stringent for a particular
member.
6.16.4 Double, Triple and Quadruple Circuit Towers

6.16.3.1 Suspension Towers
Any one phase or groundwire/OPGW broken whichever is more stringent for a particular member.
Loadings 129
6.16.2.2 Small and Medium Angle Towers

Any two phases broken on the same side and same span or any one phase and one groundwire/
OPGW broken on the same side and same span whichever combination is more stringent for a
particular member.
6.16.2.3 Large Angle/Dead End Towers
Any three phases broken on the same side and same span or any two phases and one groundwire/
OPGW broken on the same side and same span whichever combination is more stringent for a
particular member.
6.17 BROKEN LIMB CONDITION FOR ‘V’ INSULATOR STRING
6.17.1 For ‘V Insulator strings, in normal condition one limb broken case shall be considered. In such a case
the transverse and vertical loads shall be transferred to outer limb attachment point.
6.18 TENSION LIMITS
Conductor/ groundwire tension at everyday temperature and without external load; should not
exceed the following percentage of the ultimate tensile strength of the conductor:
Initial unloaded tension 35 percent
Final unloaded tension 25 percent
Provided that the ultimate tension under everyday temperature and 100 percent design wind
pressure, or minimum temperature and 36 percent design wind pressure does not exceed 70
percent of the ultimate tensile strength of the conductor/ground wire.
Note: For 400 kV and above, the Final Unloaded tension of conductors at everyday temperature
shall not exceed 22 percent of the ultimate tensile strength of conductors and 20 percent of
the ultimate tensile strength of ground wire.
6.19 ICE Loading
Icing tends to occur when temperatures have been below freezing, making conductors cold. If
the air temperature above the ground rises, then any precipitation falls through the warm air as
rain and freezes on contact with the cold conductor. If the air above the conductor is too cold, the
precipitation freezes in the air and does not stick to the conductor. Icing occurs when ambient
temperatures are between about –3°C and +2°C. Wind velocities tend to be low when ice forms.
Generally temperature drops and wind velocity increases after ice forms.
To consider the loading cases for iced condition various practices being prevailed in different
countries.
As per POWERGRID Practice, following ambient conditions can be considered for Normal and
Security Condition, in addition to conditions described in clause number 6.4 of this chapter.
Ambient Conditions Temp. °C Wind Ice

Condition 1 Min.15° Full Nil
Condition 2 -5° 28% Full
Condition 3 -15° Nil Nil
Ice Shedding Condition -5° 28% Full - Ice on one span with
-5° 28% Nil – Ice on other span
• Value of ice thickness considered on conductor/earthwire/OPGW should be derived depending

on weather data. The radial Ice thickness of 10 mm / 15 mm / 25 mm can be considered,
depending on the light / medium / heavy snow zone. Final decision to be taken by the utility.
• Maximum wind to be considered at 15 °C, without Ice
• Electrical clearance to be increased based on the Altitude
• Cross arms needed to be staggered for vertical configuration towers. To take care of Galloping
due to ICE shedding. , Mmiddle cross arm of D/C towers can be vertically staggered by the
following formula, which is under review.
X = V / 150 X …distance in Meter

V…System voltage in KV
Reference Table for Values of sin²Ω
"sin2Ω" For Wind Load on Wires

Dev. Wind Ω1º Ω2º Ω3º sin2Ω1 sin2Ω2 sin2Ω3 Max of
Angle Фº Angle θº (sin2Ω1,
sin2Ω2,
sin2Ω3)
0 0 90 90 90 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000
30 60 60 60 0.75000 0.75000 0.75000 0.75000
45 45 45 45 0.50000 0.50000 0.50000 0.50000
2 0 91 89 90 0.99970 0.99970 1.00000 1.00000
30 61 59 60 0.76496 0.73474 0.75000 0.76496
45 46 44 45 0.51745 0.48255 0.50000 0.51745
10 0 95 85 90 0.99240 0.99240 1.00000 1.00000
30 65 55 60 0.82139 0.67101 0.75000 0.82139
45 50 40 45 0.58682 0.41318 0.50000 0.58682
15 0 97.5 82.5 90 0.98296 0.98296 1.00000 1.00000
30 67.5 52.5 60 0.85355 0.62941 0.75000 0.85355
45 52.5 37.5 45 0.62941 0.37059 0.50000 0.62941
30 0 105 75 90 0.93301 0.93301 1.00000 1.00000
30 75 45 60 0.93301 0.50000 0.75000 0.93301
45 60 30 45 0.75000 0.25000 0.50000 0.75000
45 0 112.5 67.5 90 0.85355 0.85355 1.00000 1.00000
30 82.5 37.5 60 0.98296 0.37059 0.75000 0.98296
45 67.5 22.5 45 0.85355 0.14645 0.50000 0.85355
60 0 120 60 90 0.75000 0.75000 1.00000 1.00000
30 90 30 60 1.00000 0.25000 0.75000 1.00000
45 75 15 45 0.93301 0.06699 0.50000 0.93301
90 0 135 45 90 0.50000 0.50000 1.00000 1.00000
30 105 15 60 0.93301 0.06699 0.75000 0.93301
45 90 0 45 1.00000 0.00000 0.50000 1.00000
Loadings 131
Annexure - A
Design Stresses- Circular Hollow Sections (As per IS: 802)
A-1 Cross Section Classification
The role of cross section classification is to identify the extent to which the resistance and rotation capacity
of cross sections is limited by its local buckling resistance. The classification of a cross-section depends on
the width to thickness ratio of the parts subject to compression. The Limiting width-to-thickness ratios for
compression parts should be obtained from Table A.1
Table A.1 Limiting width-to-thickness ratios for compression members

Circular hollow Sections, including Ratio Class of Section
welded tube subjected to Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Plastic Compact Semi-compact
a) Moment D/t 42Ɛ² 52Ɛ² 146Ɛ²
b) Axial Compression D/t Not applicable 88Ɛ²
Notes
1. Elements which exceed semi-compact limits are to be taken as of slender cross-section (Class 4).
2. Ɛ = (250 /fy) 1/2.
A-2 Axial Resistance in Tension
A-2.1 The design value of the tension force NEd at each cross section shall satisfy:
A-2.2 For sections with holes the design tension resistance Nt,Rd should be taken as the smaller of
(a) The design plastic resistance of the gross cross-section.
(b) The design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section at holes for fasteners
Where, Anet = Net Area of the section
fu = Ultimate tensile strength of the material.
γM0 = Partial safety factor (see Table C.2)
γM2 = Partial safety factor (see Table C.2)
A-3 Axial Resistance in Compression
A-3.1 The design value of compression force NED at each cross section shall satisfy

A-3.2 The design resistance of the cross section for uniform compression NC, RD should be determined as
follows
Where, Aeff = Effective Area
D = Outer Diameter of circular Hollow sections
A-4 Member Buckling Resistance in Compression
Where, γM1 = Partial safety factor (see Table C.2)
α = is the imperfection factor & non-dimensional slenderness,
α = 0.49 for Cold Finished, α = 0.34 for Hot Finished
A-4.1 Elastic Critical force and non-dimensional slenderness for flexural buckling
Where, E = Young’s Modulus of Member
A = Gross Area of the member
I = Moment of Inertia of the member
r = Radius of gyration
L = Length of the member

Loadings 133
Table C.2. Partial safety factors γm for Towers

Definition Partial Safety Factor
γM0 1.00
γM1 1.00
γM2 1.25
A-5 Connections shall be designed in accordance with IS: 800 - 2007

Chapter 7
DESIGN OF TOWER MEMBERS

7.1 SCOPE
7.1.1 This Chapter describes methodologies of designing tower members manually and using
latest design tools. The Design input / data and tower configuration and other relevant data for
transmission line Towers are discussed in depth in Chapters 2 to 6.
The methods covered in this Chapter are Graphical diagram method, Analytical method, Computer
aided Analysis (Plane truss method or 2 dimensional analysis,Space truss method or 3 dimensional
analysis). The parameters required for structural MS / HTS, bolts and nuts minimum thickness of
members, Tables of permissible axial stress in compression for mild and HT steel, etc are included
in this chapter to facilitate design of members, etc.
7.2 STRESS ANALYSIS
The exact stress analysis of transmission tower requires calculation of the total forces in each
member of the tower under action of combination of loads externally applied plus the dead weight of
structure.
The design of structure must be practical so that it is done as a production assignment. Basically the
stress analysis of any tower requires application of the laws of statics. As, tower is a space frame,
the solution becomes complex, if all external loads are applied simultaneously. Different categories
of loads are taken separately for calculation of stress in each member. Stresses so calculated, for
different types of loads are superimposed to arrive at overall stress in the member.
7.2.1 List of Assumptions
(a) All members of a bolted type tower frame work are pin-connected in such a manner that the
members carry axial loads only.
(b) The bolt slippages throughout the structures are such as to allow the use of the same modulus
of elasticity for the entire structure, thus permitting the use of the principle of super-imposition
for stress analysis.
(c) Shear is distributed equally between the two members of a double web system, i.e., warren
system.
(d) Shear is carried by the diagonal member under tension in a Pratt system with members
designed for tension only, the other member being inactive.
(e) Torsional shears applied at cross arm level for square tower are resisted by all the four tower
faces equally.
(f) Plan members at levels other than those at which external loads are applied or where the leg
slope changes, are designated as redundant members.
(g) Any face of the tower subjected to external loads lies in the same plane, so far as the analysis
of the particular face is concerned, except earth wire cross-arm and peak.
(h) Transverse loads are shared by the members on the transverse faces of the tower equally.
Similarly, the longitudinal loads are shared equally by the two longitudinal faces.
(i) Vertical loads placed symmetrically and dead weight of the structure are shared equally by
the four legs.
134
Design of Tower Members 135
(j) Vertical load at cross-arm panel will be shared by web member, in some cases.
(k) The torsional loads are resisted by all the four faces in inverse proportion of the width of each
face.
(I) All members, placed horizontally or at an angle, less than 15° to the horizontal, will be
checked independently for specified point load, causing bending stresses.
7.2.2 Graphical Diagram Method
Stress-Analysis by graphical method, i.e., stress diagram method is the easiest method of stress
Analysis but the accuracy of the calculated stress by graphical method depends upon the accuracy
of stress diagram drawn and measurement of stresses made on proportionate Scale. Even the line
thickness makes some difference in stress value. Further, for each load on each face, separate stress
diagram is required. Sometimes, due to space limitation in a drawing sheet, each stress diagram
bears different Scale and overall computation of the stresses become difficult. There is likelihood of
some human error creeping in, while computing the stresses. Thus, the graphical method of drawing
stress diagram has now become obsolete. However, a typical stress diagram for a Tower is shown
at Annexure 4 (2 Sheets).
7.2.3 Analytical Method
Basically, all the assumptions which are made in stress analysis of Tower by Graphical Method, are
also made while using Analytical Method. However, the calculation of stress in leg-members with
staggered bracings on transverse and longitudinal faces are slightly more intricate.
Annexure 5 (8 sheets) shows the formats for calculating stresses by Analytical Method for the
following tower members:-
Leg Member
Bracings-Transverse and longitudinal faces.
Cross-Arm: Various Members
7.2.4 Computer Aided Analysis
In the previously described methods of stress analysis, viz., Graphical Method as well as Analytical
Method, a designer has limitations to try-out several permutation and combinations of Tower
Geometry. To avoid mental stress due to numerous trials, one is inclined to restrict to few trials, based on
one’s experience, thus analytical designs were more or less personified ones.
With the advent of Digital Computer, now available as an aid to a Designer, his capability is enhanced
to try out number of iterations with several permutations and combinations, so as to achieve the
optimum design and accurate stress analysis. Two different methods of stress analysis with the aid
of computers are being practiced.
7.2.4.1 Plane Truss Method or 2-Dimensional Analysis
This is exact replica of analytical method, covering all the steps as before but with unlimited scope
of trials for variations in tower geometry of bracing systems. Various organizations have developed
several computer programs suitable to use with particular computer system available with them.
Some computer programs are so elaborate that even optimum Tower Geometry is selected
automatically by a Computer. But most practical one is that Computer Software working on Interactive
mode, let amalgamates the experience of a designer to try a particular geometry along with capability
of a computer to try numerous permutations and combinations. The main objective of such an
elaborate aid from a computer is to achieve optimum design of a tower, which will withstand
simultaneous application of worst loadings and achieve reliability as well as optimum strength of all
tower members.
7.2.4.2 Space Truss Method or 3-Dimensional Analysis
The tower structure is basically a statically indeterminate structure. 3-Dimensional Analysis is not
possible to do manually. Stiffness matrix analysis with the help of appropriate powerful computer is
essential.
7.2.4.3 Steps Involved in 3-D Analysis of Tower
(a) A line diagram showing the four faces of a tower is prepared (Ref. Annexure 6) (3 sheets).
(b) Each Node is numbered sequentially at each level.
(c) Every member joining two nodes is then numbered, including Plan members at each level.
(d) Annexure 7 shows the input data which consist of following :
Coordinates of each Node in a specified format.
Connectivity of members between the Nodes and the sectional areas of the members.
The loads on each Node for all three directions.
These inputs can also be created through computer programs.
7.2.4.4 Processing Stages
1. The first stage gives the 3-D analysis of the tower for each member for each load case.
2. The second stage uses the out-put of the first stage as input and then gives the summary of
critical stresses for members of each group (Ref. Annexure 8, 3 sheets). The 2nd stage also
requires the Group file as an input. This summary output is then utilized by designers for final
design.
7.2.5 Comparison of Various Methods of Stress-Analysis
Comparison of stress analysis by graphical, analytical and computer method reveals, though it does
not affect the practical stress design of tower much, the 3-D analysis by computer gives more insight
into stress distribution in various members due to the various external loads. Whereas, in the case of
graphical and analytical methods it is assumed that the transverse faces take care of transverse
loads and members of longitudinal faces carry stresses due to longitudinal loads only, the 3-D stress
analysis by computer shows the stress distribution in the members of all the four faces of the tower due
to any type of external load applied to the structure. Similarly, while doing analysis by graphical and
analytical method, stresses are only calculated in the members at the level of the externally applied
load and below it, the 3-D analysis gives the magnitudes of stresses even in the members above the
level of the externally applied load.
Again in the Cross-arm analysis we assume that the main members carry the transverse and
longitudinal loads and a portion of vertical load, and the top inclined members carry the vertical loads,
but the 3-D analysis indicates the top members share even the transverse and longitudinal loads. 3-D
analysis, therefore, give more realistic picture of stress distribution in the Tower and can be used as
an effective tool to arrive at the optimum design of Tower in minimum possible time.
7.2.6 Combination of Forces, to Determine Maximum Stress in Each Member
Ref. Annexure 6 which gives a typical Tower Design Calculations, (based on IS:802(Part I) - 1995
showing combination of forces for (1) Design of Leg members “C”, (2) Design of X-arm members,
and (3) Design of bracings on Transverse and longitudinal faces.
7.3 MEMBER SELECTION
As per IS:802 (Part I) (1995), the concept of limit load theory has to be followed and the tower loadings,
covered in Chapter 6 are based on this concept.
7.4 SELECTION OF MATERIAL
7.4.1 Use of Hot-rolled Angle Steel Sections
Since Towers are manufactured in factory environment and have to be assembled at site, the ease
of transport and assembly during tower erection are equally important points for consideration. So
far, the practice is over whelming in favour of the use of Hot Rolled Angle Steel Sections in the design of
Towers but in some countries formed angles are also used.
7.4.2 Minimum Flange Width
Minimum flange widths for bolts of different diameters are given below:
BOLT DIA FLANGE WIDTH

(Mini)
12 mm 40 mm
16 mm 45 mm
20 mm 60 mm
24 mm 70 mm
7.4.3 Minimum Thickness of Members
As per IS: 802, the following minimum thicknesses for members are specified:
Sl. No. Particulars Thickness Thickness
Galvanised Painted
member member
(a) Leg members 5 mm 6 mm
(b) Ground wire peak and External members of Horn 5 mm 6 mm
Peak
(c) Lower members of cross-Arm 5 mm 6 mm
(d) Upper members of cross-Arm 4 mm 5 mm
(e) Bracings & Inner members of Horn peak 4 mm 5 mm
(f) Other members 4 mm 5 mm
7.4.4 Grades of Steel
Generally, two grades of steel i.e., mild steel and higher tensile steel are used in the manufacture of
transmission line towers. The salient properties of these grades of steel are tabulated in Annexure
11, Annexure 12 and Annexure 13 (2 sheets). Properties of angle sections which are normally used
in Towers, are furnished.
7.5 SLENDERNESS RATIO LIMITATIONS (KL/R)
As per IS: 802 (Part I), section-2, the following limits of L/R ratio are prescribed:-
- Leg members, G.W. Peak, and X-arm lower member = 120
- Bracings = 200
- Redundants /Nominal stress carrying members = 250
- Tension members = 400
7.6 COMPUTATION OF L/R FOR DIFFERENT BRACING SYSTEMS
For achieving desired strength of tower members and optimum weight of full Tower, a Designer
adopts several Geometrical patterns for bracings, with and without the use of secondary members.
KL/R for bracing patterns are exhibited in Annexure 12 (2 sheets) (based on IS-802 Part-I Section-
2:1992)
7.7 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN TOWER MEMBERS
7.7.1 Curve 1 to Curve 6
Various strut formulae for working out the permissible compressive stresses are as per IS: 802 (Part
1 /sec-2) :1992. This code suggests for use 6 different curves for calculation of the permissible compressive
stresses in different tower members. Refer Annexure 13 (5 sheets)
Curve-1 is used for Leg-members, vertical G.W. Peak members and double-angle sections,
connected back-to-back, having concentric loads at both ends and KL/R upto 120.
Curve-2 is used for X-arm lower members, having concentric loads at one end, eccentric load
at the other ends and KL/R upto 120.
Curve-3 is used for bracings with single angle sections having eccentricity at both ends and
KL/R upto 120.
Curve-4 is used for bracings with single-bolt connections at both the ends, thus being
unrestrained against rotation at both the ends and having KL/R from 120 to 250.
Curve-5 is used for bracings with single-bolt connections at one end, 2-bolt connections at the
other end thus being partially restrained against rotation at one end only and having KL/R
from 120 to 250.
Curve-6 is used for bracings with 2-bolt connections at both the ends, thus being partially
restrained against rotation at both the ends and having KL/R from 120 to 250.
7.7.2 Reduction due to b/t Ratio
Suitable reduction in permissible stresses has to be made for limits in b/t ratio, as per IS:-802
(Part-I)-1995.
7.8 SELECTION OF MEMBERS
7.8.1 Selection of Members in Compression
This Design should follow stipulations of Curve-1 to Curve-6, described above (Ref. Annexure 13).
7.8.2 Selection of Members in Tension
The estimated ultimate tensile stress in a member, should not exceed 2550 kg/cm2, the slenderness
ratio of member carrying axial tension should not exceed 400. The net effective areas of angle
sections in tension to work out the permissible tensile load in a member shall be determined as
under:-
(i) Single angle in tension connected on one flange only.
A + BK, where
A = Net sectional area of the connected flange
B = Area of the outstanding flange
= (L-t) t, where
L = Flange width.
t = Thickness of the member.
1
K= __________
1 + 0.333 B/A
(ii) Pair of angles back to back: connected on

one flange of each angle to the same side
of gusset.
A + BK
where, A = Net sectional area of the connected
flange
B - Area of the outstanding flange.
1
K= _____________
1 + 0.2 B/A
(iii) Pair of angles back to back: connected to each

side of a gusset or to each side of a rolled Section
The net effective sectional area in this case is

given by,
Anet = gross area – deduction for holes
The back to back angles are to be connected or stitched

together throughout their length in accordance with the
requirements of IS : 800-1969 (Code of Practice for use
of Structural Steel in General Building Construction)
7.8.3 Redundant Members
Redundant members carry nominal stress. They are used to restrict the slenderness ratio L/R of the
main members. Slenderness ratio (kl/r) of redundant member is restricted to 250. They are also required
to carry 2.5% of the stress in the main members, which are supported by these redundant members.
These members, if placed at an angle less than 15° are required to be checked to withstand bending
also, due to a mid-point concentrated load of 153 kg independent of other loads (Ref. Annexure 14).
7.9 BOLTS AND NUTS
7.9.1 Tower structures are usually bolted type
7.9.2 The ultimate stresses in bolts shall not exceed the following values :
Sl. No. Nature of Stress Ultimate Stress kg/cm2 (N/mm2) Remarks
Class 4.6 Class 5.6
(a) Shear stress on gross 2,220 3,161 Gross area of the bolt shall be
area of bolt (218) (310) taken as the nominal area of the
bolt.
(b) Bearing stress on gross 4,440 6,322 Bolt area shall be taken as d x t
diameter of bolt (436) (620) where,
d = Diameter of bolt
t = Thickness of the thinner
member
(c) Bearing on member 4,440 5015
MS (436) (492)
HT 4,440 6,322
(436) (620)
(d) Tension 1980 2590
(194) (254)
7.9.3 The bolt sizes used, are 12, 16, 20 and 24 mm diameter, preferably not more than two sizes of bolts
should be used in one tower.
Connection will be designed for the relevant shear and bearing stresses and the class of bolts used.
There will be no restriction on the number of bolts.
ANNEXURE-1
CONDUCTOR DETAILS
Sl. Code Strands Ultimate Overall Total Unit Wt Co-efficient Modulus of

No. Al Steel Strength dia (cm) Sectional kg/m of linear Elasticity
No. /mm No./mm Area expansion kg/cm2
(kg)
(cm2) "α" °c
-
1. Dog - * 6/4.72 7/1.570 3,305 1.415 1.185 0.3940 19.80 x 10 6 0.775 x 106
-
2. Leopard 6/3.283 7/1.753 4,140 1.585 1.485 0.4935 19.80 x 10 6 0.775 x 106
-
3. Coyote 26/2.54 7/1.905 4,655 1.590 1.515 0.5215 18.99 x 10 6 0.773 x 106
-
4. Tiger 30/2.362 7/2.362 5,800 1.650 1.622 0.6060 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
5. Wolf -* 30/2.590 7/2.590 6,867 1.813 1.949 0.7260 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
6. Lyan 30/2.794 7/2.794 7,965 1.958 2.265 0.8455 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
7. Lark 30/2.924 7/2.924 9,080 2.047 2.470 0.9230 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
8. Panther - * 30/3.000 7/3.000 9,144 2.100 2.615 0.9740 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
9. Bear 30/3.353 7/3.353 11,330 2.350 3.262 1.2195 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
10. Goat 30/3.708 7/3.708 13,800 2.600 4.000 1.4915 17.80 x10 6 0.816 x 106
-
11. Sheep 30/3.980 7/3.980 15,900 2.793 4.620 1.7260 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
12. Kundara 42/3.595 7/1.960 9,054 2.688 4.252 1.2180 21.50 X 10 6 0.755 x 106
-
13. Zebra - * 54/3.180 7/3.180 13,289 2.862 4.845 1.6210 19.30 x 10 6 0.704 x 106
-
14. Deer 30/4.267 7/4.267 18,200 2.984 5.300 1.9800 17.80 x 10 6 0.816 x 106
-
15. Camel - * 54/3.353 7/3.353 14,760 3.020 5.382 1.8100 19.30 x 10 6 0.704 x 106
-
16. Drake 26/4.4424 7/3.454 14,175 2.814 4.684 1.6280 18.99 x 10 6 0.773 x 106
-
17. Moose - @ 54/3.530 7/3.530 16,438 3.177 5.970 2.0040 19.30 x 10 6 0.704 x 106
-
18. Canary 54/3.280 7/3.280 14,650 2.951 5.152 1.7210 19.30 x 10 6 0.704 x 106
-
19. Dove 26/3.720 7/2.890 10,180 2.355 3.279 1.1370 18.99 x 10 6 0.773 x 106
20. Redwing 30/3.920 19/2.350 15,690 2.746 4.452 1.6460 17.50 x 10-6 0.738 X 106
-
21. Bersimis 42/4.570 7/2.540 15,734 3.510 7.252 2.1850 21.50 x 10 6 0.755 x 106
-
22. Curlew - @ 54/3.510 7/3.510 16,850 3.162 5.915 1.9760 19.30 x 10 6 0.704 x 106
-
23. Duck 54/2.690 7/2.690 10,210 2.418 3.464 1.1580 19.30 x 10 6 0.704 x 106
-
24. Leg Horn 12/2.690 7/2.690 5,360 1.346 1.080 0.5000 15.30x 10 6 1.050 X 106
* Conforming to IS - 398 (Part 2) - 1976 (up to 220 kV)

@ Conforming to IS - 398 (Part 5) A - 1982 (400 kV)
ANNEXURE- 2
EARTHWIRE
Sl. Stranding Weight per Overall Total Ultimate tensile strength (kg)
No. No./dia. metre Diameter Sectional 700 1100 1570
(mm) (kg) (mm) Area (mm ) 2
N/mm 2
N/mm 2
N/mm2
1. 7/3.15 0.429 9.45 54.552 3699 5913 8297
2. 7/3.50 0.523 10.50 67.348 4567 7177 10243
3. 7/3.66 0.583 10.98 73.646 4994 7848 11201
4. 7/4.00 0.690 12.00 87.965 5965 9374 13379
5. 19/3.15 1.163 15.75 148.069 10041 15778 -
6. 19/3.50 1.436 17.50 182.801 12396 19479 -
7. 19/3.66 1.570 18.30 199.897 13555 - -
8. 19/4.00 1.875 20.00 238.761 16191 - -
9. 1/5+8/3.2 0.458 11.40 71.41 8000 - -
Optical
Fibre Glass
Strands Modulus of Elasticity “E” Co-efficient of linear

expansion “α” per 0° C
1 1.969 x 10-6 kg/cm2 11.50x10-6
7 1.933x10-6 11.50 x10-6
19 1.893x10-6 11.50x10-6
OPTICAL FIBRE 1.52 x 10-6 13.40 x 10-6

ANNEXURE-3
Sheet No. 1 of 2
DESIGN LOADS
(FOR SUSPENSION TOWER)
RELIABILITY CONDITION (NORMAL CONDITION) (32°C & Full Wind)
ANNEXURE-3
Sheet No. 2 of 2
DESIGN LOADS safety condition
(NORMAL CONDITION) (32°C & Full Wind)

ANNexure-4
Sheet No. 1 of 2
GRAPHICAL DIAGRAM METHOD
Trans. Face Long. Face

Stress Diagram
ANNexure-4
Sheet No. 2 of 2
GRAPHICAL DIAGRAM METHOD

stress diagrams
ANNEXURE-5
Sheet No. 1 of 8
ANALYTICAL METHOD
TRANSVERSE FACE
NOTE:-
1. ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM.

ANNEXURE- 5
Sheet No. 2 of 8
DESIGN OF TOWER
DESIGN OF LEG MEMBER
PART-2
ASSM-1 (NCI
GW = (240 + 705) x 14.566 = 13765
TC = (650 + 2x1756) x 8.936 = 37192
MC = (880 +2 x 1756) x 4.036 = 17726
M = 68683

M
______________ 68683
______________
= = 16261
STRESS= 2 x W x Cos Ф 2x2.114x0.999
Vertical load = Max = 219 + 6 x 929

_____________
= 1448
4
Vertical load = Min = (73 + 6 x 356)

_____________
= (553)
4
Self weight of Tower = 1600/4 = 400

Compression = 18109
Tension = 15308
L 75 x 75 x 6 (L = 864/0.999 = 865)
L 86.5 = 59.25 Ult. compressive strength = 2265 x 8.66 =

19615 (on Gross Area) Safety margin over
r min 1.46
limit load (SM)
S. M. = 1.098
Ultimate Tensile strength = 2549 x 6.56 = 16721 S. M. = 1.09

(On Net Area)
12 mm dia. Bolt - 6 Nos. (Single Shear)
Ultimate Shearing strength = 21450
Ultimate Bearing strength = 19181
S. M. = 1.06
12 mm dia. Bolts 6 No. (Double Shear)
Ultimate shearing strength = 42900
Note: All loads in kg and all lever arms in Metres.

ANNEXURE-5
Sheet No. 3 of 8
Ultimate compressive strength = 901 x 3.47 = 3126 S.M. = 1.19

Ultimate tensile strength = 2549 x 2.218 = 5654 S.M. = 2.15
12 mm dia. Bolt 2 Nos. (Single Shear)
Ultimate Shearing strength = 7146 S.M. = 1.86
Ultimate Bearing strength = 4888
ANNEXURE-5
Sheet No. 4 of 8
DESIGN OF LONG. FACE BRACING ‘G’
L = 1.379 4.W. Cos α = 6.59

STRESS ∑ Fb 9010
= _____ = ____ = 1368
4.W. Cosα_ 6.59
L 45 x 45 x 4
L = 137.9 = 158.51
r min 0.87
Ultimate Compressive strength = 901 x 3.47 = 3126 S.M. = 2.28
Ultimate Tensile strength = 2549 x 2.218 = 5664 S.M. = 4.14
12 mm dia. Bolts 2 Nos. (Single Shear)
Ultimate Shearing Strength = 7150
Ultimate Bearing Strength = 4262 S.M. = 3.11

ANNEXURE5
Sheet No. 5 of 8
DESIGN OF BOTTOM X-ARM

ANNEXURE-5
Sheet No. 6 of 8
DESIGN OF UPPER MEMBER
length = 0.8642 + 1.0572 + 3.1432 = 3.426
STRESS IN MEMBER (ASSM -6)
2520 x 3.426
SV = ___________ = 4996 (Tension)
2 x 0.864
L 45 x 45 x 4
L 342.6 = 250
r med = 1.37
12 mm dia. Bolts 3 Nos. (Single shear)
Ultimate Bearing strength = 7332 S.M. = 1.46
DESIGN OF TRANS. BELT
STRESS IN MEMBER (ASSM-10 BC Broken)
102-51
ST = _______- = ± 13
4
(1857 +2520) X 3.125 = + 3958

SV =
4x0.864
SL = 1000X3.125 = ± 727
2x2.150 _____
Compression = 4698
Tension = -
ANNEXURE-5
Sheet No. 7 of 8
TRANSVERSE BELT (CONTINUED)
L 65 x 65 x 6
L = 215 =170.6
r min 1.26
Ultimate Compressive strength = 691 x 7.44 = 5141 F.O.S. = 1.09
Ultimate Tensile strength = 2549 x 5.317 = 13553 F.O.S. = -
12 mm dia. bolts 2 Nos. (Single shear)
Ultimate Bearing strength = 7332 F.O.S. = 1.52
Design of LONG. BELT
STRESS IN MEMBER (ASSM-6)
ST 102x2.150 = ± 18
4x3.125
SV 2520x2.150 = - 1568
4x 0.864
SL = – = –
SL Compression = -
Tension = 1586
L45 x 45 x 4
L 215
= = 247
r min 0.87
Ultimate Tensile Strength = 2549 x 2.218 = 5654 S.M. = 3.56
12 mm dia. Bolts 2 Nos (Single shear)

ANNEXURE-5
Sheet No. 8 of 8
DESIGN OF PLAN BRACING
Length of Bracing = 2.1502 + 2.1502 = 3.040
STRESS IN MEMBER (ASSM-5 - B.C. Broken)
(1465 x 4.2) (1465)

SL = = 2 = 494 (Compression & Tension)
4x2.150 4
L 45 x 45 x 4
L 152 = 174.7 r min

r min = 0.87
Ultimate Compressive strength = 660 x 3.47 = 2290 S.M. = 4.63
12 mm dia. Bolt 1 No, (Single shear)

ANNEXURE- 6
Sheet No. 1 of 3
ANNEXURE-6
Sheet No. 2 of 3
ANNEXURE-6
Sheet No. 3 of 3
ANNEXURE-7
Sheet No. 1 of 4
INPUT F0R 3D ANALYSIS
STAADTRUSS
UNIT MMKG
INPUT WIDTH 79
OUTPUT WIDTH 79
INPUT NODESIGN
JOINT COORDINATES
* IN GLOBLE AXIS (X +VE LEFT TO RIGHT : Y+VE UP : Z+VE OUT SIDE)
Annexure-7
Sheet No. 2 of 4
INPUT FOR 3D ANALYSIS
MEMBER INCIDENCES
ANNEXURE- 7
Sheet No. 3 of 4
CONSTANTS
UNIT CM
E 2047000 ALL
* MEMBER PROPERTIES INDIAN
MEMBER PROPERTIES
*, 2 1 ,GROUP NO- 1, PEAK IN (1) A

1 2 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
*, 2 1 ,GROUP NO- 2, PEAK IN(R) A
3 4 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
*, 2 1 ,GROUP NO - 3, PEAK OT (L) A_A
5 6 UPT 1 65 X 65 X 6
*, 2 1 ,GROUP NO - 4, PEAK OT (L) B A
7 8 UPT 1 65 X 65 X 6
*, 2 1 ,GROUP NO- 5, PEAK OT (R) A_A
9 10 UPT 1 65 X 65 X 6
*, 2 1 ,GROUP NO- 6, PEAKJDT (R) B_A
11 12 UPT 1 65 X 65 X 6
4 1 ,GROUP NO- 7, LEG_A
*, 13 14 15 16 UPT 1 65 X 65 X 6
4 3 ,GROUP NO- 8, TRAN_A
*, 17 18 19 20 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
4 3 ,GROUP NO- 9, LONG_A
*, 21 22 23 24 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
2 3 ,GROUP NO- 10, TR_BELT_TOP_A
*, 25 26 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
2 3 ,GROUP NO- 11, LG_BELT_TOP_A
*, 27 28 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
4 3 ,GROUP NO- 12, UM_TR_BLT_A
*, 29 30 31 32 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
2 3 ,GROUP NO- 13, UM_LG_BLT_A
*, 33 34 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
4 3 ,GROUP NO-14, LONG_OX_A
*, 35 36 37 38 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
2 2 ,GROUP NO-15, LM_LT_TC
*, 39 40 UPT 1 90 X 90 X 6
2 3 ,GROUP NO-16, UM_LT_TC
*, 41 42 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
2 2 ,GROUP NO-17, LM_RT_TC
*, 43 44 UPT 1 90 X 90 X 6
2 3 ,GROUP NO- 18, UM_RT_TC
*, 45 46 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
2 3 .GROUP NO-19,TR_BELT_A1
*, 47 48 UPT 1 55 X 55 X 5
2 3 , GROUP NO- 20, LG_BELT_A1
*, 49 50 UPT 1 45 X 45 X 5
ANNEXURE-7
Sheet No. 4 of 4
CASE 01 -> C-INC V+mx (2.00 + 2.00* (1.00+0.00) + (1.00 or 1.00)

LOADING 4 C-INC Vmx
INT LOADS
1 FX 477 FY -332 FZ 0
4 FX 477 FY -332 FZ 0
15 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
16 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
41 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
42 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
67 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
68 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
CASE 0 1 --> C-INC Vmx (2.00 + 2.00* (1.00+0.00) + (1.00 or 1.00)
LOADING 5 C-1NC Vmx
JOINTLOADS
1 FX 477 FY -10 FZ 0
4 FX 477 FY -10 FZ 0
15 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
16 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
41 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
42 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
67 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
68 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
CASE0 2-> C-INCSC Vmx (2.00+2.00* (1,00+0.00)+(1.00 or 1.00)
LOADING 6 C-1NCSC Vmx
JOINT LOADS
1 FX 477 FY -332 FZ 0
4 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
15 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
16 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
41 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
42 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
67 FX 1445 FY -1233 FZ 0
68 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
CASE 0 2 --> C-1NCSC Vmn (2.00+2.00*(1.00+0.00)+(1.00 or 1.00)

LOADING 7 C-1 NCSC Vmn
JOINT LOADS
1 FX 477 FY -10 FZ 0
4 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
15 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
16 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
41 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
42 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
67 FX 1445 FY -83 FZ 0
68 FX 0 FY 0 FZ 0
PRINT PROBLEM STATISTICS

PRINT MEMBER PROPERTIES ALL
PERFORM ANALYSIS
PRINT ANALYSIS RESULTS ALL
PLOT DISPLACEMENT FILE
FINISH
ANNEXURE-8
Sheet No. 1 of 4
ANNEXURE-8
Sheet No. 2 of 4
OUTPUT GIVING SUMMARY OF CRITICAL STRESSES
ANNEXURE-8
Sheet No. 3 of 4
Job : STAAD TRUSS
ULTIMATE FOUNDATION FORCES_3D (1N Kg)

(ALL MAXIMUM)
SL. COMP. UPLIFT TRANS. LONG. LOAD DESCRIPTION
NO. FORCE FORCE FORCE FORCE NO
1. 53188 -39115 1159 64 4 MAX COMPRESSION

2. 49338 -42964 1153 42 5 MAX UPLIFT
3. 27780 -19105 1812 1215 36 MAX TRANSVERSE
4. 39121 -27957 1218 1520 68 MAX LONGITUDINAL
5. 22259 -14551 1712 1501 116 MAX (TR^2 + LG^2) ^0.5
Critical Load Cases
4 5 7 8 9 10 11 13 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24 25 26 27
29 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 68 70 76 78 92 112 113 114 115 116 117
118 119
TOTAL NO OF CRITICAL CASES = 42

ANNEXURE-8
Sheet No. 4 of 4
Job : STAAD TRUSS
ULTIMATE FOUNDATION FORCES_3D (1N Kg)
LOAD COMP. UPLIFT TRANS. LONG. LOAD COMP. UPLIFT TRANS. LONG.
NO FORCE FORCE FORCE FORCE NO FORCE FORCE FORCE FORCE
1 2938 2907 27 28 2 5942 -5942 577 4

3 5579 -5579 2 399 4 53188 -39115 1159 64
5 49338 -42964 1153 42 6 31520 -21560 1502 71
7 31920 -25810 1179 33 8 39913 -28780 1116 577
9 37504 -31131 1098 563 10 39913 -28780 1116 577
11 37504 -31131 1098 563 12 26371 -1^809 1331 596
13 26618 -20410 1114 572 14 2.6371 -17809 1331 596
15 26618 -20410 1114 572 16 44685 -33467 1534 1013
17 42267 -35677 1518 1000 18 44685 -33467 1534 1013
19 42267 -35677 1518 1000 20 31143 -22496 1749 1033
21 31381 -24956 1543 1010 22 31143 -22496 1749 1033
23 31381 -24956 1543 1010 24 42983 -31839 1509 867
25 40561 -34045 1534 851 26 42983 -31839 1509 867
27 40561 -34045 1534 851 28 29441 -20868 1725 837
29 29675 -23324 1551 846 30 29441 -20868 1725 837
31 29675 -23324 1551 846 32 41322 -30076 1597 1245
33 38887 -32269 1587 1231 34 41322 -30076 1597 1245
35 38887 -32269 1587 1231 36 27780 -19105 1812 1215
37 28001 -21548 1612 1226 38 27780 -19105 1812 1215
39 28001 -21548 1612 1226 40 51642 -37569 825 859
41 47793 -41419 818 836 42 34544 -24584 1162 868
43 34944 -28834 843 829 44 37917 -26821 824 686
45 35508 -29172 817 671 46 37917 -26821 824 686
47 35508 -29172 817 671 48 27230 -18706 1034 657
49 27477 -21307 833 667 50 27230 -18706 1034 657
51 27477 -21307 833 667 52 41884 -30742 1163 973
53 39465 -32952 1158 957 54 41884 -30742 1163 973
55 39465 -32952 1158 957 56 31197 -22627 1374 944
57 31435 -25087 1174 953 58 31197 -22627 1374 944
59 31435 -25087 1174 953 60 40485 -29403 1144 1212
61 38063 -31610 1176 1196 62 40485 -29403 1144 1212
63 38063 -31610 1176 1196 64 29798 -21288 1366 1183
65 30032 -23745 1191 1192 66 29798 -21288 1366 1183
67 30032 -23745 1191 1192 68 39121 -27957 1218 1520
69 36685 -30150 1207 1506 70 39121 -27957 1218 1520
71 36685 -30150 1207 1506 72 28434 -19841 1428 1491
73 28655 -22284 1228 1502 74 28434 -19841 1428 1491
75 28655 -22284 1228 1502 76 13993 8307 86 78
77 6294 609 22 33 78 10578 3495 727 110
79 4296 2078 63 32 80 13087 3048 249 355
81 8269 -1654 240 327 82 13087 3048 249 355
83 8269 -1654 240 327 84 10830 -53 655 377
85 7020 -735 247 329 86 10830 -53 655 377
87 7020 -735 247 329 88 16863 -840 552 670
89 12026 -5259 533 644 90 16863 -840 552 670
ANNEXURE-9
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL
Description INDIAN SAIL-MA BRITISH AMERICAN GERMAN JAPANESE
(INDIAN)
IS-2062 MA 300 HY BS-4360 ASTM A36 DIN-17100 JIS-G-3101
GR-43A CLASS-2
Chemical Composition :
Carbon % 0.23-0.25 0.25 0.25 0.26 0.17-0.20 -
Manganese % - 1.50 1.60 - - -
Phosphorus % 0.06 0.055 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05
Sulphur % 0.06 0.055 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Silicon % - - 0.50 - 0.05 -
Mechanical Properties
Tensile Strength kg/mm2 42-54 44.88- 43.86-52.02 40.80-56.10 34.68-47.94 41-52

57.12
Yield Strength kg/mm2 26 30.60 26.01 25.50 23.97 24-25
Elongation (min)% 23 20 22 20-23 26 18-21
Annexure-10
166
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH TENSILE STEEL

ANNEXURE-11
Sheet No. 1 of 2
Section List
Equal section commonly used for towers & as per is:808 (part-v)-1989
ANNEXURE-11
Sheet No. 2 of 2
SECTION LIST
EQUAL SECTIONS COMMONLY USED FOR TOWERS AS PER IS.808 (PART-V)-1989
Size Sectional Unit Centre of Ixx-lyy Rxx Rvv Modulus of

Area weight gravity (cm )
4
(Rmed) (Rmin) Section
(cm )
2
kg/mt. (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3)
100 x 100 x 6 11.67 9.20 2.67 111.30 3.09 1.95 15.20
100 x 100 x 7 13.62 10.70 2.71 129.00 3.08 1.97 17.70
100 x 100 x 8 15.39 12.10 2.76 145.10 3.07 1.95 20.00
100 x 100 x 10 19.03 14.90 2.84 177.00 3.05 1.94 24.70
100 x 100 x 12 22.59 17.70 2.92 207.00 3.03 1.94 29.20
110 x 110 x 8 17.08 13.40 3.00 196.80 3.40 2.18 24.60
110 x 110 x 10 21.12 16.60 3.09 240.20 3.37 2.16 30.40
110 x 110 x 12 25.08 19.70 3.17 281.30 3.35 2.15 35.90
110 x 110 x 16 32.76 25.70 3.32 357.30 3.30 2.14 46.50
120 x 120 x 8 18.70 14.70 3.23 255.00 3.69 2.37 29.10
120 x 120 x 10 23.20 18.20 3.31 313.00 3.67 2.36 36.00
120 x 120 x 12 27.50 21.60 3.40 368.00 3.65 2.35 42.70
130 x 130 x 10 25.12 19.70 3.59 405.30 4.02 2.57 43.10
130 x 130 x 12 29.88 23.50 3.67 476.40 3.99 2.56 51.00
150 x 150 x 10 29.21 22.90 4.08 635.50 4.66 2.98 58.00
150 x 150 x 12 34.77 27.30 4.16 746.30 4.63 2.97 68.80
150 x 150 x 15 43.00 33.80 4.25 898.00 4.57 2.93 83.50
150 x 150 x 16 45.65 35.80 4.31 958.90 4.58 2.94 89.70
150 x 150 x 18 51.00 40.10 4.37 1050.00 4.54 2.92 93.70
150 x 150 x 20 56.21 44.10 4.46 1155.50 4.53 2.93 109.70
180 x 180 x 15 52.10 40.90 4.98 1590.00 5.52 3.54 122.00
180 x 180 x 18 61.90 48.60 5.10 1870.00 5.49 3.52 145.00
180 x 180 x 20 68.30 53.70 5.18 2040.00 5.47 3.51 159.00
200 x 200 x 16 61.82 48.50 5.56 2366.20 6.19 3.96 163.80
200 x 200 x 20 76.38 60.00 5.71 2875.00 6.14 3.93 201.20
200 x 200 x 24 90,60 71.10 5.84 3333.00 6.06 3.90 235.00
200 x 200 x 25 94.13 73.90 5.90 3470.02 6.07 3.91 246.00
ANNEXURE-12
Sheet No. - 1 of 2
L/R CONSIDERATION FOR BRACING SYSTEM IN A TRANSMISSION TOWER
•APPPLICATION FOR TENSION COMPRESSION SYSTEM ONLY i.e.

TENSILE STRESSES IN ONE BRACING MUST BE AT LEAST EQUAL TO 75 PERCENT OF
THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE OTHER BRACING
# THE CORNER STAY SHOULD BE DESIGNED TO PROVIDE LATERAL
SUPPORT ADEQUATELY
ANNEXURE - 12
Sheet No. - 2 of 2
L/R CONSIDERATION FOR BRACING SYSTEM IN A TRANSMISSION TOWER
# THE CORNER STAY SHOULD BE DESIGNED TO PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT ADEQUATELY

ANNEXURE-13
Sheet No. - 1 of 5
PERMISSIBLE AXIAL STRESS IN COMPRESSION
CONSIDERATION FOR L/R OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The compressive stresses in various members multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety shall not exceed
the value given by following formulae (As per IS-802 (Part-I) 1992).
(KL/r)2
Fa =1– 2xCc2 Fy Where KL/r Cc (for b/t Lim)
& Fe = Where KL/r Cc (for b t Lim)
Fa = Allowable unit stress in compression (Kn kg/cm2)
Fy = Minimum guaranteed yield stress of the material.
(Fy = 2549.3 kg/cm2 for Mild steel & Fy = 3620 kg/cm2 for High Tensile Steel).
Cc = 125.664 for Mild Steel & Cc = 105.455 for High Tensile Steel.
(b/t) Lim = 661.8 13 for Mild Steel & 11 for High Tensile Steel.
Where b = distance from edge of fillet to the extreme fibre and t = thickness of material.
Where width thickness ratio (b/t) exceeds (b/t) lim, above formula will reduce as follows and “Fy” will be
replaced by for (KG/CM2).
Mild Steel : For = 4275 - 132 (b/t) where 13 < b/t < 24
& For = 668400 / (b/t) 2 where b/t > 24
High Tensile Steel :
For = 6070 - 223 where 11 < b/t < 20

& for = 668400 / (b/t) 2 where b/t > 20
ANNEXURE-13
Sheet No. - 2 of 5
PERMISSIBLE AXIAL STRESS IN COMPRESSION FOR MILD STEEL
FOR CURVE 1 FOR CURVE 2 FOR CURVE C I

l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2
39 2427 80 2033 39 2266 80 1895 39 2039 80 1742
40 2420 81 2020 40 2259 81 1885 40 2033 81 1734
41 2414 82 2007 41 2251 82 1874 41 2026 82 1726
42 2407 83 1993 42 2244 83 1862 42 2020 83 1718
43 2400 84 1980 43 2237 84 1851 43 2013 84 1710
44 2393 85 1966 44 2229 85 1840 44 2007 85 1701
45 2386 86 1952 45 2221 86 1828 45 2000 86 1693
46 2379 87 1938 46 2213 87 1817 46 1993 87 1685
47 2371 88 1924 47 2206 88 1805 47 1987 88 1676
48 2363 89 1910 48 2198 89 1794 48 1980 89 1668
49 2355 90 1895 49 2190 90 1782 49 1973 90 1659
50 2348 91 1881 50 2182 91 1770 50 1966 91 1651
51 2339 92 1866 51 2173 92 1758 51 1959 92 1642
52 2331 93 1851 52 2165 93 1746 52 1952 93 1634
53 2323 94 1836 53 2157 94 1734 53 1945 94 1625
54 2314 95 1821 54 2148 95 1722 54 1938 95 1617
55 2305 96 1805 55 2140 96 1710 55 1931 96 1608
56 2296 97 1790 56 2131 97 1697 56 1924 97 1599
57 2287 98 1774 57 2122 98 1685 57 1917 98 1590
58 2278 99 1758 58 2113 99 1672 58 1910 99 1581
59 2268 100 1742 59 2104 100 1659 59 1903 100 1573
60 2259 101 1726 60 2095 101 1647 60 1895 101 1584
61 2249 102 1710 61 2086 102 1634 61 1888 102 1555
62 2239 103 1693 62 2077 103 1621 62 1881 103 1546
63 2229 104 1676 63 2068 104 1608 63 1874 104 1537
64 2219 105 1659 64 2058 105 1595 64 1866 105 1528
65 2208 106 1642 65 2049 106 1581 65 1859 106 1519
66 2198 107 1625 66 2039 107 1568 66 1851 107 1509
67 2187 108 1608 67 2029 108 1555 67 1844 108 1500
68 2176 109 1590 68 2020 109 1541 68 1836 109 1491
69 2165 110 1573 69 2010 110 1528 69 1828 110 1482
70 2154 111 1555 70 2000 111 1514 70 1821 111 1472
71 2142 112 1537 71 1990 112 1500 71 1813 112 1463
72 2131 113 1519 72 1980 113 1486 72 1805 113 1454
73 2119 114 1500 73 1970 114 1472 73 1798 114 1444
74 2107 115 1482 74 1959 115 1458 74 1790 115 1435
75 2095 116 1463 75 1949 116 1444 75 1782 116 1425
76 2083 117 1444 76 1938 117 1430 76 1774 117 1416
77 2071 118 1425 77 1928 118 1416 77 1766 118 1406
78 2058 119 1406 78 1917 119 1401 78 1758 119 1397
79 2046 120 1387 79 1906 120 1387 79 1750 120 1387
CURVE 1 : T
O BE USED FOR LEG MEMBERS & LATTICES HAVING BACK TO BACK
DOUBLE ANGLE FOR L/R UPTO 120
CURVE 2 : T
O BE USED FOR CROSS ARM MEMBERS (KL/r=30 + 0.75 L/r)
FOR L/R UPTO 120
CURVE 3 : T
O BE USED FOR LATTICES WITH SINGLE ANGLE SECTION (KL/r=60 + 0.5 L/r)
FOR L/R UPTO 120
ANNEXURE- 13
Sheet No. - 3 of 5
PERMISSIBLE AXIAL STRESS IN COMPRESSION FOR mild STEEL

ANNEXURE-13
Sheet No. - 4 of 5
PERMISSIBLE AXIAL STRESS IN COMPRESSION FOR HIGH TENSILE STEEL
FOR CURVE 1 FOR CURVE 2 FOR CURVE 3
l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2 l/r Kg/cm2
39 3372 80 2578 39 3049 80 2302 39 2591 80 1992

40 3360 81 2552 40 3034 81 2280 40 2578 81 1976
41 3346 82 2526 41 3019 82 2257 41 2565 82 1960
42 3333 83 2499 42 3004 83 2235 42 2552 83 1943
43 3319 84 2472 43 2989 84 2212 43 2539 84 1927
44 3305 85 2444 44 2974 85 2189 44 2526 85 1910
45 3290 86 2416 45 2959 86 2167 45 2512 86 1893
46 3276 87 2388 46 2943 87 2143 46 2499 87 1876
47 3260 88 2360 47 2927 88 2120 47 2485 88 1860
48 3245 89 2331 48 2911 89 2096 48 2472 89 1843
49 3229 90 2302 49 2895 90 2073 49 2458 90 1826
50 3213 91 2272 50 2878 91 2049 50 2444 91 1808
51 3197 92 2242 51 2862 92 2025 51 2430 92 1791
52 3180 93 2212 52 2845 93 2001 52 2416 93 1774
53 3163 94 2182 53 2828 94 1976 53 2402 94 1757
54 3145 95 2151 54 2811 95 1951 54 2388 95 1739
55 3128 96 2120 55 2794 96 1927 55 2374 96 1722
56 ‘3110 97 2089 56 2776 97 1902 56 2360 97 1704
57 3091 98 2057 57 2759 98 1876 57 2345 98 1686
58 3072 99 2025 58 2741 99 1851 58 2331 99 1688
59 3053 100 1992 59 2723 100 1826 59 2316 100 1651
60 3034 101 1960 60 2704 101 1800 60 2302 101 1633
61 3014 102 1927 61 2686 102 1774 61 2287 102 1615
62 2994 103 1893 62 2667 103 1748 62 2272 103 1597
63 2974 104 1860 63 2649 104 1722 63 2257 104 1578
64 2953 105 1826 64 2630 105 1695 64 2242 105 1560
65 2932 106 1791 65 2611 106 1668 65 2227 106 1542
66 2911 107 1757 66 2591 107 1642 66 2212 107 1523
67 2889 108 1722 67 2572 108 1615 67 2197 108 1505
68 2867 109 1686 68 2552 109 1587 68 2182 109 1486
69 2845 110 1651 69 2532 110 1560 69 2167 110 1468
70 2822 111 1615 70 2512 111 1533 70 2151 111 1449
71 2800 112 1578 71 2492 112 1505 71 2136 112 1430
72 2776 113 1542 72 2472 113 1477 72 2120 113 1411
73 2753 114 1505 73 2451 114 1449 73 2104 114 1392
74 2729 115 1468 74 2430 115 1420 74 2089 115 1373
75 2704 116 1430 75 2409 116 1392 75 2073 116 1354
76 2680 117 1392 76 2388 117 1363 76 2057 117 1334
77 2655 118 1354 77 2367 118 1334 77 2041 118 1315
78 2630 119 1315 78 2345 119 1305 78 2025 119 1296
79 2604 120 1276 79 2324 120 1276 79 2009 120 1276
CURVE 1 : T
O BE USED FOR LEG MEMBERS & LATTICES HAVING BACKTO BACK
DOUBLE ANGLE FOR L/R UPT0120
CURVE 2: T
O BE USED FOR CROSS ARM MEMBERS (KL/r= 30 + 0.75 L/r)
FORL7RUPTO120
CURVE 3: T
O BE USED FOR LATTICES WITH SINGLE ANGLE SECTION (K Ur=60+0.6 L/r)
FORL/RUPTO120
ANNEXURE-13
Sheet No. - 5 of 5
PERMISSIBLE AXIAL STRESS IN COMPRESSION FOR mild STEEL

ANNEXURE-14
REFERENCE TABLE FOR MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE LENGTH OF REDUNDANT MEMBERS
Section L/R CONSIDERATIONS BENDING CONSIDERATIONS ONLY*
With With Rxx or With 100 Kg. (Ultimate) With 150 Kg. (Ultimate)
Rvv Ryy
(R min) (R med) M.S. H.T. M.S. H.T.
(2600) (3600) (2600) (3600)
45 x 30 x 4 1575 2100 936 1296 624 864
45 x 30 x 5 1575 2075 1144 N.C. 763 1056
45 x 45 x 4 2175 3425 2080 N.C. 1387 1920
45 x 45 x 5 2175 3400 N.C. N.C. 1733 N.C.
50 x 50 x 4 2425 3825 N.C. N.C. 1733 2400
50 x 50 x 5 2425 3800 N.C. N.C. 2149 N.C.
50 x 50 x 6 2400 3775 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
55 x 55 x 4 2650 4175 N.C. N.C. 2052 N.C.
55 x 55 x 5 2650 4175 N.C. N.C. 2565 N.C.
60 x 60 x 4 2975 4625 N.C. N.C. 2538 N.C.
60 x 60 x 5 2900 4550 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
65 x 65 x 4 3150 4975 N.C. N.C. 2884 N.C.
65 x 65 x 5 3150 4975 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
65 x 65 x 6 3150 4950 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
70 x 70 x 5 3400 5375 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
75 x 75 x 5 3650 5775 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
75 x 75 x 6 3650 5750 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
80 x 80 x 6 3900 6150 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
90 x 90 x 6 4375 6925 N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C.
*Red. Members to be checked for 2.1/2% stress & bending independently.
N.C. = Not critical from bending considerations, therefore, L/R lengths to be used.
Notes : 1. Maximum L/R for redundants should not exceed 250.
2. Intermediate stress values can be obtained by interpolation.
3. Redundants considered with one bolt connection at either end.
SKETCH-1 SKETCH-2
ANNEXURE-15
Sheet No. 1 of 3
DIMENSIONS FOR HEXAGON BOLTS FOR STEEL STRUCTURES

All dimensions in millimetres
‘x’ according to IS: 1369-1961 “Dimensions for screw threads run-outs and undercuts”.
‘z’ according to IS: 1368-1967 “Dimensions for ends of bolts and screws (first revision)”
Size M12 M16 M20 M24

d Nom 12 16 20 24
s Nom 19 24 30 36
e Min 20.88 26.17 32.95 39.55
k Nom 8 10 13 15
r Max 1 1 1 1
da Max 15.2 19.2 24.4 28.4
b - 20 23 26 30
ANNEXURE-15
Sheet No. 2 of 3
ULTIMATE STRENGTHS OF BOLTS

Bolts/Nuts conforming to IS: 6639
Mechanical Properties conform to IS : 1367
(FOR PROPERTY CLASS 4.6/4)
Ultimate shearing stress = 2220 kg/cm2

Ultimate bearing stress = 4440 kg/cm2
Bolt dia Shearing Strength for Bearing Strength for one bolt (in kg)
(in mm) one bolt
Single Double Shear 3 mm 3.175 4 mm 5 mm 6 mm 7 mm
Shear (kg) mm
(kg) (1/8*)
12 mm 2511 5022 1598 1692 2132 2664 3197 3730
16 mm 4464 8928 2131 2256 2842 3552 4263 4973
20 mm 6974 13948 2664 2820 3552 4440 5328 6216
24 mm 10043 20086 3197 3383 4263 5328 6394 7460
Ultimate shearing stress = 3161 kg/cm2

Ultimate bearing stress = 6322 kg/cm2
Bolt dia Shearing Strength for one bolt Bearing Strength for ‘ one bolt (in kg)
(in mm)
Single Double 3 mm 3.175 4 mm 5 mm 6 mm 7 mm
Shear Shear mm
(kg) (kg) (1/8”)
12 mm 3575 7150 2276 2409 3035 3793 4552 5311

16 mm 6356 12712 3035 3212 4046 5058 6070 7081
20 mm 9931 19862 3793 4015 5058 6322 7587 8851
24 mm 14300 28600 4552 4818 6070 7587 9104 10621
ANNEXURE-15
Sheet No. 3 of 3
NOMINAL LENGTHS & CLAMPING LENGTHS FOR M12, M16, M20 & M24 BOLTS
AS PER IS-6639-1972
Desig Nominal Unit Weights and clamping Lengths

nation lengths
(In mm) M 12 Bolt M16 Bolt M20 Bolt M 24 Bolt
Unit Grip Unit Grip Unit Grip Grip

Unit wt.
wt. Lengths wt. Lengths wt. Lengths Lengths
(kg)
(kg) (mm) (kg) (mm) (kg) (mm) (mm)
A 35 0.062 10-14 0.117 6-10 - - - -
B 40 0.0664 15-19 0.125 11-15 0.222 8-12 - -
C 45 0.0708 20-24 0.133 16-20 0.234 13-17 0.369 9-13
D 50 0.0753 25-29 0.141 21-25 0.247 18-22 0.387 14-18
E 55 0.0797 30-34 0.149 26-30 0.259 23-27 0.405 19-23
F 60 0.0842 35-39 0.157 31-35 0.272 28-32 0.423 24-28
G 65 0.0886 40-44 0.164 36-40 0.284 33-37 0.440 29-33
H 70 0.0930 45-49 0.172 41-45 0.296 38-42 0.458 34-38
J 75 0.0975 50-54 0.180 46-50 0.309 43-47 0.476 39-43
K 80 0.1020 55-59 0.188 51-55 0.321 48-52 0.494 44-48
L 85 0.1070 60-64 0.196 56-60 0.334 53-57 0.511 49-53
M 90 0.1110 65-69 0.204 61-63 0.346 58-62 0.529 54-58
N 95 0.1160 70-74 0.212 66-70 0.358 63-67 0.547 59-63
P 100 0.1200 75-79 0.220 71-75 0.371 68-72 0.565 64-68
SPACING OF BOLTS AND EDGE DISTANCE ON FINISHED MATERIAL
Bolt Dia. Thickness of Spring Hole Bolt Edge distance (Min)

Washer dia. Spacing
Weight Thickness Hole Centre Hole Centre
to Rolled or to sheared or
Sawn edge Flame cut
(mm) kg (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) edge (mm)
12 0.004 2.5 13.5 32 16 20
16 0.009 3.5 17.5 40 20 23
20 0.015 4.0 21.5 48 25 28
24 0.026 5.0 25.5 60 33 38
Chapter 8
TESTING OF TOWERS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Transmission line towers are highly indeterminate structures. In the analysis and design of these
structures and their detailing, a number of theoretical assumptions are made. The structures are mass
produced and the quality of materials, fabrication and the assembly require checking. It is desirable
that the Designers and Users both are convinced that the tower can withstand most critical loads for
which it is designed and are therefore subjected to a full scale prototype test.
For a Prototype test, the material used shall be of same quality standards as those that will apply to
all towers during mass production.
8.2 TESTING REQUIREMENTS
The full scale testing of tower is generally termed as Prototype Test and for conducting such Prototype
tests, a tower testing station is required, where it is possible to measure the applied loads and
deflections and observe the behavior of the tower on application of the external design loads.
8.3 DESCRIPTION OF A TOWER TESTING STATION
The Figures 1 & 2 show layout for “Typical Tower Testing Station” and “Rigging Arrangements” for
applying test loads respectively.
A Tower Testing Station shall consist of
(i) A Test Bed to withstand maximum possible compression and uplift loads and shear resulting
from the external loads on a prototype tower, which has to be subjected to testing at the
Testing Station.
(ii) Permanent Anchors of adequate capacity to take the Transverse, Longitudinal and Vertical
Pulls applied to the tower of maximum expected width, height and strength proposed to
be tested on a test bed. Longitudinal Mast (P) is a structure of adequate dimension and
height, constructed at a sufficient distance from the tower bed and equipped with all Rigging
arrangements for applying longitudinal loads. The Transverse loads are applied through
pulleys positioned on the Transverse Mast (B). Vertical loads are applied through anchors /
winches with multiple sheaves pulleys on the test bed.
(iii) The arrangements for applying the combination of given loads at a specified rate of
increase, if required with the help of a Multi Sheave Pulley, to take mechanical advantage
and reduce load on the winch.
(iv) Electrical Winches/Hydraulic Rams operated by remote control from a Central Control
Room used for applying loads at the different points of tower structure, as far as possible
simultaneously. Instruments used for recording the load applied through Electrical/Electronic
Transducers/Dynamometers. The dials of the respective Dynamometers/Transducers
indicate the load in the particular wire.
(v) Transverse & longitudinal deflection readings are taken ‘before load’, ‘on load’ and ‘off load’
at each increment in each load case by Theodolites(preferably electronic) on scales fitted
at appropriate positions on the tower (Table 1).
(vi) Remote and precise measuring instruments, like Electrical/Electronic Transducers/

Dynamometers.
180
Testing of Towers 181
Table 1
TABLETypical
1.1 TYPICAL DEFLECTION
Deflection MEASUREMENT
Measurement REPORT
Report
Transverse Direction
TRANSVERSE DIRECTION
Bottom X -
Scale Ground Wire Scale Top X - Arm Scale Middle X - Arm Scale
Arm
Test % of Reading Level Reading Level Reading Level Reading
Case No Level
No Loading Deflection Deflection Deflection Deflection
In mm In mm In mm In mm
in mm in mm in mm in mm
Off Load
ON LOAD
50%
1 XX 75%
90%
95%
100%
LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION
Bottom X -
Scale Ground Wire Scale Top X - Arm Scale Middle X - Arm Scale
Arm
Test % of Reading Level Reading Level Reading Level Reading
Case No Level
No Loading Deflection Deflection Deflection Deflection
In mm In mm In mm In mm
in mm in mm in mm in mm
Off Load
ON LOAD
50%
1 XX 75%
90%
95%
100%
(vii) Arrangement for calibration of the measuring instruments.
From control room, the winches and the dynamometers are operated / controlled. Control room shall
have the facility to have the complete view of transverse and longitudinal testing arrangements of the
test tower. All the electrically operated machines and instruments shall be connected to and controlled
from the Control Room.
8.4 CALIBRATION
In order to ensure the correctness and reliability of all measuring instruments and in turn the validity
of the tests, the calibration of all instruments before the test is conducted.
Calibration of the load cells is done with Universal Testing Machine prior to rigging of test tower. The
UTM shall be periodically (at least once in a year) calibrated by an authorized/ recognized external
agency. The certificate of calibration of UTM in addition to that of Load Cells will be attached with
the Final Test Report. A typical calibration chart is shown in Appendix- I.
8.5 ASSEMBLY OF PROTOTYPE TOWER
The Prototype tower, fabricated as per structural drawings approved by the Purchaser shall be
assembled and erected on a fixed base ensuring unbraced portion of stub above chimney top to the
point of connection of bracing with leg. Fitment of any member shall be easy, natural and shall not be
a forced one. The bolts should be tightened with suitable torque wrench simultaneously on all four
faces.
8.6 RIGGING ARRANGEMENTS AND LOCATION OF THE LOAD CELLS
To enable application of the external loads in the most representative manner and to simulate tower
design conditions, the tower structure is rigged suitably. Impact of any variance in inclination of rigging
wires with respect to the directions accounted for in designs is considered while preparing Rigging
Chart. Loads are applied as per these approved rigging charts. The load cells shall be attached to the
tower through the rigging wires.
8.7 TEST PROCEDURE
The Prototype Tower is erected on the test bed and all the rigging arrangements are completed.
Before rigging arrangement, the tower shall be carefully examined to ensure that all the bolts and
nuts are properly tightened and tower is made truly plum (within tolerance limit of 1 in 360) and
square. All its members shall be checked for any visible defect. Two graduated metallic scales are
fixed at Peak and Top Cross arm level on the transverse face. Readings on these scales with
reference to the plumb line are taken by Theodolite or Total station.
8.8 TESTING OF PROTOTYPE TOWER
The Proto testing of tower shall be carried out as per IS 802 (Part III) & IEC 60652.
8.8.1 Bolt-Slip Test
In order to eliminate as far as possible, the play between the bolts and the holes throughout the
structure, Bolt slip test is done in the beginning. Under this test, all the transverse and vertical loads
are increased simultaneously as far as possible to 50% of the ultimate normal condition (Reliability
Condition) Loads. The loads on the tower are held for 1 minute. Transverse deflection readings are
taken for NO LOAD and LOADED conditions. The loads on the tower are then reduced to zero or
to as low a value as possible. The deflection reading is once again taken for this Zero loading. The
differences between the two zero loadings are the permanent deflections on tower. For subsequent
test purposes, the readings with zero loads taken after the Bolt Slip Test taken are considered as the
Initial readings.
Testing of Towers
183
Fig. 1 : Typical Layout of Test Bed

184
Fig. 2 : Typical Rigging Arrangement for Tower Testing

8.8.2 Sequence of Test Loading Cases
Sequence of test loading cases shall be pre-determined. The choice of the test sequence shall
largely depend upon simplification of the operations necessary for carrying out the test program.
8.8.3 Details of Tests
8.8.3.1 Reliability, Security, Safety and Anti-Cascading Tests
All loads shall be applied gradually up to ultimate design loads in steps of 50%, 75%, 90%, 95%
and 100%.
8.8.3.2 Observation Period
Under all test conditions, the tower shall be kept under observation for sign of any failure for 1*
minute (excluding the time for adjustment of load) for all intermediate steps up to and including 95%
of ultimate design loads. For all test conditions, the tower shall be kept under observation for 2*
minutes after it is loaded up to 100% of ultimate design loads.
Note: * As per IEC 60652
8.8.3.3 Destruction Test
If the purchaser so desires, the tower shall be tested to destruction. Destruction test shall be carried
out under normal condition or broken wire condition as agreed between the Purchaser and the
Contractor. The destruction test, however, can be discontinued beyond a certain limit on mutual
agreement between the Purchaser Designer and Testing station authority.
8.9 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
8.9.1 The test tower shall be black or galvanized tower as desired by Purchaser. Galvanized tower
shall be preferred which is similar to tower used on the transmission Line.
8.9.2 The tower or its members which has been tested shall not be part of supply and is not to be used
on line.
8.9.3 Test tower shall be provided with unbraced portion of stub equivalent to distance of chimney top to
the point of connection of bracing with leg.
8.9.4 During the process of tower test, when a number of tests have been completed satisfactorily and
a failure occurs as a subsequent test, the design will be reviewed and tower will be reinforced,
if required. The reinforced tower will be put to test again and subjected to balance tests, unless
the failure is of major nature, which will require all the tests to be repeated, or as mutually agreed
between the Purchaser and the Supplier.
8.9.5 Application of Loads on Test-Tower.
As considered in design.
8.9.6 Tolerances on Applied Loads
For each load level, the applied load measurements shall be considered acceptable if they are
within the limits as shown in below Table (Ref: IEC 60652).
Load Level (%) Acceptable Range (%)

50 49 to 51
75 74 to 76
90 89 to 91
95 94 to 96
100 >=100
Once the Final 100% loads have been adjusted, the tower should be left to withstand the final loads
for the specified waiting period. No further adjustment shall be made for the loads on the tower
during the waiting period and the waiting period starts thereafter.
8.10 ACCEPTANCE OF TEST RESULTS
Test is considered as passed, if tower be able to withstand the specified ultimate loads (100% step)
with no visible sign of deformation for the specified waiting period.
In the event of failure during testing of any load case, the structure shall be modified and retested.
If failure occurs between 95% and less than 100% in the final load case, the structure not to be
retested but structure modification shall be suggested with the concurrence for final validation.
In the event of failure at 100% of the specified design load but at less than 1 minute of the holding
period, the customer may accept the structure without modification.
8.11 MATERIAL TESTING
Material of the prototype tower shall be checked for mechanical and chemical characteristics.
Sample selected by the Purchaser from Test Tower shall be subjected to such tests.
8.12 PRESENTATION OF TEST RESULTS
The test report shall include the following data:
1. The type of tested tower.

2. The name and address of the tower manufacturer and of the tower designer.
3. The name and address of the client.
4. The dates and location of testing.
5. The names of persons presented during the tests.
6. A list of various assembly and detail drawings related to the tower tested with updated
modifications of the drawings referred to.
7. A schematic line diagram of the tower showing the various load points and directions of
loading to be applied and a table with the specified loads.
8. Diagram showing the rigging arrangement used to apply the test loads.
9. One table per test showing the loads required at the various points on the structure and for
the various loading steps.
10. One table per test showing the various deflection values measured.
11. Results of Mechanical and Chemical Test carried out on samples taken from the tower.
12. In the case of failure :
• A table showing the maximum loads applied to the structure just before the collapse.
• A brief description of the failure;
• The dimensional and mechanical characteristics of the failed elements.
13. Photographs showing the whole of the structure and details of the failure.
14. Video of testing tower can be recorded if required by Client.
15. The Test Report shall be prepared in quadruple.
8.13 LIST OF TRANSMISSION TOWER TEST BEDS IN INDIA
Sl. No. Entity Max. Base Location Testing Capability

Width (M) Uplift/Compression
Forces (Ton)
1 CPRI 26 X 26 Bengaluru, Karnataka 650
2 GAMMON 30 X 30 Wardha, Maharashtra 750
3 JYOTI 26 X 26 Nasik, Maharashtra 550/650
4 KALPATARU 27 X 27 Gandhinagar, Gujarat 500/625
5 KEC-1 14 X 14 Jaipur, Rajasthan 250
6 KEC-2 22 X 22 Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 450
7 KEC-3 35 X 35 Nagpur, Maharashtra 1250
8 L&T 35 X 35 Chennai, Tamil Nadu 1000
9 R&C 17 X 17 Nagpur, Maharashtra 350
10 SERC 22.5 X 22.5 Chennai, Tamil Nadu 610
APPENDIX - 1
CALIBRATION CHART
Chapter 9
MATERIAL, FABRICATION, GALVANIZING,

INSPECTION AND STORAGE
9.1 SCOPE
This chapter covers the provisions relating to the materials, fabrication, galvanizing, inspection and
storage requirements of Towers.
9.2 MATERIAL QUALITY CONTROL
Various grades of steel used in towers-details of sections, bolts and nuts and other accessories, need
a detailed scrutiny and quality control procedure before being processed for fabrication, assembly
etc. Annexures I and II give chemical composition and mechanical properties of mild steel and high
tensile steel used in towers. Annexure III (a) to (c) gives sectional details and properties of hot-
rolled angle and channel sections. Annexure IV gives unit weights of plates of all sizes. Annexures
V and VI give dimensions of hexagon nuts and bolts and their mechanical properties respectively.
Annexure VII gives the properties of tower bolts metric screw threads.
A well plan, implementable, result oriented and executable quality assurance plan is necessary
to ensure delivery of acceptable material in an agreeable schedule. Appendix-I is a typical quality
assurance plan giving details of the various processes, indicating process controls and various
steps that are followed progressively at various stages of production to ensure quality product as
per the specification.
9.3 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF FABRICATION
Reliability of a transmission structure depends not only upon its design, but also on the development
of structural arrangement, detailing of connections, uniformity of quality of structural sections, and
accurate fabrication. Proper fabrication while maintaining permissible tolerances and galvanizing of
towers are, therefore, very essential. The design of structure must be practicable so that it is done
as a Fabrication assignment. Maximum efficiency in fabrication of structural steel by Modern shops
is entirely dependent upon close co-operation between design office, drafting room and shop.
9.3.1 Structural Assembly Drawings
After design is complete, the structural assembly drawings should be prepared according to IS:
962-1989. The drawings shall show the complete design dimensions, member length, slope factors
or triangles, section sizes, bend lines, gauge lines, diameter, length and number of bolts, spacers,
plain and spring washers, detailing of joints, sizes of gusset plates, position of holes, etc., and
relative location of various members.
Sufficient number of elevation, cross-section and plan views should be presented to clearly indicate
the details of joints and arrangement of members.
All members should be clearly shown and respective identification mark allotted to each member.
The drawings should be drawn to a scale large enough to convey the information adequately.
All connections should be detailed to minimize eccentricity of connections. Due consideration

should be given to the additional stresses introduced in the members on account of eccentricity of
connections.
Dimensions of all members and the distances such as hole-to-hole, length, gauge distance etc. on
a member should be given in full integers and not in decimals.
189
9.3.2 Shop Drawings

Shop drawings, containing complete information necessary for fabrication of the component parts
of the structures should be prepared. These drawings should clearly show the member sizes,
length and mark the hole positions, gauge lines, bend lines, edge distances, amount of chipping,
notching etc.
For Gusset fabrication, separate individual item wise templates can be made to facilitate gusset
fabrication as well as inspection. In case of members to be bent, shop drawings should indicate the
provisions for variation in length. At the design/drawing stage itself, care should be taken to see that
the degree of bend given in any member is such that neither flange width nor thickness shall vary
beyond permissible limits for the section.
Items requiring steep bends can be cut and welded as per approved welding procedure. Quality
welding should be ensured to attain desired strength.
Each fabricator or detailer has his own method of preparing details. This method is generally an
evolution process based on available detailing tools, facilities for material control, handling and
shipping/ transport procedures. It is not recommended that specifications be established in so far
as actual bending details are concerned. However, at the time of proto stage/tower testing itself,
specific bend gauges and templates to locate the holes after bending must be established for the
items to be bent.
9.3.3 Bill of Material
Bill of material for each type of tower should be prepared separately. This should indicate grade of
steel, mark numbers, section sizes, member lengths, their calculated weights, number of bolts, nuts
and washers and their sizes, total quantities required and structural drawing numbers.
No reduction in weight due to drilling, punching of bolts holes, skew cuts, chipping, notching,
chamfering etc, should be made while computing calculated weights of the members.
Steel sections used should be as per IS: 1852-1985 and all angle sections should have dimensions
as per IS : 808-1989. In case more than one grade of steel is used in the structural members,
proper identification marks of various grades of steel being used should be made on the material to
ensure their ultimate use in proper location in the tower before taking up fabrication. This may be
achieved as follows:-
At the time of procurement of steel other than that conforming to IS : 2062-2011, a indelible paint
colour code as per plant/company standards is applied on the edges of HT material on both sides,
so that, there is no mix-up of MS and HT steel in stock yard as well as in the shops. On the shop
sketch HT steel marking is added for identifying high tensile steel items. This way, it is ensured that
no mix-up of MS and HT steel materials can take place.
9.3.4 Cutting Plan
In Fabrication Shop, several tower projects are taken up together. For each project, several types
of towers in different quantities have to be fabricated. For each type of tower, number of sections
may vary as per design and in length. Ingenuity in planning with the help of computer for preparing
cutting plan leads to optimizing wastage of raw material as well as achieving completion of tower
fabrication as per commitment.
9.4 OPERATIONS IN FABRICATION
9.4.1 Straightening
All material should be reasonably straight and, if necessary, before being worked, be straightened
and/or flattened by pressure and be free from twists. Straightening should not damage the material.
Adjacent surfaces of the parts when assembled should be in close contact throughout keeping in
view the tolerances specified. Machines used for straightening are:
Material, Fabrication, Galvanizing, Inspection and Storage 191
(1) For angle sections upto 150x150x12 mm - Roller Straightening Machine of proper
capability
(2) For higher sections - Beam bending machine and Hydraulic Press.
9.4.2 Cutting : Cutting may be effected by shearing, cropping, flame cutting or sawing. The surfaces so
cut should be clean, smooth and reasonably square and free from any distortion.
9.4.3 Bendingwith
As per IS:802 Part 2 – 1978, Mild steel angle sections 75 x 75 mm with thickness upto 6 mm upto
bend angle of 10 degree; angles shall be bent cold , above 75 x 75 mm with thickness above 6
mm and including 100 x 100 mm with thickness upto 8 mm withupto bend angle of 5 degree may
also be bent cold. All other angle sections not covered above should be bent hot. All plates upto
12 mm thickness upto bend angle of 15 degree should be bent cold. Greater bends and/or other
thicknesses should be bent hot.
HT Steel sections should be bent hot. All bent material should be air cooled (Natural). The bends
should be of even profile and free from surface damages. The machines used for bending are
Mechanical Presses, Hydraulic Presses and Beam Bending Machines.
9.4.4 Punching and Drilling
Punching tools of suitable capacity may be adopted for sections upto 16 mm thick (MS or HT). For
thicker sections, drilling should be done. Holes in the members should either be drilled or punched
to jig and should not be formed by flame cutting process. The edge security and bolt gauges as
given below should be maintained in all cases.
Edge Security and Bolt Gauges
Bolt dia Hole dia Pitch min. (mm) Hole centre to Edge security Hole
(mm) (mm) Rolled edge (mm) centre to sheared
edge (mm)
12 13.5 32 16 20
16 17.5 40 20 23
20 21.5 48 25 28
24 26.0 60 33 38
In determining gauge lines, allowances should be made for the mill tolerances in accordance
with IS:1852-1985. Gauge line and edge security shall be determined from the heel end of angle
sections.
All burrs left by punching or drilling should be removed. The holes near the bend line of a bent
member on sides of the bend line should be punched/drilled after bending and relative positions
of these holes should be maintained with the use of proper templates/jigs and fixtures and the
same templates/jigs should be used for inspection of such items. In case of disputes, with respect
to fabrication tolerances, such items may be approved after assembly of such members as per
structural drawings of that particular portion. The machines used for above purpose including
notching operation are:-
(1) Heavy-duty Cropping Machine;
(2) Light-duty Cropping Machine;
(3) Light-duty Punching Machine;
(4) Heavy-duty Universal Machine;
(5) Heavy-duty Radial Drilling Machine (for drilling);
(6) Gas Cutting Sets may be mechanically guided or manually set-type (ensuring circularity
with permissible tolerances)
(7) Circular Saw (for sawing).

(8) CNC Fabricating Lines
9.4.5 Marking
The identification mark allotted to the member should be distinctly marked before galvanizing
with marking dies of 16 mm size. The machine used for this purpose is Hydraulic Press/Eccentric
Press.
Workmanship and finish should correspond to the best modern workshop practices and all similar
parts should be made interchangeable.
9.5 TOLERANCES
9.5.1 Tolerance in Holes
9.5.1.1 Holes for bolting should be cylindrical. The diameter of hole is equal to diameter of bolt + 1.5 mm for
bolts upto 20 mm in diameters. For 24 mm dia bolts, the clearance between bolt shank and hole is
2 mm. For higher sizes, the hole diameter is specified by the designer. While deciding the diameter
of the hole whether drilled or punched, care should be taken in making allowance for thickness of
galvanizing coat on bolts as well as in the holes and for the tolerance in bolt shank diameter. It has
been observed after series of measurements on galvanized bolt shanks that their diameter varies
upto 0.3 mm above the nominal diameter upto 20 mm dia bolt. Thus, the final diameter of the holes
to be punched/drilled at Black stage will be bolt diameter + 1.5 mm + 0.3 mm for bolts upto 20 mm
in diameter. For 24 mm dia bolts, the final diameter of the hole at Black stage will be equal to bolt
diameter + 2 mm + 0.4 mm.
9.5.1.2 Blocking of mis-punched/excess holes
Mis-punched or excess holes not more than one on any one surface area should be blocked by
proper welding technique by qualified welders. Total number of such blockings by welding may be
limited to three holes in a member. No new holes should be permitted overlapping the plugged
holes. The welding must be of proper quality and specification to ensure that strength of the welded
member shall be not less than that of the normal member.
9.5.2 Fabrication Tolerances
Sl. No. Description Tolerances

(a) On straightness (camber) 0.4% of the length of sections
of sizes up to 100 x 100 mm.
0.2% of the length of sections
of sizes over 100x 100 mm.
(b) The maximum allowable difference in diameter of the holes ± 0.8 mm
on the two sides of plate or angles i.e., the allowable taper
in a punched hole
(c) On overall length of angle members ± 2 mm
(d) On consecutive holes ± 1 mm
(e) On first hole to last hole in member ± 2 mm
(f) On gauge distances ± 1 mm
(g) On specified hole diameters on the punch side (in black + 0.4 mm & - 0.0 mm
or where drilled)
The fabrication tolerances in general shall conform to IS:7215-1974. In case of deviation beyond
prescribed tolerance, the assembly of the members may be made as per Structural Drawings and
if the overall dimensions of the structure are within limits, such items can be accepted. For leg
member joint holes, a manufactured cleat may be taken at random and placed over the member.
The bolt should pass at right-angle to the surface of member. For corner cuts, notches, flanged cuts
etc., a tolerance of +2 & -0 mm is allowed upto sections 100 x 100 and section above 100 x 100
mm +3 & -2 mm.
Appendix II gives a list of the Machines required for Tower Fabrication Workshop and Appendix III
is a workshop chart listing the Workshop Operations. Appendix IV gives Process Flow Chart for
Fabrication of Towers.
9.6 SHOP ERECTION /PROTO-TYPE TOWER ASSEMBLY
Steel work should be temporarily erected in horizontal position (one tower of each type including
combination of leg extension/body extension) so that accuracy of members can be checked before
testing the towers or commencing mass fabrication as applicable. The proto assembly is done on
the basis of approved structural drawing and shop drawings.
9.7 GALVANISING
The tower members, bolts/nuts and other accessories should be hot-dip galvanized and the spring
washers electro-galvanized. Galvanizing should be done in accordance with IS : 2629-1985,
after fabrication and the inspection at black stage is complete. The nuts may be re-tapped after
galvanizing so that these are “hand-free” on the galvanized bolts. The galvanizing procedure and
its in-process inspection are given in “QAP” (Quality Assurance Plan) – Appendix I. The galvanizing
bath should be reasonably free from dross. Chemically cleaned steel (after pre-treatment) should
be dipped in molten zinc carefully. On removal from the kettle the galvanized material may have
excess spelter which may be removed from the surface by bumping or wiping. The temperature
of the spelter in the kettle shall be controlled within close limits by means of thermocouples and
temperature indicators. The temperature for galvanizing MS and HT shall be in the range of 445 to
465 degree Centigrade.
9.8 INSPECTION
This is also covered in “QAP” Appendix I. The Inspector has to be given free access at all reasonable
time to those parts of the Manufacturer’s works which are concerned with the fabrication of steel
work and has to be afforded all reasonable facilities for satisfying himself that the fabrication
is being done in accordance with the provisions of the relevant standards/QAP. In general, all
measurements are done with approved/calibrated steel tapes in accordance with IS:1269 Part
2 - 1997. The defects which may appear through fabrication should be made good with Inspector
consent and according to the procedure laid down by the Inspector. All gauges and templates
necessary to satisfy the Inspector should be supplied by the manufacturer. The grade and quality
of steel used by the manufacturer should be correct. To ascertain the quality of steel used, the
inspector at his discretion may get the material tested at a suitable or approved laboratory. For
Inspection of galvanized material, the manufacturer should provide galvanized coupon samples
enabling the Inspector to carry out tests on the coupon samples. The coupon samples should be
taken from the batches corresponding to the fabricated material under inspection. However, the
inspecting authority can also ask for the actual items for testing, in which case such items will be
destroyed.
9.9 PACKING AND STORAGE
Angle sections may be wire-bundled or loose as may be mutually agreed upon. Cleat angles,
gusset plates, brackets, fillet plates, hangers and similar loose pieces may be nested and bolted
together in multiples or securely wired together through holes. Bolts, nuts, washers and other
accessories should be packed in HDPE bags and these HDPE bags shall be put inside gunny bags
and accurately tagged in accordance with the contents. The packing should avoid losses/damages
during transit. Each bundle or package should be appropriately marked.
In case of exports where shipping is involved the customer’s specifications for packing needs to be
adhered.
ANNEXURE I
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL - PRODUCT
Spec. Nos. & Year IS 2062:2011 SAIL MA BSEN 10025-II:2004 ASTMA36:2008 JIS G3101:2004
Description E250A 300 HI S 275JR S 275 JO A36 SS 400
(Plate)
Chemical Composition
Carbon, % max 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.21 0.30 NS
Manganese, % max 1.55 1.50 1.60 1.60 NS NS
Phosphorus, % max 0.050 0.055 0.05 0.045 0.05 0.05
Sulphur, % max 0.050 0.055 0.05 0.045 0.06 0.05
Silicon, % max 0.43 0.40 NS NS 0.45 NS
CEV, % max 0.42 NS 0.40 0.40 NS NS
Mechanical Strength
Tensile, N/mm2 min 410 440-560 410-560 400-550 400-550
Yield, N/mm min
2
T<20 = 250 300 T≤16 = 275 250 T≤16 = 245
T 20–40 = 240 T>16, ≤40 = 265 T>16, ≤40 = 235

T>40 = 230 T>40, ≤63 = 255 T>40 = 225
Elongation, % min 23 21 T≥3,≤40 = l-23 & t-21 Plate-23 T≤5 = 21
T>40,≤63 = l-22 & t-20 Shape-21 T>5, ≤16 = 17
T>63,≤100 = l-21 & t-19 T>16, ≤50 = 21
Bend at 1800 on 2T NS NS NS NS 1.5T
diameter, mm 3T
Charpy ’V’ C 0
NS NS 20 0 NS NS
notch impact
test, min J NS NS 27 27 NS NS
Note:
T – thickness of material
t – transverse or perpendicular to rolling direction
l – longitudinal to rolling direction
NS – Not specified in standard
0
C – Degree Centigrade
J – Joules
ANNEXURE II
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH TENSILE STEEL PRODUCT
Spec Nos. & Yr IS 2062: 2011 SAILMA BSEN10025-I:2004 ASTM A 572 JIS
G3101:2004
Description E350A E410A 350HI 410HI S355JR S355JO GR-50 GR-60 GR- SS540
65
Chemical Composition – (maximum)
Carbon, % 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.27 0.30
Manganese, % 1.60 1.65 1.50 1.50 1.70 1.70 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.60
Silicon, % 0.50 0.53 0.40 NS 0.60 0.60 0.45 0.45 0.45 NS
Sulphur, % 0.05 0.05 0.055 0.04 0.05 0.045 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.045
Phosphorus, % 0.05 0.05 0.055 0.04 0.05 0.045 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.045
Mechanical Properties – (minimum)
Tensile, N/mm2 490 540 490- 540- 470-630 450 520 550 540
610 660
Yield N/mm2 T<20=350 T<20=410 350 410 T<16 = 355 345 415 450 T<16=400
20– 20–40=390 T>16≤40 = 345 T>16≤40=390
40=330
T>40=320 T>40=380 T>40≤63 = 335 T>40≤63=380
Elongation. % 22 20 21 20 T≥3,≤40=l-22,t-20 21* 18* 17* T≤5 = 16
T>40,≤63=l-21,t-19 T>5, ≤16 = 13
T>63≤100=l-20,t-18 T>16, ≤50 =
17
Bend at 1800 on 2T 2T NS NS NS NS NS NS NS 1.5T
diameter, mm
Charpy 0
C NS NS NS NS 20 0 NS NS NS NS
’V’ notch
impact J NS NS NS NS 27 27 NS NS NS NS
test, min
Notes:
IS 2062 has 5 grades out of which grade E350A & E 410A is shown in the Table
BSEN 10025 has 5 grades out of which grade S355JR and S355JO is shown in the Table
ASTM A572 has 5 grades out of which grade 50, 60 & 65 is shown in the Table
* For ASTM A572 GR-50, 60 & 65, the given percentage of elongation is on fixed gauge length of 50mm only
T – Thickness of material
t – Transverse or perpendicular to rolling direction
l – Longitudinal to rolling direction
NS – Not specified in standard
0
C – Degree Centigrade
J – Joules
ANNEXURE III (a)
PROPERTIES OF EQUAL ANGLE SECTIONS AS PER IS: 808 - 1989

Size Sectional Unit Centre of Moment Radius Radius Modulus Root
2 Weight, gravity of Inertia of of of Radius,
Area, cm
kg/m Cx/Cy, Ix/ly, cm4 Gyration Gyration Sections (mm)
cm Rx/Ry, Rv min, Zx/Zy,
cm cm cm3
40 x 40 x 3 2.34 1.80 1.08 3.40 1.21 0.77 1.20 5.50
40 x 40 x 4 3.07 2.40 1.12 4.50 1.21 0.77 1.60 5.50
40 x 40 x 5 3.78 3.00 1.16 5.40 1.20 0.77 1.90 5.50
40 x 40 x 6 4.47 3.50 1.20 6.30 1.19 0.77 2.30 5.50
45 x 45 x 3 2.64 2.10 1.20 5.00 1.38 0.87 1.50 5.50
45 x 45 x 4 3.47 2.70 1.25 6.50 1.37 0.87 2.00 5.50
45 x 45 x 5 4.28 3.40 1.29 7.90 1.36 0.87 2.50 5.50
45 x 45 x 6 5.07 4.00 1.33 9.20 1.35 0.87 2.90 5.50
50 x 50 x 3 2.95 2.30 1.32 6.90 1.53 0.97 1.90 6.00
50 x 50 x 4 3.88 3.00 1.37 9.10 1.53 0.97 2.50 6.00
50 x 50 x 5 4.79 3.80 1.41 11.00 1.52 0.97 3.10 6.00
50 x 50 x 6 5.68 4.50 1.45 12.90 1.51 0.96 3.60 6.00
55 x 55 x 4 4.26 3.30 1.51 11.00 1.67 1.06 2.96 6.50
55 x 55 x 5 5.27 4.10 1.53 14.70 1.67 1.06 3.70 6.50
55 x 55 x 6 6.26 4.90 1.57 17.30 1.66 1.06 4.40 6.50
60 x 60 x 4 4.71 3.70 1.60 15.80 1.83 1.18 3.58 6.50
60 x 60 x 5 5.75 4.50 1.65 19.20 1.82 1.16 4.40 6.50
60 x 60 x 6 6.84 5.40 1.69 22.60 1.82 1.15 5.20 6.50
65 x 65 x 4 5.00 4.00 1.73 19.76 1.99 1.26 4.16 6.50
65 x 65 x 5 6.25 4.90 1.77 24.70 1.99 1.26 5.20 6.50
65 x 65 x 6 7.44 5.80 1.81 29.10 1.98 1.26 6.20 6.50
65 x 65 x 8 9.76 7.70 1.89 37.40 1.96 1.25 8.10 6.50
70 x 70 x 5 6.77 5.30 1.89 31.10 2.15 1.36 6.10 7.00
70 x 70 x 6 8.06 6.30 1.94 36.80 2.14 1.36 7.30 7.00
70 x 70 x 8 10.60 8.30 2.02 47.40 2.12 1.35 9.50 7.00
75 x 75 x 5 7.27 5.70 2.02 38.70 2.31 1.46 7.10 7.00
75 x 75 x 6 8.66 6.80 2.06 45.70 2.30 1.46 8.40 7.00
75 x 75 x 8 11.40 8.90 2.14 49.59 2.28 1.45 11.00 7.00
80 x 80 x 6 9.29 7.30 2.18 56.00 2.46 1.56 9.60 8.00
80 x 80 x 8 12.20 9.60 2.27 72.50 2.44 1.55 12.60 8.00
8 0 x 8 0 x 10 15.00 11.80 2.34 87.70 2.41 1.55 15.50 8.00
90 x 90 x 6 10.50 8.20 2.42 80.10 2.77 1.75 12.20 8.50
90 x 90 x 7 12.22 9.59 2.46 93.00 2.76 1.75 14.20 8.50
90 x 90 x 8 13.80 10.80 2.51 104.00 2.75 1.75 16.00 8.50
90 x 90 x 10 17.00 13.40 2.59 127.00 2.73 1.74 19.80 8.50
100 x 100x6 11.70 9.20 2.67 111.00 3.09 1.95 15.20 8.50
100x100x7 13.70 10.70 2.69 128.00 3.06 1.97 17.50 8.50
Size Sectional Unit Centre of Moment Radius Radius Modulus Root

2 Weight, gravity of Inertia of of of Radius,
Area, cm
kg/m Cx /Cy, Ix/ly, cm4 Gyration Gyration Sections (mm)
cm Rx/Ry, Rv min, Zx/Zy,
cm cm cm3
100 x 100 x 8 15.40 12.10 2.76 145.00 3.07 1.95 20.00 8.50
100 x 100 x 10 19.00 14.90 2.84 177.00 3.05 1.94 24.70 8.50
100 x 100 x 12 22.60 17.70 2.92 207.00 3.03 1.94 29.20 8.50
110 x 110 x 8 17.10 13.40 3.00 97.00 3.40 2.18 24.60 10.00
110 x 110 x 10 21.10 16.60 3.09 240.00 3.37 2.16 30.40 10.00
110 x 110 x 12 25.10 19.70 3.17 281.00 3.35 2.15 35.90 10.00
110 x 110 x 16 32.80 25.70 3.32 357.00 3.30 2.14 46.50 10.00
120 x 120 x 8 18.70 14.70 3.23 255.00 3.69 2.37 29.10 10.00
120 x 120 x 10 23.20 18.20 3.31 313.00 3.67 2.36 36.00 10.00
120 x 120 x 12 27.50 21.60 3.40 368.00 3.65 2.35 42.70 10.00
130 x 130 x 10 25.00 19.70 3.59 405.00 4.02 2.57 43.10 10.00
130 x 130 x 12 29.90 23.50 3.67 476.00 3.99 2.56 51.00 10.00
150 x 150 x 10 29.20 22.90 4.08 634.00 4.66 2.98 58.00 12.00
150 x 150 x 12 34.80 27.30 4.16 746.00 4.63 2.97 68.80 12.00
150 x 150 x 15 43.00 33.80 4.25 898.00 4.57 2.93 83.50 12.00
150 x 150 x 16 45.60 35.80 4.31 959.00 4.58 2.94 89.70 12.00
150 x 150 x 18 51.00 40.10 4.37 1050.00 4.54 2.92 98.70 12.00
150 x 150 x 20 56.20 44.10 4.46 1160.00 4.53 2.93 110.00 12.00
180 x 180 x 15 52.10 40.90 4.98 1590.00 5.52 3.54 122.00 18.00
180 x 180 x 18 61.90 48.60 5.10 1870.00 5.49 3.52 145.00 18.00
180 x 180 x 20 53.70 53.70 5.18 2040.00 5.47 3.51 159.00 18.00
200 x 200 x 16 61.80 48.50 5.56 2370.00 6.19 3.96 164.00 15.00
200 x 200 x 20 76.40 60.00 5.71 2880.00 6.14 3.93 201.00 15.00
200 x 200 x 24 90.60 71.10 5.84 3333.00 6.06 3.90 235.00 15.00
200 x 200 x 25 94.10 73.90 5.90 3470.00 6.07 3.91 246.00 15.00
ROOT RADIUS IN MM Essential in Inspection

ANNEXURE lll-(b)
PROPERTIES OF UNEQUAL ANGLE SECTIONS (As per IS: 808 -1989)
Size, mm Sectional, Unit Centre of Moment of Radius of Modulus of Root
Area, cm2 Wt., gravity Inertia gyration section Radius
kg/m Cx, cm Cy, cm Ix, cm4 Iy, cm4 Rx, cm Rv, cm Zx, Zy,
cm3 cm3
45 x 30 x 3 2.18 1.70 1.42 0.69 4.40 1.50 1.42 0.63 1.40 0.70 5.00
45 x 30 x 4 2.86 2.20 1.47 0.73 5.70 2.00 1.41 0.63 1.90 0.90 5.00
45 x 30 x 5 3.52 2.80 1.51 0.77 6.90 2.40 1.40 0.63 2.30 1.10 5.00
75 x 50 x 6 7.16 5.60 2.44 1.20 40.30 14.30 2.37 1.07 8.00 3.80 6.50
80 x 60 x 6 8.11 6.37 2.47 1.48 51.40 24.80 2.52 1.29 9.29 5.49 8.00
100 x 75 x 8 13.40 10.50 3.10 1.87 132.00 63.30 3.14 1.59 19.10 11.20 8.50
ANNEXURE lll (c)

PROPERTIES OF CHANNEL SECTIONS
Size, mm Sectional, Unit Centre Moment of Radius of Modulus of

Area, cm2 Wt., of Inertia gyration section
kg/m Gravity,
Ix, cm 4
Iy, cm Rx, cm Ry, cm Zx, cm3 Zy, cm3
4
Cy cm
ISMC 75x40 9.10 7.14 1.32 78.50 12.90 2.94 1.19 20.90 4.81
ISMC 100x50 12.20 9.56 1.54 192.00 26.70 3.97 1.48 33.50 7.71
ISMC 125x65 16.70 13.10 1.94 425.00 61.10 5.05 1.91 68.10 13.40
ISMC 150x75 21.30 16.80 2.20 788.00 103.00 6.08 2.20 105.00 19.50
ISMC 175x75 24.90 19.60 2.19 1240.00 122.00 7.04 2.21 141.00 23.00
ISMC 200x75 28.50 22.30 2.20 1830.00 141.00 8.02 2.22 181.00 26.40
ISMC 225 x 80 33.30 26.10 2.31 2710.00 188.00 9.02 2.37 241.00 33.00
ISMC 250 x 85 39.00 30.60 2.30 3880.00 211.00 9.92 2.37 307.00 38.50
ISMC 300 x 90 46.30 36.30 2.35 6420.00 313.00 11.80 2.60 428.00 47.10
ANNEXURE IV
UNIT WEIGHT OF PLATES (1 mm thick plate weighs 7.85 kg/m2)
Thickness in mm Weight in kg/m2 Thickness (mm) Weight in kg/m2
1 7.85 23.00 180.55

2 15.70 24.00 188.40
3 23.55 25.00 196.00
4 31.40 26.00 204.10
5 39.20 27.00 211.95
6 47.10 28.00 220.00
7 55.00 29.00 227.65
8 62.80 30.00 235.50
9 70.65 35.00 274.75
10 78.50 40.00 314.00
11 86.35 45.00 353.00
12 94.20 50.00 392.00
13 102.05 55.00 431.75
14 110.00 60.00 471.00
15 117.75 65.00 510.25
16 126.00 70.00 549.50
17 133.45 75.00 588.75
18 141.00 80.00 628.00
19 149.15 85.00 667.25
20 157.00 90.00 706.50
21 164.85 95.00 745.75
22 173.00 100.00 785.00
ANNEXURE V
DIMENSIONS OF HEXAGONAL BOLTS AND NUTS FOR STEEL STRUCTURES

All dimensions in millimeters
Reference: IS12427-2001 - Specification for Transmission Tower Bolts

Dimensional Parameters M12 M16 M20 M24
Thread size, d
‘p pitch of thread 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
‘b (ref) thread length 20 23 26 30
‘c (max) washer thickness 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8
under bolt head
‘da root diameter, max 14.7 18.7 24.4 28.4
‘ds shank diameter, 11.3-12.7 15.3-16.7 19.6-20.84 23.16-24.84
‘dw, diameter of washer under bolt head 16.47-18 22-24 27.7-30 33.25-36
‘e (min), width across corner 19.85 26.17 32.95 39.55
‘s – width across flats 17.57-18 23.16-24 29.16-30 35-36
‘r root radius 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8
‘k – thickness / height of head 7.05-7.95 9.25-10.75 11.6-13.4 14.1-15.9
‘l – length of bolt Upto 30 mm ± 1.05 mm 25 mm to 150 mm ± 2.0 mm
35 mm to 50 mm ± 1.25 mm 155 mm to 180 mm ± 4.0 mm
Reference: IS14394-1996 – Dimensional Properties of Nuts. All dimensions are in mm

Thread size, d M12 M16 M20 M24
p pitch of thread 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
e width across corner, min 19.85 26.17 32.95 39.55
m – thickness of nut 10.4-12.2 14.1-15.9 16.9-19 20.2-22.3
s – width across flats 17.57-18.0 23.16-24.0 29.16-30 35-36
dw – surface bearing width 16.5 22 27.7 33.3
Notes: Thread Limits For Galvanized Hexagon Nuts, Grade C, Tolerance Class 7AX
1. Nuts are tapped oversize Length of thread engagement, > 6 to ≤18 >8 to ≤24 >10 to ≤30 >12 to ≤36
to the above dimensions after
galvanizing Major diameter, min 12.35 16.40 20.40 24.45
2. The thread limits in
Pitch diameter, max 11.463 15.366 19.056 22.836
adjacent Table are based on
a fundamental deviation of – Pitch diameter, min 11.213 15.101 18.776 22.501
● 350µm for M12
Minor diameter, max 10.881 14.710 18.254 21.832
● 400µm for M16
● 400µm for M20 Minor diameter, min 10.456 14.245 17.694 21.202
● 450µm for M24

ANNEXURE VI
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HEXAGONAL BOLTS

(AS PER IS 1367-3:1991 & IS 12427:2002)
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION -
Grade of bolt Chemical Composition Limits (Check Analysis) % Tempering
C% P% S% Temp. °C
Min. Max. Max. Max. Min.
4.6 -- 0.55 0.05 0.06 --
5.6 0.13 0.55 0.05 0.06 --
5.8 -- 0.55 0.05 0.06 --
6.8 -- 0.55 0.05 0.06 --
8.8 Carbon steel with B. 0.15 0.40 0.035 0.035 425
Mn / Cr. Quenched and
tempered
Carbon steel quenched 0.25 0.55 0.035 0.035 425
and tempered
1. Free cutting steel is allowed for Property class 4.6, 5.8 & 6.8 with the following composition:
S - 0.34% Max, P - 0.11% Max & Pb - 0.35% Max
2. For the nominal diameter above 20mm the steel specified for property class 10.9 may be necessary in order to
achieve sufficient hardenability.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES -
Bolt Grade of bolt Wedge Load/ Ultimate Proof Load in N Shear Strength Hardness
Diameter Tensile Load in N in Mpa** in Range
M 12 4.6 33700 19000 250 67-99.5 HRB
M 16 62800 35300
M 20 9800 55100
M 24 141000 79400
M 12 5.6 42200 23600 310 79-99.5 HRB
M 16 78500 44000
M 20 122000 68600
M 24 176000 98800
M 12 5.8 43800 32000 322 82-99.5 HRB
M 16 81600 59700
M 20 127000 93100
M 24 184000 134000
M 12 6.8 50600 37100 375 89-99.5 HRB
M 16 94000 69100
M 20 147000 108000
M 24 212000 155000
M 12 8.8 70000* 50700* 515 22-32 HRC
M 16 130000* 91500*
M 20 203000 147000
M 24 293000 212000
Notes: * For structural bolts
** All grade, size and specification of bolts shall be mandatory shear tested and it shall meet the minimum
shear load value mentioned above in the Table.
ANNEXURE VI
(Contd...)
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NUTS

(AS PER IS 1367-6:1991 & IS 12427:2001)
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Chemical Composition Limits (Check Analysis) %
Grade/Property Class of C% Mn % P% S%
Nut Max. Max. Max. Max.
4, 5 & 6 0.50 -- 0.06 0.15
8 0.58 0.25 0.06 0.15
Nuts of Property Class 4, 5 & 6 may be manufactured from free cutting steel unless otherwise agreed between the
manufacturer and purchaser. In such case following are permissible. S - 0.34% Max, P - 0.11% Max & Pb - 0.35%
Max
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES -
Property Class 4 Property Class 5* Property Class 6 Property Class 8*
Nominal
Proof
Size of Hardness Proof Load Hardness Proof Load Hardness Proof Load Hardness
Load
Nut in HV in N in HV in N in HV in N in HV
in N
M12 NS NS 51400 59000 74200
130 - 302 150 - 302 200 - 302
M16 NS 117 – 302 95800 109900 138200
M20 125000 154400 146 - 302 176400 170 - 302 225400 233 - 302
M24 180000 222400 254200 324800
Notes –
* As per IS 14394, Nuts are tapped oversize after galvanizing. Apply oil after tapping oversize. Proof Load values after
tapping shall be as follow-
Thread size, d Pitch of Thread, Nominal Stress Area of Property Class / Grade
p Standard Test Mandrel, As 5 8
Proof Load, (As x Sp), N
M12 1.75 84.3 41300 56500
M16 2.0 157 77000 105200
M20 2.5 245 122500 181300
M24 3.0 353 176500 261300
ANNEXURE VI
(Contd...)
ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF BOLTS
Bolts/Nuts conform to IS : 6639-1972
Mechanical Properties conform to IS : 1367 (Part 3 -1991)
Ultimate shearing stress = 2220 kgf/ cm2 Ultimate bearing stress = 4440 kgf/cm2
Bolt dia Shearing strength for one Bolt Bearing strength (kgf) for one bolt for member thickness
(mm) Single shear Double shear 3 mm 4 mm 5 mm 6 mm 7 mm
(kgf) (kgf)
12 mm 2511 5022 1598 2132 2664 3197 3730
16 mm 4464 8928 2131 2842 3552 4263 4973
20 mm 6974 13948 2664 3552 4440 5328 6216
24 mm 10043 20086 3197 4263 5328 6394 7460
Ultimate shearing stress = 3161 kgf/cm2 = 3160 Ultimate bearing stress = 6322 kgf/cm2
Bolt dia Shearing strength for one Bolt Bearing strength (kgf) for one bolt for member
(mm) thickness
Single Double shear (kgf) 3 mm 4 mm 5 mm 6 mm 7 mm
shear (kgf)
12 mm 3575 7150 2276 3035 3793 4552 5311
16 mm 6356 12712 3035 4046 5058 6070 7081
20 mm 9931 19862 3793 5058 6322 7587 8851
24 mm 14300 28600 4552 6070 7587 9104 10621
Note: T
he above bearing values are against the bolt surface only. Bearing values against the member surface shall
be determined based on bearing strengths of materials used.
ANNEXURE VII
PROPERTIES OF TOWER BOLTS METRIC SCREW THREADS AS PER IS4218-1:2001 & IS4218-3:1999
nominal pitch, P minor pitch minor height of the fundamental nominal

diameter = major diameter of diameter of diameter of triangle of the thread, H stress area,
diameter, D, d thread, d1 thread, d2 thread, d3 (0.866025404*P) As
8 1.25 6.647 7.188 6.4666 1.0825 36.61
9 1.25 7.647 8.188 7.4666 1.0825 48.12
10 1.5 8.376 9.026 8.1595 1.2990 57.99
11 1.5 9.376 10.026 9.1595 1.2990 72.27
12 1.75 10.106 10.863 9.8534 1.5155 84.27
14 2.00 11.835 12.701 11.5463 1.7321 115.44
15 1.5 13.376 14.026 13.1595 1.2990 145.11
16 2.00 13.835 14.701 13.5463 1.7321 156.67
17 1.50 15.376 16.026 15.1595 1.2990 190.96
18 2.50 15.294 16.376 14.9332 2.1651 192.47
20 2.50 17.294 18.376 16.9332 2.1651 244.80
22 2.50 19.294 20.376 18.9332 2.1651 303.40
24 3.00 20.752 22.051 20.3190 2.5981 352.49
25 2.00 22.835 23.701 22.5463 1.7321 419.96
26 1.50 24.376 25.026 24.1595 1.2990 475.01
27 3.00 23.752 25.051 23.3190 2.5981 459.39
28 2.00 25.835 26.701 25.5463 1.7321 535.99
30 3.50 26.211 27.727 25.7058 3.0311 560.59
32 2.00 29.835 30.701 29.5463 1.7321 712.70
33 3.50 29.211 30.727 28.7058 3.0311 693.56
35 1.50 33.376 34.026 33.1595 1.2990 886.30
36 4.00 31.67 33.402 31.0926 3.4641 816.73
38 1.50 36.376 37.026 36.1595 1.2990 1051.67
39 4.00 34.67 36.402 34.0926 3.4641 975.76
Note - As = π/4{(d2+d3)/2}2
Appendix - I
QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN

1. INTRODUCTION
A well-planned, result oriented and implementable Quality Assurance Programme (QAP) is

necessary to ensure delivery of acceptable material in a timely manner. The objective of the QAP
is to establish that transmission material is in conformance with the specifications of the purchase
contract. This QAP must be established in a manner that provides open avenues of communication
throughout the plant. It is headed by a Manager having overall authority and responsibility to
establish, review, maintain and enforce the QAP.
2. QUALITY OBJECTIVE
To develop and lay down the procedures followed in general for quality control in the organization.
To create confidence in the customers about the quality of the towers supplied.
To create awareness in vendors/manufacturers about the system of control on quality of the goods
manufactured/ supplied
3. QUALITY POLICY
The design of towers should fully meet the customers’ quality requirements including functional,
safety and life characteristic with adequate attention to economy.
Specifications and plant standards are strictly adhered to during manufacture.
There is a scientific sales development and evaluation of vendors.
4. ORGANISATION OF QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT
Quality Control Department is autonomous by way of reporting directly to highest authority in the
organization. The decision of Quality Department remains final which will be within the limits of
specified standards.
There exists an inbuilt orientation and rotation system among personnel in Quality Control Depart
ment which gives opportunity to all persons in the department to learn all the aspects of quality
control.
5. QUALITY PLANNING
The objective of Quality Planning is to include the procedures for making arrangements to manage
the contract requirements. The various functions are as follows:
• Preparation, issue and updating of Quality Assurance Manual.
• Preparation, issue and updating of inspection instructions and formats for all stages.
• Developing schemes and sampling plans based on standard quality control techniques for the
Bought-out-items and the items fabricated in the Plant.
• To develop Vendors along with Procurement Department and from time to time guide them in
fulfilling technical requirements and prepare schemes for Vendor evaluation by Procurement
Department.
• Periodic calibration of measuring instruments and gauges.
• Openness to gather feedback from Customer meets and review Quality Plan
6. Vendor Performance Evaluation is made by Material Management Department based on feedback

from Quality Control Department. The incoming materials are subjected to inspection at the Source
of supply/ manufacture as well as in the Works.
The accepted materials are sent for further processing/dispatch and rejected materials are sent
back to the supplier. Care is taken that there is no mix up of rejected lot with the one which is
accepted. The evaluation of vendor performance is done by Material Management Department with
feedback on other factors like Delivery Schedules, Competitiveness and Reliability of Supplies.
7. Reporting by Quality Control Department is completely standardized by way of developing formats

as can be seen from formats included in this manual.
8. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS
8.1. The Customer’s quality requirements are translated by Design Department into achievable Specifi
cations and the same are improved continuously. The Customer’s Specifications are studied and
considering all factors, towers are designed.
8.2. Based on results of proto testing of tower, or shop assembly in the absence of proto type testing,
improvements in designs, if required are carried out. Improvements in design are also done based
on feedback from Construction Division and Clients.
8.3. To achieve economic specifications, the towers are designed for the minimum weight per tower
meeting the functional requirements.
8.4. The Drawings and Bills of Materials are circulated to all concerned. The modifications in drawings
and communication of changes required are done promptly.
8.5. Design Department helps shop floor in critical and important activities and also in simplifying the
methods of manufacture.
9. COMPANY/PLANT STANDARDS
9.1. Towers are designed, manufactured, erected and commissioned in accordance with the relevant
National/International Standards and / or Customer Specifications.
9.2. For the aspects not covered by National/International/Customer Specifications, the Company/Plant
Standards are followed.
9.3. All National Standards, and International Standards are available in Quality Control Department.
The extracts/Information applicable to various Departments are issued from time to time for their
reference and implementation, Company / Plant standards are reviewed immediately on revision of
national and / or international standards.
10. CONTROL ON INSPECTION-EQUIPMENTS/TOOLS/GAUGES
10.1. Verniers, micrometers, GO and NO-GO-Gauges and Magnetic Coating Thickness Gauges are
calibrated periodically and records are maintained. Digital measuring instruments shall be inducted
10.2. Measuring Scales and Metallic Tapes are inspected on receipt with master/standard ones by
comparison and sent to user department only when found acceptable.
10.3. Templates and Bend Gauges and Component Sketches are obtained from original source i.e.
Template Shop. Template Shop finalizes these based on actual assembly of prototype of each
structure.
10.4. Laboratory Testing equipments like Chemical Analysis Spectrometer, Universal Testing Machine,
Impact tester, Profile Projector, Rockwell hardness tester, Spectrometer, weighing scale, gravity
meter, load cell, etc available in laboratory are calibrated periodically by recognized Inspection
Agencies.
11. MATERIAL MANAGEMENT
11.1 The list of registered approved vendors maintained item-wise is updated periodically based on
evaluation of performance of existing vendors as well as newly approved ones.
11.2 Performance of the vendors (QCD) is closely followed through the feedback received from Stores
and Quality Control Department. Sustained efforts are put by Q.C.D. to improve the vendors.
11.3 Acceptable materials are segregated and sent for further processing/packing/dispatch.
11.4 Rejected materials are segregated-stored in separate bins/area with application of red indelible
paint and vendors are intimated about rejections and the materials are returned for replacements.
11.5 Vendor Development and Evaluation -
11.5.1 Registration of Vendors is done based on the following steps:
• Getting complete information on a prescribed Questionnaire or Vendor Assessment form.
• Based on filled Vendor assessment form, Quality Department Designated Representative

verifies and assess vendor for its manufacturing capability, process, infrastructure, testing
facility, QMS, yard management, NCR mechanism, systems, product and process quality,
etc.
• On assessment score approval is decided and if further development is required, the same is
carried out at vendor end to meet the qualification requirement.
• Sample testing and performance of trial orders.
11.5.2 Existing Registered Vendors are rated based on the factors like quality, (price), delivery and their
service regarding the consignments supplied.
11.5.3 Improvement in performance of vendors is done by continuous technical guidance by QC, Materials
and Design Department.
12. INCOMING MATERIAL INSPECTION
The incoming material is purchased as per detailed Specification and drawings referred to in Indent
by Scheduling Section or as per details furnished by Designs (Engineering) Division. The incoming
material can be broadly classified in the following categories:-
12.1 Raw Materials
12.1.1 Structural Steel
a. Quality of Steel - Generally conforms to IS 2062- 2011, Grade MS-E250A & HT-E350A; BSEN
10025: 2004 Grade MS-S275JR & HT-S355JR or any other equivalent specification stipulated
in the Contract.
b. Physical Properties - Verification of Mill Test Certificate with Actual Test Certificates from
laboratory.
c. Sampling Plan for Dimensional and Visual Inspection - Single sampling plan as per IS
2500 (Part-I) 2000 Inspection Level II Acceptability Quality Level - 1.5
d. Visual Defects –
• Scaling (Burnt Surface)
• Lamination (Folds)
• Heel Round
• Cracks
• Piping
• Rough surface
• Scab
• Waviness
e. Dimensional inspection - As per IS: 808-1989 & IS: 1852-1985 Leg-Length (Flange) below
or above tolerance. Out of Square, Camber, Sectional weight per meter below or above
tolerance.
f. Chemical Analysis - Mill test certificate for each lot are verified and confirmatory test on about
four samples per month from the major purchasers are analyzed as per IS: 2062 - 2011 or the
other applicable standard.
g. Document - Inspection Report of Steel (QCD-1).
12.2 ZINC:
a. Quality - IS:209 -1992-Grade 99.95% and IS : 13229-1991 Grade 98.50%

b. Sampling - One sample per lot for chemical analysis. If one sample fails then two more
samples are analyzed (as per IS: 209) for final decision.
c. Document: Test Certificate from Laboratory.
12.3 Bought-out items
12.3.1 Fasteners
a. Bolts and Nuts:
i. Bolts - Product specification - IS: 12427 - 2001 Technical Supply Conditions - IS: 1367 (Part
III) - 2002
ii. Nuts - Product specifications - IS: 1363 (Part - I) - 2002 Technical Supply Conditions - IS: 1367
(Part III) - 2002.
iii. Sampling: IS: 1367(Part 17) -2005.
iv. Document: Inspection report of Bolts/Nuts (QCD-2).
b. Spring Washers:
i. Specifications: IS: 3063 - 1994
ii. Sampling: IS: 6821-1973.
iii. Documents: Inspection Report of Spring Washers (QCD-3).
12.3.2 Tower Accessories
i. Material IS: 2062 - 2011 Grade E 250A and of specified category as per BS EN: 10025 – I & II
ii. Manufacturing - As per Drawing.
iii. Sampling Specifications: IS 2500 (Part-I) 2000 Inspection Level-ll AQL-1.5
iv. Documents - Inspection Report for Accessories (QCD-4).
13. IDENTIFICATION FOR ALL INCOMING MATERIAL
i. Accepted Lot - No paint

ii. Rejected Material - Red Paint
14. PRE-PRODUCTION
Pre-production is done for each structure/tower for finalizing the individual member (item) sketches
which are used for mass fabrication. This is done in the following way.
14.1 The draft sketches are made based on computerized approved structural assembly drawings.
14.2 As per the draft sketches, pieces required for one model assembly are fabricated and assembly
of one model is done on ground horizontally. Revisions and additions required as per the model
assembly are incorporated in the draft sketches.
14.3 Wherever required the structure assembled as above is also tested forth specified loads and
modifications required, if any, are incorporated in the draft sketches.
14.4 After incorporating all revisions in draft sketches, the same are finalized and tracings are made. The
copies of these final sketches are sent to Scheduling, Production, Quality Control and Inspection
Departments to use for mass fabrication.
14.5. If any revisions are required in sketches at a later date, the same are incorporated in the original
tracing and copies are promptly forwarded to all concerned.
14.6. At the time of pre-production, the bend gauges and templates are also prepared. Due to revisions,
if required, new/revised Templates/Bend Gauges are prepared and all old ones are destroyed.
15. IN-PROCESS INSPECTION
15.1 FABRICATION
15.1.1 The raw material accepted by Quality Control and Inspection Department is issued to the fabrication
shops by Raw Yard Department on the instructions of Planning and Scheduling Department. The
fabrication shops verify the correctness of material before accepting for mass fabrication.
15.1.2 Structural members (items) are fabricated as per the final sketch. The fabrication is done in
accordance with IS: 802 (Part 2-1978), IS: 7215-1974, IS: 1852-1985 and Company/ Plant
Standards.
15.1.3 In - process Inspection during fabrication is done by checking the first piece thoroughly as per
the sketch, IS: 802 (Part-2 1978), IS: 7215-1974, IS: 1852-1985 and Company/ Plant Standards.
The clearance for mass fabrication is given only after the first piece is found acceptable. Regular
inspection is also carried out by periodically inspecting pieces during the time the lot is under
fabrication, which ensures maintaining correct quality throughout fabrication of the lot.
15.1.4 The complete fabricated lot is taken for final inspection before galvanizing. Final inspection of
fabricated lot is done as per the following procedure:-
• Initially, the verification of stamping of member (Item No.) and Quality (total number of pieces
in the lot) is done with respect to the Route Sheet.
• One piece from the lot is drawn at random and detailed inspection is done as per sketch,
IS:802 (Part-2-1978) IS:7215-1974, IS: 1852-1985 & Plant (Company) Standards wherein the
following parameters are checked-
a. Section & Size: Angle section & gusset thickness.
b. Straightness-Camber-Visual method or thread method.
c. Squareness - By Tri-square
d. Size of holes-by GO and NO GO gauges.

e. Dimensional checking :
• Length of member and overall size of gusset.
• Hole positions-back mark and spacing.
• End Security-Cut-Edge security and rolled-edge security.
• Skew Cuts-Flange cuts, corner cut etc.
• Bend-Position of bend and degree of bend by Bend Gauges.
• Chipping-Length and depth of chipping by chipping gauges.
f. Visual Inspection:
• Raw material rolling defects.

• Punch and die marks.
• Burrs due to cropping, punching etc.
• Surface defects-rough surface due to scaling, thickness reduction due to bend.
g. Checking with checking cleat-The leg member joints, lattice joint and cover-cleats are checked
with ‘Checking Cleats’, made exactly as per the correspondence fitting members.
b. Gussets are checked with gusset templates, correctness of which is first verified. Criticality of
‘SET’ (if any) is ensured during the gusset inspection.
c. Welded items like footings are also inspected for welding test visual characteristics of weld,
dimensions checking of weld by means of gauges and dye penetration test (wherever
required.)
15.1.5 (a) Once the inspection of first piece is over and it is found acceptable, it is treated as template (or
master piece) and inspection of other pieces in the lot is done by visual comparison method with
respect to this template. Joints of legs, joints of lattices and cover cleats are checked with checking
cleats. Gussets are checked with gusset templates. During inspection by visual comparison
wherever a deviation is noticed in any piece, it is checked in detail in the same way as the first
piece. Pieces found defective in the lot are rejected.
(b) In case the first piece drawn from the lot is not acceptable, additional samples are drawn as per
IS: 2500 (Part-1) - 2000 inspection level II and these pieces are inspected as per XII. 1.4.2. Even if
one piece out of these is found unacceptable, the lot is finally rejected. If all these pieces are found
acceptable the inspection of lot is done as stipulated above in 15.1.5 (a).
15.1.6 Rejections
The defective pieces found in a lot after inspection as 12.1.4 are rejected. The rejections are
classified in the following two categories.
15.1.6.1 Rectifiable Rejection
These cover the defective pieces having defects which can be permitted to be rectified. Such defects
which are rectifiable are given code numbers, which are indicated in the Rectifiable Rejection Slips
prepared for each rejected piece. The referred pieces after rectification are inspected individually.
15.1.6.2 Out Right Rejection
The defective pieces which cannot be rectified are rejected out-right and are scrapped.
15.1.7 Documentation: i. Inspection & Loading Report
ii. Rejection Slips:
(a) Rectifiable
(b) Out-right
iii. Weekly Inspection Reports.
15.1.7.1 a) Daily Inspection and Loading Reports is forwarded to Senior Manager (Production) Galvanizing
Department, Stores & Accounts Department
b) Rectifiable rejections slips are sent to Senior Foreman of Fabrication shops along with the
material.
c) Out-right Rejection Slips are sent to Senior Manager (Production) and Planning & Scheduling
Department.
d) Weekly Inspection Reports are forwarded to Divisional Manager (Prodn) and corrective
measures are taken to avoid recurrence of those defects in future.
15.1.7.2 The defect analysis is done by Sr. Manager (Production) & Divisional Manager (Production) and
corrective measures are taken to avoid recurrence of those defects in future.
15.1.1.8 Identification: The pieces rejected out-right are applied red paint and sent to scrap bin.
The pieces for rectification are marked with rectification required and returned to correspondence
shop along with ‘Rectifiable Rejection Slip’.
15.2 GALVANIZING
Specifications: IS: 2629 Practice for Hot Dip Galvanizing or Equivalent like ASTM: A-123 and ISO:
1461
15.2.1 Surface Preparation Chemicals
15.2.1.1 D
egreasing Solution: To remove contamination by oil, grease and paint etc. material is dipped into
caustic Soda solution which is kept at a temperature between 60°C and 80°C or acidic degreaser
at room temp, is used. In case of caustic soda, the strength of solution is 5% minimum i.e. 50 g/
litre minimum. The strength of solution in degreasing tank is checked every week. Alternatively cold
degreasing with activated caustic soda can also be used. Immediately after degreasing the material
is rinsed in running water before pickling. In case of acidic degreaser rinsing may not be required.
15.2.1.2 P
ickling Solution: Dilute Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) having Acid strength of 4% to 18% (40 gms/litre
to 180 gms/litre) is used for pickling the material. Iron content is maintained below 160gms/litre.
The solution is maintained at room temperature. The desired strength and Iron content is checked
in the beginning of each shift and if required fresh concentrated acid is added. Mild agitation of
material in pickling tank is done to reduce pickling time. Alternatively dilute Sulphuric Acid (H2S04)
having Acid strength of 4% to 15% (40 g/litre to 150 g/litre) and specific gravity of 11-28° Be is also
used for pickling the material.
15.2.1.3 Rinsing: After pickling the material is rinsed in running water.
15.2.1.4 P
re-fluxing Solution: The rinsed material after pickling is immersed in pre-fluxing solution (Zinc
Chloride and Ammonium Chloride). The specific gravity of pre-fluxing solution is maintained
between 18 to 30 baume at room temperature. The iron content in the solution is not allowed to
exceed 5 g/litre. The pre-fluxing solution is checked for specific gravity and iron content in the
beginning of each shift.
15.2.1.5 Documentation:
i. Weekly records of shift wise acid strength.
ii. Galvanizing process Inspection Report.

15.2.2 Dipping
15.2.2.1 Q
uality of Zinc: Zinc conforming to Grade Zn 98.5 of IS: 13229 -1991 and Grade Zn 99.95 of IS:
209-1992 is used for the purpose of galvanizing.
15.2.2.2 B
ath Temperature: The temperature of molten zinc in the main as well as auxiliary baths for
bolts, nuts and accessories is consistently maintained between 445°C to 465°C. The temperature
is checked regularly in the shift to maintain it with specified limits. There is automatic control and
recording of temperature of molten zinc in kettle.
15.2.2.3 F
lux Solution: The material after pre-fluxing is immersed in flux solution (Zinc Chloride and
Ammonium Chloride). The specific gravity of flux solution is maintained between 18 to 30 baume
at room temperature. The iron content in the solution is not allowed to exceed 7 g/litre. The flux
solution is checked for specific gravity and iron content in the beginning of each shift.
15.2.2.4 The other requirements like Aluminum & lead addition, reduction in suspended dross, high rate
of immersion, low speed of withdrawal are maintained in such a way that quality of galvanized
product is consistent.
15.2.2.5 Documents: Galvanizing Inspection Report.
15.2.3. Post Treatments after Dipping
15.2.3.1 C
entrifuging / Bumping: Small items, fasteners and hardware fittings galvanized in baskets are
centrifuged / bumped on rollers/ by stick to remove excessive zinc immediately after dipping and
before water quenching.
15.2.3.2 W
ater Quenching: After withdrawal from molten zinc the material is quenched immediately in
water. The water tank is cleaned every fortnight to prevent accumulation of corrosive salts.
15.2.3.3 P
assivation: Surface Passivation by immersing into Sodium Di-Chromate solution or polymer
based solution (chrome free): To protect the galvanized surface from wet storage staining and
to avert attack by corrosive marine conditions the material is quenched in solution of sodium
dichromate. The strength of solution is maintained from 0.5% to 2% and checked by titration
regularly and alternatively with color comparison method.
15.2.3.4 Documents: Weekly records of shift wise acid strengths.
16. INSPECTION AND TESTING OF FINISHED (GALVANISED) MATERIAL
16.1 Visual Inspection
• Regular Inspection of each lot is carried out in accordance with IS : 2629, ASTM : A-123 and
ISO:1461 to ensure that zinc coating is uniform, adherent, reasonably smooth and free from
such imperfection as flux, ash and bare patches, black spots, pimples, bulky-white deposits
and blisters. The material not conforming to visual characteristics is rejected.
• Documentation:
(i) Galvanizing Inspection Report.
(ii) Store Receipt Notes.
16.2 Uniformity of Coating (Preece Test)
• To test for uniformity of zinc coating thickness and to determine thinnest spot of zinc coating
the copper sulphate solution test is carried out in accordance with IS:2633-1986 and ASTM :
A-239. The samples are subjected to four dips of one minute each, which they should withstand
satisfactorily i.e., they do not show any red deposit of copper upon base metal.
• This test is applicable only for small articles and therefore for material of big and inconvenient
size, uniformity of coating is determined with Magnetic Thickness Gauge after taking 5 readings
at each end and in the middle of the piece.
• Documentation: Galvanizing Inspection Report.
16.3 Weight of Zinc Coating Thickness: Specifications - IS: 4759-1996, ASTM: A-123 and ISO 1461.
• Thickness of Zinc Coating by Magnetic Gauge.
• No. of samples: 3 for tower materials per shift and 1 for accessories per shift.
• Minimum Zinc Coating-
1) Tower Material (a) 5 mm thick and over-86 microns
(b) Under 5 mm but over 2 mm thick-65 microns.
2) Hardware fittings, bolts, nuts and tower accessories – Min. 43 microns as per IS:1367 Part
13-1983.
• Documentation: Galvanizing Inspection Report.
16.4 Adhesion of Zinc Coating Specifications - IS: 2629-1985, ASTM: A-123 & ISO 1461
• Pivoted Hammer Test for Tower Members
• Knife test for Hardware Fittings, Bolts Nuts and Tower Accessories
• Two standard blows by hammer forming parallel impression (with 6 mm spacing) and prying
with stout knife, should not peel/flake off coating
16.5 The Material inspected and tested as per above requirements when found acceptable is released
by Q.C.D. to finish yard for storage, packing and dispatch.
17. STORAGE, PACKAGING AND HANDLING
17.1 The material is dipped in sodium dichromate or polymer based passivation solution (0.5 to 2%
Strength) to protect from white rust formation.
17.2 The components are bundled in pre-determined methods depending upon customer’s requirements/
mode of transport.
17.3 For export orders, single tower wise bundles to the extent of 1 tone are made by passing 8 SWG
or 10 SWG wires in holes at both ends of the member and also strapping the bundles at distance
of 1.0/1.5 m with electro galvanized steel straps. The strapping is done by means of strapping
machine.
17.4 The indigenous orders are dealt with differently. The bundles are item wise but the weight is
restricted to 1000 Kgs to facilitate manual loading / unloading. The process of bundling is same
except strapping which is eliminated.
17.5 Small articles and accessories are packed in gunny bags/wooden boxes. The boxes are strapped
in addition to nailing. Weight of material box is 1000 Kg. Boxes are made in accordance with
drawing as per customer requirements.
17.6 Each package / bundle is prepared only after scrutiny of individual component by its identification
mark. Stenciling of item number on the top of bundle / package also is done.
17.7 The bundles / packages are also stenciled with identification mark / shipping mark etc.
A. SAMPLING PLAN FOR INCOMING MATERIAL – STEEL SHAPES, PLATES AND FLATS
a. For Visual and Dimensional - Sampling Specification: IS: 2500 (Part-1)-1992 Inspection level II, AQL-1.5
Lot Size No. of Pcs Sample Size Acceptance Number Rejection Number
2 to 8 100% 0 1
9 to 15 8 0 1
16 to 25 8 0 1
26 to 50 8 0 1
51 to 90 8 0 1
91 to 150 32 1 2
151 to 280 32 1 2
281 to 500 50 2 3
501 to 1200 80 3 4
1201 to 3200 125 5 6
3201 to 10000 200 7 8
10001 to 35000 315 10 11
35001 to 150000 500 14 15
150001 and above 800 21 22
i. Fastener Sampling as per IS: 1367 Part-17-2005.
ii. Spring Washer and non-threaded fastener sampling as per IS: 6821 -1973
iii. Zinc Sampling as per IS: 209-1992
iv. Sampling, for any other incoming material whose relevant specifications does not mention any
specific sampling plan should be done as per I above.
v. ‘Depending upon the nature of defect, availability of material and contractual commitment fully
rejected lots may be subjected to 100% inspection and only such quantity which meets the quality
requirements of relevant specifications, should be accepted.
b. For Mechanical and Chemical Tests - Sampling Specification: IS: 2062 - 2011
Test Parameters Sampling
Mechanical Test: Number of test samples shall be 2 per cast /
Yield Stress heat and a class of steel product irrespective
of cast / heat
Ultimate Tensile Strength
% of Elongation
Bend Test
Charpy / Impact Test
Chemical test
c. For Galvanizing Tests (Mass test, Uniformity test, Adhesion test) - Sampling Specification: IS: 2629 & IS:
4759
No. of units in a lot No. of units to be selected Acceptance No. Rejection No.
Up to 25 3 0 1
26 to 100 5 0 1
101 to 150 8 1 2
151 to 500 13 1 2
501 to 1000 20 2 3
1001 to 10000 32 3 4
Over 10000 50 5 6
B. SAMPLING PLAN FOR BOLTS, NUTS & SPRING WASHERS

a. For Visual and Dimensional Tests - IS: 2614
Lot Size Sample Size Acceptance No. Rejection No.
Up to 100 8 0 2
101 to 300 13 0 2
301 to 500 20 0 2
501 to 1000 32 0 3
1001 to 3000 50 1 4
3001 to 10000 80 2 5
10001 to 35000 125 3 7
Over 35000 200 5 9
b. For Mechanical and Chemical Tests - IS: 2614, IS: 1367 Part-17 2005 and IS: 6821
Lot Size Sample Size Acceptance No. Rejection No.
Up to 1000 5 0 1
1001 to 3000 8 0 1
3001 to 10000 13 0 1
10001 to 35000 20 0 1
Over 35000 32 1 2
c. For Galvanizing Tests (Mass test, Uniformity test, Adhesion test) - Sampling Specification: IS: 1367 Part-
13 and Hardware Fittings
Lot Size Sample Size
Up to 500 3
501 to 35000 5
Above 350000 8
Microscopic test on Electroplated Spring
2
washers per lot
C. Above sampling plan shall be applied to accept and reject the lots of material.
• The lot shall be accepted, if rejected pieces found in the lot do not exceed the “Acceptance Number”
mentioned for the lot size.
• The lot shall be rejected, if the rejected pieces found equal or more than the “Rejection Number”
mentioned for the lot size.
QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT

DATE: ________________________
QCD-1
INSPECTION REPORT OF STEEL
STACKING / PRELIMINARY
1) SUPPLIER .............................................................. 6) P O NO. ......................................................
2) SECTION................................................................ 7) LOCATION .................................................
3) GRADE .................................................................. 8) INSP. CALL NO. .........................................
4) QUANTITY, PCS ................................................... 9) TC NUMBER ..............................................
5) WEIGHT, MT ......................................................... 10) G R NOTE NO. ..........................................
1. IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS
a) The tolerance on leg length shall be as follows as per IS: 1852.
Leg Length (mm) Tolerance (mm)

Over Up to
0 45 ± 1.5
45 100 ± 1.5
100 - ± 2.0 percent
b) In the case of unequal angle: 45 x 30 mm, the tolerance on longer leg length shall be + 2.0 mm -1.5
mm.
c) Out of Square - The legs of angles shall be perpendicular to each other within a tolerance of ±1
degree.
d) The difference between the leg lengths of equal angles shall be limited to 75 per cent of the total
tolerance (plus and minus) specified on the leg lengths.
e) Weight: The tolerance on weight per meter shall be ± 5% in the case of angles 3 mm in thickness
and +5% - 3% in the case of angles over 3 mm in thickness.
f) All finished steel shall be well and cleanly rolled to the specified dimensions, sections and weight.
The finished material shall be free from cracks, surface flaws, lamination, rough, jagged imperfect
edges, scaling (excessive burnt surface) pipy cross section, ground heel and all other harmful
defects.
g) Sampling as per IS 2500 Part-l, Inspection level-ll, AQL-1.5 or 100% Inspection of Steel carried out.
2. VISUAL INSPECTION
2.1 Lot Size __________________________ 2.2 Sample Size ________________________
2.3 Acceptance No. _____________________ 2.4 Rejection No. ________________________
2.5 No. of Defectives found ______________
REMARKS: LOT Accepted/Rejected*

3. DIMENSIONAL CHECKING:
3.1 Lot Size: ...............................................................................................................................................
3.2 Sample Size: .......................................................................................................................................
3.3 Acceptance No.: ..................................................................................................................................
3.4 Rejection No.: ......................................................................................................................................
3.5 No. of defectives found: .......................................................................................................................
3.6 Actual Dimensions: ..............................................................................................................................
Sr. No. Leg Length Thickness Sr. No. Leg Length Thickness
1. 26.
2. 27.
3. 28.
4. 29.
5. 30.
6. 31
7. 32.
8. 33.
9. 34.
10. 35.
11. 36.
12. 37.
13. 38.
14. 39.
15. 40.
16. 41.
17. 42.
18. 43.
19. 44.
20. 45
21. 46.
22. 47.
23. 48.
24. 49.
25. 50.
Additional Sheets may be used if there are more number of pieces.
REMARKS: LOT Accepted/Rejected*

4. REJECTIONS
Out of Scaling Heel Unequal Hair Rolling Pitted Pipy Mat. Others Total
square Grinding. Section Line Defect Def. Rej. Qty.
Crack
‘Depending upon the nature of defect, availability of material and contractual commitments, fully rejected
lot may be subjected to 100% inspection and only such quantity which meets the quality requirements of
relevant specifications shall be accepted. In such case, the actual dimensions of such rejected angles only
may be given in 3.6.
5. PHYSICAL TESTING
5.1 Lot Size ______________________________________________________________________

5.2 Sample Size ___________________________________________________________________
5.3 Acceptance No. ________________________________________________________________
5.4 No. of defectives found __________________________________________________________
5.5 Retest Samples ________________________________________________________________
5.6 Acceptance No. ________________________________________________________________
5.7 No. of Defectives found __________________________________________________________
6. FINAL REMARKS: LOT ACCEPTED/REJECTED
6.1 100% INSPECTION FINAL REMARKS:
Total No. of pieces Accepted: ...........(Refer 2.3 and 5.3)

Total No. of pieces Rejected .............(Refer 2.4 and 5.4)
7. BEND TEST
SUPPLIER
P.O. NO.
SECTION
QUANTITY (Tonnes)
NO. OF TEST PCS.
I.D. MARK
BEND DEGREE 180° 180° 180° 180°
FORMER DIA FOR BEND IN mm
(3TIMES THICKNESS)
REMARKS
ASSTT. OFFICER / INSPECTOR SR.ENGINEER (INSPN.)

1. REPORT ON TESTING OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Ref. No
Dated:__________
MATERIAL: ___________________ SPECIFICATION: ___________________
LIST NO.: ___________________ QUANTITY: ___________________
W.O / P.O. NO.: ___________________ DATE OF TESTING: ___________________
SUPPLIER / CLIENT: ___________________ STAMPED AS: ___________________
TENSILE TEST: ___________________
TEST PARAMETERS SAMPLE-1 SAMPLE-1 SAMPLE-1 SAMPLE-1

TYPE AND SIZE
IDENTIFICATION MARK
WIDTH/DIA(mm)
THICKNESS (mm)
AREA ‘A’ (mm2)

GAUGE LENGTH = 5.65 VTT(mm)
FINAL GAUGE LENGTH (mm)
YIELD LOAD (kgf)

ULTIMATE LOAD (kgf)
YIELD STRESS (kgf/mm2)

U.T.S. (kgf/mm2)
PERCENTAGE ELONGATION
FRACTURE
BEND TEST
FORMER DIA. (mm)

BEND AT 180° (FORMER DIA...................mm)
FINAL REMARKS:-
Test Witnessed by : Test Conducted By :


DATE: _______________________
QCD-2
g. INSPECTION REPORT FOR BOLTS/NUTS
Description of the Material: ______________________________________________________________

Material Specification: IS: 12427 / IS: 1363 /IS:1367 (PART-13)
Purchase Order No.:_____________________________ G.R. Note No.:__________________________
Supplier:______________________________________
W.O.: _______________________________________ Black/Galvanized: _______________________
Date Receipt: __________________________________ Date of Inspection: _______________________
Sampling Specification: IS: 2614.
1.1 Description of the material ___________________________________________________________
1.2 Lot size____________________________________________ 1.3 Sample Size________________
1.4 Acceptance No. _____________________________________ 1.5 Rejection No._______________
1.6 No. of Defectives ____________________________________
2. DIMENSIONAL CHECKING
2.1 Description of the material ___________________________________________________________
2.2 Lot Size ____________________________________________ 2.3 Sample Size _______________
2.4 Acceptance No. ______________________________________ 2.5 Rejection No. ______________
2.6 No. of Defectives found _____________________________________________________________
2.7 Actual Dimensions of Bolts (IS: 12427-2001)
S. No Description Required dimensions in mm Actual dimensions in mm

2.7.1 Diameter of Bolts 12/16 _______________________
2.7.2 Shank diameter 11.30-12.70/15.30-16.70 _______________________
2.7.3 Major diameter 11.541-11.966/15.512-15.962 _______________________
2.7.4 Total length Upto30:±1.05 _______________________
35 to 50: ± 1.25 _______________________
55 to 80: ± 1.50 _______________________
2.7.5 Thread length 20 -0,+3.5/23 -0,+4 _______________________
2.7.6 Pitch 1.75/2.0 _______________________
2.7.7 Width across flats 17.57-18.0/23.16-24.0 _______________________
2.7.8 Width across corners Min. 19.85/Min. 26.17 _______________________
2.7.9 Head Thickness 7.05-7.95/9.25-10.75 _______________________
2.7.10 Tolerance Class 8g _______________________
2.8 Actual Dimensions of Nuts (IS: 1363 Part-3-1992)
S. No Description Required dimensions in mm Actual dimensions in mm

2.8.0 Size M12 / M16 ________________________
2.8.1 Width across flats 17.57-18.0/23.16-24.0 ________________________
2.8.2 Width across corners Min. 19.85/Min. 26.17 ________________________
2.8.3 Thickness 10.4-12.2/14.1-15.9 ________________________
2.8.4 Pitch 1.75/2.0 ________________________
2.8.5 Tolerance Class 7H ________________________
REMARKS : The Nut threads shall be oversized by 0.4 mm for M16 Nuts and 0.3 mm for M12 as diametral
allowance for galvanizing on male threads. Nuts should be oiled after re-tapping.
3. PHYSICAL TEST: (a) Bolts to property class 5.6 as per IS:1367 (Part-3)-1991.
(b) Nuts to property class 5 as per IS: 1367 (Part-6)-1994
3.1 Description of the material ________________________________________________________
3.2 Lot size _________________________ 3.3 Sample Size _______________________________
3.4 Acceptance No. __________________ 3.5 Rejection No. ______________________________
3.6 No. of Defectives found __________________________________________________________
REMARKS: LOT CONFORMS / DOES NOT CONFORM TO SPECIFICATIONS.
4. GALVANISING TEST: IS:1367 (Part-13) (Preece Test 4 dips of duration 1 minute

each and coating thickness by thickness gauge)
4.1 Description of the material ________________________________________________________
4.2 Lot Size _____________________________ 4.3 Sample Size _________________________
4.4 Acceptance No.: ______________________ 4.5 Rejection No. ________________________
4.6 No. of Defectives found ________________
REMARKS: LOT CONFORMS/DOES NOT CONFORM TO Specifications.
5. FINAL REMARKS: LOT ACCEPTED / REJECTED (Refer Clause nos.1.6, 2.6, 3.6 & 4.6)


DATE: ________________________
h. TEST REPORT ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BOLTS Specification: IS:1367 (Part-3)
Size: _________________________________ Grade: _______________________________________
Quantity: ______________________________ Manufacturer: _________________________________
Purchase Order No.: _____________________ G.R. Note No.: _________________________________
(1) HEAD SOUNDNESS TEST: Requirement: No cracks at the neck
No. of Samples tested: _________________ Results: _______________________________
Remarks: Lot Accepted/Rejected.
(2) HARDNESS TEST: Requirement: minimum 79 HRB and 99.5 HRB maximum
Sample No. Hardness Values in HRB Result Sample No. Hardness Values in HRB Result
Remarks : Lot Accepted/Rejected
(3) PROOF LOAD TEST: Requirement: Application of M16-44KN, M20-68.6KN for 15 Seconds and
adaptor should be removed easily.
No. of Samples tested: _______________. Results: __________________
Remarks: Lot Accepted / Rejected
(4) WEDGE LOADING (Full Tensile) TEST: Requirement: Minimum breaking load M16-78.5KN,
M20122KN.
Sample Breaking load N Fracture Results Sample Breaking load N Fracture Results
No. No.
Remarks :- Lot Accepted/Rejected
(5) SHEAR TEST: - Requirement: Minimum Shear stress _________________ 310N/mm2

Sample Area mm2 Shear load Shear Results Sample Area mm2 Shear Shear Results
No. N Stress No. load Stress
N /mm2 N N /mm2
Remarks: Lot Accepted / Rejected
(6) FINAL REMARKS: LOT ACCEPTED/ REJECTED
Test witnessed by: - Tests conducted by:


DATE: ________________________
I. TEST REPORT ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NUTS
Size: ______________________________ Grade: ______________________________________
Specification: _______________________ Quantity: _____________________________________
Manufacturer: _______________________ Purchase Order: _______________________________
G.R. Note No.: ______________________
(1) HARDNESS TEST: Requirement: M16:130-302HV & M20:146-302HV
Sample No Hardness Values in HV/HRB Sample No Hardness Values in HV/HRB

1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5 10
Results:______________________________________ Remarks: Lot Accepted/Rejected
(2) PROOF LOAD TEST: Requirement: Application of M16-95.8KN and M20-154.4KN for 15
seconds and mandrel should be removable by the fingers after the load is released.
No. of Samples tested: _________________ Results: __________________
Remarks: Lot Accepted/Rejected.
FINAL REMARKS: LOT ACCEPTED/REJECTED
Test witnessed by: Tests Conducted by


DATE: ________________________
QCD-3
j. INSPECTION REPORT FOR SPRING WASHERS
Description of Material: _________________________________________________________________

Material Specification: IS:3063. Electro Galvanized as per IS:1573
P.O. No.: _____________________________ G. R. Note No.: _______________________________
Supplier : ______________________________________________________________________
W.O.: _______________________________ Black/Electro Galvanised.________________________
Date of Receipt: _______________________ Date of Inspection: _____________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
SAMPLING SPECIFICATION: IS:6821
1.1 Lot Size_________________________________________ 1.2 Sample Size ___________________

1.3 Acceptance No. (A) Duds ___________________________ (B) Others _______________________
1.4 Rejection No. (A) Duds _________________________ (B) Others _______________________
1.5 No. of defectives found (A) Duds _____________________ (B) Others _______________________
1.6 REMARKS: LOT-CONFORMS/DOES NOT CONFORM TO SPECIFICATIONS
2. DIMENSIONAL CHECKING: Details as per 2.6
2.1 Lot Size ________________________________________ 2.2 Sample Size ___________________

2.3 Acceptance No. (A) Major __________________________ (B) Minor ________________________
2.4 Rejection No. (A) Major ____________________________ (B) Minor ________________________
2.5 No. of defectives found (A) Major ____________________ (B) Minor ________________________
2.6 Actual Dimensions
Description Required Dimension for Size Actual
M12 M16 M20 M22 Dimension
I.D. 12.2 + 0.5 16.2 + 0.8 20.2 + 1.0 22.5+ 1.0 -
O.D. Max. 21.1 Max. 27.4 Max. 33.6 Max. 35.9 -
Width 4+0.2 5±0.2 6±0.2 6±0.2 -
Thickness 2.5+0.15 3.5+0.2 4+0.2 4 + 0.2 -

2xThickness 5±0.3 7±0.4 8±0.4 8+0.4 -
2.7 REMARKS: LOT-CONFORMS/DOES NOT CONFORM TO SPECIFICATIONS

3(a). PERMANENT SET TEST:

The Spring Washer to be tested shall be compressed between two hardened Flat Ground Washers with a
hardness of not less than 60 HRC for two minutes at given loads in Table-1. After releasing the compression
load the free height of the spring washers shall not be less than the values in Table-1. Reference standard
is IS 3063.
3(b). PERMANENT LOAD TEST

Ten Spring Washers shall be arranged on a bolt and separated from one another by parallel-faced washers
with minimum hardness of 500 HV (HRC 49.1). This assembly shall then be subjected to compression
loads as specified in Table - 1, for duration of 48 hours at ambient temperature. There shall be no crack or
fracture on the washers. Reference standard is ISO 3063.
Table – 1: As per IS 3063

Bolt Size (mm) Compression Load (N) Minimum Free Height (mm)
12 30000 4
16 56300 5.6
20 88000 6.4
24 127000 8
3.1 Lot Size: _______________________________________ 3.2 Sample Size: ___________________

3.3 Acceptance No.: ________________________________ 3.4 Rejection No.: ___________________
3.5 No. of defectives found ______________________________________________________________
REMARKS: LOT-CONFORMS / DOES NOT CONFORM TO SPECIFICATIONS
4. TWIST TEST
A portion of the Spring Washer parallel to the end shall be gripped in a vice jaw to a depth of one fourth of
the Washer Outer Diameter and the other portion shall be symmetrically gripped in Wrench Jaws such that
the edge of the Wrench Jaws are parallel to that of the vice jaws. The Wrench Jaw shall be rotated to twist
the washer through 90 º in a direction that increases the free height. The washer shall show no signs of
cracks or fracture. Reference standard is ISO 3063.
4.1 Sample Size: _________________________ 4.2 Acceptance No: ___________________________

4.3 Rejection No.: ________________________ 4.4 No. of defectives found: _____________________
5. HARDNESS TEST: Required Hardness 43 HRC to 50 HRC.

5.1 Sample Size:__________________________ 5.2 Acceptance No: ___________________________
5.3 Rejection No.: _________________________ 5.4 No. of defectives found: ____________________
6. ELECTRO GALVANISED AS PER IS: 1573 SERVICE CONDITION 3

6.1 Sample Size: _________________________ 6.2 Acceptance No: ___________________________
6.3 Rejection No.: ________________________ 6.4 No. of defectives found: _____________________
6.5 Average Thickness of Coating: Min. reqd-38 Micron.
6.2 LOCAL THICKNESS OF COATING: MIN. REQD-12.5 Micron

6.2.1 Checking by Magnetic Gauge
6.2.2 Sample Size:_____________________________________________

6.2.3 Sample Size: ____________________________________________
6.2.4 Acceptance No.: __________________________________________
6.2.5 Rejection No.: ____________________________________________
6.2.6 Average Thickness of Coating: Min. reqd-18 Micron. ______________
6.2.7 No. of defectives found _____________________________________
REMARKS: LOT - CONFORMS / DOES NOT CONFORM TO SPECIFICATIONS.
6.2.2 Microscopic Test: IS.3203-1982
Sampling - 2 pcs. per lac or part thereof ____________________________

Sample Size - ________________________________________________
Acceptance No.: ______________________________________________
Rejection No.: ________________________________________________
No. of defectives found : ________________________________________
REMARKS: LOT - CONFORMS / DOES NOT CONFORM TO SPECIFICATIONS
FINAL REMARKS : LOT ACCEPTED / REJECTED


DATE: ________________________
QCD-4
k. INSPECTIONS REPORT FOR ACCESSORIES
Description of the Material: _________________________ Drawing No.: __________________________

Supplier ________________________________________ Material Specification: __________________
Black / Galvanized: _______________________________ Purchase Order No.: ____________________
GR Note No.: ____________________________________ Work Order No.: _______________________
Date Receipt ____________________________________ Date of Inspection ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
SAMPLING SPECIFICATION - IS : 2500 (Part-1) - 1982 Inspection level - II & AQL - 1.5
1.1 Lot Size: _______________________________________ 1.2 Sample Size: ____________________

1.3 Acceptance No.: _________________________________ 1.4 Rejection No.: ___________________
1.5 No. of defectives found ____________________________ 1.6 Actual defect found _______________
1.7 REMARK LOT: ACCEPTED/REJECTED/100% INSPECTION
1.8 100% Inspection Report: Pieces Accepted ___________________
Pieces Rejected ___________________
2. DIMENSIONAL CHECKING
2.1 Lot Size: _______________________________________ 2.2 Sample Size: ___________________

2.3 Acceptance No.: _________________________________ 2.4 Rejection No.: __________________
2.5 No. of defectives found ____________________________ 2.6 Actual defect found ______________
2.7 Actual Measurements:
DESCRIPTION REQUIRED DIMENSION ACTUAL DIMENSION
3. FINAL REMARKS: FULL LOT ACCEPTED/REJECTED

3.1 Final Remarks for 100% Inspection:
No. of pieces Accepted: _____________ (Refer clause 1.5 and 2.5)
No. of pieces Rejected: _____________ (Refer clause 1.5 and 2.5)
ASSTT. OFFICER/INSPECTOR SR. ENGINEER (INSP)


DATE: ________________________
QCD-5
I. INSPECTIONS REPORT FOR STEEL
TEST TOWER
1. PROJECT/W.O. NO. ___________ 2. TOWER TYPE __________ 3. INSPECTION DATE _________

MATERIAL PUR DESIGN NO. OF ACTUAL SECTION YIELD ULTI ELONG. MAKE REMARKS
INDENT NO. CHASE SECTION PCS STRESS MATE % EMBOSSING
ORDER LEG THICKNESS TENSILE
NO. LENGTH STRESS
ASSTT. OFFICER/INSPECTOR SR. ENGINEER (INSP)

B. SAMPLING PLAN
FOR IN-PROCESS MATERIAL
When a lot is completed in fabrication and taken for inspection on stand, initially a piece is randomly
drawn from a lot for detailed inspection before loading for galvanizing, lf this piece is found acceptable
further pieces are inspected by comparison method and loaded. If the first piece does not conform to the
requirement and is rejected the inspector draws additional pieces as per the following sampling plan which
is in accordance with IS: 2500 (Part 1) 2000, Inspection Level II
Lot Size Sample Size

2 to 15 2
16 to 50 3
51 to 150 5
151 to 500 8
501 to 1000 13
All samples drawn according to the above plan should be checked again as per sketch and plant
standard.
If any piece drawn as per above plan is found defective, the entire lot should be REJECTED and sent back
to the relevant shop.
If all the pieces are found acceptable the lot should be accepted and usual inspection of 100% pieces
with respect to ‘OK’ pieces should be done before loading. Inspection procedures of components falling in
different categories are categorized separate in full details.

DATE: ________________________
(b) QUANTITY CONTROL REPORT
Route Sheet or Planning Memo Quantity Signature of

Shop Supervisor for Quality
Item No. No. Qty. Tons. Recd Short Excess
Improper Qty. if any inspector

DATE: ________________________
(c) LOADING & UNLOADING REPORT OF RACKS / CRATES
Sr Rack/ Item Loaded Wt. of Route Loaded Loading Time Unloading Rej / Pieces Signature Remark
No Crate No. by Rack/ Sheet Qty Taken Rew lost of
No. Crate Hours Qty inspector
No. Qty Started Compl Date Shift Qty Stand

DATE : _______________________
(d) INSPECTION & LOADING REPORT OF FABRICATION SHOP
Shift Crate No. Route Item No. Wt. in QUANTITY REJECTION Coupon Insp.
Sheet No. kg/Pc. Sample Sign.
Offered Loaded Rejected Slip No. Code No
Rejection OUT RIGHT REJECTION RECTIFIABLE REJECTION

Code 0 1 2 3 Others 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Others
Quantity
Total Inspected Total Re- %age Rejected REMARKS:

jected
1. Store A/C.
2. Fabrication Shop
3. File-QCD
4. Galv. Shop. Manager (Inspn.)
DATE: ________________________
(f) INSPECTION & LOADING REPORT OF MODEL ASSEMBLY
Shift Rack/ Route Sheet No. Item No. Wt. QUANTITY REJECTION Coupon Insp.
Crate No. /PI. Memo No. kg/pc. Offered Loaded Rejected Slip No. Code No. Sample Sign.
Code 0 1 2 3 4 Other 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Other
Qty
Total Inspected Total %age REMARKS:

Rejected Rejected
Store A/C.
Fabrication Shop.
File-QCD.
Galv. Shop. Manager(lnspn.)
DATE:________________________
(f) INSPECTION & LOADING REPORT OF MODEL SHOP
Shift Rack/ Route Sheet Item No. Wt. QUANTITY REJECTION Coupon Insp.
Crate No. No. /PI. Memo kg/pc. Offered Loaded Rejected Slip No. Code No. Sample Sign.
No.
Code 0 1 2 3 4 Other 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Other
Qty
Total Inspected Total %age REMARKS:

Rejected Rejected
1. Store A/C.
2. Fabrication Shop.
3. File-QCD.
4. Galv. Shop. Managerflnspn.)
DATE:________________________
(g) OUTRIGHT REJECTION SLIP
OUTRIGHT REJECTION SLIP No: Format No. QC/10

Company Name
SLIP Date: Date 01.06.11
FABRICATION / GALVANISING
ROUTE OUTRIGHT OUTRIGHT

ROUTE REJECTION
ITEM NO SHEET REJECTED REJECTED
SHEET NO CODE
QUANTITY QUANTITY WEIGHT

OUTRIGHT REJECTION SLIP INITIATED BY : OUTRIGHT REJECTION SLIP ACCEPTED BY :
Signature Date: Signature Date:

For Quality Control (For Fab / Galv )

DATE: ________________________
(h) RECTIFIABLE / REWORK SLIP
SLIP No: Format No. QC/10

Company Name REWORK SLIP
Date: Date 01.06.11
FABRICATION / GALVANISING
ROUTE ROUTE SHEET REWORK REOWRK REWORK

ITEM NO
SHEET NO QUANTITY QUANTITY WEIGHT CODE

REWORK SLIP INITIATED BY : REWORK SLIP ACCEPTED BY :

For Quality Control (For Fab / Galv )
AFTER REOWRK:
MATERIAL INSPECTION AFTER REWORK: MATERIAL CHECKED AFTER REWORK :

(For Fab / Galv ) For Quality Control
238
DATE: ________________________
(i) WEEKLY RECORDS OF SHIFTWISE ACID STRENGTH
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
S Tank No. Tank No. Tank No. Tank No. Tank No. Tank No.
D
H
A Spec. W/V Spec. W/V g/lit Spec. W/V g/lit Spec. W/V Sppec. W/V Sppec. W/V
I
T gravity g/iit gravity * gravity * gravity g/iit gravity g/iit gravity g/iit
F °Be °Be °Be °Be °Be °Be
E * 180-40 180-40 180-40 * *
T 10-27 10-27 10-27 10-27 10-27 10-27
180-40 180-40 180-40
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
* Percentage concentration is one tenth of the values specified in the column.

Company Name GALVANIZING PROCESS PARAMETER TEST FORMAT NO: QC/23

REPORT Dated 01.06.11
Shift: Zinc Bath -
Date:
Degreasing Strength : ( T1=50-180 gm/lt)
T1=10X = gm/lt
Acid Strength : ( Degreasing: T1=50 & Above, Acid: T2=T3=40-180 gm/lt)

T1=10X = gm/lt
T2=7.3X = gm/lt
T3=7.3X = gm/lt
T10= % (2-5%)
Iron Content : (Acid: T2=T3=0-160, Flux: T5=0-7, T6=0-5 gm/lt)

T2=5.6X = gm/lt
T3=5.6X = gm/lt
T5=5.6X = gm/lt
T6=5.6X = gm/lt
ph Value : ( Degreasing: T1=0-5, Flux: T5=0.5-5 & T6=2-5)

T1= T5= T6=
Specific Gravity :(Flux: T5=T6=18-30 ° Be)

T5= ° Be T6= ° Be
Tank Temperature : ( Degreasing: T1=Pre-Flux: T5=Flux: T6=RT , Passivation: T10=0-65° C)

T1= ° C T6 = °C
T5= ° C T10= °C

FRESH ACID
Party Name: Truck No: Date: Challan No:
Acid Strength : (Above 300 gm/lt ) Iron Content : (Below 2
gm/lt)
Top Sample = 7.3X = gm/lt = 5.6X = gm/
lt
Bottom Sample = 7.3X = gm/lt = 5.6X = gm/
lt
Remark: Oil and other impurities : (Found /Not Found)
Acid is as per Commercial strength OR
Acid is as per end user rectification.
Note: - Inspected By:
1. Fill “OK/NOT OK” OR “YES/NO” as appropriate in the observation cell above
in the report
2. All parameters were checked as per relevant MQP/TIP/ Specification/ Sketch/
Route sheet

DATE:________________________
(j) GALVANISING PROCESS INSPECTION REPORT

CONCENTRATION OF ACID STRENGTH, DEGREASING AND PREFLUXING SOLUTION
Sr. Process Strength Iron Content pH Temperature Actual Results

No. Solution Value Value
a) Degreasing Min. 50 gms / - 0–5 -

litre
b) Acid 40 – 180 gms 0 – 160 gms / - -
/ litre litre
c) Pre-fluxing 18 – 30 0 – 7 gms / 0.5 – 5 -
Beaume litre
d) Fluxing 18 – 30 0 – 5 gms / 2–5 -
Beaume litre
e) Drier Oven - - - 70 – 1100 C
f) Zinc Bath - - - 445 – 4650 C
g) Quenching - - - Max. 800 C
h) Passivation - - - Max. 650 C
Frequency of testing daily
Actual specific gravity or percentage concentration found
SAMPLE DRAWN ON
You are requested to make necessary arrangements to achieve the specified percentage concentration and
iron content, where it is not satisfactory before using the solutions.
cc : Galvanizing Deptt.
OFFICER (INSPECTION) QUALITY

CONTROL DEPTT

DATE: ________________________
(k ) GALVANISING INSPECTION REPORT

SHIFT
ZINC BATH TEMPERATURES

TIME MAIN BATH AUX. BATH N. & B. BATH
ZINC COATING REPORT OF SAMPLES
S. N Section 1 2 3 4 5 Avg. DIP* A Ad.T. Item No.

1
2
3
ACC
GALVANISING REJECTION FOR REWORK (VISUAL INSPECTION)

Item No. Qty. Code Colour Item No. Qty. Code Colour
Total Pieces Inspected Total Pieces Rejected
Code
0 Un-pickled Black / Bare Spots 1) Q.C.D. File
1 Flux Inclusions 2) Divisional Manager (Prodn/Scheduling)
2 Rough Surface, Lumpiness, Pimples, Hard Zinc 3) Galvanizing Dept.
3 Peeling, Flaking Off
4 Others
INSPECTOR OFFICER (INSPN.) MANAGER (INSPN.)
NOTE : MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS :

Preece test: No of dips of one minute each. 610 g/sq.m. for structural steel
@ 1 to 4 values in microns, 5 to 7 in g/sq.m.? 86 Microns for structural steel
A Adhesion test : By hammer blows/prying by knife 43 Microns for hardware & B/N
Optimum Temperature range 450°C to 465°C

DATE: ________________________
(l) TESTING CONCENTRATION OF PREFLUXING AND DEGREASING SOLUTIONS
TO :
QUALITY CONTROL LABORATORY
SAMPLE SENT ON DATE: _______
The following samples are sent herewith for finding out specific gravity/percentage concentration/ percentage
iron content as follows. Kindly send the results at the earliest.
Sr. No. Description No. of Concentration Percentage Iron

samples sent percentage content
Required Actual Required Actual
A Pre-fluxing Solution 1
(Main Tank)
A1 Re-fluxing Solution 1
(BNA & Accessories
Tank)
B Degreasing Solution 1
(SIGNATURE) (SIGNATURE OF RECEIVER)

Q.C.D. LABORATORY
APPENDIX - II
List of Machines required for a well equipped Tower-Fabricating Workshop

APPENDIX - III
Workshop Chart
APPENDIX - IV
Process Flow Chart for Fabrication of Tower

Chapter 10
DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS
10.1 GENERAL
Foundation of any structure plays on important role in reliability, security & safety and satisfactory
performance of the structure as it transmits the loads from structure to earth. Without having a
sound and safe foundation, structure cannot perform the functions for which it has been designed.
Therefore, the importance of foundation need not be over-emphasized.
The sizes of transmission line towers and transmission line network are increasing because of
the present day extra high and ultra high voltage transmission, resulting in heavier loads and
number of towers and as such requiring more number & bigger and heavier foundations. A large
number of foundations are normally required in any transmission line project. Thus, the total cost
of foundations in a transmission line project becomes quite substantial. Apart from the financial
aspects, past records show that failure of tower foundations has also been responsible for collapse
of towers. These failures have usually been associated with certain deficiencies either in the design
or classification or construction of foundations. Many times, foundations cast are over safe because
of inappropriate classification, resulting in wastage of resources. From engineering point of view,
the task of design and selection of most suitable type of tower foundation is challenging because
of the variety of soil conditions encountered en route the transmission line and remoteness of
construction sites. The foundations in various types of soils have to be designed to suit the soil
conditions of particular type.
In addition to foundations of normal towers, there are situations where one has to decide the
most suitable type of foundation system considering techno-economical aspects for special towers
required for river crossing which may be located either on the bank of the river or in the mid stream
or both. This is generally decided based on the actual river crossing requirements; and the choice
of type of foundation and it is design would be based on actual soil exploration data, high flood
level, velocity of water, scour depth etc. However, the design of pile/well foundations is not covered
in this manual and would be dealt with separately.
As the concept of safe value for properties of soil has been dispensed with in the design of
foundation, limit value of properties of soil should be obtained from soil investigation report.
In the last 20 years, the application of small diameter (micro) piles to transmission line support
foundations has become more frequent internationally. Drilled micro piles can be installed in a wide
range of soils from non-cohesive, poorly graded granular soils to cohesive plastic clay.
10.2 TYPES OF LOADS ON FOUNDATIONS
The foundations of towers are normally subjected to three types of forces. These are:
(a) The compression or downward thrust;

(b) The tension or uplift; and
(c) The lateral forces or side thrusts in both transverse and longitudinal directions.
The magnitudes of each of these forces depend on the types of tower and the transmission voltage
and capacity of lines. The method of calculating above loads is described in detail in Chapter-6
loadings in this manual. The magnitudes of limit loads for foundations should be taken 10% higher
than those for the corresponding towers.
IS: 802 suggest to apply 1.02 Over Load Factor (OLF) for Minimum Guaranteed yield strength of
Steel to take care of rolling tolerance, for Tower Design. This OLF is required to be considered only
for tower design and not required to include in foundation design.
246
Design of Foundations 247
10.3 BASIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
To meet the varying needs in respect of soil conditions and loading quantum, several types of
tower foundations have been used for the transmission line towers. Design philosophy of tower
foundation should be closely related to the principles adopted for the design of the tower which the
foundation has to support. A weak or unsound foundation can make a good tower design useless
while a very strong foundation for a weak tower means a wasteful expenditure. Functionally, the
foundation should be strong and stable. It should take care of all the loads such as dead loads,
live loads, wind loads, seismic loads, and erection loads etc. causing vertical thrust, uplift as well
as horizontal reactions. For satisfactory performance, it should be stable and structurally adequate
and be able to transmit these forces to the soil such that the limit soil bearing capacities are not
exceeded.
Generally for Transmission towers wind pressure is predominantly governing and considering the
high wind pressure and earth quake does not occur simultaneously, the seismic loads can be
ignored for foundation design except for tall towers.
10.4 SOIL PARAMETERS
For designing the foundations, following parameters are required:-
(a) Limit bearing capacity of Soil;

(b) Density of soil; and
(c) Angle of Earth frustum.
These soil properties are normally obtained either by conducting in-situ or laboratory tests on
soil samples collected from the field during Soil Investigation or from available testing record of
the area. The importance of above soil parameters in foundation design is discussed below in
brief.
10.4.1 Limit Bearing Capacity
This parameter is vital from the point of view of establishing the stability of foundation against
shear failure of soil and excessive settlement of foundation when foundation is subjected to total
downward loads and moments due to horizontal shears and/or eccentricities as applicable.
Recommended limit bearing capacities of various types of soil are given in Annexure- I for guidance.
Alternately limit bearing capacity may be determined by carrying out Geotechnical investigations.
10.4.2 Density of Soil
This parameter is required to calculate the uplift resistance of foundation as well as to calculate
differential weight of soil and concrete below ground level for checking the bearing pressure under
foundation. Recommended unit weights of various types of soil are given in Annexure- I.
10.4.3 Angle of Earth Frustum
This parameter is required for finding out the uplift resistance of the foundation. Recommended
values of angle of earth frustum of different types of soils/rocks are given in Annexure- I.
10.5 SOIL INVESTIGATION
The design of the tower foundation is fully dependent upon conditions of the soil that will support
the foundation and the nature of loadings. It is, therefore, necessary to investigate the soil for it is
engineering properties.
There are number of procedures for collection of soil data covered in various Indian Standard
Codes of practice like IS: 1892, IS: 1888, IS: 2131 etc. and standard books on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering. Selection of anyone of these depends on the suitability and merits
of the procedure for a given soil condition as well as it is relative cost compared to the cost of the
proposed structure.
It is desirable to carry out detailed soil investigation on the Railway crossing locations, special/
vulnerable tower locations, at suitable intervals along the route and where soil strata changes,
as per site conditions. The detailed soil investigation for special river crossing tower location and
where pile/well foundations are required should invariably be carried out.
In areas which have already been developed, advantage should be taken of the existing local
knowledge, records of trial pits, bore-holes, etc. in the vicinity, if the existing information is not
sufficient, it is necessary to explore the site to obtain details of the type, uniformity, consistency,
thickness, depth of the strata and the ground water conditions. In many cases of transmission line
works, the soil investigation may consist of only exploratory test pits and laboratory testing of some
selected soil samples.
The details of soil investigation are not covered in this chapter and may be referred to in the
relevant text books and Indian Standards available for the purpose. However, the list of the tests to
be carried out is given in Annexure-ll. These tests are aimed at finding out type of soil, density, limit
bearing capacity, angle of earth frustum, water table, etc.
During execution of conventional foundations, trial pits up to a desired depth (say 3.0 m) except for
hard rock locations shall be excavated at each and every tower locations (at one leg only) to obtain
following details in order to classify the type of foundation to be adopted:
(i) Type of soil encountered
(ii) Ground water table.
10.6 TYPES OF SOIL AND ROCK
Soil and rocks, based on their engineering and physical properties, can be broadly classified as
under:
10.6.1 Types of Soil
(a) Non-cohesive Soils
This group of soils includes gravel and sands which are composed mainly of larger sized grains
resulting from weathering of rocks. The engineering behaviour of these soils under loading depends
primarily on their friction qualities which vary with their density, degree of lateral confinement,
ground water level and flow of water through them.
The non-cohesive soils do not get unified with the parent soil after back filling with the passage of
time. The following types of soils come under this category:
(i) Sandy Soils which have no clay/silt or have very little clay/silt.
(ii) Soft and hard murrum. These can be excavated using normal tools and these get
disintegrated into pieces.
(b) Cohesive Soils
These comprise clays, silts and soft shales, etc. having comparatively fine grain size particles. The
strength of this group of soils is derived primarily from cohesion between their particles. The most
important characteristic of cohesive soils from engineering point of view is their susceptibility for
slow volume changes due to their low permeability. When this type of soils is subjected to loads,
the contained water in the voids is expelled very slowly with consequent diminution of volume
resulting in consolidation settlement. Unlike settlement in non-cohesive soils which is immediate,
the settlement in cohesive soils may take many years to reach it is final value. In cohesive soils,
SPT test does not always give dependable results, particularly in sensitive clays; and undisturbed
soil samples are required to be tested in the laboratory for it is unit weight, moisture content,
confined and unconfined compressive strengths and settlements characteristics.
The cohesive soils get unified with the parent soil after back filling with the passage of time. The
following soils come under this category.
(i) Normal soil having mixture of silt and clay (clay not exceeding 15%). When this type of soil
is made wet and rolled between the palms, only short threads can be made.
(ii) Clayey soils having high percentage of clay (more than 15%) e.g. Black Cotton Soil (Black
or yellow in colour). When this type of soil is made wet and rolled between the palms, long
threads can be made.
(iii) Marshy soil having mud (marine soil) which is very sticky in nature.
10.6.2 Types of Rocks
Rocks derive their strength from permanent bond of cohesive forces among their particles. They are
usually classified as hard, and soft. Rocks have high bearing capacity except when decomposed,
heavily shattered or stratified. On uneven site, however, dangerous conditions may develop with
rocks if they dip towards cuttings. Tower foundations are usually built on the upper area of the rock
formations which are often found to be weathered and disintegrated.
The rocks are broadly classified as follows:
(a) Soft Rock/Fissured Rock
The rocks which can be excavated using normal tools without blasting are classified as soft rock.
These include decomposed or fissured rock, hard gravel, kankar, lime stone, laterite or any other
soil of similar nature.
(b) Hard Rock
The rocks which cannot be excavated using normal tools and require chiseling, drilling ad blasting
are classified as Hard Rock. These include hard sand stone, quartzite, granite, basalt, hard
marble, etc.
10.6.3 Combinations of Soils
During execution for any transmission line project, it is possible that combination of two or more
than two types of soils may also occur, while excavating the soil upto founding level. Different
combinations of soils and the types of foundations to be adopted are given in Annexure-lll.
10.7 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
10.7.1 Type
The following type of foundations are normally provided for transmission line towers depending on
soil conditions, magnitude of loads, type of tower i.e. special or normal:
(i) Shallow Spread Foundations

(ii) Deep Foundations
● Pile Foundations
● Micro Pile Foundations
● Well Foundations
Depending upon the ground water table and type of soil and rock, the shallow foundations are
classified as follows:-
(a) Normal Dry Soil Foundations
When water table is below foundation level and when soil is cohesive and homogeneous up to the
full depth having clay content of 10-15%.
(b) Wet Soil Foundations
When water table is above foundation level and up to 1.5 m below ground level. The foundations
in the soils which have standing surface water with water penetration not exceeding 1.0 m below
ground level (e.g. paddy fields) are also classified as wet foundations.
(c) Partially Submerged Foundations
When water table is at a depth between 1.5 m and 0.75 m below ground level and when the soil is
normal and cohesive.
(d) Fully Submerged Foundations
When water table is within 0.75 m below ground and the soil is normal and cohesive.
(e) Black Cotton Soil Foundations
When the soil is cohesive having inorganic clay exceeding 15% and characterised by high shrinkage
and swelling property (need not be always black in colour).
(f) Partial Black Cotton Foundations
When the top layer of soil up to 1.5 m is Black Cotton and thereafter it is normal dry cohesive soil.
(g) Soft Rock/Fissured Rock Foundations
When decomposed or fissured rock, hard gravel or any other soil of similar nature is met which can
be executed without blasting. Under cut foundation is to be used at these locations.
(h) Hard Rock Foundations
Where chiselling, drilling and blasting is required for excavation.
(i) Sandy Soil Foundations
Soil with negligible cohesion because of it is low clay content (0-10%).
The above categorization of foundations has been done for economising the foundations, as uplift
resistance of foundation is a critical design factor which is greatly affected by the location of water
table and the soil surrounding the foundation.
10.7.2 Structural Arrangement of Foundations
Based on structural arrangement of foundations, the various types of foundations are possible.
The necessity of erecting towers on a variety of soils has made it possible and necessary for the
designers to adopt new innovations and techniques. As a result, several types of tower foundations
have been devised and successfully used. Some of the more common types of foundations are
described below:
(a) P.C.C. Type
This type of foundation is shown in Fig 1. This was the most common type of footing used in India
and in some countries of the continent earlier when transmission voltage were low say up to 132kV.
It consists of a plain concrete footing pad and chimney reinforced or without reinforcement. In this
type of foundation, the stub angle is taken inside the bottom pad and effectively anchored into it
by cleat angles and/or keying roads, and the chimney with or without reinforcement & stub angle
inside works as a composite member. The pad may be either pyramidal in shape as shown in Fig
1(a) or stepped as shown in Fig 1(b). Stepped footings will require less shuttering materials but
need more attention during construction to avoid cold-joints between the steps. The pyramidal
footings, on the other hand, will require somewhat costlier form work.
Fig. 1 (a) : Pyramid Chimney Type Foundation (P.C.C.)

Fig. 1 (b) : P.C.C Type Stepped Foundation

If the soil is very hard, conglomerate of soil, containing stones, rubbles, Kankar which can be
loosened with the help of pick-axe or if the soil is of composite nature i.e., combination of normal
dry soil, hard murrum, fissured rock which will not get unified easily with the parent soil after back
filling, pyramid chimney type foundations having 150 mm side clearance are not advisable and in
such cases undercut/stepped footings without side clearance should be adopted.
(b) R.C.C. Spread Type
With increase in transmission voltage to 220kV, 400kV, 765kV etc loads on foundations have
increased significantly which have made pyramid type of foundation un-economical and it has led
to wide spread adoption of R.C.C spread type of foundations for transmission line towers.
When loads on foundations are heavy and/or soil is poor, the pyramid type foundations may not
be feasible from techno-economical considerations and under such situations. R.C.C. spread type
footings are technically superior and also economical.
Typical types of R.C.C. Spread Footings are shown in Fig 2. It consists of a R.C.C. base slab or mat
and a square chimney.
There are several types of R.C.C. spread footings which can be designed for tower foundations.
The three most common types of these are shown in Figs 2(a), (b) & (c). As shown in the Figs, this
type of foundation can be either single step type or multiple step type and/or chamfered step type.
The R.C.C. spread type footings can be suitably designed for variety of soil conditions. R.C.C.
footings in some situations may be higher in cost although structurally these are most suitable,
stable & safe.
R.C.C. spread footing with bottom step/slab when cast in contact with inner surface of excavated
soil will offer higher uplift resistance as compared to the footing having 150 mm side clearance as
shown in Fig 2 (c).
(c) Block Type
This type of foundation is usually provided where soft rock and hard rock strata are encountered
at the tower location. This type of foundation is shown in Figs 3 & 5 (a). It consists of a chimney
and block of concrete. In this type of foundation, concrete is poured in direct contact with the inner
surfaces of the excavated rock so that concrete develops bond with rock. The uplift resistance in
this type of footing is provided by the bond between concrete and rock. The thickness and size of
the block is decided based on uplift resistance of foundation for resisting uplift loads and bearing
area required for down thrust.
It is advisable to have footing having a minimum depth of about 1.5 m below ground level and check
this foundation for the failure of bond between rock and concrete. The values of ultimate bond
stress between the rock and the concrete to be considered for various types of rocks are given in
Annexure-IV for guidance. However, the actual bond stress between rock and concrete should be
decided by conducting pull out tests at site.
Block type foundations are being provided by some power utilities for soft and hard rock strata.
However, under cut type of foundations for soft rock and rock anchor type of foundations for hard
rock are sometimes preferred by some power utilities because of their soundness even though
these may be more costly in comparison with Block type foundations.
(d) Under-Cut Type
These types of foundations are shown in Figs 4 (a), (b) & (c). These are constructed by making under-
cut in soil/rock at foundation level. This type of foundation is very useful in normal dry cohesive soil,
hard murrum, fissured/soft rock, soils mixed with clinker, where soil is not collapsible type i.e., it can
stand by itself. A footing with an under-cut generally develops higher uplift resistance as compared
Fig. 2 (a) : R.C.C Spread Type Foundation (Chamfered Type) with 150 mm working Clearance
Fig. 2 (b) : R.C.C. Spread Type Foundation (Step) with 150 mm Working Clearance
Fig. 2 (c) : R.C.C. Spread Type Foundation (Step) Cast Directly Contact
with the Soil & without 150 mm Working Clearance
Fig. 2 (d) : R.C.C. Spread Type Foundation with P.C.C. Step with undercut & Cast Directly Contact with the Soil
Fig. 2 (e) : R.C.C. Spread Type Foundation with P.C.C. Step without undercut with Working Clearance
Fig. 2 (f) : R.C.C. Spread Type Foundation with P.C.C. Pyramid with undercut & Cast Directly Contact with the Soil
Fig. 2 (g) : R.C.C. Spread Type Foundation with P.C.C. Pyramid without undercut & with working clearance
Fig. 3 : Block Foundation (Friction Type)

Fig. 4 (a) : Pyramid Type Foundation (with under-cut)

Fig. 4 (b) : R.C.C. Spread Type Foundation (Under Cut Type)

Fig. 4 (c) : Block Foundation (Under Cut Type)

to that of an identical footing without under-cut. This is due to the anchorage in undisturbed virgin
soil. The size of under-cut shall not be less than 150 mm. At the discretion of power utility and based
on the cohesiveness of the normal dry soil, the owner may permit undercut type of foundation for
normal dry cohesive soil.
(e) Grouted Rock and Rock Anchor Type
This type of footing is suitable when the rock is very hard. Typical Grouted Rock and Rock Anchor
type footing is shown in Fig 5(b). It consists of two parts viz. block of small depth followed by anchor
bars embedded in the Grouted Anchor Holes. The top part of the bar is embedded in the concrete of
the shallow block. The depth of embedment, diameter and number of anchor bars will depend upon
the uplift force on the footing. The diameter of anchors shall not be less than 12 mm. The grouting
hole shall normally be 20 mm more than the diameter of the bar. However the diameter of grouting
hole shall be based on uplift capacity of Rock and grouting material.
The determination of whether a rock formation is suitable for installation of rock anchors is an
engineering judgement based on rock quality. Since, the bearing capacity of rock is usually much
greater, care must be exercised in designing for uplift. The rock surfaces may be roughened,
grooved, or shaped to increase the uplift capacity.
The uplift resistance will be determined by considering the bond between reinforcement bar and
grout/concrete. However, an independent check for uplift resistance should be carried out by
considering the bond between rock & concrete block which in turn will determine the min. depth
of concrete block to be provided in hard rock. Anchor strength can be substantially increased
by provision of mechanical anchorages. Such as use of eye-bolt, fox bolt or threaded rods as
anchoring bars or use of keying rods in case of stub angle anchoring. The effective anchoring
strength should preferably be determined by testing.
Open cast Rock foundation is not recommended in Hard Rock. However, where rock anchor type
foundation is not practicable, open cast rock type foundation may be adopted as a special case.
(f) Augur Type
Typical types of foundation are shown in Fig 6(a). The cast-in-situ reinforced concrete augured
footings have been extensively used in some western countries like USA, Canada and many
countries in our continent. The primary benefits derived from this type of foundations are the saving
in time and man-power. Usually a truck mounted power augur is utilised to drill a circular hole
of required diameter, the lower portion of this may be belled, if required, to a larger diameter to
increase the uplift resistance of the footing. Holes can be driven up to one metre in diameter and
six metre deep. Since, the excavated hole has to stand for some time before reinforcing bars and
cage can be placed in position and concrete poured, all kinds of soils are not suitable for augured
footing. Usually, stiff clays and dense sands are capable of being drilled and standing up sufficiently
long for concreting works and installation of stub angle or anchor bolts, whereas loose granular
materials may give trouble during construction of these footings, Bentonite slurry or similar material
is used to stabilise the drilled hole. In soft soils, a steel casing can also be lowered into the hole as
the excavation proceeds, to hold the hole open.
Uplift resistance of augured footing without bell is provided by the friction along the surface of the
shaft alone and hence it is capacity to resist uplift is limited. Augured footing can be constructed
according to the requirement, vertical or battered and with or without expanded base.
(g) Under-Reamed Pile Type
The under-reamed piles are more or less similar to augured footings except that they have under
reaming above bottom of shaft. These can be generally constructed with hand augur. The bore is
drilled vertically or at a batter with the augur, having an arrangement of cutting flanges (edges) to
be opened by the lever. This arrangement makes it possible to make under-reams at various levels
of bores as shown in Fig.6(b). The advantage of this foundation is faster construction.
Fig. 5 (a) : Hard Rock Foundation (Block Type)

Fig. 5 (b) : Rock Anchor Type Foundation

Fig. 6 (a) : Augur Type Foundation

Fig. 6 (b) : Augur Type Foundation (Under Reamed Pile Type)

Fig. 7 (a) : Steel Grillage Type Foundation

The load carrying capacity of these footings, both for downward and uplift forces should be
established by tests. The safe loads allowed on under-reamed piles of length 3.50 m and under
reamed to 2.5 times the shaft diameter in clayey, black cotton and medium dense sandy soils may
be taken from IS: 4091 for guidance.
These types of foundation are useful in case of expansive type of black cotton soils.
(h) Steel Grillage Type
These types of foundation are shown in Fig.7(a) & (b). These are made of structural steel sections.
Steel grillages can be of various designs. Generally, it consists of a layer of steel beams as pad
for the bearing area. The footing reaction is transmitted to the pad by means of heavier joists or
channels resting cross-ways on the bearing beams. For smaller towers, the horizontal shears at
foundation from the component of force in the diagonal members is transferred to the adjoining soil
by shear plates of adequate size provided at the point where the bottom most diagonal bracings
intersect the main leg/stub usually about a metre below the ground surface as shown in Fig.7 (a).
In case of heavy towers like angle or dead end, the lateral force is taken up by addition of suitable
bracing members shown in Fig. 7(b) which transfer the shear down to the grillage beams.
The grillage is designed to resist the down thrust and uplift. The angle of earth frustum is developed
from the bottom of the footing. In this type of foundations, there is no solid slab as compared to
concrete foundations. However, if the distance between the grillage members is not greater than
the width of members, the gross area of grillage can be utilised in calculating bearing pressure. If
the distance between members is large, only the net area of grillage can be taken into account for
calculating the bearing pressure on the soil. The placement and compaction of the backfill is very
critical to the actual load carrying capacity of this type of foundations.
As a precaution against corrosion, a coat of bituminous paint is usually applied to the footing. When
backfill is well compacted to eliminate air pockets, the lower portion of the footing may not suffer
any appreciable corrosion of steel. Weathering steel or galvanised steel can also reduces the
chances of corrosion, but none of these can prevent corrosion when the soil at the tower location
is unfavourable and chemically aggressive. When doubt arises, it may be necessary to test the soil
and sub-soil water samples to ascertain their corrosiveness before using a steel grillage footing.
Grillage footings require much more steel than a comparable concrete footing, but erection cost is
small in comparison to that of the concrete footing resulting in often economical and always quicker
construction. Other advantages include their simplicity in construction procurement of complete
foundation with tower parts from the manufacturer of towers and elimination of concrete work at
site. These foundations are also very helpful in restoring the collapsed transmission lines because
of quicker construction.
The disadvantage of this type of foundation is that these foundations have to be designed before
any soil borings are made and may have to be enlarged and require a concrete base if actual soil
conditions are not as good as those assumed in the original design.
These types of foundation are generally provided in case of firm soils and are usually adopted for
locations where concreting is not possible and head loading is difficult. This type of foundation is
not popular in our country.
(i) Steel Plated Type
A typical pressed steel plate foundation is shown in Fig 8. This arrangement is similar to the steel grill
foundation shown in Fig 8 except that the base grillage has been replaced by a pressed steel plate.
This type of foundation is usually adopted for locations where concreting work is not possible and
head loading is difficult. This type of foundation is suitable only in case of good, cohesive and firm
soil. The size of plate is decided based on uplift capacity required and also based on footing area
necessary from bearing capacity consideration. The net horizontal force at the level where bottom
most diagonal bracing is attached to the stub is resisted by the passive pressure of the soil.
Fig. 7 (b) : Steel Grillage Type Foundation

Fig. 8 : Steel Plate Type Foundation

The advantage of this type of foundation is it is simplicity. However, one has to be careful in excavation
at the bottom. The plate must rest firmly in contact with the surrounding soil. The disadvantage of
this type of foundation is possibility of corrosion of steel and large settlement because of loose sand
under the plate. This type of foundation is not popular in our country.
(j) Pile Type
A typical pile type foundation is shown in Fig 9. This type of foundation is usually adopted when
soil is very weak and has very poor bearing capacity or foundation has to be located in filled-up soil
or sea mud to a large depth or where tower location falls within river bed and creek bed which are
likely to get scoured during floods.
The pile foundations are designed based on the data of soil exploration at the tower location. The
important parameters for design of pile foundation are the type of soil, angle of internal friction,
cohesion and unit weight of soil at various depths along the shaft of pile. The maximum flood
discharge of the river, maximum velocity of water, high flood level, scour depth etc. are the additional
requirement for towers located in mid river or bank of river having scourable strata.
Pile foundation usually costs more and may be adopted only after detailed examination of the
site conditions and soil data. The downward vertical load on the foundation is carried by the piles
through skin friction or by point bearing or both; while the uplift is resisted by the dead weight of the
concrete in piles and pile caps and frictional resistance between pile and soil surrounding the pile.
How ever in case of filled up soil, especially in clayey soil, the settlement of soil is slow. Because of
the slow settlement, there may be negative skin friction which may be considered while designing
the pile foundation. For carrying heavy lateral loads, battered piles may be advantageously used.
Two types of piles are normally used viz. driven pile or bored piles. The driven piles in turn are of
two types namely pre-cast driven piles and cast in-situ driven pile. Pile foundations require heavy
machinery for their construction and as such are used only when other types of foundations are
not techno-economically feasible or for special towers like river crossing etc. Mostly, cast-in-situ
concrete bored piles are provided in transmission line projects since they do not require heavy
machinery for their construction.
Load carrying capacity of piles should normally be established by load tests. When it is not possible
to carry out load tests, the capacity of pile can be determined by static formula as given in IS: 2911
using soil properties obtained from soil investigation of tower location where pile foundation is
proposed to be provided.
(k) Well Type
A typical well type of foundation for transmission line tower is shown in Fig.10. This type of
foundation is usually provided where tower location falls within the course of major river having
larger discharge, heavy floods during monsoon and large scouring of river bed during floods. The
cast-in-situ wells of R.C.C. or brick masonry are sunk by continuous excavation from within the
wells. The basic parameters required for the design of well are soil properties like angle of internal
friction, cohesion, and density at various levels along the depth of well, maximum flood discharge,
maximum velocity of water, the scour depth, etc.
The well has to be taken below the estimated scour level to a sufficient depth for obtaining
desired grip length and load carrying capacity of the well. Kentledge may have to be used during
sinking of the well for penetrating the hard strata and also to prevent it is tilting during sinking
operation. The top of the wells is normally kept above the high flood level. After the well has been
sunk to it is design depth, the well is filled up with sand and suitable well cap is constructed on
the top of the well to accommodate the tower and it is anchor bolts/stubs. The filled up well acts
as solid pier.
Fig. 9 : Pile Type Foundation

Fig. 10 : Well Type Foundation

Well type foundations are very costly and require more time for their construction and may be
adopted only after detailed examination of the site condition and soil data.
(i) Raft Foundation
These types of foundation are shown in Fig. 10 (a) and involves supporting all the four legs of tower
on a single concrete footing instead of having individual footing under each leg of tower. The raft
type of foundation can be adopted for soil having poor bearing capacity, for towers where individual
footing overlap with each other and for tower with narrow base where footing for each leg may not
be possible on account of small leg to leg distance of tower.
10.8 REVETMENT ON FOUNDATION
The revetment on foundation is usually required when the tower is to be founded on a slope of
hill or in deserts where there is possibility of soil flying away during dust storm. The typical details
of revetment for hilly location are shown in Fig. 11(a). The bench cutting is first done to level the
slope. The foundation is cast with shorter and longer stubs if it is not possible to fully level the slope.
Revetment is necessary to prevent erosion of soil due to water flow from uphill and also to ensure
proper anchorage against uplift. Retaining wall of R.C.C. Fig 11(b) or Stone Masonry Fig.11(c) can
be provided as per requirement.
10.9 SOIL RESISTANCES FOR DESIGNING FOUNDATION
As discussed in para 10.2, the foundations of Transmission line towers are subjected to three types
of loads viz. the downward thrust (compression), the uplift (tension) and the side thrust (horizontal
shear).
Fig. 10 (a) : Raft Foundation

Fig. 11 (a) : Revetment on Foundation

Fig. 11 (b) : R.C.C. Retaining Wall

Fig. 11 (c) : Stone masonry Retaining Wall
Notes:
1. All dimensions are in mm unless otherwise specified

2. Weep holes should be of size 100 x 100 mm or 150 x 150 mm in case of large size revetment
3. Weep holes should be at 2.5 m centres horizontal
4. Centre of top most weep holes to be not less than 300 mm below top
5. The minimum depth of revetment wall below G.L. will be 600 mm
6. Dimensions of B are valid only for H not exceeding 5.00 m
7. Size of stone for masonry work 300 x 150 x 150 and below
8. The masonry work should be carried out in 1:5 cement mortar
9. Size of stone packing at weep hole 75 mm to 150 mm
10. θ = Angle of Repose
Fig. 11 (d) : Foundation protection with Geo-grid and Gabion box.
The soil resistances available for transferring the above forces to earth are described below:
(a) Uplift Resistance
The soil surrounding a tower foundation has to resist a considerable amount of upward force
(tension). In fact, in the case of self-supporting towers, the available uplift resistance of the soil
becomes the most decisive factor for selection of the type of footing for a particular location.
It is generally considered that the resistance to uplift is provided by the shear strength of the
surrounding soil and the weight of the foundation. Various empirical relationships linking ultimate
uplift capacity of foundation to the physical properties of soil like angle of internal friction (0) and
cohesion (C) as well as to the dimensions and depth of the footing have been proposed on the
basis of experimental results. However, the angle of earth frustum is considered for calculating
the uplift resistance of soil. Typical values of angle of earth frustum are given in Annexure-1 for
guidance. The angle of earth frustum is taken as 2/3 of angle of internal friction (0) or the value
given in Annexure I whichever is smaller for the type of soil under consideration.
The uplift resistance is estimated by computing the weight of the earth contained in an inverted
frustum of cone whose sides make an angle with the vertical equal to the angle of earth frustum.
The formula for calculating volume covered under inverted frustum of a cone as given below:
It should, however, be noted that effective uplift resistance, apart from being a function of the
properties of soil like angle of internal friction (Φ) and cohesion (C) is greatly affected by the degree
of compaction and the ground water table. When the back fill is less consolidated with non-cohesive
material, the effective uplift resistance will be greatly reduced. In case of foundation under water
table, the buoyant weights of concrete and back fill are only considered to be effective.
The uplift resistance of footing with undercut projections within undisturbed soils in firm non-
cohesive soils and fissured/soft rock shall generally be larger than that of conventional footings.
(b) Lateral Soil Resistance
While designing of towers, the side thrusts (horizontal shears) on the foundation are considered
to be resisted by the passive earth pressure mobilized in the adjoining soils due to rotation of the
footing. Passive pressure/resistance of soil is calculated based on Rankine’s formula for frictional
soils and unconfined compressive strength for cohesive soils. Unbalanced horizontal shear is
transferred from the foundation to earth through bearing capacity.
(c) Bearing Capacity
The downward compressive loads acting on the foundation including moments due to horizontal
shears and/or eccentricities, wherever existing, are transferred from the foundation to earth through
bearing. The limit bearing capacity of soil is the maximum downward intensity of load which the soil
can resist without shear failure or excessive settlement.
10.10 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FOUNDATION
The design of any foundation consists of following two parts:
10.10.1 Stability Analysis
Stability analysis aims at removing the possibility of failure of foundation by tilting. Overturning,
uprooting and sliding due to load intensity imposed on soil by the foundation being in excess of the
ultimate capacity of the soil.
The most important aspect of the foundation design is the necessary check for the stability of
foundation under various loads imposed on it by the tower which it supports. The foundation should
remain stable under all the possible combinations of loadings, to which it is likely to be subjected
under the most stringent conditions. The stability of foundation should be checked for the following
aspects;
(a) Check for Bearing Capacity
The total downward load at the base of footing consists of compression per leg derived from the
tower design, buoyant weight of concrete below ground level (i.e., difference in the weight of
concrete and soil) and weight of concrete above ground level.
While calculating over weight of concrete for checking bearing capacity of soil, the position of
water table should be considered at critical location i.e., which would give maximum over weight
of concrete. In case of foundation with chimney battered along the slope of leg, the centre line of
chimney may not coincide with the C.G. of the base slabs/pyramid/block, under such situation; axial
load in the chimney can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components at the top of base slab/
pyramid/ block.
The additional moments due to the above horizontal loads should be considered while checking the
bearing capacity of soil.
Further, even in cases where full horizontal shear is balanced by the passive pressure of soil,
the horizontal shears would cause moment at the base of footing as the line of action of side
thrusts (horizontal shears) and resultant of passive pressure of soil are not in the same line. It
may be noted that passive pressure of soil is reactive force from the soil for balancing the external
horizontal forces and as such mobilized passive pressure in soil adjoining the footing cannot be
more than the external horizontal shear.
Thus, the maximum soil pressure below the base of the foundation (Toe pressure) will depend upon
the vertical thrust (compression load) on the footing and the moments at the base level due to the
horizontal shears and other eccentric loadings. Under the action of down thrust and moments, the
soil pressure below the footing will not be uniform and the maximum toe pressure ‘P’ on the soil can
be determined from the equation :
Where,
W is the total vertical down thrust including over weight of the footing:
B’ is dimension of the footing base:
MT & ML are, moments at the base of footing about transverse and longitudinal axes of footing; and
ZT & ZL are the section modulus of footing which are equal to (1/6) B3 for a square footing.
The above equation is not valid when minimum pressure under the footing becomes negative. The
maximum pressure on the soil so obtained should not exceed the limiting bearing capacity of the
soil.
And in case of occurrence of negative base pressure, calculation to be modified using Teng’s chart.
The modified base pressure should be such that it should not exceed limiting bearing pressure.
(b) Check for Uplift Resistance
In the case of shallow isolated foundations, the resistance to uplift is considered to be provided by
the weight of the foundation and the weight of the soil volume contained in the inverted frustum
of cone on the base of the footing with sides making an angle equal to the angle of earth frustum
applicable for a particular type of the soil. Referring to Fig 13, the ultimate resistance to uplift is
given by
UP = Ws + Wf
Where
‘Ws’ is the weight of soil in frustum of cone;
‘Wf’ is the weight/overload of the foundation (Refer Figs 13 & 14).
Depending upon the type of foundation i.e., whether dry or wet or partially submerged or fully
submerged, the weights ‘Ws’ and ‘Wf’ should be calculated taking into account the location of
ground water table at critical location.
Under-cut type of foundation offers greater resistance to uplift than an identical footing without
under-cut. This is for the simple reason that the angle of earth frustum originates from the toe of
the under-cut and there is perfect bond between concrete and the soil surrounding it and there is
no need to depend on the behaviour of backfilled earth. Substantial additional uplift resistance is
developed due to use of under-cut type of foundation. However, to reflect advantage of additional
uplift resistance in the design the density of soil for under-cut foundation has been increased as
given in Annexure 1
In cases where frustum of earth pyramid of two adjoining legs overlap each other, the earth frustum
is assumed truncated by a vertical plane passing through the centre line of the tower base.
Rectangular footing, double eccentricity

Teng’s Chart
(c) Check for Side Thrust
In towers with inclined stub angles and having diagonal bracing at the lowest panel point, the
net shearing force of the footing is equal to the horizontal component of the force in the diagonal
bracing whereas in towers with vertical footings, the total horizontal load on the tower is divided
equally between the number of legs. The shear force causes bending stresses in the unsupported
length of the stub angle as well as in the chimney and tends to overturn the foundation.
Analysis of such foundations and design of the chimney for bending moments combined with down
thrust/uplift is very important. Stability of a footing under a lateral load depends on the amount of
passive pressure mobilized in the adjoining soil as well as the structural strength of the footing in
transmitting the load to the soil (Refer Fig 12).
As the foundation is monolithic material structure, In case of two layers of soil, Passive Pressure
The resisting passive pressure would develop in can be calculated for two different layers of
Chimney portion as well as in slab and pyramid soil and there by resisting moment due to it.
portion. Hence it should be considered starting
From 500mm below ground (being ignored) up to Bottom of slab/Pyramid.

Fig 12
Fig 13
Fig 14
(d) Check for Over-Turning
Stability of the foundation against overturning under the combined action of uplift and horizontal
shears may be checked by the following criteria as shown in Fig 14.
(i) The foundation over-turns at the toe.

(ii) The weight of the footing acts at the centre of the base; and
(iii) Mainly that part of the earth cone which stands over the heel causes the stabilising moment.
However, for design purpose, this may be taken equal to half the weight of the cone of
earth acting on the base, it is assumed to act through the tip of the heel.
For stability of foundation against overturning, stabilising moment should be more than overturning
moment.
Note: For individual footing of transmission line tower overturning is generally not governing. Hence
check against overturning is not required.
(e) Check for Sliding
In the foundations of transmission towers, the horizontal shear is comparatively small and possibility
of sliding is generally negligible. However, resistance to sliding is evaluated assuming that passive
earth pressure conditions are developed on a vertical projection above the toe of foundation. The
friction between bottom of the footing and soil also resist the sliding of footing and can be considered
in the stability of foundation against sliding. The coefficient of friction between concrete and soil can
be considered between 0.2 to 0.3. However, the frictional force is directly proportional to vertical
downward load and as such may not exist under uplift condition. For cohesive soil the following
formula can be applied for calculating the passive pressure to resist sliding:
P =m C + Kp ¡ h ( For Compression Leg)

P = Kp ¡ h ( For Tension Leg)
C = Compression θ = Angle of earth frustum
h = Height of foundation m = Coefficient of friction
Kp = (1+sin q) / (1- sin q) ¡ = Unit Wt. of soil
In case of cohesionless soil, the value of m (cohesion) may be taken as zero.

Note: For individual footing of transmission line tower sliding is generally not governing. Hence
check against sliding is not required.
10.10.2 Structural Design of Shallow Isolated Foundation
Structural design of concrete foundation comprises the design of chimney and the design of base
slab/pyramid/block. The structural design of different elements of concrete foundation is discussed
in the following paragraphs.
(a) Structural Design of Chimney
The chimney is required to be designed for combined action of axial force, tension or compression,
and maximum bending moments due to longitudinal and transverse side thrust. The design of
chimney for combined action of axial force and bending moment is very important for the structural
safety of foundation.
The requirement longitudinal reinforcement in the chimney is usually governed under the combined
action of tensile force/uplift and bending moments due to side thrust. When stub angle is embedded
in the chimney to its full depth and anchored into the base slab, the chimney can be treated as a
composite member with the stub angle inside the chimney action as a rigid reinforcement. In case,
the size of stub provided and anchored in base slab is not adequate for combined stresses due to
direct tension/compression and bending, reinforcement needs to be provided in the chimney for its
structural safety and integrity.
If stub is embedded in the chimney for the required development length alone and same is not
taken up to the bottom of foundation or leg of the tower is fixed at the top of the chimney/pedestal by
anchor bolts, chimney is required to be designed for combined stresses due to direct pull (tension)/
down thrust (compression) and bending moment due to side thrust.
The structural design of chimney for above cases should comply with the procedure as given in
IS: 456 and SP: 16.The procedure for structural design of chimney for three cases is described
below:
Case-I: Stub alone is provided in the chimney and anchored in bottom pad/pyramid:
When stub alone is provided in the chimney and the same is anchored in base slab/pyramid and
no reinforcement is provided in the chimney, stub would act as reinforcement placed at the centre
of chimney. For this case, no charts or graphs exist in SP: 16 for calculating the moment capacity
of the chimney section. The following procedure may be followed in such cases:
DESIGN OF CHIMNEY WITH CONTRIBUTION OF STUB ALONE
1. The loading on each tower leg from the tower superstructure is transferred at the base of the
chimney in terms of axial force (tension or compression) and biaxial moments (due to longitudinal
and transverse forces).
2. The material properties such as grade of steel of stub, grade of concrete, etc are considered as
specified for design.
3. The stub is considered as reinforcement placed at the C.G. of the chimney.
4. From the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the chimney section and using stress and
strains of concrete and steel as per IS: 456 for stress diagram shown in the above Figs, the following
equations can be obtained:
Pu = 0.36 fck B3Xu + Ass (fss - fcc)

Pu /fckB32 = 0.36k + (pu/100) [(f ss - f cs) /fck] … (1)
Mu/fckB33 = 0.36k (0.5 - 0.416k) ... (2)
Where:
Ass = Cross-sectional Area of Stub

pu = 100 Ass/B32
fck = Characteristic Strength of Concrete
fcs = Stress in Concrete at Stub Level
fss = Stress in Stub, Compression being positive and Tension being Negative
Pu = Limiting Axial Force in the Chimney, compression being positive and tension being negative
Mu = Moment capacity of the chimney section
k = (Depth of Neutral Axis / B3) = Xu / B3
B3 = Size of Chimney
5. To determine the moment capacity of section, the depth of neutral axis is required which is decided
using equation (1) above by the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the chimney section
using stress and strain curves of concrete and steel as per IS: 456 and given on Page 4 to 6 of SP:
16 by assuming certain depth of neutral axis from most compressed face of chimney.
6. As per assumed position of neutral axis, the strains in stub are calculated (+ve for compression,
-ve for tension) assuming that plane section will remain plane before and after bending and strain
in most compressed face in concrete will be 0.0035 as specified in IS: 456-2000.
7. Now, the values of stress in stub corresponding to above strains are calculated from the stress/
strain curve of steel (mild steel curve for stub) given in IS: 456-2000 / SP-16.
8. The stress in stub is multiplied by corresponding area of stub to arrive at the force (+ve for
compression/ -ve for tension) induced in stub. As per position of neutral axis, the compressive force
in concrete is also calculated and combined with the above force to arrive at the total axial internal
force in chimney. The tensile force in concrete is assumed to be zero.
9. The external tension force is compared with the above internal force of chimney. If these forces
match, the depth of neutral axis assumed is correct. Otherwise, next trial is carried out with a
different position of neutral axis till equation (1) above is satisfied. It is an iterative process and
iteration is continued till equation (1) is satisfied.
10. Once depth of Neutral Axis is known, the moment capacity of section is calculated from
equation (2).
11. Since size of chimney and stub are symmetrical w.r.t. both transverse and longitudinal axis, the
moment capacity of section in both the directions will be identical.
12. Using the following formula, the adequacy of section is checked:
(MT/MUT)n + (ML/MUL)n ≤ 1.0
Where:
MT and ML are the moment about transverse and longitudinal axis of the chimney;
MUT and MUL are the maximum uni-axial moment capacities of the chimney section about transverse
and longitudinal axis of chimney with an axial load of Pu.
`n` is an exponent whose value would be 1.0 when axial forces is tensile and depends on the value
of Pu/Puz when axial forces is compressive where,
PUZ = 0.45fck Ac + 0.75 fys Ass
In the above equation,

Ac is the area of concrete;

Ass is the cross-sectional area of stub;
fy is the yield stress of reinforcement steel; and
fys is the yield stress of stub steel.
Pu / Puz `n`
0.2 1.0
0.8 2.0
13. In case, the above ratio is more than 1.0, it indicates that section is not adequate and needs to be
increased suitably and again repeat from step 4 to step 12, till ratio is less than 1.0. If on the other
hand, the ratio is substantially less than 1.0 then also the section has to be optimized by reducing
the section and redesigned following the above steps sequentially.
Case-II: W
hen stub provided and anchored in bottom pad/pyramid is not adequate for combined
stresses due to Axial Forces and Bending Moment and Reinforcement Steel is required to
be provided:
When the stub provided and anchored in base slab/pyramid is not adequate for combined stresses
due to direct axial force and bending moment, reinforcement needs be provided in the chimney for
structural safety. In this case also, stub would act as reinforcement placed at the centre of chimney.
However, the necessary reinforcement steel shall be provided on the sides of the chimney at the
periphery. For this case also, which is normally encountered in practice, no charts or graphs exist
in SP-16 for calculating the moment capacity of the chimney section. The following procedure may
be followed in such cases:
design of chimney with stub contribution
1. The loading on each tower leg from the tower superstructure is transferred at the base of the
chimney (Working Point) in terms of axial force (tension or compression) and biaxial moments (due
to longitudinal and transverse forces).
2. The material properties such as grade of steel of reinforcement bars, grade of steel of stub, grade
of concrete, etc are considered as specified for design.
3. No. and diameter of reinforcement bars, clear cover to main reinforcement bars, etc. are assumed.
The reinforcement bars are assumed to be equally distributed on all the four sides. The stub is
considered as reinforcement placed at the C.G. of the chimney.
4. From the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the chimney section and using stress and
strains of concrete and steel as per IS: 456 and stress diagram shown in the above Figs, the
following equations can be obtained:
Pu/fckB32 = 0.36k + ∑ (pi/100) [(fsi - fci)/fck] + (ps/100) [(fss - fcs)/fck] ... (3)
Mu/fckB33 = 0.36k (0.5 – 0.416k) + ∑ (pi/100) [(fsi - fci)/fck)] (yi /D) ...(4)
Where:
Asi = Cross-sectional Area of Reinforcement in ith Row;

As = Cross-sectional Area of Stub
p i = 100 Asi/B32

ps = 100 As/B32

fci = Stress in Concrete at the level of ith Row of reinforcement:
fsi = Stress in the ith Row of Reinforcement, Compression being positive Tension being
negative;
fss = Stress in the stub, Compression being positive Tension being negative;
yi = Distance from the Centroid of the Section to the ith Row of Reinforcement, positive towards
the highly compressed edge and negative towards the least compressed edge;
n = Number of rows of Reinforcement
fck = Characteristic Strength of Concrete
fcs = Stress in Concrete at Stub Level
B3 = Size of Chimney

5. To determine the moment capacity of section, the depth of neutral axis is required which is decided
using equation (3) above by the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the chimney section
using stress and strain curves of concrete and steel as per IS: 456 and given on Page 4 to 6 of SP:
16 by assuming certain depth of neutral axis from most compressed face of chimney.
6. As per assumed position of neutral axis, the strains in various rows of reinforcement bars and stub
are calculated (+ve for compression, -ve for tension) assuming that plane section will remain plane
before and after bending and strain in most compressed face in concrete will be 0.0035 as specified
in IS: 456-2000.
7. Now, the values of stresses in various reinforcement bars corresponding to above strains are
calculated from the stress/ strain curve of steel (HYSD curve for reinforcement bars, mild steel
curve for stub etc) given in IS: 456-2000 / SP-16.
8. These stresses are multiplied by corresponding area of steel reinforcement bars and stub to arrive
at the forces (+ve for compression/ -ve for tension) induced in them. These forces are algebraically
added to get the total force in reinforcement steel bars and stub. As per position of neutral axis, the
compressive force in concrete is also calculated and combined with the above forces to arrive at
the total axial internal force in chimney. The tensile force in concrete is assumed to be zero.
9. The external tension force is compared with the above internal force of chimney. If these forces
match, the depth of neutral axis assumed is correct. Otherwise, next trial is carried out with a
different position of neutral axis till equation (3) above is satisfied. It is an iterative process and
iteration is continued till equation (3) is satisfied.
10. Once depth of Neutral Axis is known, the moment capacity of section is estimated from equation (4).
The moment carrying capacity of the section is calculated about the C.G of the section multiplying
the forces in the reinforcement bars and concrete with their distances from C.G. for various rows of
reinforcement and C.G of concrete area in compression.
11. Since size of chimney, stub and provided reinforcement are symmetrical w.r.t both transverse and
longitudinal axis, the moment capacity of section in both the directions will be identical.
12. Using the following form ula, the adequacy of assessed reinforcement is checked:
(MT/MUT)n + (ML/MUL)n ≤ 1.0
Where:
of Pu/Puz when axial forces is compressive where,
PUZ = 0.45fck Ac + 0.75fyAs + 0.75 fys Ass

As is the area of reinforcement steel;
Ass is the cross-sectional area of stub;
fys is the yield stress of stub steel.
Pu / Puz `n`
0.2 1.0
0.8 2.0
13. In case, the above ratio is more than 1.0, it indicates that reinforcement provided is not adequate
and needs to be increased suitably and again repeat from step 4 to step 12, till ratio is less than 1.0.
If on the other hand, the ratio is substantially less than 1.0 then also the section has to be optimized
by reducing the reinforcement and redesigned following the above steps sequentially.
14. One example as worked out in detail is given at the end of the chapter.
Case-III: When Stub is provided in Chimney only for its Development Length:
When stub is provided in chimney only for its development length, chimney has to be designed for
full reinforcement provided in the chimney for combined stresses due to direct pull (tension)/Thrust
(compression) and bending moments. In this case, stub would not be available as reinforcement
at the centre of chimney. In this case, the requirement of longitudinal reinforcement in the chimney
can be calculated using appropriate charts given in SP: 16.
From the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the chimney section and using stress and
strains of concrete and steel as per IS: 456 and stress diagram shown in the above Figs, the
following equations as given in SP:16 can be obtained:
Pu/fckB32 = 0.36k + ∑ (pi/100) [(fsi - fci)/fck] ...(5)
Mu/fckB33 = 0.36k (0.5 – 0.416k) + ∑ (pi/100) [(fsi - fci)/fck] (yi /D) ...(6)
In this case, for a given axial force (compressive or tensile) and for given area of stub and area of
reinforcement, the depth of neutral axis Xu=KB3 can be calculated from equation (5) using stress strain
relationship for concrete and steel is given in IS: 456. After finding out the depth of Neutral Axis, the
moment capacity of the chimney section can be found out using equation (6). The moment capacity
of the chimney section should be more than the moment on chimney caused by side thrust.
In case, chimney is subjected to bi-axial moment i.e. both longitudinal and transverse moment, the
structural adequacy of chimney is required to be checked as per the following equation:
(MT/MUT) n + (ML/MUL) n ≤ 1.0

Where:
of Pu/Puz when axial forces is compressive where
PUZ = 0.45fck Ac + 0.75fyAs

As is the area of reinforcement steel;
Pu / Puz `n`
0.2 1.0
0.8 2.0
The solution of equations (5) & (6) for this case is given in SP-16 in the form of graphs for various
grades of concrete and steel and these can be readily used.
IMPORTANT CODAL STIPULATIONS FOR STRUCTURAL DETAILING OF CHIMNEY
While designing the chimney, the important codal provisions as given below should be followed:
 In any chimney that has a larger cross-sectional area than that required to support the load,
the minimum percentage of steel of 0.8% as prescribed in IS: 456 shall be based on the area
of concrete required to resist the direct stress and not on the actual area.
 The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a chimney shall be four in square
chimney and six in a circular chimney.
 The diameter of longitudinal reinforcement bars shall not be less than 12 mm.
 In case of a chimney in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not required in strength

calculations, nominal longitudinal reinforcement not less than 0.15% of the cross sectional area
shall be provided meeting other requirement regarding minimum diameter and maximum
spacing.
 The diameter of the stirrups or lateral ties shall be not less than one-fourth of the diameter of the
largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.
 The spacing of stirrups/lateral ties shall be not more than the least of the following
distances:
(a) The least lateral dimension of the chimney

(b) Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied
(c) 300 mm
(b) Structural Design of Base Slab
The base slab in R.C.C. Spread foundations could be single stepped or multi stepped. The critical
section for bending moment for single stepped footing, is at the face of chimney and for double
stepped footing, the critical section for bending is at the face of chimney and at all other vertical
planes where abrupt change of section occur i.e. junction of steps.
A through vertical section has to be considered for calculating the moment and shear in the bottom
pad as per provision of IS: 456. The effect of only the higher moment on bearing pressure needs to
be considered for the structural design of the bottom pad. The procedure of calculating the moment
of resistance of section and reinforcement for stepped footing both under down thrust and uplift
loading condition is given below based on Limit State Method of Design in IS: 456 with respect to
geometry and stress-strain diagram.
Design of Bottom Pad under Down Thrust:
Tension under the down thrust occurs at the bottom face of footing pad.
Design of Bottom Pad at Face of Chimney (Section X-X):
From the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the pad section and using stress and strains
of concrete and steel as per IS:456 and stress diagram shown in the above Figs, the following
equations as given in SP: 16 can be obtained:
0.36fckB2Xu = 0.87As1fy which can be written as
Xu / d1 = (p1 /100) x (0.87 fy) / (0.36 fck) … (7)
Where:
p1 = (100As1)/B2d1
As1 = Area of reinforcement at the bottom of the bottom-most step
Moment of resistance of Pad Section at the face of Chimney:
Mu = 0.87fy (p1/100) x (1-0.416 Xu / d1) B2d12 ... (8)
Design of Bottom Pad at the Junction of Steps (Section Y-Y):
of concrete and steel as per IS:456 and stress diagram shown in the above Figs, the following
equations as given in SP:16 can be obtained:
Xu/d2 = (p2 /100) x (0.87 fy)/0.36 fck ...(9)
Where:
p 2 = (100As1)/B1d2
Mu = 0.87fy (p2/100) x (1- 0.416Xu /d2) B1d22 ...(10)
The reinforcement provided at the face of chimney (i.e. at Section X-X) at the bottom face of the
base slab is normally continued up to edge of the footing without any curtailment and only the depth
of footing is reduced by providing step as moment reduces away from the face of the chimney.
Thus, the location of step is required to be chosen in such a manner that reduced depth provided at
Section Y-Y is structurally adequate in bending and shear for the reinforcement provided at Section
X-X.
Design of Bottom Pad under Uplift Load:
In this case, tension in footing pad occurs at the top face.
Design of Pad at the Junction of Step (Section Y-Y):
of concrete and steel as per IS: 456 and stress diagram shown in the above Figs, the following
equations can be obtained.
Xu /d2 = (p3/100) x (0.87 fy)/0.36 fck

... (11)
Where:
p3 = (100 As3)/Bd2
As3 = Area of reinforcement at the top of the bottom-most step

Moment of resistance of section:
Mu = 0.87fy x (p3/100) [(1- (0.416 Xu/d2 )] Bd22 …(12)
Design at the Face of Chimney (Section X-X):
It may be noted that reinforcement provided at Section Y-Y for uplift falls in tension zone and thus
would also contribute in moment capacity of section at X-X. This is because under uplift, compression
occurs at the bottom face of the base slab having more width (more area of compression flange)
and section behaves as a highly under reinforced section. From the equilibrium of internal and
external forces on the Pad section and using stress and strains of concrete and steel as per IS: 456
and stress diagram shown in the above Figs, the following equation can be obtained:
Xu/d1 = (p3/100) x (d2/d1) x (0.87 fy/0.36 fck) + (p4/100) x (0.87 fy/0.36 fck) ...(13)
Where:-
p3 = (100 As3/Bd2)
p4 = (100 As4/Bd1)
As4 = Area of reinforcement at the top of the topmost step
Moment of Resistance of Pad Section at the Face of Chimney:
Mu = [0.87fy x (p3/100) x (d2/d1) x (d2/d1 – 0.416 Xu/d1) + (0.87fy) x (p4/100) x
(1-0.416 Xu/d1)] x Bd12 ...(14)
Since, reinforcement percentage `p3` at Section Y-Y is already known, the problem reduces to
finding out the requirement of reinforcement of `p4` to be provided at depth `d1` in addition to
reinforcement `p3` already provided at depth `d2`. This can be calculated by solving the equation
(13) & (14).
IMPORTANT CODAL STIPULATIONS FOR R.C.C. FOUNDATIONS
The important provisions applicable for concrete foundations which are necessary and should be
considered in the design are explained below.
(a) Footings shall be designed to sustain the applied loads, moments and forces and the
induced reactions and to ensure that any settlement which may occur shall be as nearly
uniform as possible, and the bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded.
(b) Thickness of the edge of footing in reinforced concrete footings shall be not less than 15
cm (5 cm lean concrete plus 10 cm structural concrete). In case of plain concrete footing,
thickness at the edge shall not be less than 5 cm).
(c) Bending Moment
(i) The bending moment at any section shall be determined by passing through
the section of a vertical plane which extends completely across the footing, and
computing the moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the footing on the
side of the said plane.
(ii) The greatest bending moment to be used in the design of an isolated concrete footing
which supports a column/pedestal shall be the moment computed in the manner
prescribed in c(i) above at sections located as follows :
● At the face of the chimney.
● At sections where width/thickness of the footing changes.

(d) Shear and Bond

The shear strength of footing is governed by the more severe of the following two conditions:
(i) The footing acting essentially as a wide beam, with a potential diagonal crack extending in
a place across the entire width; the critical section for this condition shall be assumed as a
vertical section located from the face of the chimney at a distance equal to the effective depth
of the footing in case of footings on soils;
(ii) Two-way action of the footing, with potential diagonal cracking along the surface of truncated
cone or pyramid around the concentrated load;
(e) Critical Section for development length
The critical section for checking the development length in a footing shall be assumed at the same
planes as those described for bending moment in para (c) above and also at all other vertical planes
where abrupt changes of section occur.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BASE SLAB SHALL BE DONE AS PER THE PROVISION OF E-1
OF APPENDIX-E OF IS : 456-1978
When a plain concrete pyramid and chimney type footing is provided and pyramid slopes out from
the chimney at an angle less than 45° from vertical, the pyramid is not required to be checked for
bending stresses. Thus, in such cases, the footing is designed to restrict the spread of concrete
pyramid of slab block to 45° with respect to vertical.
10.11 CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY FOR TOWER FOUNDATION DESIGNS
While designing the various types of concrete footings, it is better to know about certain aspects of
concrete technology which are given below.
(a) Properties of Concrete
The grade of the structural concrete used for tower foundations should not be leaner than M-15
(1:2:4) having a 28-day cube strength of not less than 15 N/mm² and concrete shall conform to IS:
456. For special foundations like pile foundations, richer concrete of grade of M 20 (1:1.5:3) having
a 28-day cube strength of not less than 20 N/mm² should be used. M-15 grade concrete shall have
the nominal strength of not less than 15 N/mm² at the end of 28 days as ascertained form the cube
test. Such strength at the end of 7 days shall not be less than 10 N/mm².
The density of the concrete will be 2300 kg/m³ for plain concrete and 2400 kg/m³ for R.C.C. Other
properties of concrete are given in IS: 456.
(b) Properties of Steel
The high yield stress cold deformed reinforcement bars used in the R.C.C. shall conform to IS:
1786-1979 and shall have yield stress of not less than 415 N/mm². When mild steel reinforcement
bars are used in R.C.C, they shall conform to IS: 432 (Part-I) and shall have yield stress of not less
26 N/mm² for bars of size upto 20 mm diameter and 24 N/mm² for bars above 20 mm diameter.
TMT Bars of Fy= 500 N/mm² can used in the R.C.C as per availability in Market.
10.12 PULL-OUT TESTS ON TOWER FOUNDATION
The pull-out tests conducted on foundations help in determining the behaviour of the soil while
resisting the up-lift forces.
The feedback from this pull-out test results, in a particular type of soil, can be conveniently used in
the designs of foundations. The procedure of pull-out tests, equipments and results are discussed
in detail below.
(a) Selection of Site
Trial pits of size 1.0x1.0x3.0 (d) metre are made and the strata of the soil is observed. It is ascertained
that the strata available at the location is one in which we are interested (i.e., a particular type of soil
or combination of soils is available). Soil samples are taken from and around the site and subjected
to various tests, particularly relating to the density of soil, bearing capacity of soil, cohesion and
angle of internal friction etc.
(b) Design of Foundation for Pull-Out Test
Design of foundations for pull-out test is carried out with a different view point as compared to the
design of actual foundations for tower. This is due to the fact that the pull-out tests are conducted
to measure the pull-out resistance of the soils and therefore all the other parts of the foundation viz
concrete, reinforcement and the pull-out bars should be strong so that these do not fail before the
soil/ rock fails.
Based on the actual tower foundation loadings (down thrust, uplift and side thrust) and the soil
parameters obtained from the tests, a foundation design is developed. The design has a central
rod running from the bottom of the footing upto a height of about 1.5 m to 2.0 m above ground,
depending on the jacking requirements. The central rod is surrounded by a cage of reinforcement
bars.
A typical design developed for the pull-out test is shown in Fig 15.
Fig.15
(c) Casting of Foundation
The pits are excavated accurately. The concrete mix, reinforcement, from boxes etc., are exactly as
per the design. The pouring of the concrete is done such that voids are minimised. The back filling
of the soil should be carried out using sufficient water to eliminate voids and loose pockets. The
foundation should be cured for 14 days (minimum) and thereafter left undisturbed for a period not
less than 30 days.
(d) Pull-Out Test Set-up
As indicated earlier, the pull-out is done with the help of central hole jacks of different capacities
(10 M.T. to 100 M.T.). Each & every test foundation, therefore, has a central pulling bar. The
schematic diagram of the test set up is shown in Fig 16.
Fig.16
The foundation under test (1) is below the ground level. The central pulling rod (12) is projecting out
of the ground to the specified height. Sets of sleepers (2) are placed on either side, away from the
likely pull-out region through angle (9) A set of two girders (8) is placed on the sleepers.
The central hole jack (4) is kept on these girders covering the pull-out bar in it’s hollow. Two dial
gauges (3) capable of sensing a movement of 1/100th mm are used to record movements of the
jacks and the soil. The dial gauge to measure movement of the jack is kept just touching the top
of the pull-out bar by means of a pair of stands (10) and a datum bar (11). The dial gauge on the
ground is kept just touching the soil surrounding the top of the foundation by means of a stand
(14). Hydraulic oil is pumped in to the jack by a hydraulic pump (5) by moving the handle (13). The
pressure built up in the jack is recorded by the dynamometer, (6) on the top of the pump.
The upward movement of the jack is prevented by two nuts (7) on the top of the threaded portion
of the central pulling bar. This develops upward load on the foundation.
The oil is pumped gradually into the jack and readings of the pressure gauge and dial gauges
are taken At intervals of 500 kg to 1000 kg depending upon the estimated uplift resistances. In
the beginning, the dial gauges will not have appreciable movement but as the load increases,
movement will be significant. The movement of the soil surrounding the foundation will be visible as
soon as the foundation starts yielding. At a particular juncture, the load will not show any increment
and instead undergo a decrement. This juncture will be the final yield load of the soil surrounding
the foundation. The jack can be unloaded by opening the outlet in the pump and operating the lever
so that the pressure is released gradually. The curves of load versus dial gauge movements are
plotted and the size and the shapes of crack developed at the top of the soil are also recorded as
shown in Fig 17.
A = M
ovement of the Dial Gauge
installed at the soil level
B = M
ovement of the Dial Gauge
placed on the top of the
pulling bar
Fig. 17
It may be noted that the deformation of foundation is recorded by the dial gauge kept on the top
of the pull out bar, where as the deformation of ground is recorded by the dial gauge kept on the
ground.
(e) Comparison of Design and Pull-Out Test Results
The ultimate pull-out resistance offered by the foundation is later compared with the parameter
assumed in the design, proper analysis of the test is done and inference drawn regarding the actual
soil parameters.
10.13 SKIN FIRCTION TESTS
To determine the contact skin friction of soil and the concrete, this test is very important. Small pits
in the undisturbed layers of soil are made. The dimensions generally used are 300 x 300 x 300
MM, 300 x 300 x 600 MM, 300 (dia) x 300 MM (depth), 300 MM (dia) x 600 MM (depth). These
configurations are shown in Fig 18.
The concrete is poured directly in contact with the soil. For pulling, a central rod and a cage is
provided. The pull-out tests are done just as described in 10.12. The ultimate failure load (in kg) after
deducting the self weight of the foundation is divided by the area of surfaces in contact with the soil
(in sq cm). This result is the ultimate skin friction in kg/cm². The data obtained from the skin friction
tests have been found very reliable and have also been covered in the recommended parameters
by some utilities. The skin friction test results are very useful in designing foundations for rocky
and non-cohesive soils (like soft and hard murrum) The average skin friction value recorded during
tests on some of the soils are given below :
(i) Normal yellow dry soil - 0.3 kg/cm² (ultimate)

(ii) Black cotton dry soil - 0.1 kg/cm²
(iii) Soft murrum soil - 1.0 kg/cm²
(iv) Hard murrum soil - 2.0 kg/cm²
(v) Soft rock - 3.0 kg/cm²
(vi) Hard rock - 4.5 kg/cm²
It should be noted with care that the skin friction values are applicable only in cases where foundation
concrete is poured directly in contact with soil or rock.
10.14 SCALE DOWN MODELS OF FOUNDATION
The pull-out tests can also be done on various scale down configurations in different types of soils.
These are shown in Fig 19.
The advantages of this type of pull-out test are low cost and less time per test and quick comparison
between the models. The disadvantage is that the exact behaviour of the soil cannot be determined
if the exploration is carried out in the top layers of soil upto a depth less than 1500 mm.
The pull-out tests done with these configurations under dry and wet conditions have revealed
that the stump driven foundation offer extra 15% uplift resistance, and undercut type foundation
offers extra 50% up-lift resistance, as compared to the friction type foundation. In case of stump
driven foundations, the stumps of steel rods in contact with the soil may get corroded in the long
run and the advantage of 15% may not be available. However, these will be able to contribute
in counteracting the stringing/construction load on foundations and thus may afford early tower
erection and stringing.
10.15 TESTS ON SUBMERGED SOILS
It is very difficult to carry out pull-out tests on naturally submerged soil as the testing gadgets are
likely to sink in the mud when pressure is increased in the hydraulic jack. Besides, it is also difficult
to regulate the sub-soil water.
The tests on these types of soils can be conducted by creating similar conditions in an
underground open sump (Made of brick masonry duly plastered form inside). The soil to be
tested (i.e., normal, black cotton, marshy etc.) is borrowed from elsewhere and dumped in the
part of the sump/tank and is well compacted. Three to four cycles of dry and wet spells are
given to the soil till it attains the density of the dry parent soil. The typical arrangement of this
test is shown in Fig 20.
Four 50 mm dia pipes are placed in the four corners of the tank vertically before dumping the
borrowed soil, in such a way that heir both ends remain open for the passage of water. The
foundation is cast on the partially filled soil. The remainder of the tank is then fully filled with the
same type of borrowed soil. This soil is again well compacted and three to four cycles of wet and
dry spell are given. The wetness is created using the pipes.
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
The pull-out tests are conducted by keeping the gadgets on the ground level with the same process
as indicated in 10.12 under the presence of sub-soil water pressure created through the external
watering of the tanks using the pipes.
10.16 INVESTIGATION OF FOUNDATION OF TOWERS
Normally it is believed that once the foundation is cast and the tower is erected, the foundations
can¬not be re-opened for investigation or repairing. However, on the basis of investigation and
rectification work carried out on some major 220 kV and 400 kV lines, it is now considered to be
viable to carry out this type of exercise even after the line is strung and energised.
If the foundations on the line have to be investigated, certain locations are selected at random
in such a fashion that foundations for various types of soils are covered one by one. One or two
locations for every ten km may be sufficient for preliminary investigations. Out of the four individual
footings of selected tower, two diagonally opposite foundations are selected and one of the four
faces of each of these two foundations is excavated in slanting direction from top to bottom. This is
shown in Fig 21.
After the investigation is over and corrective measures have been chalked out it is advisable
to backfill the excavation mixing earth with light cement slurry, particularly when the soil is non-
cohesive such as soft murrum/hard murrum, softrock/hard rock etc., (say one cement bag for every
three to four cum of earth). This will ensure good bond and safeguard the foundation against uplift
forces, even if corrective repairs of the foundations are delayed.
10.17 INVESTIGATION OF FOUNDATION OF A TOWER LINE IN SERVICE

For the investigation of failures of foundations or for the investigation of reported unhealthy
foundations with line in service, the excavation at the selected location is carried out in the same
fashion as described in 10.16. However, the line being in service, it will be better to guy the corner
leg/legs of the tower (on which the investigation is being carried out) at 45° diagonally from top,
away from the induction zone. The investigation and the back filling should be done exactly as
detailed in 10.16.
Fig. 21
10.18 REPAIRS OF FOUNDATIONS OF A TOWER LINE IN SERVICE
After it is established that the foundation is unhealthy, it is better to take the corrective steps as early
as possible. The methods would be different for rectifying isolated location/locations (one to two)
and for rectifying complete line/line sections including a number of towers. These are discussed
below.
(a) Rectification of isolated locations (one to two) is done on individual basis. Any one of
the four footings is taken up first. It is opened up from all the four sides. The tower legs
connected to this footing are guyed as described in 10.17. After rectifying the foundation,
backfilling is done as described in 10.16. A minimum of seven days time is allowed for
curing of the repaired foundation before excavating the second leg for repairs. All the four
legs are repaired thus without any outage on the line.
(b) When foundation rectification work is required to be done on a complete line or line section
without any outage, a section from cut point to cut point is selected. The four footings of
each tower in the section are named ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C and ‘D’ clock-wise as shown in Fig 22.
Fig. 22
The excavation of leg ‘A’ in first location, ‘B’ in second location, ‘C in third location and ‘D’ in fourth
location can be taken up first. This order can be continued for each group of four towers in the
section. After excavation, rectification and backfilling, seven days curing time is allowed. Again
from location 1 to 4, the excavation rectification and backfilling is done in the sequence leg ‘C’,
‘D’, ‘A’ & ‘B’. This is repeated for each group of four towers of the line section under repairs. After
passage of 7 days again the sequence ‘B’, ‘C, ‘D’ & ‘A’ and again after 7 days the sequence ‘D’, ‘A’,
‘B’ & ‘C are repeated for each group of four towers. This exercise can be repeated for each group
of four towers for the remainder of the line section. All the precautions described earlier should be
taken during this exercise. It is advisable to avoid this exercise during abnormal wind conditions/
active monsoon/flood etc. If the work is to be completed early, two diagonally opposite footing of
each towers can be opened and repaired simultaneously. The second pair of diagonally opposite
footings can be opened and repaired simultaneously after a passage of seven days.
10.19 FOUNDATION DEFECTS AND THEIR REPAIRS
The main possible defects in the cast concrete can be as follows:
(a) Under sizing of foundation due to wrong classification of soil: For example, the soil may
be dry black cotton but the foundation cast may be that for normal dry soil. If the corrective
measures are not taken, the foundation can fail. An R.C.C. collar is designed for the type
of soil and tower loadings to remedy such a defect. The details are shown in Fig 23.
(b) Improper formation of pyramid/chimney etc. due to improper concrete laying, if the concrete
is simply poured from the top of the form box, without taking care to fill the voids (using
crow bar, vibrator etc) the concrete does not reach to the corners of the form and thus the
foundation is not completely formed. It will develop the defects described below.
As seen in Fig 24, the foundations have not attained the required shapes in the pyramid, undercut
and chimney portions. These defects can be rectified with R.C.C. collars. The design of the collars
will depend upon the requirement of the load transfer (i.e., thrust, uplift and side thrust) and extent
of deformation of the foundation).
(c) Damage to stub top and top and top part of the chimney: Due to ingress of saline water or
other chemical pollutants etc. the stub top part of the steel in the chimney gets corroded.
Repairing can be done by welding the damage portion of the stub and providing R.C.C.
collar to the damaged chimney top as shown in Fig 25. For providing a welded joint, the part
of the cast concrete in the top part of the chimney is broken. All the precautions indicated in
10.16 must be taken to safeguard the line in service.
(d) Special foundation: Generally foundation for transmission towers are designed for the soil
parameters of already defined soil classification. While execution depending on type of soil
& likely water table the suitable foundation design is selected & adopted.
However for specific location, if the site condition is different and none of the standard designed
foundations are suitable, special foundation can be designed. Some of the criteria for designing
special could be soil surcharge from uphill slope, frost heave, raised chimney due to uneven terrain
or water logging etc. Revetment, retaining wall can be provided, where ever required.
Fig. 23
Fig. 24
Fig. 25
ANNEXURE-1
Soil Properties to be considered in Foundation Designs for various types of Soil
Sl. No. Type of Soil Angle of Earth Unit Wt. of Limit bearing
frustum Soil capacity
(Degrees) (kg/cu m) (kg/sq m)
1. Normal Dry Soil

(a) Without Undercut 30 1440 25,000
(b) With undercut 30 1600 25,000
2 Wet Soil due to presence of sub soil water/
surface water 15 940 12,500
3 Black Cotton Soil

(a) In Dry Portion 0 1440 12,500
(b) In Wet Portion 0 940
4 Sandy Soil
(a) With Clay Content 0-5% 10 1440 25,000
(b) With Clay Content 5-10% 20 1440 25,000
5 (A) Fissured Rock/Soft Rock

(With Undercut)
(a) In Dry Portion 20 1700 62,500
(b) In Wet Portion 10 940 62,500
5 (B) Fissured Rock/Soft Rock

(Without Undercut / Block type)
(a) In Dry Portion 0 1440 62,500
(b) In Wet Portion 0 940 62,500
6 Hard Rock --- --- 1,25,000
7 Normal Hard Dry Soil (Murrum) with 30 1600 40,000
Undercut
Note:
1. Limit bearing capacity of soil has been arrived at taking FOS 2.5 over the safe bearing capacity
values. Soil research institutes will be approached to furnish the limit bearing capacities of soil, if
and when such data are available the above values can be reviewed.
2. Where clay content is more than 10% but less than 15%, the soil will be classified as Normal Dry
Soil
3 Angle of Earth shall be taken with respect to vertical.

ANNEXURE - II
List of Soils Tests
(A) To find out the soil properties, the following laboratory tests shall be carried out:
(1) Grain size distribution/sieve analysis to identify the type of soil

(2) Atterburg limits (liquid and plastic limits only)
(3) Specific gravity, bulk unit weight, moisture content
(4) Tri-axial shear test for cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction (0)
(5) Consolidation test
(6) Standard penetration test
(7) Chemical test on soil and water (only at special locations such as marshy soils, chemically
active soils etc.) to determine the carbonates, sulphates, nitrates, organic matters and any
other chemicals harmful to the concrete foundations.
(B) The above tests shall be useful in determining the types of soil, density, limit bearing capacity etc.
For determining the angle of earth frustum 2/3rd value of angle of internal friction (4>) or the values
given in Annexure-I whichever is smaller shall be taken.
(C) Standard penetration tests shall be conducted at depths as follows:
Location Depth (m)
(i) Normal Locations 1.5,3.0,4.5,7.00
(ii) River crossing & special Locations 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 7.00, 10.00 &
thereafter at the rate of 3 M
intervals up to 40 M.
Bore hole logs shall be prepared for the locations where above tests have been conducted.
(D) During execution, trial pits up to a minimum depth of 3.0 m (except rocky locations) shall be
excavated at each and every tower location (at all four legs) to obtain following details in order to
classify the type of foundation to be adopted:
(1) Type of soil encountered
(2) Ground Water table.

ANNEXURE - III
Guidelines for classification of Foundations in different Soils
SI. Name of soil encountered Type of foundation to

No. be adopted
1. In good soil (silty sand mixed with clay) Normal Dry
2. Where top layer of Black Cotton soil extends upto 50% of the depth Partial Black Cotton
with good soil there after
3. Where top layer of black cotton soil exceeds 50% and extends upto Black Cotton
full depth, or is followed by good soil
4. Where top layer is good soil upto 50% of the depth but the lower layer Black Cotton
is a black cotton soil
5. Where subsoil water is met at 1.5 ml or more below the ground level Wet
in good soil
6. Good soil locations which are in surface water for long period with Wet
water penetration not exceeding 1.0 m below ground level (e.g.,
paddy fields)
7. In good soil where subsoil water is encountered between 0.75 m and Partially submerged
1.5 m depth from ground level
8. In good soil where subsoil water is encountered within 0.75 m depth Fully Submerged
from ground level
9. Where top layer of normal dry soil extends upto 85% of the depth Dry Fissured Rock
followed by fissured rock without presence of water
10. Where top layer is fissured rock followed by good soil/sandy soil with/ Special foundation
without presence of water
11. Where normal soil/fissured rock extends upto 85% of the depth Dry fissured Rock with
followed by hard rock under cut in Fissured
Rock combined with
anchor bar for hard rock
design
12. Where fissure rock is encountered with subsoil water within 0.75 m or Submerged Fissured
below 0.75 m from G.L. (Top layer may be either a good soil or black Rock
cotton soil)
12a
Where fissure rock is encountered with subsoil water 1.5 m below Wet Fissured Rock
from G.L. (Top layer may be either a good soil or black cotton soil)
13. Where Hard Rock is encountered at 1.5 m or less below ground Hard Rock
level
14. Where Hard Rock is encountered from 1.5 m to 2.5 m below G.L. (Top Hard Rock Foundation
layer being good soil) with chimney for Normal
Soil
15. Where hard rock is encountered from 1.5 m to 2.5 m below G.L. (Top Hard Rock Foundation
layer either in Black cotton) soil or fissured Rock) design with chimneys
designed for wet black
cotton soil
16. Where fissured rock is encountered at the bottom of pit (with black Composite Foundation
cotton soil at top)
17. Where hard rock is encountered at bottom with water and black cotton Hard Rock
soil at top and hard rock layer depth is less than 1.5 m
18. Sandy soil with clay content not exceeding 10% Dry Sandy soil foundation
19. Sandy soil with water table in the pits Wet sandy soil design to
be developed considering
the depth of water
20. Where top layer upto 1.5 m below G.L. is normal dry soil and thereafter Normal dry with undercut
hard soil/murrum
21. Where bottom layer is marshy soil with top layer of good soil/fissured Soil investigation is to be
rock/black cotton carried out and special
foundation design to be
developed
22. Where the top layers are a combination of clinker mixed with firm soil, Normal dry with undercut
gravel and stone chips upto 60% of foundation depth from ground level
followed by hard murrum
23. Where top layers are combination of hard murrum, soft rock etc. Special foundation
followed by yellow/black clayee soil design is to be developed
after carrying out soil
investigation
Any other combination of soil not covered above shall require development of special foundation design.
ANNEXURE-IV
Bond Stresses
(1) Limit Bond Stress between Concrete and reinforcement steel deformed bars in tension of grade Fe:
415 / 500
Conforming to IS: 1786-1985 or IS: 1139-1966
As per IS: 456
(a) With M: 20 Mix 19.2 kg/cm²
(b) With M: 25 Mix 22.4 kg/cm²
(c) With M: 30 Mix 24.0 kg/cm²
(e) With M: 40 Mix 30.4 kg/cm²
Note: For bars in compression the above values shall be increased by 25%.
(2) Limit Bond Stress between Concrete and Stubs in Tension with
(a) M:20 Mix 12 kg/cm²
(b) M:25 Mix 14 kg/cm²
(c) M:30 Mix 15 kg/cm²
(e) M:40 Mix 19 kg/cm²
For compression the above values will be increased by 25%
(3) Limit bond stress between Rock and Concrete
(a) In Fissured Rock 1.5 kg/cm²
(b) In Hard Rock 4.0 kg/cm²
(4) Limit bond stress between hard rock and grout 2.0 kg/cm²
(5) Limit bond stress between Steel Anchor (for Fe 415/500) and grout 10 kg/cm²
Typical Example of Design Calculation

Rock Anchor type Foundation
Foundation loads
Maximum Compression  56678 kg
Maximum Uplift  45722 kg
   
   
   
  
   
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Rock Anchors
   
   
   
   
  
   
Minimum width of Foundation Block Req.   
   
   
   
   

   
   
   
   

Chk for Bore Diameter   
Check for Bar Area
 ʋ  
   
   
  
  1. 35 OK
Check for Bar length for Bond between Grout & Steel
   
   
ʌ ʋ  
   
Check for Stress between Steel & Grout
ʌ ʌ  
  
   
   
  1. 70 OK
Check for Stress between Rock & Grout
 ʌ  
  
   
   
  1. 21 OK
Check for Base Pressure
   
   
  
   OK
Note :



Hard Rock Foundation (Block Type)
Foundation loads
Maximum Compression C 56678 kg
Maximum Uplift U 45722 kg
Bond stress between Rock & Concrete Frc 4 kg/cm²
Permissible Base Pressure 125000 kg/m²
Tensile Stress of Steel = 0.87*Fy Ft 3680 kg/cm²
RCC Unit Weight 2400 kg/m³
Rock Unit Weight 1440 kg/m³
Muff Height 300 mm
Chimney width 420 mm
Maximum Rock level 1500 mm
Depth of Foundation Block 500 mm
Height of Chimney Below Ground level 1500 mm
Width of Foundation Block 1020 mm
Foundation Depth below Ground level 2000 mm
Muff Volume / Leg 0.420 x 0.420 x 0.300 0.053 m³
Chimney Volume / Leg 0.420 x 0.420 x 1.500 0.265 m³
Block Volume / Leg 1.020 x 1.020 x 0.500 0.520 m³
Overload due to Muff 0.053 x 2400 127 kg

Overload due to Chimney 0.265 (2400-1440) 254 kg
Overload due to Block 0.520(2400-1440) 499 kg
Total Overload (OL) 127+254+499 880 kg
Self weight of footing (SWT) (0.053+0.265+0.520)2400 2011 kg

Compression + Overload (OL) 56678 + 880 57558 kg
Actual Base Pressure 57558 / 1.020² 55323 kg/m²
Factor of Safety (FOS) 125000 / 55323 2.259 OK
Block Surface Area 4 x 50 x102 20400 cm²
Bond stress between Rock & Concrete 4.00 kg/cm²
Uplift Capacity 20400 x 4 81600 kg

Dry fissured Rock Foundation (Block Type)
Foundation Loads
Maximum Compression C 56678 kg
Maximum Uplift U 45722 kg
Bond stress between Rock & Concrete Frc 2 kg/cm²
Tensile Stress of Steel = 0.87*Fy Ft 3680 kg/cm²
RCC Unit Weight 2400 kg/m³
Rock Unit Weight 1440 kg/m³
Muff Height 300 mm

Chimney width 420 mm
Width of Foundation Block 1250 mm
Depth of Foundation Block (In Rock) 600 mm
Height of Chimney (Rock level to G.L) 2400 mm
Foundation Depth below GL 3000 mm
UnderCut Width 150 mm
UnderCut height 150 mm
Muff Volume / Leg 0.420x 0.420x0.300 0.053 m³
Chimney Volume / Leg 0.420x 0.420x2.400 0.423 m³
Block Volume / Leg (0.600x0.950x0.950)+(0.5x0.150x0.150x1.250x2)
+(0.5x0.150x0.150x0.950x2) 0.589 m³
Overload due to Muff 0.053 x 2400 127 kg

Overload due to Chimney 0.423(2400-1440) 406 kg
Overload due to Block 0.589(2400-1440) 565 kg
Total Overload (OL) 127+406+565 1099 kg
Self weight of footing (SWT) (0.053+0.423+0.589) x 2400 2556 kg

Compression
p + Overload 56677+1099 57776 kg
g
Actual Base Pressure 57776/1.250² 36977 kg/m²
Factor of Safety (FOS) 62500/36977 1.69 OK
Concrete Volume 4 (0.053+0.423+0.589) 4.260 m³
Block Surface Area 4(((125-2x15)x(60-15))+((125+(125-2x15))
x sqrt(2)x15/2))/100 26434 cm²
Bond stress between Rock & Concrete 2.00 kg/cm²
Uplift Capacity 26434 x 2.00 52868 kg
Note:
To be adopted for homogenous,continuous rock or fissured rock,not suitable for loose boulders and murrum.
ANNEX-I
DESIGN OF WET TYPE FOUNDATION
Typical Example of Design Calculations CHECK / MANUAL INPUT
ILLUSTRATION NO - I
INPUT DATA
400 KV D/C Transmission line C.L. 650
225 G.L. 866
Tower type : "DB"
Design loads (Limiting/ultimate) (inclusive of overload factor 1.2)

1500
Description Normal Condition Broken Wire Condition 2400
(Reliability) (Security) 30 degree
kgs kgs 362
Down thrust 165598 154376 GWT
uplift 140917 130185 3000 WP
side thrust (T) 5907 8283
side thrust (L) 825 4983 200 Slab 1 1350
Grade of steel = 500 N/mm2
Grade of concrete = 20 N/mm2
Tower Slopes: 250 Slab 2 15 degree
TANș = 0.1926
True length factor = 1.036 100 Slab 3
50
Soil/rock data: 1740 Lean conc ( 1:3:6)
Design of Foundations
unit weight of dry soil = 1440 kg/cu.m

unit weight of wet soil = 940 kg/cu.m 4690
unit weight of dry fissured rock = 1700 kg/cu.m
unit weight of wet fissured rock = 940 kg/cu.m 5190
unit weight of hard rock = 1440 kg/cu.m
limit bearing capacity (dry locations ) = 27350 kg/sq.m
limit bearing capacity (wet locations) = 13675 kg/sq.m
limit bearing capacity (fissured rock locations) = 62500 kg/sq.m (All dimensions are in mm)
limit bearing capacity (hard rock locations) = 125000 kg/sq.m Wet Type Foundation
unit weight of concrete (dry) = 2400 kg/cu.m
319
ILLUSTRATION NO - II
320
DESIGN OF WET TYPE FOUNDATION

1.0 Volume of Concrete ( Cu.m.) :
PCC 5.19^2*0.05 = 1.347
Slab 3 5.19^2*0.1 = 2.694
Slab 2 0.25/3[5.19^2+4.69^2+5.19*4.69] = 6.106
Slab 1 1.74^2*0.2 = 0.606
Chimney 0.65^2*2.625 = 1.109

11.861 cum
2.0 Over Load of Concrete (kgs.):
Compression Uplift
0.65^2*0.225*2400 = 228 228
(11.862-0.096)*(2400-1440) = 11295 -
0.65^2*1.5*(2400-1440) = - 608
(11.862-1.347-0.096-0.634)*(1400-940) = - 4501
11524 kgs 5338 kgs
3.0 Dry Soil Volume : (Cu.m)
A1=5.19^2+4*5.19*0.362+3.14*0.362^2 = 34.857
A2=5.19^2+4*5.19*(0.867+0.362)+3.14*(0.867+0.362)^2 = 57.158
V=(1.5/3)[ 34.857 + 57.158 + SQRT(34.857*57.158)] = 68.325 cum
NOTE: In case where frustrum of earth pyramid of two adjoining legs superimpose
each other, the earth frustrum is assumed truncated by a vertical plane passing
4.0 Wet Soil Volume : (Cu.m) through the centre line of the tower base.
5.19^2*1.45 = 39.057
5.19*0.362*2*1.35 = 5.069
3.14/3*0.362^2*1.35 = 0.185
44.311 cum
5.0 CHECK FOR UPLIFT

5.1 Resistance Against Uplift
68.32*1440+44.31*940+5338 = 145378 kgs.

F.O.S (NC) = 145378/140917 = 1.032 >1.0 Hence o.k.
F.O.S (BWC) = 145378/130185 = 1.117 >1.0 Hence o.k.
6.0 MOMENT DUE TO SIDE THRUST AT FOUNDATION TOE
6.1 NORMAL CONDITION (TRANSVERSE SIDE THRUST)

Side thrust force = (F) = 1/2*w*h^2*B3*(1+sin phi/1-sin phi)
Where W = 940 kg/m3

ĭ = Angle of Earth Frustum = phi = 15 degrees
B3 = 0.65 m
Height of mobilization = (2.4 - 0) = 2.4 m

Maximum passive force that can be mobilized =
P passive= 0.5*w*h^2*B3*(1+sin phi/1-sin phi)
2989 kgs < 5907 kgs NOTE: In case of soil with two or more types of strata, passive pressure can be
calculated considering properties of each layer separately.
Therefore, full passive pressure is mobilized.
Moment due to side thrust at the base of the footing

= 5907*(2.95+0.225) -2989*(0.55+2.4/3)
= 14720 kg-m
h= 2.4
P passive = 2989 kgs
3832 kg/m2
6.2 NORMAL CONDITION (LONGITUDINAL SIDE THRUST )

Where W= 940 kg/m3

ĭ= Angle of Earth Frustum = phi = 15 degrees

B3 = 0.65 m

2989 kgs > 825 kgs
Therefore, full passive pressure is not mobilized.
Moment due to side thrust at the base of footing

= 825*(2.95+0.225) -825*(0.55+2.4)/3)
= 1506 kg-m
h= 2.4
P passive = 825 kgs
1058 kg/m2
321
6.3 BROKEN WIRE CONDITION (TRANSVERSE SIDE THRUST )
322
Where W = 940 kg/m3

B3 = 0.65 m

2989 kgs < 8283 kgs

= 8283*(2.95+0.225) -2988.64*(0.55+2.4)/3)
= 22264 kg-m
h= 2.4
3832 kg/m2
6.4 BROKEN WIRE CONDITION (LONGITUDINAL SIDE THRUST)

Where W = 940 kg/m^3

B3 = 0.65 m

2989 kgs < 4983 kgs

= 4983*(2.95+0.225) -2988.64*(0.55+2.4)/3)
= 11786 kg-m
h= 2.4
3832 kg/m2
7.0 CHECK FOR BEARING CAPACITY
NC = (165598/1.036+11524)/5.19^2+2*(165598/1.036)*0.193*0.6/(1/6*5.19^3)+14720.069/(1/6*5.19^3)+1505.625/(1/6*5.19^3)
= 6362 + 1585 + 632 + 65
= 8644 kg/m2 < 13675 kg/m2 Hence o.k.
BWC = (154376/1.036+11524)/5.19^2+2*(154376/1.036)*0.193*0.6/(1/6*5.19^3)+22263.869/(1/6*5.19^3)+11786.369/(1/6*5.19^3)
= 5960 + 1478 + 956 + 506
= 8899 kg/m2 < 13675 kg/m2 Hence o.k.
8.0 DESIGN OF CHIMNEY

Clear cover = 50 mm
Chimney Design with Stub contribution
8.1 Loading:Compression with biaxial bending in Normal Condition
Puc= 1650.6 KN
Mux= 128.7 KN-m
Muy= 14.8 KN-m
Material Property:
fy= 500 N/mm2
fys= 250 N/mm2
fck= 20 N/mm2
Geometric Property:
D= 650 mm
clear cover 50 mm
Dia of reinf 12 mm and 25 mm
No. of reinf= 20 nos. and 4 nos.
d' = 62.5 mm
TRIAL-I Say Neutral Axis at a distance from MCE = 332.57 mm

MCE: Most Compressed Edge of concrete
Distance from Stress Distance Distance

Location MCE Strain (fsi- fci) Area Force from NA from CG Moment
mm N/mm2 mm2 KN mm mm KN-m
MCE 0 0.00350 - - - 332.57 325 -
R1 62.5 0.00284 406.317 1547.23 628.67 270.07 262.5 165.03
R2 150 0.00192 357.721 226.19 80.91 182.57 175 14.16
R3 237.5 0.00100 193.291 226.19 43.72 95.07 87.5 3.83
R4 325 0.00008 15.219 226.19 3.44 7.57 0 0.00
Stub 325 0.00008 15.219 5780.00 87.97 7.57 0 0.00
R5 412.5 0.00084 168.154 226.19 -38.04 -79.93 -87.5 3.33
R6 500 0.00176 350.097 226.19 -79.19 -167.43 -175 13.86
R7 587.5 0.00268 409.298 1547.23 -633.28 -254.93 -262.5 166.24
Total 10005.44 94.21 366.43
Concrete force incompression = 1556.43 KN 290.51
Total axial capacity = 1650.63 KN = 1650.63 KN
Moment capacity = 656.94 KN-M
Interaction formula = 0.218

323
8.2 Loading:Compression with biaxial bending in Broken Wire Condition
324
Puc= 1540.5 KN
Mux= 189.8 KN-m
Muy= 104.9 KN-m
Material Property:
fy= 500 N/mm2
fys= 250 N/mm2
fck= 20 N/mm2
Geometric Property:
D= 650 mm
clear cover 50 mm
d' = 62.5 mm

Distance from Distance Distance

Location MCE Strain Stress Area Force from NA from CG Moment
MCE 0 0.00350 - - - 334.04 325 -
R1 61 0.00286 395.83 1547.23 612.44 273.04 264 161.68
R2 149 0.00194 348.44 226.19 78.81 185.04 176 13.87
R3 237 0.00102 183.35 226.19 41.47 97.04 88 3.65
R4 325 0.00009 -1.06 226.19 -0.24 9.04 0 0.00
Stub 325 0.00009 -1.06 5780.00 -6.10 9.04 0 0.00

R5 413 0.00083 165.47 226.19 -37.43 -78.96 -88 3.29
R6 501 0 00175
0.00175 348 77
348.77 226 19
226.19 -78.89
78 89 -166.96
166 96 -176
176 13 88
13.88
R7 589 0.00267 408.81 1547.23 -632.52 -254.96 -264 166.98
Total 10005.44 -22.45 363.37
Total axial capacity = 1540.86 KN = 1540.54 KN

8.3 Loading:Tension with biaxial bending in Normal Condition
Put= 1382.4 KN
Mux= 128.7 KN-m
Muy= 14.8 KN-m
Material Property:
fy= 500 N/mm2
fys= 250 N/mm2
fck= 20 N/mm2
Geometric Property:
D= 650 mm
clear cover 50 mm
d' = 62.5 mm


MCE 0 0.00350 - - - 112.55 325 -
R1 61 0.00160 300.61 1547.23 465.12 51.55 264 122.79
R2 149 0.00113 226.70 226.19 -51.28 -36.45 176 -9.02

R3 237 0.00387 431.69 226.19 -97.65 -124.45 88 -8.59
R4 325 0.00661 435 226.19 -98.39 -212.45 0 0.00
Stub 325 0.00661 217.50 5780.00 -1257.15 -212.45 0 0.00
R5 413 0.00934 435 226.19 -98.39 -300.45 -88 8.66
R6 501 0 01208
0.01208 435 226 19
226.19 -98.39
98 39 -388.45
388 45 -176
176 17 32
17.32
R7 589 0.01482 435 1547.23 -673.05 -476.45 -264 177.68
Total 10005.44 -1909.19 308.83
Total axial capacity = -1382.45 KN = 1382.40 KN

325
8.4 Loading:Tension with biaxial bending in Broken Wire Condition (MOST CRITICAL CASE)
326
Put= 1277.1 KN
Mux= 189.8 KN-m
Muy= 104.9 KN-m
Material Property:
fy= 500 N/mm2
fys= 250 N/mm2
fck= 20 N/mm2
Geometric Property:
D= 650 mm
clear cover 50 mm
d' = 62.5 mm


MCE 0 0.00350 - - - 120.3 325 -
R1 61 0.00173 325.05 1547.23 502.93 59.3 264 132.77
R2 149 0.00083 167.00 226.19 -37.77 -28.7 176 -6.65
R3 237 0.00340 356.27 226.19 -80.59 -116.7 88 -7.09
R4 325 0.00596 435 226.19 -98.39 -204.7 0 0.00
Stub 325 0.00596 217.50 5780.00 -1257.15 -204.7 0 0.00
R5 413 0.00852 435 226.19 -98.39 -292.7 -88 8.66

R6 501 0 01108
0.01108 435 226 19
226.19 -98.39
98 39 -380.7
380 7 -176
176 17 32
17.32
R7 589 0.01364 435 1547.23 -673.05 -468.7 -264 177.68
Total 10005.44 -1840.81 322.70
Total axial capacity = -1277.80 KN = 1277.11 KN

9.0 DESIGN OF BASE SLAB
Design Bearing Pressure clear cover 50 mm
= (P/A) +/- (P.ex/Z) +/- MAX {ST moment, SL moment} /Z dia of main b 16 mm
dia/2 8 mm
6362+/-(1586/2)+/-632
2
pmax= 7786 kg/m
2
pmin= 4938 kg/m
2
pmax= 0.07638 N/mm
2
pmin= 0.04844 N/mm
d1 = Eff. Depth at Section X-X
550-50-16-8 mm = 476 mm
d2 = Eff. Depth at Section Y-Y

350-50-16-8 mm = 276 mm
B3 = 650 mm
Y
2.27 m
1.725 m
200
250
100
B2 = 1740 mm
Y
B4= 4690 mm
B1 = 5190 mm
X
kg/m2
Pressure at a distance d=476mm from Section X-X = 6802
2
4938 kg/m Pressure at a distance d=276mm from Section Y-Y = 6991
6540 6840
2
kg/m2 kg/m2 7786 kg/m
327
Moment for Compression Reinforcement:
1. B.M. at Face of Chimney (Section X-X)
MUX1 = 6541*5.19*(5.19-0.65)^2/8+(7787-6541)*5.19*2.27/2*2/3*2.27
= 87457 + 11108 kg-m
= 98564 = 966.92 KN-M
2. B.M. at junction of Slabs (Section Y-Y)
MUY1= 6840*5.19*(1.725^2/2)+ (7787-6840)*0.5*1.725*2/3*1.725

= 57688 Kg-m = 565.91 KN-m
Moment for Uplift Reinforcement:

Bearing pressure (p2) = 140917/(5.19^2-0.65^2) 5315 Kg/m2
3. B.M. at junction of Slabs (Section Y-Y)
MUY2 = 5314.9*5.19*(5.19-1.74)^2/8 kg-m

= 41040 kg-m
= 402.61 KN-m
4. B.M. at face of Chimney (Section X-X )
MUX2 = 5314.9*5.19*(5.19-0.65)^2/8 Kg-m

= 71069.58 kg-m
= 697.19 KN-m
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BOTTOM PAD WITH TWO RCC SLABS
SIZE OF FOOTING
BOTTOM PAD WIDTH 'B1'= 5190
TOP PAD WIDTH 'B2'= 1740
CHIMNEY SIZE 'B3'= 650
TOTAL DEPTH OF FOOTING AT SECTION X-X = 'D1' = 550
TOTAL DEPTH OF BOTTOM PAD AT SECTION Y-Y = 'D2'= 350
CLEAR CONCRETE COVER TO REINFORCEMENT 'CO'= 50
DIA OF REINFORCEMENT BAR AT BOTTOM FACE OF FOOTING 'O1' = 16
DIA OF REINFORCEMENT BAR AT TOP FACE OF BOTTOM PAD 'O2'= 16
DIA OF REINFORCEMENT BAR AT TOP FACE OF UPPER PAD PAD 'O2'= 16
CONCRETE & REINFORCEMENT STEEL PROPERTIES
GRADE OF CONCRETE 'fck'= 20
GRADE OF STEEL 'fy'= 500
DESIGN OF BOTTOM PAD UNDER DOWN THRUST
A= 0.416*(0.87*500)^2/0.36*20 10933
B= 0.87*500 435
C= 967*10E6/(1740*476^2) 2.453
MUX1 AT SECTION X-X = 966.92 KN-M

EFFECTIVE DEPTH 'd1'= 476
Mux1/(B2*d1*d1)= 2.453
Mu/bd2,limiting 0.133*fck 2.66
Section is singly reinforced as 2.453 < 2.66
From SP:16 the values of pt and pc for Mu/bd2 = 2.453
pt= 0.679 Ast = 5624 mm2
pc= 0 Asc= 0 mm2
Nos. of 16 mm dia bars required= 28 Nos.
Spacing of Bars = 188 MM 175 CHOOSE
Ast provided = 5963 mm2
MUY1 AT SECTION Y-Y = 565.91 KN-M

Muy1/(B1*d2*d2)= 1.585
C= 566*10E6/(4690*276^2) 1.585
ps2/100= (435-(435^2-4*10933*1.585)^0.5)/2*10933 0.004057445
ps2 0.406 %
Ast2= 58.16 CM2
329
DESIGN OF BOTTOM PAD UNDER UPLIFT
330
MUY2 AT SECTION Y-Y = 402.61 KN-M

Muy2/(B1*d3*d3)= 1.019
C= 403*10E6/(5190*276^2) 1.019
ps3/100= (435-(435^2-4*10933*1.019)^0.5)/2*10933 0.002499556
ps3 0.25 %
Ast3= 35.81 CM2
MUX2 AT SECTION X-X = 697.19 KN-M

A= 0.416*(0.87*500)^2/0.36*20 10933
B= 0.416*((0.87*500)/(0.36*20))*(0.87*500*0.0025*(276/476))+0.416*0.87*500*0.0025*(276/476)*((0.87*500)/(0.36*20))-0.87*500 -403.3091127
C= 1-0.87*500*0.0025*(276/476)^2+0.416*0.0025*(276/476)*((0.87*500)/(0.36*20))*(0.87*500*0.0025*(276/476)) 0.250307033
Mux2/(B1*d4*d4)= 0.5929
ps4/100= (-403.31-(-403.31^2-4*10933*0.26)^0.5)/2*10933 0.000631442
ps4 0.064 %
Ast4= 15.82 CM2
(C) CHECK FOR ONE WAY SHEAR
DOWNTHRUST CONDITION UPLIFT CONDITION

At Section X-X At Section X-X
pmax= 7786 kg/m2 pmax= 5315 kg/m2
pmin= 6802 kg/m2 pmin= 5315 kg/m2
Total Shear Force = 0.5*(7787+6802) *5.19*((5.19-0.65) /2-0.476) Total Shear Force = 5315*5.19(5.19-0.65) /2
666234 N 614267 N
C/S Area = 1800980 mm2 C/S Area = 2001080 mm2
2 2
Shear Stress = 0.370 N/mm Shear Stress = 0.307 N/mm
% of steel (p) = (Ast/bd)*100 % of steel (p) = (Ast1 + Ast2)*100/bd

= 5963/(1800980)*100 0.299 % = (1750+4715)/(2001080)*100 0.323 %
As per table 19 of IS:456-2000 As per table 19 of IS:456-2000

Allowable Shear Stress = 0.39 N/mm2 > 0.370 N/mm2 Hence o.k. Allowable Shear Stress = 0.4 N/mm2 > 0.307 N/mm2
Hence o.k.
At Section Y-Y At Section Y-Y
pmax= 7786 kg/m2 pmax= 5315 kg/m2
pmin= 6991 kg/m2 pmin= 5315 kg/m2
Total Shear Force = 0.5*(7787+6992) *5.19*((5.19-1.74) /2-0.276) Total Shear Force = 5315*5.19(5.19-1.74) /2
545098 N 466789 N
C/S Area = 1452980 mm2 C/S Area = 1467480 mm2
2 2
Shear Stress = 0.375 N/mm Shear Stress = 0.318 N/mm
% of steel (p) = (Ast/bd)*100 % of steel (p) = (Ast/bd)*100

= 5963/(1452980)*100 0.371 % = 4715/(1467480)*100 0.321 %
As per table 19 of IS:456-2000 As per table 19 of IS:456-2000

Allowable Shear Stress = 0.42 N/mm2 > 0.375 N/mm2 Hence o.k. Allowable Shear Stress = 0.4 N/mm2 > 0.318 N/mm2
Hence o.k.
(D) CHECK FOR TWO WAY SHEAR
DOWNTHRUST CONDITION UPLIFT CONDITION

At Section X-X At Section X-X
2
p= 0.076 N/mm p= 0.052 N/mm2
2 2 2
Shear force = V1=[B -(B3+d1) ]*p Shear force = V2 = [B1 - B32]*p
= 0.077*[5190^2-(650+476)^2] 0.053(5190^2-650^2)
= 1960660 N 1382396 N
Shear Stress = 1960661/4*476[650+476] Shear Stress = 1382396(4*476*(650))

2
= 0.915 N/mm = 1.117 N/mm2
Allowable Shear Stress = 0.25*(20)^1/2 Allowable Shear Stress = 0.25*(20)^1/2

= 1.118 N/mm2 > 0.915 N/mm2 Hence o.k. = 1.118 N/mm2 > 1.117 N/mm2
331
Hence o.k.
332
At Section Y-Y At Section Y-Y

2
p= 0.076 N/mm p= 0.052 N/mm2
2 2
Shear force = V2=[B -(B2+d2) ]*p Shear force = V2 = [B12 - B22]*p
= 0.077*[5190^2-(1740+276)^2] 0.053(5190^2-1740^2)
= 1747060 N 1246568 N
Shear Stress = 1747060/4*276[1740+276] Shear Stress = 1246569(4*276*(1740))

2
= 0.785 N/mm = 0.649 N/mm2
Allowable Shear Stress = 0.25*(20)^1/2 = 1.118 N/mm2 Allowable Shear Stress = 0.25*(20)^1/2
= 1.118 N/mm2 > 0.785 N/mm2 Hence o.k. = 1.118 N/mm2 > 0.649 N/mm2
Hence o.k.
(E) CHECK AGAINST UPROOTING OF STUB

STUB ANGLE SECTION
Design Uplift = 140917 kgs. 200 mm angle arm length
Stub section = 200*200*16 16 mm thick
Stub depth below GL = 2800 mm
Ultimate Load resisted by Stub in Slab due to Bond
Us = [D*{X*2.0+(X-Ts)*2.0} -Np*{X+(X-Ts)}*k]*s
Where X = flange width of stub . 20 cm
D = Depth of stub in slab. 40 cm
s = Ultimate permissible bond stress between stub & conc 12 kg/cm2
Ts = Thickness of stub section. 1.6 cm
Np = No.of cleat pairs (pair consist of outer and inner cleat) 3

k = Flange width of cleat section. 11 cm
Us = [40*{20*2+(20-1.6)*2} - 3*{20+(20-1.6)}*11]12.2324159021407
= 22077.06422 kg
Ultimate permissible bearing CLEAT ANGLE SECTION
2
Stress in Concrete = 68.84 kg/cm 110 mm angle arm length
Use outer cleat = 3 nos. 110*110*8 - 4mm long 8 mm thick
Use inner cleat = 3 nos. 110*110*8 - 4mm long 440 mm length of outer cleat
Provide 4 nos. of 16 dia. Bolts per cleat pair of 5.6 grade 250 mm length of inner cleat
Load resisted by Cleat in Bearing
Uc = bx(Lo+Li)xNpx(k-Ct)
b = Ultimate Bearing Pressure in concrete 91.7 kg/cm2

Lo = Length of Outer cleat 44 cm
Li = Length of Inner cleat 25 cm
Ct = Thickness of cleat section. 0.8 cm
Uc = 91.743119266055*(44+25)*3*(11-0.8)
= 193706 kg (i)
Ultimate Shear Strength Of Bolts
Ub = total no. of bolts x 2.0 x 2.01 x 3160 4 nos. of rows

(considering M-16 bolt grade 5.6 & double shear for cleat connected in pair) 3 nos. of bolt in each row
= (4*3)*2*2.02*3160 M-16 area 2.01 cm2 16 mm dia bolt

3160 N/mm2
= 152485 kg (ii) Perm. Shear
Stress
Ultimate Bearing Strength of Bolt in Stub or Cleat
= Total nos. of bolts x 1.6 x (Ts or 2 x Ct) x 5200
take Ts or 2 x Ct whichever is less
Perm. 5200 N/mm2
Bearing
= (4*3)*1.6*1.6*5200
stress
= 159744 kg (iii)
Effective Strength of stub and cleat

= Us + Least of the strength of case [ (i), (ii), (iii) ]
= 22078+193707
= 215783 kg which is more than Ultimate Uplift 140917 kg (Hence Safe)
(F) CHECK FOR BOND

2
Design bearing pressure = 0.076 N/mm
Maxm. Shear force = [(5190-650)/2-476]*5190*0.077
= 711208 N
As per Appendix -E of IS-456-1978
Xu/d = 0.87*fy*Ast/0.36*fck*bd
= 0.87*500*5962.93/(0.36*20*5190*476)
= 0.1458
J = 1-Xu/dx1/3 = 1 - 0.1459/3
= 0.951
Bond Stress = 711208/0.952*476*28*pi()*16
333
= 1.12
= 1.12 N/mm2 < 1.92 N/mm2 Hence OK.
Chapter 11
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE

A SCOPE
This Chapter covers the details of activities required for the construction of power transmission
lines. The topics covered are survey, tower foundation work, tower erection work, stringing of
conductor / earth wires / OPGW, Testing and commissioning. The chapter also covers the details of
man power, tools and tackles required for construction activities.
Geo Technical Investigation, though, is not a part of survey but the same is generally performed
along with Survey activity. For more details on soil investigation, Para No 10.5 and Annexure II of
Chapter 10: Design of Foundations may be referred.
11.1 SURVEY
(i) Reconnaissance survey

(ii) Alignment survey
(iii) Detailed survey
(iv) Check survey
It would also cover soil investigation of representative sites along the route of the line to establish
the distribution of foundations in different types of soils. The soil investigation is generally carried
out on specified tower locations, special locations (river and road X-ngs etc.) and locations where
terrain changes, etc.
11.1.1 Erection of Transmission Line
Erection of transmission line covers Check Survey, Excavation, Setting of Stubs /First section of
tower, Casting of Foundations & Back filling, Erection of Towers, Stringing of Conductors and Ground
wire/OPGW, Installation of tower hardware and Conductor & Ground wire/ OPGW accessories.
Final Checking and Testing and Commissioning.
11.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION
The route of transmission line should be aligned in such a way as to minimize damage to crops and
cutting of trees. Special care should be taken to avoid routing of transmission line through lands
particularly in Reserved/Protected forests. Even if line length increases, efforts should be made
to keep the line out of forests.
If forests land cannot be avoided, suitable extensions should be provided to minimize cutting or loping
of trees by ensuring adequate clearances above trees.
The line also should preferably be kept away from villages, bulk storage oil tanks, oil pipe lines,
Gas pipe lines, petrol pumps, cluster of hutments, buildings containing inflammable materials such
as explosives, cotton go-downs, factories, aerodromes, Helipads etc. If the line is passing through
sugar cane fields or orchards, sufficient clearance shall be provided for the standing crops / trees.
11.2.1 The line route shall be shortest and easily accessible by transport for ease of construction and
maintenance during its life span. The route shall preferably avoid water logged area or areas prone
to flooding for long time or standing water. Prior consultations should be held with the concerned
Departments.
Wherever roads exist, the line should be approachable from such roads. The transmission line
route should avoid inhabited areas leaving sufficient margin for growth of villages. It should avoid as far
334
Construction of Transmission Line 335
as possible, the areas where intensive cultivation is done. As far as possible, crossing of orchards
and gardens should be avoided. The additional costs to be incurred in crop compensation during
construction and delay in attending to break downs during operation and maintenance should be
carefully weighed against increase in the route length as also increase in angle towers. It should be
possible for the patrolling gang to be able to reach every location for careful inspection of the towers,
insulators and the accessories without any obstruction from the land owners. With intensive irrigation
in certain areas it may be cheaper to have slight deviation, rather than having litigation delaying the
project, apart from the cost to be incurred in making payment for compensation. Heavily wooded areas
should be avoided.
With these general remarks, various considerations for the choice of route and construction of the
line are discussed in detail in the following paras.
11.3 STATUTORY REGULATION FOR CROSSING OF ROADS, POWER LINES, TELECOMMUNICATION

LINES, RAILWAY TRACKS ETC
For detailed statutory Clearances, Chapter 4: Electrical Clearances may be referred. Some of the
requirement are listed as under:
11.3.1 Road Crossing
On all major road crossings, including National Highways, the towers shall be fitted with double
tension insulator strings.
11.3.2 Power Line Crossing

o
The angle of crossing shall be 90 as far as possible. However, the same shall not below 75º where
a line is to cross over another line of the same voltage or lower voltage. Suspension/tension
towers with standard extensions shall be used. Wherever the line to be constructed is crossing
another important line for which shutdown is difficult, suspension towers with required extensions in
combination with dead end towers shall be used. The Crossing Line shall pass over the Crossed
Line in the middle as for as possible to get the max clearance between power crossing lines at the
point of crossing.
11.3.3 Telecommunication Line Crossing.
The angle of crossing shall be as near 90º as possible. However, deviation to the extent of 30º
may be permitted under exceptionally difficult situations. When the angle of crossing is below 60º,
the matter shall be referred to the authority in-charge of the telecommunication system. Also in
the crossing span, power line support shall be as near the telecommunication line as possible to
obtain increased vertical clearance between the wires. The crossing shall be in accordance with the
Code of Practice for Crossing Power and Telecommunication Lines.
11.3.4 Railway Crossing
For Railway Crossing, towers shall be Angle/dead end type and railway crossing construction shall
conform to the Regulations for Electrical Line Crossings with Railway Tracks issued by the Ministry
of Railways from time to time.
11.3.5 River Crossing
In case of major river crossing, towers shall be of suspension type using double suspension
strings and the anchor towers on either side of the main river crossing, shall be dead end type.
Clearance required by the Navigation Authority shall be provided in case of navigable rivers. For
non- navigable rivers, clearance shall be reckoned with respect to highest flood level (HFL).
11.3.6 Other Provisions
11.3.6.1 The transmission line in the vicinity of Aerodrome shall meet the requirement laid down by the Director
General, Civil Aviation, Government of India.
11.3.6.2 Requisite vertical and horizontal clearance to adjacent structures shall be maintained as per Central
Electricity Authority (Measures relating to Safety and Electricity Supply) Regulations, 2010.
11.3.6.3 The electrical clearance required for different kinds of crossing Chapter 4 may be referred
11.4 SURVEYING METHODS
The survey of high voltage (HV) and Extra/Ultra High Voltage (EHV/UHV) transmission lines must
be carried out accurately and expeditiously. A mistake in the field or subsequent office work
may cause unnecessary expenditure, inconvenience and delay in construction.
It is, therefore, essential that every care is taken in setting out, leveling and plotting the profile
of the route. The care and fore-thought given at the first stage of surveying goes a long way in
achieving economy and timely completion of the line. The survey of the transmission line till the
end of 20 t h Century was being carried out in India by conventional methods using only the
Topo sheets and instruments like Vernier theodolite, graduated measuring staff, Dumpy Level,
and Engineers’ chains or measuring tapes, for selecting the route and further field works.
However, to avoid time over run and cost overrun, modem survey instruments and techniques, like
Satellite Doppler Techniques, Geographical Positioning System (GPS), Total Stations with prisms
etc. are used for the survey of transmission lines as discussed later in this Chapter.
11.4.1 The work of survey as applied to transmission lines can be divided into the following.
(i) Reconnaissance and route alignment survey

(ii) Detailed Survey
(iii) Tower Spotting
(iv) Check Survey
11.4.1.1 Reconnaissance and route alignment survey
A provisional route of transmission line is initially plotted on survey maps and a reconnaissance
walkover survey is carried out. This is essential to fix up angle tower positions tentatively, since
many of the physical features on the ground may not be clearly available in the survey map due to
developments that might have taken place subsequent to the preparation of the maps.
The reconnaissance survey is essential to collect the first hand account of various important field
data required for transmission line works.
The general consideration to be kept in view, while establishing the preliminary route at the time
of reconnaissance survey is as under:
1. The route should be as short and as straight as possible.
2. It is advantageous to lay the line near to or along existing roadway. The line should be
approachable as far as possible.
3. The number of angle towers should be minimum and within these, the number of large angle
towers shall be as minimum as possible.
4. Cost of securing and clearing right of way (ROW), making access roads and time
required for these works should be minimum.
5. Crossing with permanent objects, such as railway lines and roads should be minimum
and preferably at right angles (reference shall be made to the appropriate Railway regulations
and Railway electrification rules as well as Civic Authorities for protection to be provided for
railway and road crossings respectively. Guarding may not be necessary if fast acting
protective devices are provided.).
7. In case of hilly terrain having sharp rises and falls in the ground profiles, it is necessary
to conduct detailed survey and locate the tower positions. The proposition should be
most economical and safe.
8. The clearances above the Hill roads shall be fixed from the highest bank of road where as
in case of roads in plain areas, the clearance shall be fixed from the center of road
The following areas should be avoided as far as possible while selecting route:
1. Marshy areas, low lying lands, river beds, earth slip zones etc. involving risk to stability
of foundation and the tower
2. Areas subjected to floods, gushing nallas during rainy seasons, tanks, ponds, lakes, snow
blizzards, hurricanes or similar extreme climatic conditions and natural hazards.
3. Areas which involve risk to human life, damage to public and private properties, religious
places, civil and defense installations, industries, aerodromes and their approach and take
off funnels of the aircrafts, habitation of important crops, good farming areas, uneven
terrain, quarry sites or underground mines, gardens and plantations.
4. Inaccessible areas where approach roads are not possible.
5. Areas which will create problems of right of way and way leaves.
6. Route involving abrupt changes in levels, too many long spans, river or power line crossings
or near parallelism to telecommunication lines.
7. Reserved forest or areas involving heavy compensation for acquisition of land, tree cutting
etc.
8. Buildings containing explosives, bulk storage oil tanks, oil or gas pipe lines, etc.
9. Aerodromes, helipads etc.
10. Wild life sanctuaries, Coal fields, mining areas.
The reconnaissance survey is also essential for collecting the first hand account of various important
field data required for transmission line works, which are as under:
1. Major power line crossing details (66 kV and above)

2. Railway crossing details.
3. Major river crossing details.
4. Source of construction materials, viz., metal, sand water etc., along the line.
5. Important rail heads for the purpose of receipt of materials.
6. Important villages or stations coming en-route for the purpose of selection of labour
camps.
7. Nature of soil strata along the route and the terrain.
8. Availability of labour, their present rate on daily basis or on contract basis.
9. Names of the major towns for the purpose of selection of site offices and labour camps.
For fixing the final alignment and angle points on the ground as per the reconnaissance survey, route
alignment survey shall be carried out with a theodolite, suvey chains /measuring tapes/electronic
distance measuring instruments, GPS, Total station and Prism etc. During the reconnaissance
route survey, angle points are marked along the route and they are shown in the Topo sheets in
hard copy and soft copy (computerized version) along with their Northing and Easting.
11.4.1.2 Detailed Survey
After the reconnaissance survey and angle point marking, the route is approved by the competent
authorities with or without changes. Detailed survey follows the route alignment
The object of carrying out detailed survey is to prepare longitudinal and cross section profiles on
along the approved alignment and to prepare the route plan showing details of deviation angles,
important objects coming within the right of way.
General Considerations
Work of detailed survey is distinctly done in two stages:
1. Actual field observations taking level readings and calculating distances, level differences,
deflection angles, offset distances etc.
2. Plotting of profiles on graphed tracing papers or on the computers.
11.4.1.2.1 Field Observation Record and Calculations
The method of taking level readings for preparation of longitudinal and cross section of profile is.
1. By chain and dumpy level.

2. By tacheometric survey with theodolite.
3. By Electronic Total Station.
First method is very useful in plain areas where chaining offers no problems. This also requires
comparatively less skilled surveyors.
Tachometric method offers a great advantage in hilly regions and such other inaccessible places
where chaining is not possible. This method needs skilled surveyors having good understanding
of the use of theodolite.
In this method, both traversing and leveling is done by means of a tachometric theodolite (theodolite
having stadia cross hairs fitted in the eye piece). The horizontal and vertical distances are computed
by the help of readings of the stadia wires taken on the staff held at the reading station. For the theory
of this method reference may be made to any standard surveying text-books.
Detailed survey with the help of Total Station can be done in both plain and hilly region and provides
very accurate data for tower spotting. With the help of Total Station, the detailed survey can be
carried out with minimum man power (i.e. one skilled surveyor and 2 to 3 sub-ordinates). With the
help of Total Station, detailed survey can be carried out speedily.
The above three methods are best explained by-means of a worked example of filling field books and
calculations thereof in Annexure 'A' of this chapter.
11.4.1.2.2 Plotting of Profiles
From the field book entries route plan and longitudinal profile, commonly referred to as ‘Survey chart’
is prepared in the drawing office. These charts are prepared and plotted on 1 mm / 5 mm /1 cm square
paper of formed drawing sheets of graphed tracing paper, which are available for this purpose to a
scale of 1:200-vertical; 1:2000-horizontal. These shall show:
1. The longitudinal profiles along the centre-line of the transmission line route.
2. The cross-section profile wherever appreciable difference in level exists with reference
to centre- line level. In such cases the cross-section levels shall be taken at each 50/100
m intervals.
3. Route plan giving details of all objects lying within the right of way.
4. Angle of line deviation -duly marked left (L) or right (R) as the case may be.
Following general considerations apply in the preparation of the survey charts:
1. Objects and their distances along the route within the right of way from centre line,
nearby villages, important roads or rivers should be marked on the route profile.
2. Crossing details with any other power or telecommunication lines, roads, railway lines,
canals or rivers should be marked as clearly as possible.
3. Readings should be taken and charts should show, levels of roads, canal embankments,
maximum water/flood levels, rail / track top levels, heights of supports/lines being crossed,
minimum ground clearance of conductor above ground, clearance between bottom
conductor of crossing line and ground wire of crossed TL at the point of crossing,
measurement of garth and category / type of trees falling within the ROW and those
falling outside the ROW but will damage the TL when felled.
One typical example of survey chart/profile duly plotted with tower locations are shown
in Annexure B.
11.4.1.3 Tower Spotting
The work of tower spotting is clearly -divided into the following five operations.
1. Sag tension calculations of conductor and ground wire / OPGW as per design criteria.
2. Preparation of Sag Template.
3. Application of Sag Template to decide optimum tower position on ground profile as per
Annexure-C.
4. Preparation of Structure Limitation Charts/ Tower Spotting Data as per Annexure D.
5. Deciding tower type and preparation of Tower Schedule as shown in Annexure E
11.4.1.3.1 Sag Tension Calculations
The span length i.e. distance between two adjacent tower locations is fixed at an optimum level
by consideration of various factors like line voltage, ground clearance, topography of the area,
conductor used, wind, ice and temperature conditions, availability and cost of line materials and
overall project economy. A detailed discussion on this aspect is beyond the scope of this Chapter
and it will suffice to assume that the optimum span length for the line is fixed by the purchaser. This
optimum span is called the “Basic Design Span” and forms the basis of all calculations to develop
a suitable tower design for the line. The basic span for various voltage lines is given in Cl No 5.8 of
Chapter 5: Design Parameters.
A conductor suspended freely between two supports takes the shape known geometrically as
“catenary”. The dip from the centre point on a line joining the two supports called ‘Sag’- being
inversely proportional to the tension in the conductor at null point. For all practical purposes the
‘catenary’ can well be simplified as a ‘Parabola’ without much error. In case higher accuracy is desired
in finding the sags (particularly in case of longer spans) a catenary correction can be applied. For
detailed discussion on the shape of catenary and parabola, and catenary correction reference may
be made to any standard text book on this subject.
Since weight of tower supporting the conductor and consequently its cost depends upon its height,
the tower is designed for a minimum height which is equal to the maximum sag at design span (at
the maximum anticipated temperature) plus the minimum ground difference required between the
charged conductor and ground as per Central Electricity Authority (Measures relating to Safety and
Electricity Supply) Regulations, 2010.
Maximum sag at design span is governed by maximum tension that can be given to the conductor
which in turn depends upon the external loading of wind, ice and temperature expected as well
as the ultimate tensile strength and other physical properties of the conductor used. Moreover,
from the considerations of safety of electric installations, Central Electricity Authority (Measures
relating to Safety and Electricity Supply) Regulations, 2010 demands a minimum factor of safety
to be maintained in tensioning the conductor. All these factors are checked during ‘Sag Tension
Calculations’ which fix the maximum tension and maximum sag to be taken for design of tower and
stringing of conductor. The basic span for various voltage lines is given in Cl No 5.8 of Chapter No
5: Design Parameters
11.4.1.3.2 Preparation of Sag Template for Conductor
Sag Template is a very important tool for the surveyor by the help of which the position of tower can
be decided on the Survey Chart so as to conform to the limitations of specified minimum ground
clearance required to be maintained as per Central Electricity Authority (Measures relating to Safety
and Electricity Supply) Regulations, 2010 between the line conductor to ground telephone lines,
buildings, streets, navigable canals/ rivers, power lines, or any other object coming under or near the
line and the limitation of vertical load coming on any particular tower.
Sag Template consists of a set of parabolic curves drawn on a transparent paper, a celluloid or acrylic
clear sheet duly cut in between the curves to allow surveyor to see through them on the Survey Charts
place underneath it. The set of curves consist of:
1. ‘Cold or Uplift Curve’-Showing sag of conductor at minimum temperature and still wind.
2. ‘Hot’ or ‘Maximum Sag Curve’-Showing maximum sag of conductor under still air and
maximum temperature and still wind including sag tolerances allowed if any or under
maximum ice condition.
3. Ground clearance Curve-Drawn parallel to curve (2) and at a distance equal to specified
minimum ground clearance.
4. Tower footing Curve-For normal tower drawn parallel to curve under (3) above and
separated by a distance equal to maximum sag at design span.
A typical ‘Sag Template’ drawing is shown in Annexure ‘C’.
In erecting an overhead line all the spans cannot be kept equal because of the profile of the ground
and proper clearance considerations. A constant tension is calculated which will be uniform
throughout the Section. For calculating this uniform tension an equivalent span or ruling span
for the whole section of the line is chosen. The ruling span is then calculated by the following
formula.
Where LU= Ruling Span
L1, L2, L3, ------ etc. are different spans in a section (Tension location to Tension location)
The ‘Cold and Hot’ Template Curves are plotted as parabola, to the same scale as the survey chart
for the minimum and maximum sags for the ruling span (normal design span being considered as
theoretical ruling span).
11.4.1.3.3 Application of Sag Template for Tower Spotting
The Sag Template is applied to the profile by moving the same horizontally while always ensuring
that the vertical axis is held vertical. The structure positions are marked where the tower footing
curve cuts the profile, while the ground clearance curve is just clear and above the profile. The
ground - clearance curve shall not only clear the route centre line profile but also the profile to
the left or right of the centre line upto a distance equal to maximum cross area spread on either
side. Besides normal ground” clearance, the clearance between power conductor and objects
like, other power or telecommunication lines, houses, trolley wires, roads, railway tracks, canal
embankments etc., shall be checked. Extra clearance can be got either by reducing the span or
providing extension to tower body depending on which alternative is most economical. The weight
span on either side of a tower can be easily obtained by marking the low points of sags in two
adjacent spans and then reading the distance between the two. On inclined spans, null point may
be outside the span. This indicates that the total weight of conductor is taken up by the higher
tower and the lower tower is being pulled up by a force equal to the weight of conductor between
lower support and the null point. Should the upward pull of the uphill span becomes greater
than downward loan of the next adjacent span, actual uplift will be caused and the conductor
would tend to wing clear of the tower upwards. For any easy check of whether a tower is under
uplift or not, the following method may be adopted. The Template is applied horizontally until the
tops of alternate supports coincide with the Cold Curve. If the support is under uplift and has to
be extended so as to be above it and in case requisite standard body extension do not suffice
for doing this, a tower which is designed to take uplift will have to be used. However, for the
stability of the line it is not desirable to place a tower in such a position where it is always under
permanent uplift condition.
The intermediate spans shall be as near as possible to the normal design span. In case an individual
span becomes too short on account of undulations in ground profiles one or more line supports of
the Section may be extended by inserting standard body extensions.
11.4.1.3.4 Structure Limitation Charts/Towers Spotting Data
Since each tower is designed to withstand a definite load, in each of transverse, vertical and
longitudinal directions, the surveyor must know these limitations for the various types of towers
available for use on line. These limits are given in a chart for called ‘Structure Limitation Chart’
or Tower Spotting Data’ which is prepared by the design department of the purchaser/ Contractor
Designer. These charts define the limits for permissible ruling span, weight span, wind span,
individual span and the degree of line deviation allowed on each tower. These charts are made for
normal towers only. For all special crossings individual tower checking is essential by the design
department. Specimen Tower Spotting Data are shown in Annexure ’D’.
11.4.1.3.5 Deciding Tower Type and Preparation of Tower Schedule
In order to decide the tower type for a particular location, following information is required:
● Angle of line deviation on tower.
● Whether it is to be used as section tower or dead end tower.
● Sum of adjacent spans.
● Weight span on tower

A typical Tower schedule is shown in Annexure 'E' .
(a) Weight Span

Distance of “Null point” or “Low Point” of conductor from center of one span is given by
formulafor
The analytical method (see Fig. a andweight
calculating b) span in case of towers located at different ground level
is given below.
X= T x h
Distance of “Null point”wor “Low
l Point” of conductor from center of one span is given by formula (see
Fig. a and b)
Where
T h X= distance of low point from center of span in M
X= w x l
T = conductor tension in kg.
Where h = difference between conductor support levels in M
w = point
X= distance of low unit weight of conductor
from center of spanininkg/M,
M &
l = span length in M
T = conductor tension in kg.
h = difference between conductor support levels in M
Weight Span
w = unit weight of conductor in kg/M, &
For Tower A, Right hand side only
l = span length in M
a=1–X
Weight Span 2
For Tower A, Right
For hand
Towerside
B, only
Left hand side only
a=1–X b=1+x
2
2
For Tower B, Left hand side only
Similarly, weight span for the other side of the towers can be calculated and total
b=1 +x weight span obtained.
2
If the sum ‘a’ and ‘b’ calculated for a particular tower is negative, the tower is under
Similarly, weight span for the other side of the towers can be calculated and total weight span
obtained. 'uplift'.

Maximum weight span is obtained under the conditions of minimum temperature
If the sum ‘a’ and ‘b’ calculated for a particular tower is negative, the tower is under ‘uplift’.
and no wind.
Maximum weight span is obtained under the conditions of minimum temperature and no wind.
l
B
h
A
Sag
Center
Low or
point
null point
a X b
l/2 l/2
Fig. a : Distance of Null Point or Low point from Centre point.

Fig a: Distance of Null Point or Low point from Centre point.
l
B
Sag
Center
point
A
Low or
null point X
a
b
l/2 l/2
Fig. b : Distance of Null Point or Low point from Centre point.
11.4.1.4 Check Survey
Check survey is carried out for the following:
(i) To reconfirm the work carried out during detailed survey.

(ii) To locate and peg mark the tower position on ground corresponding to the route profiles.
(iii) To give direction pegs.
A. Checking and Line Alignment
In this operation, traversing is done from the known fixed angle point (the starting point or any other
obligatory point fixed by the purchaser) in the direction of given line deviation and upto a distance
equal to the Section length between the starting point and the next angle point. If this next angle
point is firmly marked in field by means of a permanent peg mark (or concrete burjee) then the
closing error is noted both in longitudinal and transverse directions. If the error is within 1% of the
total Section length it can be ignored and the permanent mark made during detailed survey is taken
as correct and necessary correction in the line deviation angle at the starting point is made and
noted in the survey chart.
If the second angle point reached is not marked in field by the detailed survey gang (or the mark is
missing) the angle point is tentatively fixed at the place reached as per deviation angle at starting
point and first Sectional length and line alignment proceeded to the next deviation angle and next
Section length as per Survey Chart. This process is continued till an angle point is reached which is
fixed in field either by permanent burjee or by means of identification marks given in Survey Charts.
Intermediate checks can also be made by measuring offsets from the line to well define objects
shown in Survey Charts very accurately (but much reliance cannot be given for correct alignment
based on offset distance. These objects only guide the surveyor in moving as closely on the correct
alignment as possible.
Once the known angle point is reached then the closing error is judiciously distributed in all the
previous temporary Sections and all angle points are finally marked on ground by means of
concrete pillars. Once the angle points are marked, correct angle of deviation and Section length
are measured and noted on Survey Charts. Any adjustment in Section length is normally done in
the last span of that section or in that span where very marginal clearance was kept at the time
of tower spotting (if reduction is required) or where enough clearance is available (if increase is
required).
B. Spotting and Peg Marking of Tower Locations:
Once each angle is fixed in field by the help of permanent concrete burjees and exact Section length is
known, the surveyor proceeds to mark all intermediate tower positions on the straight line joining the 2
angle points spaced at distance equal to individual span length as given on Survey Chart and after the
same is duly adjusted for the closing error.
In order to help in correct aligning of all intermediate towers between 2 angle points, a number
of alignment pegs are given at the time of exact distance measurement of the Section. The more
the number of alignment pegs the better it will be for the readings as instrument errors are less if
smaller distances are measured in one reading. These pegs are also very useful when main tower
marking burjees are found missing at a later date (due to mischief of local people or negligence of
excavation marking gang).
C. Directional Peg Marking for Excavation Pit Marking
Directional pegs are essential for correct alignment of tower center line along longitudinal and
transverse directions. On suspension tower, pegs are set along the centre line of route alignment and
perpendicular to it. On angle towers these are rotated by an angle equal to half the angle of line
deviation.
11.4.2 Various survey techniques, depending upon the field conditions, type of towers and available time
frame are used in different countries. Modern methods like Satellite Doppler Technique, Ortho-photo
Mapping used in many other countries are discussed in Appendix A.
11.4.3 Clearing of Right of Way
Having decided on the choice of the route, it is necessary to see Right Of Way (ROW) before
commencing construction work. Information on forest land, cultivated fields, orchards etc., should
be obtained along with a true assessment of problems facing procurement of ROW and way leaves
for access and compensation required to be paid after evaluation of the value of the damaged
crops and vegetation with the help of Revenue Authorities. It is to be ensured that no tree/tree
branches are falling within the zone of minimum clearance specified as per Fig. 1.
Note: Portion of tree falling with in clearance zone to be lopped or trimmed

Fig. 1 : Line clearance (Right-of-way) requirement
Guidelines of forest/environmental rules shall be followed to avoid excessive tree cutting i.e. all
the trees should be cut from root level in the 3 m corridor below each line Conductor/Earth wire. In
the balance corridor, Trees branches are only to be lopped to attain the specified clearance as per
Table 1.
Table 1 : Clearance for Right of Way

Transmission Line Minimum Right of Way width (M) Min.Clearance Between Tree &
Voltage (kVac) Conductor (M)
66 18 3.4
110 22 3.7
132 27 4.0
220 35 4.6
400 52 (S/C) 5.5
400 48 (D/C) (Is it Forest Act Amended) 5.5
765 85(Horizontal Config) 9.0
64(Delta / Vertical) 9.0
67(D/C) 9.0
1200 89 13.0
±500kV HVDC 52 7.4
±800kV HVDC 69 10.7
11.4.4 Tolerance
The accuracy of survey work depends upon the accuracy of surveying instruments, the prevailing
temperatures, the accuracy of placing instruments and their readings. It shall be ensured, however,
that no measurement should be missed during surveys and the survey shall be checked where any
doubt arises.
In transmission line surveys where the linear measurements are carried out using an Engineers’
chain over rough and uneven ground the expected accuracy is between 1 in 200 to 1 in 250.
However, use of Total Station and prisms minimize the error.
11.5 FOUNDATIONS
11.5.1 Type of Foundations
The different types of foundations adopted in practice depending on the soil or combination of
various types of soil encountered at various locations their advantages, usefulness and method of
construction are described in details in Chapter 10. However, the same are summarized below for
ready reference:
11.5.1.1 Chimney and Pyramid Type
This is shown in Annexure 'F' (Figure 1). These are used in normal type dry and cohesive soils
having clay content 10 to 15%. Form boxes are required to cast this type of foundations. These are
generally P.C.C. type foundations.
11.5.1.2 Block Type
This is shown is Annexure ‘F’ (Figure 2). These are used in soft rock and hard rock foundations.
Proper care has to be taken to see that the concrete is poured in direct contact with the inner walls
of the excavated rock. There should not be any gap between the excavated/blasted rock pit and the
concrete.
11.5.1.3 Undercut Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figure 3). Foundations of this type are very useful in non-cohesive
type of soils like hard murrum, soft murrum, fissured rock, clincker mixed soil. However, the latest
trend is to cast these foundations in normal dry soil too because of certain advantages.
11.5.1.4 Spread Footing Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figures 4 & 5). These foundations can be either step type or chamfered
type. These are generally used in wet submerged normal and submerged black cotton soils.
11.5.1.5 Anchor Rod Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figure 6). These foundations are suitable for hard rock strata. The
advantage of this type is the reduced depth of foundation in rock.
11.5.1.6 Auger Type/Under Reamed Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figure 7). These foundations will be useful in case of clayey and
firm soils. However, these types of foundations are not popular in transmission lines in India.
11.5.1.7 Steel Plated Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figure 8.) These will be useful only in case of good cohesive
and firm soils where head loading and mixing is a problem (but not hilly terrain). These type of
foundations are not very popular for the normal run of the line in India.
11.5.1.8 Grillage Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figure 9). These will be used only in firm soils where approaches
are a problem. These are also not very popular in India.
11.5.1.9 Well Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figure 10). These will be useful in case of submerged locations, river
beds and fully sandy strata where velocity of water is high coupled with higher scouring depth in
river/creek
11.5.1.10 Pile Type
This is shown in Annexure-’F’ (Figure 11). These foundations will be very useful in river bed and
creek bed having constant flow of water and sea mud to a large depth.
In shallow depth, precast driven piles can also be useful. In marshy soil, the foundations can also be
rested on the wooden piles driven in the soil. If there is solid rock below the river/creek bed the pile can
rest on it.
11.5.2 Levelling of Tower Site, Benching, Revetments and Hill Side Extensions
11.5.2.1 Levelling of Tower Site, Benching and Revetments
The location site is normally divided into a number of grids of 3m x 3m and the reduced levels at the
all intersection points are taken with respect to center peg of the locations to ascertain the volume
of benching/filling that will be required to level the tower site. The tower site is to be levelled by
cutting the excess earth and filling the down area and is to be brought to the center peg level of the
location. A retaining wall/revetment is to be constructed to avoid the washing out of retainer earth.
Normally a revetment is constructed upto a height of 15 cm higher than the center peg level of the
location.
11.5.2.2 Hill Side Extension
In hilly areas, where for spotting the locations heavy benching or revetment or both are involved
for normal tower as well as tower with body extensions, suitable hill side extensions ranging from
2 m to 6 m can be used. A sketch of a typical hill side extension is shown in Annexure-’G’. These
extensions have to be designed keeping in view the site condition.
11.5.3 Excavation
11.5.3.1 Pit Marking
Pit marking shall be carried out according to Pit Marking Chart or Excavation plan. The pit size in
the case of open cut foundations shall be determined after allowing a margin of 150 mm all around.
No margin is necessary in the case of undercut foundations. The depth of the excavation at the pit
centre shall be measured with reference to the tower centre level. If the foundation design calls for
a friction between concrete and soil, 150 mm margin in excavation will not be provided.
The survey gang will be provided with an ‘Pit Marking Chart’ or ‘Excavation Plan’ (Annexure-H)
which gives distance of pit centers, sides and corners with reference to center point of the tower.
These distances are measured and each pit boundary is marked in the field along the side of the
pits. While excavating care should be taken that earth is cut vertically/tapered /in steps as per the
site requirement to avoid any mishap during the course of excavation and foundation work.
11.5.3.2 Shoring and Shuttering
Shoring and shuttering, made out of timber planks of 30-35 mm thickness or steel frames of
adequate strength to suit the requirement, will be provided for pits excavated in sandy soil or water
bearing strata and particularly black cotton soil where there is every likelihood of pits collapsing.
Sand bedding/stone bedding will be provided in foundations of marshy and Wet Black Cotton
foundations.
11.5.3.3 Dewatering
Dewatering shall be carried out manually or by mechanical means or power driven pumps to
facilitate excavation and casting of foundation. The pumps shall be suitable for handling mud water.
Dewatering is not necessary in case of bored foundations extending below water table.
In areas, where sub-soil water recoupment is heavy and where water cannot be controlled even by
use of power driven pumps, well point system is used for controlling water. In this system, a grid
of pipes are laid around the area where the pits are excavated and the system is very effective
in pumping water particularly in sandy soils. After commencing pumping operation, the pit can be
excavated avoiding risk of collapse of earth. This will ensure proper quality of concreting.
Another method is by drilling bore holes of a deeper pit much below foundation level for pumping
out water by ordinary pumps. Number of bore holes depends on the volume of sub-soil water.
In areas, where sub-soil water recoupment is very rapid and water cannot be controlled, ‘shallow
foundations’ will be useful.
11.5.3.4 Excavation in Rock
For excavation in hard rock, blasting can be resorted to. Reference shall be made to statutory
rules for blasting and use of explosives for this purpose. No blasting is permitted near permanent
establishments or dwellings. Blasting shall be so made that pits are excavated as near to the
designed dimensions as practicable. The method of blasting and blasting shall be resorted under
the supervision of licensed personnel by Authorized Agency. The methodology, terminology and
procedure described below is for guidance only.
The work of blasting in rock is carried out in three separate operations as per procedure laid down
by Centre/ State / Local Agency:
(a) Drilling of holes to hold explosive charge
(b) Charging of the drilled holes
(c) Fixing the charge
11.5.3.4.1 Drilling of Holes to Hold Explosive Charge
Drilling of holes to hold the explosive charge may be done either manually or with an air
compressor as per the requirement at the site.
The equipment for hand drilling is simple but requires more man hours and generally consists of a
set of ‘Jumpers’ or ‘Drills’ which are usually made from 22 mm diameter hexagonal steel bars.
The jumpers are 1 m, 1.25 m and 1.5 m long and are suitably shaped. They must be tempered when
sharpened. A 2 kg hammer is used for striking the jumper, which is given a slight rotation after each
blow. The rate of progress by this in hard rock is 25 to 40 cm per hour.
When large quantity of rock is required to be excavated, an air compressor is used for drilling the
holes.
11.5.3.4.2 Charging of the Drilled Holes
The charge consists of gelatin and detonator. Either half or a full gelatin bar is used as per the
requirement. Detonator is normally pressed into the gelatin after making a hole in the gelatin with a
stick. Detonator is to be pressed into the gelatin till it is completely embedded in the gelatin. Then this
assembly is placed into holes drilled.
11.5.3.4.3 Fixing the Charge
The detonator leads are first inter connected to form a circuit and later the ends of this circuit are
connected to the exploder with separate wires. The exploder is kept in a sheltered spot. To fire the
shot the exploder handle is rotated at a high speed.
11.5.3.4.4 Procedure in Case of Misfired Shots
(a) The misfired shot should not be touched.

(b) One should not approach a misfired shot until atleast 15 minutes have elapsed and all
connections and handle are removed from the exploder.
(c) A second hole is to be drilled at a safe distance from the first and in such a direction as will keep
the boring tool clear of the first hole.
(d) This second hole is to be charged and fired.
(e) The debris is to be searched thoroughly for unexploded detonator and gelatin.
11.5.3.4.5 Additional Precautions
To protect the persons and animals from injuries from flying debris depending on situation, the number
of holes to be drilled should be less deep and the pit should be covered with a steel plate. Such
controlled blasting is an exception if the transmission line is kept away from villages and inhabited
areas. Usual precautions for safety of working personnel are taken in all cases.
11.5.4 Soil Investigation and Classification of Foundations
The transmission tower foundations shall be classified based on the soil conditions and water table.
Optimization of foundation designs and their safety mainly depend on correctness of visual soil
investigation and analysis for adoption of the type of footing/foundation.
11.5.4.1 Soil Investigation
The scope of work includes detailed soil investigation at various tower locations such as railway
crossings, major road crossings, power line crossings, river crossings and wherever soil strata differs.
However, the soil investigation activities shall be completed along with preliminary survey much
before the commencement of main erection activities for the purpose of estimating the foundation
quantities at bidding stage. Soil investigation need not be carried out in all the locations of the line.
11.5.4.1.1 Soil Investigation at Normal Locations
One bore hole of 150 mm dia shall be drilled at the centre point of the tower. Standard penetration
test (S.P.T.) shall be carried out at 1.5 m interval or change of strata upto the required depth of two
and half times below the depth of foundation below existing surface elevation or refusal whichever
occurs earlier. (By refusal it shall mean that a standard penetration blow count ‘N’ of 100 is recorded
for 30 cm penetration). Bore details and water table up to required depth below existing surface
elevation or refusal whichever occurs earlier shall be furnished in the report.
11.5.4.1.2 Soil Investigation at Special Locations
At certain locations such as river banks, river beds or midstream of river and at other places, special
soil investigation shall be carried out by drilling two holes each of 150 mm diameter at each tower
location on the diagonally opposite legs of the tower, considering the base width of tower as 20 m.
Standard penetration tests shall be carried out at every 1.5 m interval or change of strata till
refusal is met subject to maximum of 40 m below the existing surface elevation.
Undisturbed samples of soils shall be collected at every 2.5 m interval or change of strata whichever
occurs earlier.
In the hard rock the bore drilling shall be continued atleast 5 m to ascertain its sufficient thickness.
11.5.4.1.3 Preparation of Test Reports
The investigation report shall contain the following test results:
1. Grain size analysis

2. Nomenclature of soil
3. Atterbergs limit (Liquid and plastic limit only)
4. Triaxial shear Test results containing information about angle of internal friction and
cohesion.
5. S.P.T. results containing information about natural moisture content, Specific gravity
and Bulk unit weight.
6. Consolidation test.
7. Unconfined compression test.
8. Unconsolidated undrained test.
9. Presence of carbonates, sulphates, nitrates and organic matters and any other chemicals
harmful to the concrete foundation- obtained from chemical test on soil sample.
10. For rocky soil, core recovery and crushing strength of the rock shall be furnished.
11. The bearing capacities of soil at 3, 4 & 5 m below the existing surface elevation for normal
investigation and at 3, 6 & 9 m below the existing surface elevation for normal investigation
and at 3,6 & 9 m below the existing surface elevation for special soil investigation shall be
furnished considering approximate base width of foundations.
In addition to the above the following data also shall be furnished in the report of Special Soil
Investigation.
1. Scouring depth in case the locations are at the bank of river or at midstream.
2. Silting factor in case of midstream and river bank locations where submergence is envisaged.
3. Depth of fill, if any.
4. Details of water table, water struck etc.
5. Compressibility of sub-soil stratification.
6. Settlement characteristics of the shallow foundations.
The above test results shall be summarised strata-wise as well as in a combined tabular form with
all relevant graphs, charts, tables, diagrams and photographs, if any, shall be furnished in the test
reports.
The test report shall include bore logs. Bore logs of each bore hole clearly identifying the
stratification and type of soil stratum with depth upto the refusal. The locations of water table shall
be identified in the bore log. The value of SPT at depth where conducted and various laboratory
tests conducted from samples collected at various depth shall be clearly shown against the
particular stratum.
The report should contain specific recommendation (Bearing & shearing capacity including FOS,
angle of repose, weight of soil) for the type of foundation. In case the soil parameters obtained from
the soil investigation report for a particular tower location, differ from the ones considered during
design, a fresh design has to be developed for such locations.
11.5.4.1.4 It may be noted that the detailed methodology of soil investigation indicated above is mainly
for the purpose of estimation of foundation quantities and for designing foundations for very tall
special structures or for designing foundations in the types of soil which are not predefined as per
the standard practice of foundation designs for transmission line towers, which are covered here
after.
11.5.4.2 Classification of Foundations
An independent trial pit shall be made to ascertain the nature of soil strata. The foundation designs
shall depend upon the type of soil, sub-soil water level and the presence of surface water which
have been classified as follows:
11.5.4.2.1 Normal Dry
To be used for locations where normal dry cohesive or non-cohesive soils are met.
11.5.4.2.2 Wet
To be used for locations
(a) Where sub-soil water is met at 1.5 m or more below the ground level.
(b) Which are in surface water for long periods with water penetration not exceeding 1M below
the ground level e.g: the paddy fields or sugarcane fields.
11.5.4.2.3 Partially Submerged
To be used at locations where sub-soil water table is met within 0.75 m to 1.50 m below the ground
level.
11.5.4.2.4 Fully Submerged
To be used at locations where sub-soil water table is within 0.75 m below the ground level.
11.5.4.2.5 Black Cotton
To be used at locations when soil is clayee type, not necessarily black in colour, which shrinks when
dry, swells when wet, resulting in differential movement extending to a maximum depth of about
3.5 m below ground level.
11.5.4.2.6 Fissured Rock
To be used at locations where decomposed or fissured rock, hard gravel, kankar, limestone,
laterite or any other soil of similar nature is met. Under cut type foundation is to be used for fissured
rock locations. Rock anchor type foundation can also be used for fissured rock location where the
undercut is not feasible.
In case of fissured rock locations where water table is met at 1.5 m or more below ground level
submerged fissured rock foundations shall be adopted. When the water table in such location is met
within 1.5 m from ground level, fully Submerged Fissured Rock type foundations shall be adopted.
11.5.4.2.7 Hard Rock
The locations where chiselling, drilling and blasting is required for excavation, hard rock type
foundations are to be used. For these locations rock anchoring is to be provided to resist uplift
forces.
11.5.4.2.8 In addition to the above, depending on the site conditions other type of foundations may also be
developed for:
1. Intermediate conditions under the above classifications to effect more economy, or

2. for locations where special foundations (well type or piles) are necessitated.
While classifying foundations as Wet, Partially Submerged, Fully Submerged foundations mentioned
above, the worst conditions should be considered and not necessarily the conditions prevailing at
the time of inspection. For instance, there are areas where sub-soil water rises when canal water
is let out in the field raising sub-soil water to a considerable degree. Similarly the effect of
monsoon or when the nearby reservoirs are full and are likely to create buoyancy due to the sub
soil water is rising from the bottom of the excavated pit, should be considered and not the conditions
prevailing in open season or summer when work is earned out normally.
11.5.5 Stub-setting
The stubs are set in such a manner that the distance between the stubs and their alignment and
slope are as per design so as to permit assembling of the superstructure without undue strain
or distortion in any part of the structure. There are three methods by which this is generally
accomplished.
(i) Use of a combined / Adjustable Stub-setting Template for all the four stubs of the tower.
(ii) Use of Individual Leg Template for each stub (Prop Type Stub Setting Template).
(iii) Use as a Template- the lower most tower section or extension, where Stub-setting Template
is not available or difficult to place.
The first method is the most commonly used. The Stub-setting Template comprises of a light rigid
framework which holds the stubs at the correct alignment and slope. The Stub-setting Template is
generally of adjustable type which can suit the standard tower as well as towers with standard 3 m
& 6 m extensions. The Template is centred and levelled by sighting through transit. The anchors
or stubs are bolted to this Template, one at each corner of the Template, and are held in their
proper position as per the approved drawing until the concrete is poured and has hardened. The
procedure for setting stubs at site is given in Annexure ’I’.
The second method is adopted for casting the foundation locations having individual leg extensions
or locations having broad base for which use of a Combined / adjustable stub setting template
for setting all the four stubs is difficult & uneconomical. For example, 400 kV Double circuit tower
with 25 m extension may have a base width ranging from 20 m to 35 m, the conventional template
will pose difficulties in devilling and stub setting. Individual leg template will be very useful. The
Individual Leg / Prop type Template comprises a steel channel or joist having a length more than
the size of the pit, by about 2 to 3 m. A chamfered cleat is welded in the centre of the channel/ joist
to provide the slope to the stub. The stub is bolted to the cleat of the Template for which holes as
required for the slope of the stub are provided. The Individual Leg Templates are initially set on
each pit approximately to the required position with reference to the centre point of the tower and
after that stubs are bolted to the cleat. The stubs are then brought to proper position with reference
to the centre of the tower with the help of a Theodolite/Dumpy level and a measuring tape, before
fixing from boxes and pouring concrete.
This type of Templates are very useful for casting the foundations of individual leg extensions in
which the foundation pits are staggered and use of either a normal Stub-setting Template or the
first section of the tower is not feasible. The foundation lay out of unequal leg extensions is shown
in Annexure ’J’.
In the third method, lower most section of the tower or extension is used for setting stub. In this
method two opposite sides of the lower section of the tower are assembled horizontally on the
ground, and the stubs are bolted to the same with correct slope and alignment. Each assembled
side is then lifted clear of the ground with a gin pole and is lowered into the four pits excavated at
four corners of the tower to their proper size and depth. The assembly is lifted in such a manner that
stubs are not damaged. One side is held in place with props while the other side is being erected the
two opposite sides are then laced together with cross members and diagonals. Then the assembled
section is lined up, made square with line and levelled. The proper elevation and levelling are done
with a transit. When the lining and levelling have been done, the bolts are tightened up to make the
frame as rigid as is reasonably possible. Thereafter the form boxes for foundations are built and
the concrete is poured. This method can use only for lighter towers. For heavy towers use of Stub-
setting Template is recommended.
11.5.6 Concreting
11.5.6.1 Type
For reasons of economy and progress, it is normal practice to use coarse and fine aggregates
available along the line route and/of nearest locations to the route. Ordinary plain or reinforced
cement concrete specified in IS: 456-2000 shall be used in overhead line foundations.
For main foundation, M 20 (1:1.5:3) mix cement concrete shall be used. For lean concrete sub-bases
or pads, M 15 (1:2:4) or M10 (1:3:6) mix cement concrete may be used. The properties of concrete
and mix proportions shall be as given in IS: 456-2000.
It shall be permissible to proportionate the concrete as follows.

11.5.6.2.1 Prepare a wooden/steel measuring box of 35 litres capacity (that is equal to 1 bag of 50 kg. of
cement) with inside dimensions of 30 cm x 30 cm x 39 cm alternatively a cylinder of 34 cm diameter
and 39 cm height.
The mix quantities according to the measuring box shall be as follows:
M20 M15 M10

Cement 1 bag 1 bag 1 bag
Sand 1.5 boxes 2 boxes 3 boxes
Metal 3 boxes 4 boxes 6 boxes
Water 1 box less 3.5 litre 1 box less 3 litre 1 box less 1litre
11.5.6.2.2 M
easurement of water may be made with separate water tight drums of the above size or with 1or
2 litre mugs.
11.5.6.3 One bag of cement is taken to contain 50 kg or 35 litres of ordinary port land cement.
11.5.7 Form Work
11.5.7.1 General
The form work shall conform to the shape, lines and dimensions as shown on the foundation design
drawings, and be so constructed as to be rigid during the placing and compacting of concrete, and
shall be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of liquid from concrete. It shall be of light design, easily
removable without distortions and shall be of steel or suitable materials. The inner surface coming
in contact with concrete shall be smooth and free from projections .Window on one face shall be
provided for pyramid forms to facilitate concreting in the lower parts which shall be fixed after concrete
in the bottom part is placed. In bored footings, form work may be needed only towards the top for the
portion above ground level.
The form work for slabs and pyramids shall be made symmetrical about the bases of the chimney to
ensure interchangeable faces.
11.5.7.2 Clearing and Treatment of Forms
All rubbish, particularly chippings, shaving and sawdust and traces of concrete, if any, shall be
removed from the interior of the forms before the concrete is placed. The surface in contact with the
concrete shall be wetted and sprayed with fine sand or treated with an approved composition such
as black or waste oil etc., before use, every time.
11.5.7.3 Stripping Time
Under fair weather conditions (generally where average daily temperature is 20 degree or above) and
where ordinary cement is used, forms may be stripped after 24 hours of the placing of concrete. In
dull weather such as rainy periods and very cold temperature, the forms shall be removed after
48 hours of the placing of concrete.
11.5.7.4 Procedure when Removing Form Work
All form work shall be removed without much shock or vibration as otherwise it would damage the
concrete or the forms.
11.5.8 Mixing
11.5.8.1 Concrete shall preferably be mixed in a mechanical mixer, but hand mixing shall be permissible, if
permitted, as per contract agreement.
11.5.8.2 When hand mixing is adopted, it shall be carried out on impervious plants such as iron or equivalent
plain sheets properly overlapped and placed upon level ground. The coarse aggregate shall first be
evenly spread out in required quantity over the sheets. The fine aggregate and cement thoroughly
mixed shall be evenly spread out over coarse aggregate next. The stack (coarse, fine and cement)
shall then be thoroughly mixed together and levelled. The stack shall be divided into workable sub
stacks and wet mixing shall start from one end with required amount of water using shovels. The
whole stack shall not be wetted; instead mixing shall proceed progressively. If the aggregates are
wet or washed, the coarse and fine aggregate are mixed and levelled and thereafter cement shall
be spread in required proportion over the workable sub stack and then mix is prepared as per
normal procedure.
11.5.8.3 For mixing in mechanical mixers, the same order of placing ingredients in the loader drum shall be
adopted, that is coarse aggregate shall be put in first followed by sand, cement and water.
11.5.8.4 Mixing shall be continued until there is a uniform distribution of materials and the mass is uniform
in colour and consistency but in no case shall mixing be done for less than 2 minutes.
11.5.8.5 If the aggregates are wet, the amount of water shall be reduced suitably.
11.5.9 Transportation
11.5.9.1 Normally mixing shall be done right at the foundation. In places where it is not possible, concrete
may be mixed at the nearest convenient place. The concrete shall be handled from the place
of mixing to the place of final deposit as rapidly as practicable by methods which shall prevent
the segregation or loss of any of the ingredients. If segregation does occur during transport, the
concrete shall be remixed before being placed. Use of transit mixers is recommended involving
long distance transportation
11.5.9.2 During hot or cold weather concrete shall be transported in deep containers. The deep containers,
on account of their lower ratio of surface area to mass, reduce the rate of loss of water by evaporation
during hot weather and loss of heat during cold weather.
11.5.10 Placing and Compacting
11.5.10.1 The concrete shall be placed and compacted before setting commences and should not be
subsequently disturbed. The placing should be such that no segregation take place.
11.5.10.2 C
oncrete shall be thoroughly compacted during the placing operation, and thoroughly worked
around the reinforcement, if any, around embedded fixtures and into corners of form work by
using mechanical or pneumatic vibrators. The corners or deep pockets where vibrators cannot
reach, uniformity of the poured concrete shall be obtained by means of 16 mm diameter poking
bars pointed at the ends. As a guide for compacting, the poking bars may be worked 100 times
in an area of 200 mm square for 300 mm depth. Over compacting causes the liquid to flow out
upward causing segregation and should be avoided.
11.5.10.3 If, after the form work has been removed, the concrete surface is found to have defects, all the
damaged surfaces shall be repaired with mortar application composed of cement and sand in
the same proportion as the cement and sand in the concrete mix. Such repairs shall be carried
out well before the foundation pits are back filled.
11.5.10.4 For precautions to be taken on concrete work in extreme weather and under water, the provisions
of IS: 456- 2000 shall apply.
11.5.11 Reinforcement
All reinforcement shall be properly placed according to foundation design drawing with a minimum
concrete cover of 50 mm. The bars shall, however, be placed clear of stubs and cleats where
fouling. For binding, iron wire of not less than 0.9 mm shall be employed, and the bars may be
bound at alternate crossing points. The work shall conform to IS: 2502-1963 or latest revision
wherever applicable.
In case of the foundation having steel reinforcement in pyramid or base slab, at least 50 mm thick
pad of lean concrete of 1:3:6 nominal mix shall be provided to avoid the possibility of reinforcement
rod being exposed due to unevenness of the bottom of the excavated pit.
11.5.12 Sizes of Aggregates
The coarse aggregate (stone/metal) to be used shall be 40 mm nominal size for slab/pyramid
concrete and 20 mm nominal size for chimney concrete conforming to IS : 383 -1979. These sizes
are applicable to ordinary plain cement concrete. For R.C.C. works the aggregate shall preferably
be of 20 mm nominal size. The fine aggregates (sand shall be) of preferably Zone I Grade to IS:
383-1979 which is the coarse variety with maximum particle size of 4.75 mm
11.5.13 Levelling Sub-base
To take care of the unevenness at the bottom of the excavated pit, it is necessary to provide a
levelling sub-base of not less than M10 (1:3:6) proportion and 50 mm thickness.
11.5.14 Back Filling
Following opening of form work and removal of shoring and shuttering, back filling shall be started
after 24 hours of casting or repairs, if any, to the foundation concrete. Back filling shall normally be
done with the excavated soil, unless it consists of large boulders/stones, in which case the boulders
shall be broken to a maximum size of 80 mm. The back filling materials should be clean and free
from organic or other foreign materials.
The earth shall be deposited in 150 mm to 300 mm thick layers, levelled and wetted and tamped/
compacted properly with plate compactor before another layer is deposited. Care shall be taken
that the back filling is started from the foundation ends of the pits towards the outer ends. After pits
have been back filled to full depth, the stub-setting template may be removed.
The back filling and grading shall be carried out to an elevation of about 75 mm above the finished
ground level to drain out water. After back-filling 50 mm high earthen embankment (bund) will be
made along the sides of excavated pits and sufficient water will be poured in the back-filled earth
for at least 24 hours or as mentioned in the contract agreement.
11.5.15 Curing
The concrete after setting for 24 hours shall be cured by keeping the concrete wet continuously for
a period 10 days after laying. The pit back-filled earth and exposed chimney top shall be kept wet
for the prescribed time of 10 days. The uncovered concrete chimney above the back-filled earth
shall be kept wet by providing empty cement bags, hessian cloth dipped in water fully wrapped
around the concrete chimney for curing and ensuring that the bags be kept wet by the frequent
pouring of water on them.
11.5.16 Tolerance
The tolerances for various items connected to the foundation works of transmission line are as
under.
11.5.16.1 Stub-setting (Tower Footing)
11.5.16.1.1 All the stub angles for tower legs shall be set accurately to the grade and alignment shown on
the drawings. The difference in elevation between identical parts of any two stub angles shall not
exceed 1/1000 of the horizontal distance between the stubs, allowance being made for difference,
if any, in the lengths of legs and extensions. The actual elevation of any stub angle shall not differ
from the computed elevation by more than 1 /100 of foundation depth. Stub angles shall be located
horizontally so that each is within 6 mm of its correct position, and the batter of the stub angles
shall not differ from the correct batter by more than either 1/100 of exposed stub length, or by the
amount of play as offered by the clearance between bolts and holes of the stub-setting template.
To ensure greater accuracy, the hole clearance shall not be greater than 1.5 mm on the punched
side of the Template members.
11.5.16.1.2 If the actual elevation of stubs is beyond 6 cm or more as found after casting the foundation and
is on the plus side (that is, if the foundation is raised), equivalent depth of earthwork will be provided
over the top of the foundation as per design requirements with particular reference to such location.
By design requirements is meant the earth required to resist uplift forces.
11.5.16.1.3 The following tolerances shall be applicable in case of position of foundations erected with
reference to the tower positions spotted on Survey Charts:
Type of Tower Out of From Centre From Transverse

Alignment line of route centre line
Suspension 0.5 degree 25 mm ± 250 mm
Tension 0.5 degree 25 mm ± 25 mm
(Set at Bisection of
Deviation angle)
11.5.16.2 Concrete and Form Dimensions
The maximum tolerance on the dimensions shall be +/- 10 mm. All tolerances shall not be on the
negative side.
11.6 ERECTION OF SUPER STRUCTURE AND FIXING OF TOWER ACCESSORIES
The towers shall be erected on the foundations not less than 10 days after concreting or till
such time that the concrete has acquired sufficient strength. The towers are erected as per
the erection drawings furnished by the manufacturers to facilitate erection. For the convenience of
assembling the tower parts during erection operations, each member is marked in the factory to
correspond with a number shown in the erection drawing. Any damage to the steel and injuring of
galvanization shall be avoided. No member shall be subjected to any undue over stress, during
erection.
11.6.1 Method of Erection
There are four main methods of erection of steel transmission towers which are described below:
(i) Build-up method or piecemeal method.
(ii) Section method.
(iii) Ground assembly method.
(iv) Helicopter method.
11.6.1.1 Build Up Method
This method is most commonly used in this country for the erection of 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV,
400 kV & 765 kV transmission line towers due to the following advantages:
(i) Tower materials can be supplied to site in knocked down condition which facilitates easier
and cheaper transportation.
(ii) It does not require any heavy machinery such as cranes etc.
(iii) Tower erection activity can be done in any kind of terrain and mostly throughout the year.
(iv) More labour force get employment.
This method consists of erecting the towers, member by member. The tower members are kept
on ground serially according to erection sequence (to avoid search or time loss). The erection
progresses from the bottom upwards. The four main corner leg members of the first section of the
tower are first erected and guyed off. Sometimes more than one contiguous leg sections of each
corner leg are bolted together at the ground and erected.
The cross braces of the first section which are already assembled on the ground are raised one by
one as a unit and bolted to the already erected corner leg angles. First section of the tower thus built
and horizontal struts (belt members) if any, are bolted in position. For assembling the second section
of the tower, two gin poles are placed one each on the top of diagonally opposite corner legs. These
two poles are used, for raising parts of second section. The leg members and braces of this section
are then hoisted and assembled. The gin poles are then shifted to the corner leg members on the top
of second section to raise the parts of third section of the tower in position for assembly. Gin poles
are thus moved up as the tower grows. This process is continued till the complete tower is erected.
Cross-arm members are assembled on the ground and raised up and fixed to the main body of the
tower. For heavier towers, a small boom is rigged on one of the tower legs for hoisting purposes. The
members/sections are hoisted either manually or by winch machines operated from the ground. For
smaller base towers/vertical configuration towers one gin pole is used instead of two gin poles. In
order to maintain speed and efficiency, a small assembly party goes ahead of the main erection gang
and its purpose is to sort out the tower members, keeping the members in correct position on the
ground and assembling the panels on the ground which can be erected as a complete unit.
Sketches indicating different steps for erection by buildup method are shown in Annexure 'K'.
11.6.1.2 Section Method
In the section method, major sections of the tower are assembled on the ground and the same are
erected as units. Either a mobile crane or a gin pole is used. The gin pole used is approximately
10 m long and is held in place by means of guys by the side of the tower to be erected. The two
opposite sides of the tower section of the tower are assembled on the ground. Each assembled
side is then lifted clear of the ground with the gin or derrick and is lowered into position on bolts to
stubs or anchor bolts.
One side is held in place with props while the other side is being erected. The two opposite sides
are then laced together with cross members and diagonals; and the assembled section is lined
up, made square to the line. After completing the first section, gin pole is set on the top of the first
section. The gin rests on a strut of the tower immediately below the leg joint. The gin pole then has
to be properly guyed into position.
The first face of the second section is raised. To raise the second face of this section it is necessary
to slide the foot of the gin on the strut of the opposite face of the tower. After the two opposite
faces are raised, the lacing on the other two sides is bolted up. The last lift raises the top of the
towers. After the tower top is placed and all side lacings have been bolted up, all the guys are
thrown off except one which is used to lower the gin pole. Sometimes whole one face of the tower
is assembled on the ground, hoisted and supported in position. The opposite face is similarly
assembled and hoisted and then the bracing angles connecting these two faces are fitted.
11.6.1.3 Ground Assembly Method
This method consists of assembling the tower on ground, and erecting it as a complete unit. The
complete tower is assembled in a horizontal position on even ground. The tower is assembled
along the direction of the line to allow the cross arms to be fitted. On slopping ground, however,
elaborate packing of the low side is essential before assembly commences. After the assembly is
complete the tower is picked up from the ground with the help of a crane and carried to its location,
and set on its foundation. For this method of erection, a level piece of ground close to footing is
chosen from the tower assembly. This method is not useful when the towers are large and heavy
and the foundations are located in arable land where building and erecting complete towers would
cause damage to large areas or in hilly terrain where the assembly of complete tower on sloping
ground may not be possible and it may be difficult to get crane into position to raise the complete
tower.
This method is not popular in India, because of prohibitive cost of mobile crane, and non-availability
of good approach roads to tower locations as well as ROW issues.
11.6.1.4 Helicopter Method
In the helicopter method, the transmission tower is erected in section. For example bottom section
is first lifted on to the stubs and then the upper section is lifted and bolted to the first section and the
process is repeated till the complete tower is erected. Sometimes a completely assembled tower is
raised with the help of helicopter. Helicopters are also used for lifting completely assembled towers
with guys from the marshalling yards where these/are fabricated and then transported one by one
to line locations. Helicopter hovers over the line location while the tower is securely guyed. The
ground crew men connect and tighten the tower guys. As soon as the guy wires are adequately
tensioned the helicopter disengages and flies to the marshalling yard. This method is adopted
where approach is very difficult or to speed up the construction of the transmission line.
11.6.2 Tightening of Nuts and Punching of Threads and Tack Welding of Nuts
All nuts shall be tightened properly using correct sized spanners. Before tightening, it is ensured
that filler washers and plates are placed in relevant gaps between members, bolts of proper size
and length are inserted and one spring washer is inserted under each nut. In case of step bolts,
spring washer shall be placed under the outer nut. The tightening shall be carried on progressively
from the top downwards, care being taken that all bolts at every level are tightened simultaneously.
It may be better to employ four persons, each covering one leg and the face to his right.
The threads of bolts shall be projected outside the nuts by one to two threads and shall be punched
at three positions on the top inner periphery of the nut and bolt to ensure that the nuts are not
loosened in course of time. If during tightening a nut is found to be slipping or running over the bolt
threads, the bolt together with the nut shall be changed outright.
11.6.3 Painting of Joints
For galvanized towers in coastal or highly polluted areas, the joints shall be painted with zinc paint
on all contact surfaces during the course of erection.
11.6.4 Checking the Verticality of Erected Towers
The finally erected tower shall be truly vertical after erection and no straining is permitted to bring it
in alignment. Tolerance limit for vertical shall be one in 360 of the tower height.
11.7 EARTHING
11.7.1 Each tower shall be earthed after the foundation has been cast. For this purpose, earth strip shall
be fixed to the stub during concreting of the chimney and taken out horizontally below the ground
level. In normal circumstances, the earth strip shall be provided on No. 1 stub leg as given in Figure
2, i.e., the leg with step bolts.
11.7.2 Tower Footing Resistance
The tower footing resistance of all towers shall be measured in dry weather after their erection
and before the stringing of earth wire. In no case, the tower footing resistance shall exceed 10
ohms. In case the resistance exceeds the specified values, multiple pipe earthing or counterpoise
earthing shall be adopted in accordance with the following procedure, but without interfering with
the foundation concrete even though the earth strip/counterpoise lead remains exposed at the tower
end.
The connections in such case shall be made with the existing lattice member holes on the leg just
above the chimney top.
11.7.3 Pipe Type Earthing
The installation of the pipe earth shall be in accordance with IS : 5613- 1985 (Part II/Section 2). A
typical example of pipe type of earthing is given in Annexure 'L'.
11.7.4 Counterpoise Type Earthing
Counterpoise type earthing consists of four lengths of galvanized steel stranded wires, each fitted
with a lug for connection to the tower leg at one end. The wires are connected to each of the legs
and taken radially away from the tower and embedded horizontally 450 mm below ground level. The
length of each wire is normally limited to 15 m but may be increased if the resistance requirements
are not met. Galvanized steel stranded wire preferably of the same size of the overhead ground
wire may be used for this purpose. A typical example of counterpoise type earthing to tower is
given in Annexure 'M'.
11.8 STRINGING OF CONDUCTORS
11.8.1 Mounting of Insulator Strings, and Running Blocks
11.8.1.1 Suspension insulator strings shall be used on suspension towers and tension insulator strings on
angle and dead end towers. The strings shall be fixed generally on the tower cross arm tip just prior
to the stringing of conductors. Damaged insulators and fittings shall not be used on the assemblies.
Before hoisting, all insulators shall be cleaned in a manner that will not spoil, injure or scratch the
surface of the insulator, but in no case shall any oil be used for the purpose. Security clips shall be
in position for the insulators before hoisting. Arcing horns or guard rings, if required, shall be placed
along the line on suspension, and facing upwards on tension insulator string assemblies.
Fig. 2 : Designation of Tower Legs, Footing and Face

1. Represents leg or pit No. 1
A. Represents near side (NS) transverse face.
B. Represents near side (NS) longitudinal face.
C. Represents far side (FS) transverse face.
D. Represents far side (FS) longitudinal face.
Note: Danger and number plates are located on face ‘A’.
Leg 1 represents the leg with step bolts and anti-climbing device gate, if any. If two legs with step
bolts are required, the next is No. 3 leg.
11.8.1.2 Traveller/Running Block Installation
Installation of travellers, including finger lines where used, requires consideration of traveller
attachment methods and the need for and location of traveller grounds and uplift rollers. For
single conductor vertical insulator assemblies, the travellers are normally connected directly to the
insulators, and with ‘vee’ string insulator assemblies, to the yoke plate. For most bundled conductor
lines, the travellers are connected to the yoke plate. With post type insulators, the travellers are
connected to the end of the insulators. Where travellers are installed to string through tension
towers, the travellers are normally connected directly to the tower. If substantial line angles are
involved, two travellers in tandem may be required to reduce the bending radius of the conductor
or the load on each traveller, or both.
Where bundled conductor travellers are used at line angle locations of over 5 degrees, it is advisable
to change to individual single conductor travellers after the passage of the running board to facilitate
accurate sagging.
When adequate quantities of travellers are available, it is common practice to install travellers along
with the insulators. Under some situations travellers may be attached to slings or rods in place of
the normal insulator assembly. Sketch of travellers is shown in Annexure 'N'.
Use of travelling grounds and choice of locations must be based on the degree of exposure to
electrical hazards .When such hazards exist, as a minimum, traveller grounds should be installed at
the first and last tower between tensioner and puller. When stringing in proximity to energized lines,
additional grounds shall be installed as required, but at a maximum distance not exceeding 3 km.
additionally, grounds shall be installed within a reasonable distance on each side of an energized
crossing, preferably on the adjacent structure.
Travellers with grounds are usually sensitive to direction and care must be exercised in hanging
the travellers. Usually the grounds are connected to the pulling end. Each traveller with grounds
must be connected with temporary grounding sets to provide an electrical connection between the
traveller and earth, or to some conducting medium that is at earth potential. Personnel should never
be in series, with a ground lead. Traveller grounds should have a suitable grounding stub located
in an accessible position to enable placing and removing the ground clamps, with hot sticks when
necessary. Traveller ground also helps protect the sheave linings.
At the time the travellers are hung, finger lines, when used, should be installed and tied off at the
base of the structures. If the helicopter method of pilot line installation is not to be used, the pilot
line could be installed in lieu of finger lines.
11.8.2 Paying out of Earth Wire and Conductor
11.8.2.1 Paying out of Earth Wire
Normally earth wire drums are mounted on a turn table. Pulling machine/tractor are employed to
pull the earth wire. Earth wire running blocks are hoisted on the towers prior to taking up of this
operation. The earth wire while paying out passes through the earth wire running blocks. Earth
wire splices shall be made in such a way that they do not crack or get damaged in the stringing
operations. No earth wire joint is permitted in 400 kV and above Voltage rating TLs. For 220 kV and
below TLs, it should be noted that no earth wire joints are allowed within 30 m from the tension or
suspension clamp fittings.
11.8.2.2 Paying out of Conductor
11.8.2.2.1 Slack Layout or Direct Installation Method
Using this method, the conductor is payed out over the ground supported rollers by means of a
pulling vehicle or the reel carried along the line on a vehicle. The conductor reels are positioned
on reel stands or jack, either placed on the ground or mounted on a transporting vehicle. These
stands are designed to support the reel on a shaft permitting it to rotate as the conductor is pulled
out. Usually a braking device is provided to prevent over-running and backlash.
When the conductor is payed out past a tower, pulling is stopped and the conductor is placed in
travellers attached to the structure before proceeding to the next structure.
This method is generally applicable to the construction of new lines in cases where maintenance of
conductor surface condition is not critical and where terrain is easily accessible to a puling vehicle.
The method is not usually economically applicable in urban locations where hazards exist from
traffic or where there is danger of contact with energized circuits, nor it is practical in mountainous
regions inaccessible to pulling vehicles. In such cases, tension stringing method is used.
Major equipment required to perform slack stringing includes reels stands, pulling vehicles and a
splicing cart.
11.8.2.2.2 Tension Stringing Method
Multi-conductor lines shall generally be strung with the help of tension stringing equipment. Using this
method, the conductor is kept under tension during the stringing process. Normally, this method is
used to keep the conductor clear of the ground and obstacles which might cause conductor surface
damage and clear of energized circuits. It requires pulling of a light pilot line through the travellers,
which in turn is used to pull in a heavier pulling line. The pulling line is then used to pull in the conductors
from the reel stands using specially designed tensioners and pullers. For lighter conductors, a light
weight pulling line may be used in place of pilot line to directly pull in the conductor. A helicopter or
ground vehicle can be used to pull or lay out a pilot line or pulling line. Where a helicopter is used
to pull out a line, synthetic rope is normally used to attach the line to the helicopter and prevent the
pulling or pilot line from flipping into the rotor blades upon release. The tension method of stringing
is applicable where it is desired to keep the conductor off the ground to minimize surface damage
or in areas where frequent crossings are encountered. The amount of right of way travel by heavy
equipment is also reduced. Usually, this method provides the most economical means of stringing
conductor. The helicopter use is particularly advantageous in rugged or poorly accessible terrain.
Major equipment required for tension stringing includes reel stands, tensioner, puller, reel winder,
pilot line winder, splicing cart and helicopter or pulling vehicle.
While running out the conductors, care shall be taken such that the conductors do not touch and
rub against the ground or objects which could cause scratches or damage to the strands. The
conductor shall not be over-strained during erection. The conductor shall be run out of the drums
from the top in order to avoid damage due to chafing.
Wherever required jointing of conductor during paying out will be carried out.
11.8.2.2.2.1 Typical Procedures for Stringing Operations
11.8.2.2.2.1.1 Site Selection, Equipment Location, Anchor and Equipment Grounding
11.8.2.2.2.1.1.1 Site Selection
The selection of pull, tension, anchor and splicing sites must consider accessibility, location of
deadments, length of conductor to be strung, available conductor and line lengths, puller capacity,
including placement of pullers, tensioners and conductor anchor locations, placement of reel
stands, pilot line winders, reel winders and the ability to provide an adequate grounding system.
11.8.2.2.2.1.1.2 Equipment Locations
The locations of the puller, tensioners and intermediate anchor sites must be selected so that
the structures are not overloaded. A pulling line slope of three horizontal to one vertical from the
traveller to the site is considered good practice. It is also necessary that the puller be positioned
so that the pulling line enters the machine at the smallest horizontal angle thereby minimizing
the possibility of damaging the line. When a bull wheel type puller is employed, the reel winder to
recover the pulling line is located at the pulling site. The pilot line winder is located at the tensioner
site.
The arrangement of the tensioner and reel stands should be such that the lateral angle between the
conductor as it approaches the bull wheel and the plane of rotation of the wheel is not large enough
to cause the conductor to rub on the sides of the groove. For example, birdcaging problems were
eliminated in large conductor by using a maximum fleet angle of 1.5 degree from the plane normal
to the conductor reel axis and a back tension of approximately 4500 N. Problems of birdcaging are
normally more acute in the case of large conductors having three or more aluminum layers.
11.8.2.2.2.1.1.3 Anchors
Anchors are normally required for holding equipment in place and snubbing conductors against
tensions imposed. The type of anchor is dependent upon the soil conditions and stringing and
sagging tensions. Portable equipment as well as ground type anchors are often used for this
purpose. Slack should be removed from all anchor lines prior to loading to minimize the possibility
of equipment movement or impact loads to the anchors.
11.8.2.2.2.1.1.4 Equipment Grounding
Adequate grounding must be established at all sites. The methods required and equipment used
will be determined by the degree of exposure to electrical hazards and the soil conditions at the site.
All equipment, conductors, anchors and structures within the work area must be bonded together
and to the ground source.
11.8.2.2.2.1.2 Installation of Conductor
Once the rope pulling lines have been installed prior to pulling in any conductor or conductive type
pulling lines, a running ground must be installed between the reel stand or tensioner for conductor,
or puller for pulling line, and the first tower. This ground must be bonded to the ground previously
established at the site.
Pulling lines are usually pulled in under tension. The pulling line is then connected to a single
conductor through swivel link, or to bundle conductors through swivel links and a running board.
Swivel links should not be used on a three strand synthetic pulling line. Pulling lines may be synthetic
fibre or wire rope. When wire rope is used, it is recommended that swaged type or braided type be
used since it has less tendency to rotate under load, which minimizes spinning problems.
A ball bearing swivel link is usually used for the connections between conductors, pulling lines and
running boards. Swivel links must have sufficient rated working load to withstand loads placed on
them during tension stringing. They should also be compatible with the travellers being used so that
they can pass through without spreading or damaging the sheaves. These special line stringing
swivel links are clevis type and compatible with woven wire grips and swaged steel pulling lines.
It is recommended that swivel links not be passed over bull wheels under significant tension since
they may be weakened or damaged due to bending.
When reeving the bull wheels of a tensioner with the conductor entering and leaving the wheel
from the top facing in the direction of pull, the conductor should enter from the left and leave from
the right for right hand lay (standard for aluminum conductor) and enter from the right and leave
from the left for left-hand lay (standard for ground wire). The procedure eliminates the tendency of
loosening of outer layer strands while conductor passes around the bull wheel.
It is recommended that conductor of only one manufacturer be used in a given pull, and preferably
in any given ruling span. This precaution helps in minimizing the possibility of difference in sag
characteristics of conductor significantly.
Attachment of the conductor to the pulling line, running board or to another reel of conductor to
be pulled successively is accomplished by the use of woven wire grips. These grips should be
compatible strength wise and sized as close as possible for the conductor or pulling line on which
they are used. Overall diameter of the grip over the conductor or rope should be small enough to
pass over the sheaves without damage to the sheave or its lining and the grip must also be capable
of mating with a proper size swivel link.
Metal bands should be installed over the grip to prevent it from accidentally coming off and dropping
the conductor. The open end of the grip should be secured with two bands. This should then be
wrapped with tape to prevent accidentally stripping the grip of the conductor if the end were to
snag or catch. This is particularly important when these grips are used on pulling lines or between
lengths of conductor when more than one reel is strung. The grips will then pass through the
travellers backwards and if the ends are not banded and taped, they may slip off.
Experience has shown that pulling speed is an important factor in achieving a smooth stringing
operation. Speeds of 3-4 km/hour usually provide a smooth passage of the running board or
connecting hardware, or both, over the travelers. Whereas slower speeds way cause significant
swinging of the traveler and insulator hardware assemblies, higher speeds create a potential hazard
of greater damage in case of a malfunction.
The maximum tension imposed on a conductor during stringing operations should not exceed than
necessary to clear obstructions on the ground. This clearance should be confirmed by observation.
In general, stringing tension about one-half of the sagging tension is a good criterion. If greater
tensions are required, consideration must be given to any possible pre-stressing of conductors
that may result, based on the tension and time involved. Consideration must also be given to the
fact that when long lengths of conductor are strung, the tension at the pulling end may exceed
the tension at the tensioner by a significant amount. Difference in tension is caused by the length
of conductor strung, number and performance of travellers, differences in elevation of supporting
structures, etc.
Light and steady back tension should be maintained on the conductor reels at all times sufficient
to prevent over run in case of a sudden stop. It must also be sufficient to cause the conductor to
lie snugly in the first groove of the bull wheel and to prevent slack in the conductor between bull
wheels. It may be necessary periodically to loosen the brake on the reel stand as the conductor is
payed off. As the reel empties, the moment arm available to overcome the brake drag is reduced,
and the tension therefore rises. This may cause the conductor to wedge into the underlying layers
on the reel.
The reel should be positioned so that it will rotate in the same direction as the bull wheels. Loosening
of the stranding that often occurs between the reel and the bull wheels of the tensioner is caused
to a great extent by coil memory in the conductor. As the conductor is unwound from the reel and
straightens out, the outer strands become loose, acondition that is particularly noticeable in a large
diameter conductor and can be best observed at the point at which it leaves the reel. As the
conductor enters the bull wheel groove, the pressure of contact tends to push the loose outer strands
back towards the reel where the looseness accumulates, leading to the condition commonly known
as bird caging. If this condition is not controlled, the strands can become damaged to the extent
that the damaged area of conductor must be removed. This problem can be remedied by allowing
enough distance between the reel and tensioner to permit the strand looseness to distribute along
the intervening length of conductor and simultaneously maintaining enough back tension on the
reel stretch the core and inner strands to sufficiently tighten the outer strands.
The maximum time conductors may safely remain in the travellers depends on wind induced
vibration or other motion of the conductors. Windblown sand can severely damage conductors in a
few hours if clearance is less than about 3 m over loose sand with little vegetation. Damage from
vibration at sagging tensions is quite possible and, when required, dampers should be installed
promptly. However, at lower tensions generally used for initial stringing, damage to conductors
or sheave bearings, or both, is not likely to occur from vibration. Even for travellers having lined
sheaves with root diameters 20 times the conductor diameter, it is important to complete conductor
stringing, sagging, plumb marking, clipping, spacing and damping operations as soon as possible
to prevent conductor damage from weather, particularly wind. Conductor should not be strung if
adverse weather is predicted before the entire sequence can be completed.
Sub-conductor oscillation may occur in bundled conductor lines and tie-down methods involving
temporary spacers, or other means may be required to prevent conductor surface damage prior to
installation of spacers. Temporarily positioning of one sub-conductor above another to prevent
conductor clashing is undesirable since different tension history will produce sub-conductor mismatch
unless the tensions are low and duration short enough so that creep is not a factor. Conductor
clashing can mar the strands and produce slivers which can result in radio noise generation.
If a bull wheel type puller is utilized, the pulling line must be recovered during the pulling operation
on a separate piece of equipment. This function is usually performed by a reel winder which is
placed behind the puller in an arrangement similar to the reel stand at the tension site. These coils
shall be removed carefully and if another length is required to be run out, a joint shall be made
according to the recommendation of the manufacturers. Drum battens shall be removed just prior
to moving drums on drum stands. Drums will be transported and positioned on station with the least
possible amount of rolling.
The conductors, joints and clamp shall be erected in such a manner that no bird caging, over-
tensioning of individual wires of layers or other deformation or damage to the conductors shall
occur. Clamps for hauling devices shall, under erection conditions, allow no relative movement of
strands or layers of the conductors.
Scaffolding shall be used where roads, rivers, channel telecommunication or overhead power lines,
railway lines, fences or walls have to be crossed during stringing operations. It shall be seen that
normal services are not interrupted or damage caused to property. Shut-down shall be obtained
when working at crossing overhead power lines.
The sequence of running out shall be from top to downwards i.e. the earth wire shall be run out
first, followed by the conductors in succession. In case of horizontal configuration tower, middle
conductor shall be strung before stringing of outer conductors is taken-up.
A sketch of Tension stringing operation is shown in Annexure 'P'.

11.8.3 Repairing of Conductor
Repairs to conductors, in the event of damage caused to isolated strands of a conductor during the
course of erection, if necessary, shall be carried out during the running out operations, with repair
sleeves. Repairing of conductor surface shall be done only in case of minor damage, scuff marks
etc., keeping in view both electrical and mechanical safe requirements.
Repair sleeves may be used when the damage is limited to the outer layer of the conductor and is
equivalent to the severances of not more than two strands in case of conductor used on 400 kV and
above TLs and 1/6th of strands in the outer most layer of conductor for 220 kV and below TLs. No
repair sleeve shall be fitted within 30 m of tension or suspension hardware fittings, nor shall more
than one repair sleeve per conductor normally be permitted in any one span.
11.8.4 Jointing
11.8.4.1 The fullest possible use shall be made of the maximum conductor lengths, in order to reduce
to a minimum number of joints. All the joints on the conductor shall be of compression type, in
accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturers for which all necessary tools and
equipment like compressors, die sets etc., shall be arranged. The final conductor surface shall be
clean smooth and shall be without any projections, sharp points, cuts, abrasions etc., Conductor
ends to be joined shall be coated with an approved grease immediately before final assembly.
Surplus grease shall be removed after assembly.
All joints or splices shall be made atleast 30 m away from the structures. No joints or splices shall be
made in tension spans. No tension joint shall be used in any span crossing other major power lines.
The compression type fitting used shall be of self-centering type or care shall be taken to mark the
conductors to indicate when the fitting is centred properly. During compression or splicing operation
the conductor shall be handled in such a manner as to prevent lateral or vertical bearing against the
dies. After pressing the joint, the aluminum sleeve shall have all comers rounded; burrs and sharp
edges removed and smoothened.
11.8.4.2 If the line conductors are other than conventional ACSR conductors like, AL 59, ACSS, ACCC, HTLS
etc., the method of stringing, jointing and clamping shall be in accordance with the recommendations
of the manufactures of such conductors.
11.8.5 Final Sagging of Conductor and Earth Wire
The final sagging of the Conductor shall be done by sagging winches.
After being rough sagged the conductor/earth wire shall not be allowed to hang in the stringing
blocks for more than 96 hours before being pulled to the specified sag.
The tensioning and sagging shall be done in accordance with the approved stringing charts before
the conductors and earth wire are finally attached to the towers through the earth wire clamps for
the earth wire and insulator strings for the conductor. The stringing charts shall be prepared by the
design department based on the tower design parameters and as built tower schedule. The charts
shall be prepared for each angle to angle section of the line. A specimen chart for conductor and
earth wire is attached as Annexure 'Q'
The sag will be checked in the first and last span of the Section, in case of Sections upto eight
spans and in one intermediate span also for sections with more than eight spans. The sag shall
also be checked when the conductors have been drawn up and transported from running blocks to
the insulator clamps.
The running blocks, which are suspended from the transmission structure for sagging shall be so
adjusted that the conductors on running blocks will be at the same height as the suspension clamp
to which it is to be secured.
At sharp vertical angles, the sags and tensions shall be checked on both sides of the angle, the
conductor and earth wire shall be checked on the running blocks for quality of tension on both sides.
The suspension insulator assembly will normally assume vertical positions when the conductor is
clamped.
Tensioning and sagging operations shall be carried out in normal weather when rapid changes
in temperatures are not likely to occur. Sag board and dynamometers shall be employed for
measuring sag and tension respectively (corresponding to the actual temperature in field).
The dynamometers employed shall be periodically checked and calibrated with a standard
dynamometer.
Attempts to sag conductor on excessively windy day should be avoided since serious error can result
due to conductor uplift caused by wind pressure on the conductor. Should severe wind conditions
occur when sagging is in progress, the sagging must be stopped till safe conditions prevail to
resume sagging.
Once a Section has been sagged, the sub-conductors of the bundle should be checked for evenness.
Unevenness, if any, shall be rectified as far as possible with the help of sag adjuster.
The travellers which are used to string conductor are not frictionless and therefore, can cause
problems during a sagging operation, if one or more of the travellers become jammed, sagging can
become very difficult. A traveller which swings in the direction of the pull may be an indication of a
defective traveller. Should unexplainable sagging difficulties occur, the traveller should be checked.
Tensions applied to the conductor to overcome sticky or jammed travellers can cause abrupt
movement of the conductor in the sagging spans and quickly cause change of sag, particularly, if
the conductor is already tensioned to the required value.
During sagging, care shall be taken to eliminate differential sags in the sub- conductor as far as
possible. However, in no case sag mismatch of more than 25 mm shall be allowed.
11.8.6 Clipping in/Clamping in of Conductors
The clipping portion of the conductor stringing operation involves the work following sagging and
plumb marking of the conductors. This entails removing the conductors from the travellers and
placing them in their permanent suspension clamps attached to the insulator assemblies.
When clipping is being done, care must be exercised to ascertain that the conductors are grounded
prior to clipping despite the fact that the lines being clipped are not attached to any electrical source.
This involves placing a local ground upon the conductor at the location of work.
After the conductors have been marked, the erection crew will lift the weight of the conductors,
allowing the travellers to be removed and the suspension clamps, and armour rod, if any used, to be
placed on the conductors. Lifting is normally done by use of a hoist suspended from the structure and
a conductor lifting hook which is designed so as not to notch or severely bend the conductors. After
placing the suspension clamps on the conductor, the hooks are lowered thereby placing the weight
of the conductor on the suspension clamp and completing the assembly. Where bundle conductors
are used, the multiple conductors may be lifted simultaneously by using a yoke arrangement
supporting the hooks and a single hoist or other lifting means.
11.8.7 Installation of Spacers
Following the clipping operations for bundled conductor lines, spacers must be installed. This is done
by placing the erection crew on the conductors in the ‘conductor car’ normally known as spacer
cycle to ride from one tower to the other. Depending on the length of line to be spacered and the
equipment available, cars may be hand powered, towed by persons on the ground or in adjacent
structures with ropes, or powered by a small engine on the car itself. Care must be exercised to ensure
that the concentrated load of the man, car and equipment does not increase the sag appreciably to
cause a hazard from obstructions over which the car will pass. The installation of the spacers on the
conductor varies with the type and manufacture of the spacer and is normally done in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
The load of the man, car and equipment should be equally distributed to all sub-conductors of the
phase. This is particularly important at the time each spacer is attached. Number of spacers per
span and their spacing are provided as per the approved spacer placement chart.
11.8.8 Installation of Vibration Dampers/Spacer Dampers
Vibration Dampers/Spacer Dampers are normally placed on the conductors immediately following
clipping to prevent any possible damage to the conductors due to high wind velocity and
resultant high Aeolian vibration which at critical tensions can occur in a matter of a few hours.
The number of dampers/spacer dampers and spacing are provided as per the design requirement
and instructions of the manufacturers.
11.8.9 Jumpering
The jumpers at the Section and angle towers shall be formed to parabolic shape to ensure maximum
clearance requirements. Pilot suspension insulator string shall be used, if found necessary, to
restrict the jumper swings to the design values. Clearance between the conductors and ground and
between jumpers and the tower steel work shall be checked during erection and before handing
over the line.
Jumpers at suspension and tension towers are weighted with weights to restrict the swing and to
maintain minimum electrical clearances.
11.8.10 Ground Undulation
A provision of 150 mm shall be made to account for any undulations in the ground in final still air
sag at maximum.
11.8.11 Optic Fiber Ground Wire (OPGW)
11.8.11.1 The use of OPGW in place of earth wire is envisaged in many of the transmission lines being
constructed now days. The OPGW serves the purpose of ground wire as well as communication.
The method of installation of OPGW wire is as follows.
(a) Laying of OPGW on New Lines
The OPGW will be manufactured in the cut lengths suitable for a sectional length of a
transmission lines based on the actual tower schedule. Normally tension tower to tension
tower shall be considered as a cut length. If the tension towers are not available within a
range of 2 to 3Kms, earth wire peak/ cross arm of the suspension towers shall be modified
to take the designed tension of OPGW. As per the envisaged location for installation
of junction box the OPGW is required to be spliced. For this purpose the OPGW shall
be brought down and fibers shall be crimped and terminated in the junction box. At the
substation end, FODB (Fiber Optic distribution box) is used for final connection to the
SCADA Panels.
The OPGW is not terminated at small angle tension towers but clamps with armour grips
are used. However, the directions of OPGW manufacturer shall be followed.
(b) Replacement of GI Earth wire by OPGW on existing line
The replacement work of existing earth wire from one Tension location to next Tension location is
taken up first by loosening the existing wire clamps/ hardware. The earth wire is held by ratchet. The
arrangement of pulley rollers spacers are made prior to replacing the earth wire. At the pulling end
of tension location, the earth wire is pulled slowly by wire rope, sling through pulley arrangement
at top of tower and bottom of tower. Once the removal of earth wire starts with the help of pilot
rope and specially insulated rope, the end of OPGW is pulled by joining sox with rotating coupling.
During pulling of earth wire and OPGW, utmost care is required to be taken to see that the earth
wire/OPGW does not swing or lower down much within the reach of live conductor which may lead
to accident or flashover. Generally shut down is preferred in replacing the earth wire by OPGW
and in that process manual/ pulling with tractor or heavy vehicle can be done. If shut down is not
available and hot line work is required to be done, traction machine is used, wherein no manual
pulling is required to be done. Once the OPGW is made over, pilot wire and earth wire roller position
is reversed. The stringing of OPGW is carried out on tension to tension location. Length of the drum
is ordered and utilized according to actual cut length between two tension locations. If the length
between two tension location is more than the maximum permissible length prescribed by the of
manufacturer, the suspension tower in between will need modification in the earth wire peak/cross
arm to take the tension of OPGW. Also the care is required to be taken so that the OPGW doesn’t
get damaged during pulling, laying, handling and stringing. The ends of OPGW should always be
capped so as to avoid injury to any human being. It may be noted that tissues of fiber optic are risky
to the human being or animals as once they enter the body it will be difficult to trace and remove
them. Sufficient length is to be kept spare for splicing (jointing) at the end of drum length or at the
end of tension location.
There should be skilled working staff (Gang) who has got experience of erecting OPGW or otherwise
they may damage the same. Also before shifting the drum to site the continuity, resistance value
etc. be taken as per the specified values on the drum.
11.9 HOT-LINE STRINGING OF E.H.V. LINES
11.9.1 General
Hot line stringing means stringing of second circuit on the same tower with first circuit electrically &
mechanically loaded. This is shown in Figure A.
11.9.1.1 With the available techniques, the hot-line stringing is done upto 220 kV only in India. The advantage
of stringing second circuit at a later date (with hot-line method) is saving in initial capital investment
in the form of conductors, insulators hardware etc. Besides, with provision of Double circuit towers
from the beginning reducing the Right of Way problems as second corridor is not required for
second circuit,
11.9.2 Precautions
11.9.2.1 Hot-line stringing is a specialized job and calls for special precautions. All the crew members are
provided with rubber shoes and hand-gloves and are compelled to use them during the stringing.
11.9.2.2 All the drums of conductor and pilot wires are solidly earthed. All the tension locations, where the
conductor ends, are terminated, are solidly earthed.
11.9.2.3 In addition to above, during final sagging and clipping operation, standard earthing rods are used
for connecting each conductor to the tower body.
11.9.3 Operations
11.9.3.1 Arrangement for earthing the conductor drums and pilot wire drums is made at both the ends of
the section under stringing. The travelers should also be earthed as on additional precautions. The
hoisting of insulators, clamping of pilot wire and the conductor and rough sagging of conductor is
done as per normal stringing method.
11.9.3.2 Before marking and clipping the dead ends, each phase conductor is solidly earthed in two separate
sets. One set is earthed by means of droppers and earthing rods and second set is by earthing of
conductor end to tower body. This is shown in the Figure B.
While removing the second set of earthing, the conductor end is removed first and the tower end
later. Similarly in case of the first set, the cable is disconnected from conductor end first and the
rod end later.
11.9.3.3 Similarly, before clipping the conductor on the suspension towers, each conductor on both the
sides of the clamp is earthed to tower body. After the clipping is over, the earthing cable is first
removed from the conductor end and later from the tower end. This is shown in the Figure C.
11.9.3.4 In order to limit the parallelism and induced voltages, it is advisable to do the jumpering work at
the end. While doing the jumpering work also the earthing cables are required to be provided.
11.9.4 Earthing
11.9.4.1 Solid earthings are provided by driving one or more G.I SPIKES in the soil as done in pipe type
of earthing. If required, more pipes are driven at the same place. In any case the soil resistance
should not be more than 5 ohms.
11.9.4.2 In case of rocky soils, counterpoise type earthing system is used. The length of the wires is
decided by trial & error till the earth resistance is lowered to 5 ohms or less.
11.9.4.3 For earthing, a flexible copper cable having 10 sq. mm area (20 Ampere capacity) is used. The
cable is generally armoured type for rough use. Proper clamps/connectors are used to connect the
cable to the conductor and to the earth.
Fig. A Fig. B
Fig. C
11.10 PROTECTION OF TOWER FOOTING
The work includes all necessary stone revetment, concreting and earth filling above ground level
and the clearance from stacking on the side of all surplus excavated soil; special measures for
protection of foundations close to or in nalahs, river beds, etc., by providing suitable revetment or
galavanised wire netting and meshing packed with boulders (called gabiens).
A typical revetment drawing is shown in Annexure 'Q'.
11.11 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING
11.11.1 General
Before the line is energised, visual examination of the line shall be carried out to check that all nuts
and bolts are tight and insulators and accessories are in position. The earth connections shall also
be checked to verify that these are in order.
11.11.2 Testing
Before commissioning of the lines, the following tests may be carried out ;
(a) Conductor continuity test
The objective of this test is to verify that each conductor of the overhead line is properly
connected electrically (that is, the value of its electrical resistance does not vary, abnormally
from that of a continuous conductor of the same size and length). The electrical resistance of
the conductor shall be measured with a Wheatstone bridge or other suitable instrument.
(b) Insulation resistance test
This test may be carried out with the help of a 5 kV Megger preferably to ascertain the
insulation condition of the line.
11.11.2.1 The line may then be kept charged on no load at the power frequency voltage preferably for 72 hours
for the purpose of full scale testing.
11.11.3 Statutory Requirements
The statutory authorities shall be informed before commissioning the lines and their approval
obtained in accordance with Indian Electricity Act 1910 and Central Electricity Authority (Measures
relating to Safety and Electricity Supply) Regulations, 2010.
11.12 RENOVATION & MODERNIZATION OF TRANSMISSION LINES
11.12.1 Many of the existing transmission lines require enhancement in power transmission, up-gradation
by way of replacement of conductors by higher capacity conductors as well as strengthening of
the tower body and foundations. The R & M works are therefore required to be adopted for these
lines.
11.12.2 The rectification work for corroded tower legs (stubs) situated in water logged areas is necessary
to increase the life of transmission line.The method adopted is explained in chapter 10.
11.12.3 The strengthening work in tower body is carried out either by replacing the existing member by
higher size member or by addition of extra members to the existing tower body/cross arms.
11.12.4 The replacement of existing conductor by modern higher capacity conductor is also one of the
R & M activities of transmission line. The existing tower structure shall be checked for loading
envisaged due to installation of higher capacity conductor and strengthening of tower, if necessary,
shall be done.
11.13 RESIDUAL LIFE ASSESSMENT OF TRANSMISSION LINE
11.13.1 Some existing transmission lines of very high importance from the system point of view require
technical health audit. Hence, the residual life assessments of such high important transmission
lines are required to be carried out to assess the balance life of transmission lines.
11.13.2 Audit / RLA work includes followings.
1. Verification of erected towers and stringing work already done.

2. Verification of complete transmission lines in respect of foundations, earthing, insulators,
Hardware, Accessories, Ground-Clearances, Conductor /Earth-wire / OPGW, Clamps &
Connectors, Jumpers, etc.
3. Measurement of Tower Footing Resistance.
4. Submission of detailed report regarding Residual life Assessment / Health Audit of said
transmission lines including recommendations of rectification work, if any.
11.14 MANPOWER, TOOLS AND PLANTS AND TRANSPORT FACILITIES
11.14.1 Survey
Average output per month per survey gang equipped with GPS / TS consisting of about 4 to 5
persons will be( in Plain Terrain):
Sl. No Particulars Quantity

i. Reconnaissance Survey 35 to 40 kM
ii. Alignment Survey 20 to 25 kM
iii. Detailed Survey 20 to 25 kM
iv. Check Survey 25 to 30 kM
Wherever topographical survey is to be carried out, the output will depend on the quantum of
work.
11.14.1.1 Tools required for Survey Gang
Sl. No. Name of the Tool Quantity

1 Total Station with Prisms 1 set
2 Hand Held GPS 1 No.
3 Theodolite with stand 1 No.
4 Dumpy level with stand (Optional) 1 No.
5 Ranging Rod 5 Nos.
6 Leveling Staff 2 Nos.
7 Engineer’s Chain – 30M & 20M 1 No.
8 Steel Tape – 30M and 15M 1 No.
9 Survey Umbrela 1 No.
10 Chain Pins 30 Nos
11 Spades Knives, axes for clearing the bushes and trees As required
12 Tents, buckets, water drums camping cots, tables, As required
chairs, Lenten, battery operated lamp etc.
11.14.1.2 Transport required for Survey Gang
Sl. No. Name of Vehicle Quantity
1 Jeep with trailer. - 1 No 1 No
11.14.2 Excavation Stub-setting and concreting
Manual Excavation
Average output per gang consisting of about 80 persons per month will be:
● 400 m³ to 500 m³ Normal Soil.
● 60 m³ Soft Rock + 180 m³ Normal Soil.
● 150 m³ Soft Rock.
● Output of the Hard rock exaction will be depend upon the type of rock and site situation.
Excavation using JCB with 4 persons (8 hours per day)
Average Excavation of Normal Soil/ Black cotton soil by using JCB (8 hrs.) will be 80-100 m³ per day
per JCB.
Stub Setting and Concreting
● 80-100 m³ mixing by mixer machine.
● 40-60 m³ manual mixing only at the location where mixing machine cannot reach.
11.14.2.1 Tools and Plants required for Excavation, Stub setting and Concreting Gang
Sl. No. Name of tools/plants Qty.

1 Stub-setting Templates As required
2 Stub-setting Jacks As required
3 Form boxes/Chimneys As required
4 Mixer machine - Diesel engine Driven 1 No
- Hand Driven 2 Nos
5 Needle Vibrator 2 Nos
6 Dewatering Pump (5 HP and above) 1 No
7 Air compressor for drilling holes in rock 1 No
8 High Carbon drilling rods for drilling holes in rocks As required
(for very hard rock)
9 Exploder 1 No
10 Water tanker on trailer (minimum 5000 ltr. Capacity) 1 No
11 Standard Concrete cube mould 6 Nos
12 Wooden shuttering & poles As required
13 Mixing Sheets / Pouring sheets. 8 Nos
14 Measuring box 4 Nos
15 Sand Screen – 4.75 mm mesh 1 No
16 Empty barrel (200 liters capacity) 6 Nos
17 Steel/Wooden ladder 3.5 M length As required
18 30 M metallic Tape 1 No
19 30 M Steel Tape 1 No
20 Engineers Spirit level 2 Nos
21 Steel Piano wire/ thread 50 M
22 Crow bar 16 Nos
23 Pickaxe 12 Nos
24 Spade 25 Nos
25 Shovel 8 Nos
26 Gamelas 30 Nos
27 Buckets 12 Nos
28 Iron rammer (4.5 kg) 4 Nos
29 Masonry trowel 6 Nos
30 Manila rope - (38 mm diameter) 150 M
- (12 mm diameter) 30 M
31 Poking Rod (16 mm diameter) – 3 m length 2 Nos
- 1.5 m length 2 Nos
32 Blasting Material, binding wire As required
33 Hammer, Tommy bar, plumb bob (0.45 kg) Hook, (12 mm diameter) As required
spanners (Both ring and flat) etc.
34 Tents, buckets, water drums, camping cots Table As required
and chairs, Battery operated lamp etc
35 Water Tube (transparent Polythene Tube) 12 mm 20 M
Diameter
11.14.2.2 Transport required for Stub-setting & Concreting Gang
Sl. No Type of Vehicle Qty.

1 Truck – 10 Tone Capacity ( For transportation of 1 No
metal and sand from Source, cement, reinforcement steel and other
Material from site stores).
2 Tractor with trailer 1 No
3 Motorcycle 1 No
11.14.3 Erection of Tower by Build-up Method
Average output per gang consisting of about 50 persons per month will be 80 MT of GI Tower
material.
11.14.3.1 Tools Required for Tower Erection Gang
Sl. No. Name of Tools Qty.

1 Ginpole/Derric Pole 75/100 mm diameter and 8.5 2 Nos
/9 M length
2 Polypropylene rope – 25 mm diameter 700 M
19 mm diameter 1000 M
3 Single sheave pulley – Closed type 8Nos
-- Open type 4 Nos
4 Crow bars (25 mm diameter and 1.8 m length) 16 Nos
Spanners (both ring and flat) hammers, slings (16)
5 mm diameter and 1 M length) hooks, (12 mm diameter) ‘D’ shackle, As required
Tommy – bars
Tents, buckets, water drums, camping cots, tables, As required
6 chairs, battery operated lamp etc.
11.14.3.2 Transport required for Tower Erection Gang
Sl. No. Type of Vehicle Qty.

1 Truck – 10 Tone Capacity 1 or 2 No
2 Tractor with trailer 1 or 2 No
3 Motorcycle or Jeep 1 No
11.14.4 Stringing of Conductor/Earth Wire/OPG Wire
Average output per month per gang (consisting of about 200 persons) with Tension Stringing - Machine
stringing method.
Sl. No Type of Stringing Average Output

for 400 kV Single Circuit with twin conductor 15 to 20 km
1 for 400 kV Single Circuit with triple conductor 12 to 15 km
for 400 kV Single Circuit with quad conductor 10 to 12 km
for 400 kV Double Circuit with twin conductor 8 to 10 km
2 for 400 kV Double Circuit with triple conductor 6 to 8 km
for 400 kV Double Circuit with quad conductor 5 to 7 km
Sl. No Type of Stringing Average Output

3 for ± 500 kV HVDC Single – Circuit 8 to 10 km
for ± 500 kV HVDC Multi-Circuit with triple
conductor 5 to 8 km
for ± 500 kV HVDC Multi-Circuit with hexa
bundle conductor 3 to 5 km
765 kV Single Circuit (with Hexa bundle
4 conductor) 6 to 8 km
Requirement of manpower and average output per gang per month for erection of various types of
transmission lines by manual method:
Sl. Type of Stringing Manpower Average output (km)

No. (Nos)
1 66kV Single Circuit 75 20
2 66 kV Double Circuit 75 15
3 132 kV Single Circuit 100 30
5 220 kV Single Circuit 125 15
400 kV Single Circuit with twin conductor 225 10
400 kV Single Circuit with triple conductor 225 8
7
400 kV Single Circuit with quad conductor 225 6
400 kV Double Circuit with twin conductor 250 8
400 kV Double Circuit with triple conductor 250 6
8
400 kV Double Circuit with Quad Conductor 250 4
765 kV Single Circuit Not -
9
recommended
10 ± 500 kV HVDC Single Circuit Not -
recommended
± 500 kV HVDC Multi-Circuit with triple Not -
conductor recommended
± 500 kV HVDC Multi-Circuit with hexa Not -
conductor recommended
11.14.4.1 Tools and Plants required for Stringing Gang for Tension / Manual Stringing:
Sl. No. Type of Tool /Plant Qty.

1 Tension Stringing Equipment
(Tensionar & Puller of capacity)
- 8/10 MT for twin conductors 400/500 kV 1 set of
- 16 MT for triple conductors 400/500 kV appropriate
capacity.
- 16 MT for quad conductors 400/500 kV
- 16 MT for hexa conductors 765 kV

2 Running block for conductor 100 Nos
3 Running block for earthwire 60 Nos
4 Head board 2 Nos
5 Pilot wire each of 800 m length 10 Nos
6 Pilot wire joint 12 Nos
7 Ground roller for TSE/Manual Stringing 30/100 Nos
Wire mesh pulling grip (one end open) of
8 required diameter for conductor 6 Nos
Wire mesh pulling grip (one end open) of
9 required diameter for earthwire/OPGW. 2 Nos
Wire mesh pulling grip (double end open)
10 of required size for conductor. 4 Nos
11 Articulated joint - Heavy duty (20 T) 10 Nos
-Medium duty(10 T) 10 Nos
-Light duty (5 T) 05 Nos
Drum mounting jack for conductor drum of 4 sets
12 10 T capacity
13 Turn table (5 T capacity) 2 Nos
14 Conductor lifting tackles 4 sets
Anchor plate (1.5 m x 1.0 x 8 mm) with 15 10 Sets
Nos. Anchor pins (45 mm diameter and
15 850 mm long)
Hydraulic compressor machine - 100 T 4 sets
16 capacity with die sets for conductor/earth wire
17 Travelling ground 12 sets
18 Dynamometer 10 T 4 Nos.
19 Pilot Wire reel stand – 2 T 4 Nos
Four sheave pulley with 12 mm diameter 6 sets
20 300 m length wire rope
Four Sheave pulley with 9 mm diameter 2 sets
21 and 300 m length wire rope
Four Sheave pulley with 12 mm diameter 4 sets
22 and 150 m length wire rope
Equalizer pulley (10 T capacity) conductor 8 Nos.
23 lifting tackle
24 Winch – motorized/manual (10 T capacity) 4 Nos.
25 Come along clamps for conductors (bolted type/automatic) 50/20 Nos
26 Come along clamp for earthwire (bolted 15/10 Nos
type/automatic)
27 Tirfor (5 T) 6 Nos.
28 Arial chair for conductor 6 Nos.
29 Aerial trolley 4 Nos

Turn Buckle – 10 T 16 Nos.
30 -3T 6 Nos.
31 Tension sag plate for tensioning purpose 6 Nos.
32 Sag Board 6 Nos.
33 Marking roller 4 Nos.
34 Mismatch roller 2 Nos.
35 Joint protector 6 Nos.
36 Walkie talkie set (Optional) 6 Nos.
37 Thermometer 1 No.
38 Hydraulic wire cutter 1 No.
39 Binocular 2 Nos.
40 Flags (red & green) 30 Nos.
41 Crowbar (1.8 M long) 10 Nos.
42 Nail puller 6 Nos.
43 Wire rope
- 19 mm diameter. 1000 M
- 16 mm diameter. 150M
- 14 mm diameter 900 M
Polypropylene rope – 19 mm diameter 500 M
44 - 25 mm diameter 500 M
‘D’ shackle - 190 mm long 40 Nos
- 150 mm long 125 Nos.
45 - 100 mm long 125 Nos.
46 Bulldog clamp – 100 mm long 35 Nos.
47 Hammers, spanners (both flat and ring), As required
round files, flat files, screw drivers, cutting pliers, steel and metallic tapes,
hacksaw frame and blades, deadments, scaffolding, sling, etc.
48 Tents, buckets, water drums, camping As required
cots, table, chair, battery operated lamps
11.14.4.2 Transport required for Stringing Gang
Sl. No Type of Vehicle TSE Stringing Manual Stringing

1 Truck 10 T capacity 4 Nos 4 Nos
2 75 HP Tractor 2 Nos 2 Nos
3 35 HP/45HP Tractor & trailors 4 Nos 5 Nos
4 Jeep 2 Nos 2 Nos
5 Motor Cycle 2 Nos 2 Nos
11.15 REFERENCES
1. Overhead Line Practice — by John Mc-COMBE.
2. Manual of Transmission Line Towers—Technical Report No. 9 of Central Board of Irrigation

and Power.
3. Indian Standard Codes
(a) IS : 5613 (Part 2 /Section l)-1985 Code of Practice for Design, Installation
and Maintenance of Overhead Power Lines-(Lines above 11 kV and upto and
including 220 kV).
(b) IS : 5613 (Part 2/Section 2) 1985 Code of Practice for Design, Installation and
Maintenance of Overhead Power Lines-(Lines above 11 kV and upto and including
220kV).
(c) IS : 4091-1979-Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Foundations for
Transmission Line Towers and Poles.
(d) IS : 456-1978-Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete.
(e) IS : 3043-1987-Code of Practice for Earthing.
4. “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design, Installation and Maintenance for
Overhead Power Lines” Part 3 (400 kV Lines)- Section 1-Design-”IS : 5613-1989 (Part 3/
Sec. I)”.
ANNEXURE - A
1. Calculation of Reduced levels and Chainages

A. By Dumpy Level & Chainages
Sample field book observations
Station Angle of Level Readings Collimation Reduced Route Plan

line Level
No. Chainage Back Inter Fore (H.I.) L C R
deviation sight sight sight
5.62 -- -- 1896.12 1890.50
A 0 10˚15’ -- 6.95 -- -- 1889.17
12 -- -- 4.48 -- -- 1891.64
17 -- -- 3.24 -- -- 1892.88
27 -- -- 2.91 -- -- 1893.21
37 -- -- 3.25 -- -- 1892.87
50 -- -- 4.82 -- -- 1891.30
85 -- -- 2.94 -- -- 1893.18
100 -- -- 2.01 -- -- 1894.11
150 -- -- 1.28 -- -- 1894.84
200 -- 5.44 -- 0.68 1900.88 1895.44
B 300 20˚10’ -- 3.58 -- -- 1897.30
-- -- -- 4.24 -- 1896.64
Note: All the values are in meters.
B. By Tacheometric Survey
Sample field book
Station Angle Readings Stadia Wire Readings Route Plan Details

H.I.
Number Horizontal Vertical Top Mid Bottom L R
(T) (M) (B)
(in

metres)
(B) 10˚30’ (L) 4˚10’ 3.60 3.00 2.40 1.40
9 8˚24’ 1.50 1.00 0.50
8 10˚36’ 1.40 1.00 0.60
7 2˚18’ 1.10 1.00 0.90
6 0˚00’ -- 1.52 -- I.P.
5 0˚00’ 3.04 3.00 2.96
4 (-) 11˚05’ 3.05 3.00 2.95
3 (-) 6˚10’ 2.10 2.00 1.90
2 2˚40’ 1.15 1.00 0.85
1 (x) 5˚18’ 1.20 1.00 0.80
1 2˚12’ 1.20 1.00 0.80
(A) 12˚10’ (L) 0˚00’ 1.25 1.00 0.75
ANNEXURE - A
(Contd.)
Calculation (Tachometric survey)

Height of Instrument = H.I. =1.4m
R.L. of Instrument (R.L0) = 100.00
Stn. Vertical S m Horizontal Vertical R.L.A = Remarks
RLO+H.I ±
Angle (T-B) distance V=D Tan ө
No. V-m
D=sxk cos ө (in m)
(B) 4˚10’ 1.20 3.00 119.37 8.70 107.10 Angle pt (B)
9 8˚24’ 1.00 1.00 97.87 14.45 114.85
6 10˚36’ 0.80 1.00 77.29 14.46 114.86
7 2˚18’ 0.20 1.00 19.97 0.80 101.20
6 0˚00’ 0.00 1.52 0.00 0.00 99.88 Exst. Pt
8 0˚00’ 0.08 3.00 0.00 0.00 98.40
4 (-) 1˚05’ 0.10 3.00 10.00 (-) 0.19 98.21
3 (-) 6˚10’ 0.20 2.00 19.76 (-) 2.14 97.26
2 2˚40’ 0.30 1.00 29.94 1.390 101.79
1x 5˚18’ 0.40 1.00 39.66 3.680 104.08 CST (1)
1 2˚12’ 0.40 1.00 39.94 1.530 101.93
(A) 0˚00’ 0.50 1.00 50.00 0.000 100.40 Angle pt (A)
B.M. 100.00
Where ‘K’ is the instrument coefficient which is furnished by the instrument manufactures. In the
above calculations Values of “K” has been taken as 100.
V = D Tanθ Where
D = S x K x Cos²θ RL0 = Reduced Level of Instrument Station
RLA = RL0 +HI ± V-m RLA = Reduced Level of staff Station
ANNEXURE - B
ANNEXURE - C
Typical Sag Template Drawing

ANNEXURE - D
Structure Limitation Chart/Tower Spotting Data

For 400 kV Transmission Lines)
Sl.No. Tower Type “A” MKD. “A” “B” MKD. “B” “C” MKD. “C” “D” MKD. “D”
1 Max. Angle of Deviation 2° 15° 15° to 30° 60° /D. E.
2 Vertical Load Limitations on Max. (Min.) Max. (Min.) Max. (Min.) Max. (Min.)
Weight Span
2.1 Ground wire effect
Both Spans 600 (200) 600 (0) 600 (0) 600 (0)
One Span 360 (100) 360 (-200) 300 (-200) 360 (-300)
2.2 Conductor Effect
Both Spans 600 (200) 600 (0) 600 (0) 600 (0)
One Span 360 (100) 360 (-200) 300 (-200) 360 (-300)
3 Weights
3.1 Ground wire effect
Both Spans 350 (117) 350 (0) 350 (0) 350 (0)
One Span 210 (58) 210 (-117) 210 (-117) 210 (-175)
3.2 Conductor effect
Both Span 2405 (802) 2405 (0) 2405 (0) 2405 (0)
One Span 1443 (401) 1443 (-802) 1443 (-802) 1443 (-802)
4 Permissible sum of adjacent 2°-800 15° - 800 30° - 800 60° - 800
span for various deviation
angles
1 - 838 14-876 29-874 59-868
0-878 13-956 28-952 58-936
12-1034 27-1028 57-1004
11-1112 26-1104 56-1074
10-1190 25-1182 55-1144
5 Design
Groundwire
32° Full wind 1574 1561/1574 1520/1574 1363/1574
0° x 2/3 full wind 1525 1521/1525 1473/1525 1321/1525
Conductor
32° Full wind 4470 8864/8940 8635/8940 7742/8940
0° x 2/3 full wind 4582 9086/9164 8852/9164 7936/9164
6 Tower Type
18 m and 25 m Extension Maximum wind span : 300 m
for Tower type ‘A’ marked Deviation Angle : 0 degree
‘A’
Vertical load Limitation on Weight span of conductor/Groundwire
Maximum Minimum
(i) Both spans 600 200
(ii) One span 360 100
6A 18 m and 25 m Extension a) Maximum wind span : 300 m

for Tower type ‘D’ marked b) Deviation Angle : 0 degree
‘D’
c) Vertical load Limitation on Weight span of conductor/Groundwire
Maximum Minimum
(i) Both spans (-) 600 0
(ii) One span (-) 360 (-) 300
7 Way leave clearances 26 meters either side from centre of line of tower
8 Electrical clearances for Railway crossing 17.90 m
9 Minimum Clearance between power line to power line crossing 5.490 m
Notes :
1. Vertical loads on individual spans are acting downwards for suspension towers.
2. Broken wire condition : As per specification requirement
3. Maximum sum of adjacent spans for various angles of deviations are subjected to the
condition that maximum live metal clearance and minimum ground clearances are
available.
4. Limit of highway crossing span : 250 m
5. Maximum deviation angle for dead end tower
(a) Line side and slack span side : 15 degree on either side.
(b) For river crossing anchoring with longer wind span with 0 degree deviation on
crossing span and 30 degree deviation on either side.
6. Angle tower type ‘B’, ‘C’ & ‘D’ are designed for following unbalanced tension resulting from
unequal ruling spans of 200 m and 400 m on each side of the towers for normal condition
only.
Temperatures Unbalanced Tension

Ground wire Conductor
At 32 degree Celsius (without wind) 80 983
At Zero degree Celsius (without wind) 85 376
7. Tower type ‘C’ to be used as Transposition tower with 0 degree deviation.
8. Tower type ‘B’ to be used as section towers. The number of consecutive spans between
two section points shall not exceed 15.
ANNEXURE - E
TOWER SCHEDULE
Name of the Line ________________
Tower No Span Length Angle of Type Wt.Span (m) Type Details of Remarks
Const. Final of deviation of L R Total of Earthing Type
Selection Tower Fdn. Resistance (ohm)
(m) Type Initial Final
(P/CP)
1D/4 05 13°32’00’LT B+9 107 260 367 FS Pipe 5 2 11 kV crossing
450 Nala crossing

1D/5 06 A 190 190 380 WBC Pipe 3 2
380 2 nalas crossing
1D/6 07 A 190 189 379 Wet Pipe 4 2
395
1D/7 08 A+3 206 217 423 WBC Pipe 3 2
415
Construction of Transmission Line
1D/8 09 A 198 194 392 Dry Pipe 5 3

390 2030
1D/9 10 13°32’00’RT B 196 196 392 WBC Pipe 5 3
390
385
ANNEXURE - F
386
Types and shapes of foundations
Chapter on construction activities of EHV Transmission Lines
STUB STUB STUB STUB STUB STUB

C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L. C.L.
G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L. G.L.
EXCAVATION
LINE CHIMNEY
PYRAMID
PAD
ANCHOR
FIG-1 FIG-2 FIG-3 FIG- 4 FIG- 5 FIG-6
CHIMNEY,PYRAMID & PAD BLOCK TYPE P.C.C. UNDERCUT TYPE P.C.C. SPREAD FOOTING TYPE SPREAD FOOTING TYPE ANCHOR ROD TYPE
TYPE P.C.C. FOUNDATION FOUNDATION FOR SOFT FOUNDATION FOR SOFT CHAMFERED RCC FOUNDATION CHAMFERED RCC FOUNDATION P.C.C. FOUNDATION
FOR NORMAL DRY SOIL ROCK & HARD ROCK ROCK & NORMAL SOIL FOR SUBMERGED SOIL FOR SUBMERGED SOIL FOR HARD ROCK
PILE CAP
G.L. G.L.
C.L. C.L. G.L. G.L.
G.L. G.L. HFL

INVERTED WELDED
STEEL STEEL
PLATE RIVER BED
PLATE RIVER BED
PILE
CUTTING
EDGE
FIG-7 FIG- 8 FIG- 9 FIG- 10 FIG- 11

AUGUR TYPE/ UNDERREAMED SPECIAL PLATE TYPE GRILLAGE TYPE WELL TYPE FOUNDATION SPECIAL PILE TYPE
TYPE FOUNDATION FOR FOUNDATION FOR FOUNDATION FOR FOR SUBMERGED & R.C.C. FOUNDATION
CLAYEE SOIL NORMAL SOIL NORMAL COHESIVE SOIL SANDY SOILS (RCC) IN FLOWING RIVER
ANNEXURE - G
Sketch of Hill Side Extension

ANNEXURE - H
Excavation Marking Chart
Dimension in mm
Description
Dimensions for Pit Marking
H F M N AB ABC ABCD ABCDE ABCDEA
Normal (Wet Location) 3000 2295 9686 13698 5991 9686 11981 15227 20453
Wet Location 3000 2295 10661 15077 6478 10661 12956 16202 22118
3000 2295 11637 16547 6966 11637 13932 17177 23783

ANNEXURE - I
PROCEDURE FOR SETTING STUBS AT SITE BY COMBINED TEMPLEATE
The stubs are set with the help of the stub-setting templates, which are supplied loose, ready to be
assembled at site. All four excavated pits are to be lean concreted to correct level sighted through level and
the stubs are to be placed on the lean concrete pad. Correct alignment is carried out by 0.9 kg plumb bob
4 in numbers hung from centre of horizontal bracings.
Following is the procedure for stub-setting at site:
1. Assemble the Template as per the drawing along with the supply.
2. Set the template as per the drawing at site.
3. Place the stub setting Jacks below the template.
4. Align Template, along with the line and centre it over the centre peg of the location.
5. Fix up the stub to the template and with the help of a dumpy level, level the template corners to the
required level.
6. Ensure that all the four stubs are at the same level.
7. Check the alignment and centering of the template again.
8. By placing on 8 to 12 screw jacks according to the length of template, with a leveling instrument fine
adjustment can be made by lifting/lowering the screw jacks, and the stubs canbe perfectly leveled.
This ensures accurate verticality of the tower. For ensuring all towers in one line and cross-arms
at right angle to it, 4 plumb bobs should be dropped from the centre of the horizontal members of
the template to correspond to the cross pegs and alignment pegs given during the line alignment
survey for the tower location.
ANNEXURE - J
Foundation Layout of Unequal Leg Extension

ANNEXURE - K
Different Steps of Tower Erection.

(Cond...)
Different Steps of Tower Erection.
(Cond...)
(Cond...)
ANNEXURE - L
Typical Pipe Type Earthing

ANNEXURE - M
Typical Sketch of Counter Poise Type Earthing

ANNEXURE - N
Sketch of Travellers/Running Blocks

(All Dimension are in mm)
ANNEXURE - O
ANNEXURE - P
SPECIMAN INITIAL STRINGING CHART

STRINGING CHART FOR QURD ACSR MOOSE CONDUCTOR
LOCATION NO. EQ INDIVI- 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
SPAN DUAL
18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00 26.00 28.00 30.00 32.00 34.00
SPAN
36.00 38.00 40.00 42.00 44.00 46.00 48.00 50.00 55.00
60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00
DEAD END TO 350.65 5067 4998 4931 4865 4801 4738 4677 4618 4560
1A/0 TENSION
4503 4448 4394 4341 4289 4239 4190 4142 4096
4050 4006 3962 3920 3878 3838 3798 3760 3667
3580 3497 3419 3345 3275 3208
DEAD END TO 175 1.51 1.54 1.56 1.58 1.60 1.62 1.64 1.66 1.68
1/0 SAG
1.70 1.72 1.75 1.77 1.79 1.81 1.83 1.85 1.87
1.89 1.92 1.94 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.09
2.14 2.19 2.24 2.29 2.34 2.39
SPECIMAN FINAL STRINGING CHART

STRINGING CHART FOR QURD ACSR MOOSE CONDUCTOR
LOCATION EQ INDIVI- 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
NO. SPAN DUAL
18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00 26.00 28.00 30.00 32.00 34.00
SPAN
36.00 38.00 40.00 42.00 44.00 46.00 48.00 50.00 55.00
60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00
DEAD END 350.65 4289 4239 4190 4142 4096 4050 4006 3962 3920
TO 1A/0
TENSION 3878 3838 3798 3760 3722 3685 3649 3614 3580
3546 3513 3481 3450 3419 3389 3359 3330 3261
3195 3132 3072 3016 2961 2910
DEAD END 175 1.79 1.81 1.83 1.85 1.87 1.89 1.92 1.94 1.96
TO 1/0 SAG
1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.10 2.12 2.14
2.16 2.18 2.20 2.22 2.24 2.26 2.28 2.30 2.35
2.40 2.45 2.50 2.54 2.59 2.64

EXURE-‘R’
SPECIMAN STRING CHART FOR EARRTHWIRE

SPECIMAN STRING CHART FOR EARRTHWIRE
LOCATION NO. E Q INDI 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
SPAN 18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00 26.00 28.00 30.00 32.00 34.00
36.00 38.00 40.00 42.00 44.00 46.00 48.00 50.00 55.00
60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00
DEAD END TO 350.65 2496 2476 2456 2437 2418 2399 2380 2362 2344
1A/0 TENSION 2326 2309 2292 2275 2258 2242 2226 2210 2194
2179 2164 2149 2134 2120 2106 2092 2078 2044
2012 1981 1951 1922 1894 1867
DEAD END TO 175 1.63 1.64 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.71 1.72 1.73
1/0 SAG 1.75 1.76 1.77 1.79 1.80 1.81 1.83 1.84 1.85
1.87 1.88 1.89 1.90 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.96 1.99
2.02 2.05 2.08 2.12 2.15 2.18
ANNEXURE - Q
A Typical sketch showing the cross section of revetment for Transmission line foundation.
APPENDIX - A
MODERN METHODS OF SURVEYING

(Reference to the clause: 11.4.2)
1.1 Satellite Doppler Technique
Accurateandflexible survey data are necessary to achieve the minimum cost transmission line
routing with the minimum environmental impact. Precise and reliable topographic data are obtained
including detailed and accurate horizontal and vertical terrain information by compiling large scale
‘Ortho-photo’, maps of the proposed transmission corridors. These give a ‘Picture’ of the route
which is geometrically correct and over-layed on this are contour lines which depict the changes in
elevation of the land.
By studying these maps, transmission corridors are selected which are most attractive for tower
installation purposes. Within these corridors, specific line routes can be defined on the map and
profiles of these lines are automatically generated for detailed analysis.
Before mapping is produced points with known coordinates are established throughout the area to
control the photographs both horizontally and vertically.
Each of the various components of route survey under this technique are discussed in following paras.
1.1.1 Initial Survey
Under initial survey, one or more preliminary transmission corridors are established. These are
established with the help of Topo sheets of the region and after having a walkover survey along the
tentative route alignment.
1.1.2 Controls
Control points are fixed along the route for which the latitude, longitude and elevations are accurately
known. An initial reconnaissance will establish the most suitable sites for the control points based
on terrain conditions. Control points need not be proposed along the transmission line corridors,
they can be at the sides of roads or elsewhere they cause the minimum impact on the land owners.
Each of these points is to have a permanent marker placed on the ground. This is because the
field staff is required to return to the same points again and again during the execution period of
the project. Two types of permanent markers are used. For the preliminary control, a concrete
cylinder is placed approximately 6 ft in the ground with the top of the cylinder flush with the surface.
This is used for the 8 to 10 points which are surveyed using doppler satellite technique. Concrete
markers are installed along the proposed route to provide the overall basis for the control network.
A receiver is placed on each control point to monitor the position of satellite. From this information,
position coordinates are calculated for the receiver locations on the ground.
The remaining points are surveyed using the Inertial Survey system which coordinates the control
points (in x, y and z) between any two of the previously established doppler points. For these points,
a 4 ft long steel bar is driven in the ground so that the top is flush with the surface. Inertial Survey
System is operated from a helicopter in order to produce large number of coordinated points in a
minimum amount of time.
1.1.3 Orthophoto Mapping
Aerial survey mapping (Photogrammetry) has a definite application to the planning and design of
transmission lines and is used in the advanced countries both in the preliminary stages of line
routing and in the preparation of plan and profile maps for structure plotting.
Aerial photography is taken immediately after fixing the control points along the tentative route
alignment in order to minimize the loss of targets due to whether or any other problems. Here it is
necessary that these control points show up very clearly when the aerial photography is taken.
Orthophoto is a photograph of the area which is true to scale in all respects. It gives the transmission
line engineer a complete picture of all ground features with the added bonus of the required vertical
data. It is produced from aerial photography using computer technique.
A band, approximately 2 km wide is generally mapped along the preliminary corridors. The horizontal
scale for the mapping is 1:10,000 with 1 m contour intervals in the plain section and 5 m contour
in the mountainous terrain. This gives a good basis for selection of tower site with spot height
accuracy to within 1 to 2 m.
Some of the specific advantages of using photogrammery techniques for transmission line survey
are as under.
1.1.4 Advantages
Determines the best route: The broad coverage provided by aerial photographs facilitates selection
of best line route. Potential routing difficulties can be recognized and avoided before any field
activity begins. Also angles can be selected easily for efficient and economical use of structures.
1.1.5 Economical
Aerial surveying has definite economic advantages-both in respect of time and cost. Where
mountainous/rugged terrain, inaccessible swamp land or heavily populated areas are encountered,
even greater economies can be realized.
1.1.6 Saves Times
Data that could take months to obtain by ground survey can be obtained by aerial survey in a much
shorter period of time.
1.1.7 Greater Visual Details
The use of photogrammetry techniques provides visual details as well as permanent visual record
of existing features which cannot be obtained by any other means.
1.1.8 More Accurate Engineering, Design & Construction Bids
Accurate plan and profile maps can be prepared from photographic enlargement, which help the
designers to spot the towers and design the footings with greater accuracy and economy.
1.1.9 Flexibility
All necessary line data, including tower spotting, profiling etc. can be determined from the ortho-
photos for any number of route variations, without returning to the actual site. In fact, changes in
the route alignment can be made with the minimum difficulty.
1.1.10 Confidential
Aerial surveys are confidential and therefore help in minimizing the way leave problems.
1.1.11 Equipment required and their cost
Equipment required for Satellite Doppler Technique are :
Equipment for control surveys i.e., Satellite Doppler global position system, Inertial survey system
and Electronic distance measurement system. Equipment for aerial photo-graphy i.e. Aero plane,
Camera & Photomechanical laboratory.
Mapping equipment - Analytical stereo compilers. Cost of these equipment is definitely substantially
high and as such initial investment for acquiring the same is much more. In regard to the operational
cost, it may vary due to geographic location, distance from aerial survey station to job site, type of
aircraft employed, quality of photography and degree of accuracy required.
Chapter 12
MULTI CIRCUIT & NARROW BASE TOWERS

12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.1.1 In the present scenario, the demand for Power supply has enormously increased due to the growing
population and industrialization. The method of carrying many circuits in a single tower rather than
conventional double/single circuit seems to cater for the power demand. Those towers are multi
circuit towers carrying three, four or even six circuits on a tower. The multi circuit tower can be broad
base or narrow base based on the site requirement. Particularly near substation, the requirement of
multi circuit tower becomes necessary.
12.1.2 The rapidly growing population has led to urbanization, thereby increasing the land usage and its
cost, by many folds. In such case, it is becoming more and more difficult to install conventional
lattice towers with broad base since the availability of land is very less. Therefore, it has become
essential to have compact transmission lines towers.
The compact transmission towers may be either

Lattice Towers or Monopoles, where in they occupy
very less space compared to conventional type yet
they meet the demand of power supply.
12.1.3 This chapter is subdivided into two subsections – one

dealing with Multi Circuit Tower and other on Narrow
Base Towers
12.2 MULTI CIRCUIT TOWER - CONFIGURATION
Multi circuit towers may be vertical/barrel type or

Horizontal configuration. The phase arrangement
shall be horizontal, delta or vertical with proper phase
clearances.
Typical Configuration for Three Circuit Towers
Typical Configuration for Four Circuit Towers
415
Typical Configuration for Six Circuit Towers
12.2.1 Clearances
Similar to the conventional single / double circuit towers, phase clearance and live metal clearances
are to be maintained. In case of arranging two or three phase in one cross arm, then required
horizontal clearances calculated, using the empirical formula should be provided. Similarly minimum
phase clearances between different circuits are to be provided for the safety and security during
stringing.
12.2.2 Clearances Between Circuits
The minimum vertical clearance between circuits shall be maintained as given in the below table.
kV/kV 33 66 110 132 220 400 765

33 2.44 2.44 2.75 3.05 4.58 6.10 7.94
66 2.44 2.44 2.75 3.05 4.58 6.10 7.94
110 2.75 2.75 2.75 3.05 4.58 6.10 7.94
132 3.05 3.05 3.05 3.05 4.58 6.10 7.94
220 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58 4.58 6.10 7.94
400 6.10 6.10 6.10 6.10 6.10 6.10 7.94
765 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94
12.2.3 Clearances Between Different Circuit
The clearance between different circuits should be the sum of required vertical Clearance plus
difference in sag, i.e., difference between sag at EDT Nil wind of bottom circuit and maximum
sag of top circuit.
12.2.4 Loading
The body wind loads and loading on tower is calculated similar to the conventional tower. For
towers up to a height of 80 m, the gust factor can be taken as given in IS 802. For towers of height
more than 80 m, the gust factor can be taken from “Manual on design of Towers for Long span river
crossing”.
Multi Circuit & Narrow Base Towers 417
The loading on tower can also take into account the difference in wind pressure between
bottom and top circuit. Similarly the tower loading should also include circuit load combination in
case if only one circuit is strung and the other circuit is left for stringing in future.
In case if testing is not warranted by the customers, then towers shall be designed with additional
over load factor of 1.2 on each circuit or as per customer requirement.
12.2.5 Design Loading Criteria
For Design of Narrow Base Towers and Multi Circuit Towers, Chapters 5 and 6 of this Manual may
be referred
12.2.6 Electrical Gradient
The phases of various circuits shall
12. A.Multi beTowers
Circuit so arranged to afford minim um voltage gradient below
the conductor and at the edge of ROW. The voltage gradient within ROW and at the edge of Row
TYPICAL CONFIGURATION – MULTI CIRCUIT TOWERS
should not exceed 10 kV/m and 5 kV/m respectively.
TRANSVERSE FACE TRANSVERSE FACE

M/C SUSPENSION TOWER M/C ANGLE TOWER
Typical Configuration - Multi Circuit Towers (400 kV)

12.3 NARROW BASE TOWER
Narrow Base lattice towers are generally slender mast with comparatively small base width
than the conventional lattice towers. The width at the base is restricted as per the site requirement.
Generally, the ratio of height to base width shall be maintained between 7–10. Narrow base
towers also serve the purpose of reducing the right of way corridor. The narrow base towers
are also used in hilly terrain in order to reduce the benching volume and environmental abuse
Nowadays, narrow base towers with multi circuit line are also preferred in order to meet the
demand of power supply.
The foundation of such towers is also selected based upon the availability of land. Conventional
pad & Chimney foundation or pile foundation can be laid. In case of Pad & chimney foundation,
since the base width of tower is less, there is a possibility for overlapping between the tower
footings. To avoid this, normally raft foundation is adopted.
In case of rectangular base towers, combined footing for groups of two legs are more econ
omic al.
12.3.1 Tower Outline
Similar to the conventional broad base tower, the tower outline is fixed based on the minimum
ground clearance, terrain type, right of way limitation, electrical clearances, etc., Tower outline is
defined in terms of following parameters
12.3.1.1 Tower Heights
Ground Level to Bottom Cross Arm Level

The height of Bottom cross arm from ground level depends on
- Minimum Ground Clearance
- Maximum Sag of conductor
- Length of Suspension insulator string assembly, if applicable
Bottom Cross Arm Level to Top Cross Arm Level
The height between Bottom cross arm to Top cross level depends on
- Minimum vertical phase-phase clearance
- Electrical clearance
Top Cross Arm Level to Ground Wire Peak
The height of ground wire peak from Top cross level depends on
- Minimum Mid Span Clearance
- Shielding angle
12.3.2 Tower Width
The width of tower signifies the configuration and it is specified at base, waist and Top.
12.3.2.1 At Base or Ground Level
In Narrow Base towers, since it is opted where space is a major constraint (urban areas), the
spacing between the two tower legs at concrete level is fixed based on site/client requirement on
the account of land availability. Normally the width depends upon the magnitude of the loads
imposed on the tower. Since the base width is lesser in narrow base towers, there is very high
concentration of force along the leg members thereby increasing the tower foundation forces.
Depending upon the height of tower, the base width is fixed in a ratio as given in Table 1, if there is
no restriction for base width. The narrow base towers can be designed with higher base width on
longitudinal face.
12. B.. NarrowMulti
BaaseCircuit
Lattice T
TowerBase Towers
& Narrow 419
Typical Configuration - Narrow Base Towers (220 kV)

12. B. Narrow Base Lattice Tower
TYPICAL CONFIGURATION – NARROW BASE TOWERS
Typical Configuration - Narrow Base Towers (220 kV)

Photograph of Narrow Base towers

Electrical Clearance for suspension tower
Electrical Clearance for tension tower

12.3.2.2 At Waist Level
Width at the waist level is defined as the width at lower cross arm. This width is mainly decided
by torsional loading. The lesser waist width will result in slight reduction of Right of Way yet the
deflection will be high. Normally, the waist width shall be fixed at a ratio as given in Table 1 to that
of the base width in order to reduce the deflection of the tower.
12.3.2.3 At Top Level
The Top width is fixed such that the tower slope is not much steeper. Based on the height of
Top conductor from the bottom conductor, the top width is fixed such that there is a gradual
force flow through each panel. Generally the ratio of Waist width to Top width is fixed as given
in Table 1. In some case, the waist width and top width is kept same so as to avoid higher tower
deflection.
Table 1
Sl. No. Particulars D/C M/C
1 Height to Base width ratio 7 - 10 7-10
2 Waist width to Base width ratio 0.4 - 0.65 0.5 - 0.7
3 Top width to Waist width ratio 0.8 - 1 0.5 - 0.7
12.3.2.4 At Cross Arm Level
The cross arm spread as similar to the conventional broad base tower is arrived by required
electrical clearances. The swing of insulator, jumper and the live metal clearance aid to the cross
arm spread. Minimum Horizontal phase-phase clearance as specified for particular kV is also to be
maintained.
12.4 DESIGN
12.4.1 Span Details
12.4.1.1 Design Span
Normal design span for various voltage transmission lines considered are as follows.
Sl. No. Voltage Normal Span

1 800 kV 200 - 240
2 400 kV 200 - 240
3 220 kV 175 - 210
4 132 kV 160 - 195
5 110 kV 160 - 195
6 66 kV 125 - 150
12.4.1.2 Wind Span
Wind span for various voltage transmission lines considered are as follows.
Sl. No. Voltage (kV) Wind Span (m)

1 800 kV 240
2 400 kV 240
3 220 kV 210
4 132 kV 195
5 110 kV 195
6 66 kV 150
12.4.1.3 Weight Span

Weight span for various voltage transmission lines considered are as follows.
Sl. No. Voltage (kV) Weight Span (m)

Normal Broken wire
Condition (m) Condition (m)
1 800 kV 360 215
2 400 kV 360 215
3 220 kV 315 190
4 132 kV 295 175
5 110 kV 295 175
6 66 kV 225 135
12.4.2 Clearances
The electrical clearances are adopted as given in “Chapter 4 – Electrical Clearances” of CBIP
Manual. Mainly in urban areas ground clearance can be increased by 2m or so in order to reduce
right of way issues.
12.4.3 Tower Analysis
Similar to the conventional broad base towers, the exact stress analysis of narrow base tower
requires calculation of the total forces in each member of the tower. Tower Loadings are calculated
as per “Chapter 6 – Loadings” of CBIP Manual. Each member is designed to withstand the maximum
compression and tension force.
In case of narrow base towers, since the base width is lesser, there is very high concentration of
force along the tower legs rather than bracing members. Therefore, each tower extensions will
have different leg sections due to huge increase in the leg force. Whereas, the bracing members
will experience only a lesser force when compared with the conventional broad base towers. The
tower design is done as per “Chapter 7 – Design of Towers” of CBIP manual.
When compared to conventional broad base towers the narrow base tower will have heavier leg
sections but lesser bracing members. Therefore the main bracings, horizontal members and sub
bracings are to be checked for its adequacy as per IS 802 recommendations.
It is recommended to adopt non-linear analysis (P-∆) for Narrow base tower design, if the tower
deflection (obtained from analysis) exceeds 2.5% of tower height.
12.5 Conclusion
The multi circuit and Narrow Base towers are used where space for tower locations and foundation
excavation / casting are scarcely available, ROW is difficult to obtain and space for construction of
nos of circuits of same voltage or different voltage is not feasible for want of obtaining environmental
approval, visual impact on one hand and power demand is on the increase.
Chapter 13
UPRATING AND UPGRADING OF

TRANSMISSION LINES
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.1.1 Growth in Demand/ Power Scenario in Present & Near Future
The sharp demographic growth of the country along with significant changes in technology and
standard of living has triggered a massive rise in demand for energy in recent years. At present
there exists a gap between peak demand and the installed capacity. The demand is anticipated
to further increase as indicated in the graph below thereby mandating an increase in the installed
capacity (Fig. 1). The increase in installed capacity would require additional transmission line
network and methodologies for increasing the transfer capability of existing lines.
Peak Demand Vs Installed Capacity Requirement

Fig. 1 : A Comparison of Future Peak Demand and Future Requirements of Installed Capacity
The different methodologies for increasing power flow through the existing transmission lines are
as follows:
● Uprating (thermal) of transmission lines

● Upgrading of transmission lines
● Use of series capacitors, FACTS devices, etc.
● Construction of High Surge impedance line such as expanded bundle, compact lines, etc.
● Conversion of 3 Phase system to 6-Phase system
This Chapter provides a broad information on the various methodologies & practices generally
adopted for upgrading or uprating of the existing transmission lines. The chapter also includes
examples of voltage upgradation & thermal uprating experiences of the Indian power sector.
13.1.2 ROW Constraints
The need for additional power transfer capacity has traditionally been met by the construction of new
transmission lines and substations. However, as the requirement of constructing new transmission
lines are growing, public opposition to this construction activity is also increasing. Issues such as
Right of Way (ROW), environmental land use, electrical & magnetic field, etc have arisen to hinder
425
the construction of new transmission lines. An example of the severe ROW constraint in India is the
chicken neck area of India with an area of 22 x 18 sq. km linking North- East Region to the rest of
the Indian territory as indicated in the map below (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 : The Chicken Neck Area of in India
Due to the existing and planned infrastructure like railways, pipelines, road ways, etc., building new
transmission lines in this region is an extremely difficult task. In such situations, it becomes highly
pertinent to uprate or upgrade the already existing transmission lines rather than constructing new
lines.
13.1.3 Definition of Uprating /Upgrading
Power flow ‘P’ in a 3-phase system is given by P = √3 V.I. where V & I are line voltage & line current
respectively. Therefore, power flow in a transmission system can be increased by either increasing
the line voltage V or by increasing the line current I.
Line modifications that yield increased current flow limits are referred to as thermal uprating, and
modifications that allow operation at a higher voltage are denoted as voltage upgrading.
13.1.3.1 Needs for Uprating/ Upgrading
One of the major reasons for uprating/ upgrading an existing transmission line is to maximize the
utilization of the existing corridor for transfer of power. In situations where construction of new lines
is impeded by the presence of ecologically sensitive areas, forests or urban habitations, uprating/
upgrading the existing transmission line is one of the most appropriate solutions to meet the power
flow requirements.
Further, in situations where only a marginal flow of power is contemplated in the near future, it is
highly prudent to increase the power flow capacity of any existing transmission line in the corridor
through uprating or upgrading rather than to construct a new line. This can enable meeting the
power flow requirements at a very less cost and in a very short time.
Uprating and Upgrading of Transmission Lines 427
13.1.3.2 Uprating Vs Upgrading
Uprating is the appropriate solution for increasing power carrying capacity in transmission lines
where power flow is limited by thermal limitations such as in short lines where power flow is as
much as 2 or 2.5 times SIL. In transmission lines where stability concerns dominate specially in
long lines, increase in power carrying capacity is generally addressed through Upgrading. Doubling
the line voltage reduces the per unit reactance to one-quarter of its initial value. This reduction in
per unit reactance stiffens the system, alleviating voltage and stability problems.
Voltage up gradation also results into a reduction in the percentage voltage drop along the line.
Thus, upgradation not only increases the loadability of the transmission line but also improves
voltage control.
Voltage upgrading always yields a large increase in the MVA rating of the existing line vis-à-vis
Uprating. However, Upgrading generally requires more capital investment, more outage time for
construction, and substantial replacement of substation equipments. This is due to the fact that the
electrical clearances of the line will need to be increased as the voltage is increased, in order to do
so the existing structure will need substantial modifications. Therefore, if the projected load growth
rate is slow, it is prudent to favor uprating current instead of upgrading voltage as up-rating allows
one circuit to be charged in a D/c line.
Further, uprating results into increased current flow in the transmission lines thereby, increasing the
thermal losses. In comparison to this, ideally, voltage upgrading involves no change in current flow
in the transmission system thereby keeping the thermal losses same. In fact, Upgrading results into
reduced percentage loss.
13.2 UPRATING
13.2.1 Basics of Uprating
Thermal uprating study is basically premised on the fact that the tower structure/ geometry, air gap
clearances & conductor bundle configuration are generally limited by the voltage of the transmission
line. By keeping this line voltage constant and varying the line current to higher values, it may be
possible to increase power flow in the existing line without any substantial modifications in tower
structures/ geometry. The major advantage of the thermal uprating methodologies is that they are
cost effective, less time consuming and effortless. However, these advantages of thermal uprating
hold good only in situations where there is no additional loads in the existing towers due to increase
in conductor bundle size, increase in conductor diameter, increased stringing tensions or increase
in conductor sag.
13.2.2 Methodologies of Uprating
Increasing the thermal rating of transmission lines may be accomplished by one or a combination
of the following:
13.2.2.1 Increasing the conductor rating by changing the thermal rating criteria
The maximum operating temperature of the generally used ACSR conductors can be increased
marginally within the annealing limits of the aluminum strands to result into a rise in MVA rating of
the transmission line. ACSR conductors experience loss of composite strength if operated above
95oC for an extended period of time but, though the strength of the steel core is unaffected at
temperatures below 300oC, the reduction in tensile strength in the aluminium strands leads to
reduced FOS as in large size ACSR, the aluminum plays a key role in strength and hence avoided
(Fig. 3).
The increase in maximum sag of the conductor due to an increase in the maximum operating
temperature of around 5- 10 deg C is only marginal (Approximate increase in sag is 0.2 m for 5
Fig. 3 : Graph Indicating the Loss of Strength of Aluminium as a function of temperature & time
deg C increase and 0.4 m for 10 deg C increase whereas approximate increase in MVA rating for a
typical 400 kV D/C transmission line case may be 150 MVA and 300 MVA respectively). If the above
increase in sag falls within the existing safety margins of the transmission line, uprating by increasing
the maximum operating temperature of the existing conductor shall not require any modifications/
refurbishments of existing tower structures/ foundations, purchase of any new conductor and any
line outage and is therefore, the most effortless and cost effective way of increasing the MVA rating
of transmission lines.
However, if electrical clearances corresponding to the new higher conductor temperature are
inadequate, then either the support points must be raised, the conductor tension increased,
suspension clamp positions changed, or conductor length reduced. In such situations, increasing
the existing conductor rating may not be as economical. This method is the best solution for
situations where only a marginal increase in power flow capacity of the existing transmission line is
required, thus averting the cost & time of building a new transmission line.
The variation in MVA rating & maximum sag with respect to the maximum operating temperature
in a typical 400 kV D/C Transmission line with Twin Moose conductor is indicated in the table
below.
Table 1: An indication of the variation in sag & MVA rating

as a function of maximum conductor temperature
Sl. Conductor MVA rating* Maximum Sag % increase in % increase in
No. Temperature (m)# MVA rating max. sag
1. 65 deg C 491 12.5 Base Base
2. 75 deg C 851 12.9 73 3.2
3. 85 deg C 1090 13.3 122 6.4
* MVA rating has been calculated considering ambient temperature of 45 deg C
# Maximum sag has been calculated considering a ruling span of 400 m
13.2.2.2 Dynamic Environment Rating
Installation of tension or sag monitors can enable rating the line dynamically. On a cool windy day
when the air temperature is low and the wind speed is high, and there is no sun, the MVA rating
may be as high as 1.5 times of that on a hot windless day. The line rating will vary in a fashion that
is partially predictable and partially random. The cost of the monitoring and calculating system may
be a small percentage of the cost of a new line, and no service outage is required. Even though this
methodology, does not change the maximum capacity of the existing conductor, it does allow better
utilization of its existing capacity (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 : Thermal Rating as a function of max. allowable conductor temperature & conductor cross-section area
13.2.2.3 Increasing the conductor area
Increasing the aluminium/ aluminium alloy area of the existing conductor results into a corresponding
decrease in the resistance and thus current carrying capacity of the conductor increases.
The increase in conductor area can be effected either through addition of conductors to existing
conductors or conductor bundles or by replacing existing conductors with new conductors of
different size or construction.
However, there are certain factors that should be considered during this activity as follows:
(i) In general, the higher the area of the conductor is, the higher its weight will be. This may be
mitigated to some degree by changing material or conductor type. Increased conductor weight will
generally result in increased vertical load and increased tensions (if conductor sag is to be limited),
which will most likely require reinforcement of termination and angle structures. Higher conductor
area may also increase the ice and wind load on the conductor, increasing the vertical load and
transverse loads on the tower structures respectively.
In order to mitigate such an increase in outer conductor diameter, conductors with trapezoid wires
can be used as an alternative (Fig. 5). In such conductors, the aluminium area of the conductor
increases without the increase of its diameter. It helps to increase the capacity of the line by some
Fig. 5 : A Trapezoidal shaped conductor & standard round shaped conductor

percent, with lower impact on mechanical loading than an equivalent increase using standard round
stranding.
(ii) The increase in weight is followed by corresponding increase in sag of the conductor if the allowable
conductor tension values are limited to those of the existing conductor. In such situations, there
may be several solutions such as:
(a) Modifying towers and / or insulation to increase ground clearance;

(b) Insertion of new towers in critical spans;
(c) Installing negative sag devices: The negative sag devices are activated by changes in
temperature. With the rise in temperature, as the conductor lengthens, there is also a
simultaneous change in the geometry of the device thus mitigating for the increase in the
sag. As the conductor temperature returns to normal and sag is no longer excessive then
the negative sag device returns to the original shape (Fig. 6).
(d) Excavation at key locations to increase ground clearance;
Fig. 6 : A typical negative sag device

13.2.2.4 Reconductoring using conductors of higher ampacity
The process of reconductoring involves replacement of existing conductor with a conductor of

higher ampacity so that the thermal rating of the existing transmission line can be increased. A
major drawback of replacing the existing conductor with a conductor of larger diameter as described
in 13.2.2.3 above, is that there is consequent increase in both ice and wind loads and tension loads
on existing structures.
Increasing the ampacity of an existing line by use of a higher ampacity conductor having nearly
the same diameter as the original conductor but capable of operation at higher temperature
(within existing sag clearance and loss-of-strength constraints) may avoid the need for extensive
reinforcement of suspension structures. Such replacement conductors could be broadly classified
into two broad categories:
(i) Conductors for operation at moderate temperatures (< 100 deg C) such as AAAC & ACAR
(ii) Conductors for operation at high temperatures (>100 deg C) such as TACSR, TACIR, GTACSR,
ACSS, ACCC, ACCR etc.
13.2.2.4.1 Conductors for operation at moderate temperatures
There are generally three types of conductors that fall in this category: All Aluminium Alloy
Conductors (AAAC), Aluminum conductor aluminum alloy reinforced (ACAR) and High Conductivity
AAAC conductor (Al59).
AAAC conductors have a higher strength to weight ratio than ACSR and, if strung to a similar
percentage of rated breaking strength (RBS), can be rated for higher temperature operation than
ACSR, without exceeding design sags. It should be noted however, that stringing to a similar
percentage of RBS would result in a much higher ratio of horizontal tension (H) to unit weight
of conductor (w), which can cause problems for lines sensitive to aeolian vibration. Comparing
properties, an AAAC with the same diameter as Zebra will be 3.5% stronger, 18.5% lighter and
have a 5% lower DC resistance.
ACAR combines strands made from aluminum alloy, typically the same as that used for AAAC, and
EC grade aluminum. This allows the properties of the conductor to be optimised for a particular
application. By increasing the amount of EC grade aluminium used, the conductivity of the
conductor is increased, though at the expense of strength. Likewise, if the number of alloy strands
is increased, the mechanical strength of the conductor is increased at the expense of conductivity.
Again, as with AAAC, the benefits of using ACAR conductors to replace ACSR conductors will
depend on allowable stringing tensions.
13.2.2.4.2 Conductors for operation at higher temperatures
Use of AAAC/ ACAR conductors for replacing the existing ACSR conductors, as described in
13.2.2.4.1 above, may not be economically prudent solution as there is no significant increase in
thermal rating of the transmission line vis-à-vis the high cost of replacement involved.
Use of conductors that can operate at higher temperatures (>100 deg C) to replace the existing
ACSR conductors could be a more prudent solution as the same would involve significant increase
in the thermal rating of the existing transmission line to as much as twice in some of the cases.
Such sort of conductors are generally classified into two groups:
13.2.2.4.2.1 High Temperature conductors
Such conductors are capable of being operated continuously at temperatures of at least 150ºC.
The sag of such conductors however increases linearly with increase in temperature for normal
transmission line spans and hence additional extensions are required for use of such conductors at
high temperatures. Among the commonly used high temperature conductors are:
(i) ZTACSR/ TACSR (Thermal-resistant Aluminium conductor steel reinforced):
These conductors consist of inner steel core composed of galvanized steel wires & outer aluminium
layers composed of aluminium-zirconium alloy strands (ref. standard IEC 62004) built up in
concentric layers. The aluminium alloy used in TACSR/ ZTACSR has a slightly higher electrical
resistivity than standard hard-drawn aluminium, but in all other respects the two conductors are
almost identical. While, the TACSR conductor using TAL aluminum alloy can be operated upto
temperature of 150 deg C, ZTACSR can be operated upto temperature of 210 deg C thus enabling
higher power carrying capacity (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 : A cross-section of a typical TACSR conductor
(ii) High conductivity AAAC conductor (Al-59):
High conductivity all Aluminium alloy conductor comprising of Al-59 or equivalent Aluminium-
magnesium-silicon alloy strands conforming to International standards have also been used by
some utilities in the world.
13.2.2.4.2.2 High Temperature Low Sag conductors (HTLS)
Such conductors, like the high temperature conductors are also capable of being operated
continuously at temperatures of at least 150ºC. However, in such conductors, the increase in sag is
not linear at all temperatures because above a certain temperature called ‘knee point temperature’,
the conductor experiences a sag increase due to the expansion of steel alone (coefficient of linear
expansion of steel wires are comparatively lower than the complete conductor). This is because
of the higher thermal expansion rate of aluminium which causes all the stress of the conductor to
be borne by the steel core beyond the knee point temperature. Therefore beyond the knee point
temperature, the new expansion coefficient of the conductor will be the same as that of the core,
resulting in relatively low sag increase when operated at high temperature. Usage of TAL alloy
or fully annealed aluminium (1350-O) in such conductors can enable best exploitation of such
behavior of aluminium for obtaining lower sags at high temperatures (Fig. 8).
Replacement of ACSR conductors in existing transmission lines with such high temperature low
sag conductors can, therefore, enable higher current carrying capacity without any modification in
the existing towers.
Fig. 8: The graph indicates knee point temperature of a typical HTLS conductor
Some of the commonly used HTLS conductors are as follows:
(i) INVAR (ZTACIR/ TACIR):
INVAR Conductor consists of core of alloy of iron and nickel which has low co-efficient of thermal
expansion. The outer aluminum alloy layers of INVAR conductors are of aluminium-zirconium alloy.
As such INVAR conductors can be operated upto around 200 deg C at low sag (Fig 9).
Fig. 9 : A cross-section of a typical INVAR conductor

(ii) ACSS (Aluminium conductor steel supported).
The construction of ACSS conductor is similar to standard ACSR except that the Aluminium strands
are fully annealed. The 0-tempered annealed aluminium (1350-O) has higher conductivity vis-à-vis
hard drawn
Aluminum wires. Since the Aluminum strands do not take any mechanical load, the conductor
can be operated at temperatures of the order of 200 deg .C. ACSS conductor with trapezoidal
aluminium strands are also used (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10 : A cross-section of a typical ACSS/ TW conductor
(iii) GAP conductor (GTACSR/ GZTACSR):
The GAP conductor involves a small gap maintained between inner steel core & outer aluminum-
zirconium alloy layers. The conductor is strung by tensioning the steel core only and the mechanical
load is carried by steel core. As a result, the stringing temperature becomes the knee point
temperature in such conductors. Therefore, the increase in sag of the conductor is governed only
by the coefficient of expansion of the steel core at all temperatures above & including the stringing
temperature. Thus such conductors exhibit very low sags at extremely high operating temperatures.
The conductor can be operated at temperatures of the order of 200 deg. C at lower sag (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11 : A cross-section of a typical GAP conductor

(iv) ACCC (Aluminum conductor composite core):
ACCC consists of 0-tempered annealed aluminum wires trapezoidal shaped and carbon fibre
composite core. Since, the resistivity of 0-tempered annealed aluminum is lower than the
conventional hard drawn aluminium or thermal resistant aluminium alloy, such conductors exhibit
lower resistance and thus lower line losses. These can be operated upto 180 deg C at lower sag
(Fig. 12).
Fig. 12 : A cross-section of a typical ACCC conductor
(v) ACCR (Aluminum conductor composite reinforced):
ACCR consists of aluminum-zirconium alloy strands and a composite core. The composite core in
such conductors consists of aluminum & aluminum oxide matrix. Such conductors can be operated
upto temperatures of the order of 200 deg. C. (Fig. 13)
Fig. 13 : A cross-section of a typical ACCR conductor
13.2.3 HARDWARE/ACCESSORIES
Uprating to higher current capacity also seldom involves replacement of associated hardware,
conductor accessories/ clamps to bear the increase in operating current. Such sort of hardware/
accessories are generally designed with higher surface area to involve greater heat dissipation so
that the temperature of the hardware/ accessories does not increase beyond the safe operation
limits of the hardware/ accessories.
Further, use of the same ferrous clamps as in the existing line may be limited by magnetic field
heating of the clamp as the amount of current that now passes through the clamp has increased.
Thus magnetic losses may be significantly high. In order to limit the magnetic losses to the
acceptable limits, the ferrous clamps may be replaced with nonferrous clamps.
13.2.4 CASE STUDY
Reconductoring of 400 kV D/C Siliguri-Purnea Line with Twin HTLS conductor (Fig. 14).
The Tala transmission system consists of two transmission lines viz. 400 kV D/C (Twin) Siliguri-
Purnea TL and 400 kV D/C (Quad) Siliguri- Purnea TL for evacuation of power from the Tala Hydel
project, Bhutan. However, subsequently, it was required to increase the transmission capacity in
the Siliguri-Purnea section as well as to cater to the outage of any of the two lines. In such a
situation, following three options were available:
(i) Constructing a new 400 kV D/C (Twin) Siliguri- Purnea transmission line.
(ii) Dismantling the existing 400 kV D/C (Twin) Siliguri- Purnea transmission line and constructing a
400 kV D/C (Quad) Siliguri- Purnea transmission line in the existing corridor.
(iii) Reconductoring the existing 400 kV D/C (Twin) Siliguri-Purnea transmission line with Twin HTLS
conductor limiting the sag & tension values to that of the existing line.
The Siliguri-Purnea transmission line traverses through the extremely narrow ‘Siliguri’ corridor – the
Chicken Neck Area. Construction of new transmission lines in this corridor is highly constrained
because of the ROW problems as discussed earlier in Section 13.1.2 of the chapter. Therefore, the
first option was discarded.
Fig. 14: 400 kV D/C Siliguri-Purnea Transmission line
Dismantling of the entire stretch of the already existing 175 km long 400 kV D/C (Twin) Siliguri-
Purnea transmission line and reconstructing a new 400 kV D/C (Quad) line in the same corridor
was found to involve substantive investments of time and money and so this alternative was also
discarded.
Carrying out reconductoring of the existing 400 kV D/C (Twin) Siliguri- Purnea transmission line with
Twin HTLS conductor preliminarily seemed to be a more realistic alternative. In order to analyse the
feasibility of the reconductoring of the existing line, conductor studies were carried out with some
of the commonly used conductor alternatives such as INVAR, GAP, ACSS, etc. During the studies,
it was observed that using some of these conductor alternatives, it was possible to increase the
MVA capacity of the transmission line through replacement of existing conductors with the HTLS
conductors of double the current carrying capacity. At the same time, such reconductoring was
found to neither require any strengthening/ modification of the existing structures nor addition of
any tower extensions. Based on these studies, bids were invited for the replacement conductor
subject to following limits:-
Current Carrying Capacity: To be atleast 1228 A (i.e. twice of existing ACSR Moose conductor with
a maximum current carrying capacity of 614 A at 75 deg C conductor temperature)
Size & Weight of conductor: The outer diameter to be less than or equal to 31.77 mm and unit
weight to be less than or equal to 2.004 kg/ m (limited to that of the existing ACSR Moose conductor
with outer diameter of 31.77 mm & unit weight of 2.004 kg/m)
Maximum Sag of conductor at 1228 A was limited to the existing maximum sag of ACSR Moose
conductor at 614 A of 12.87 m. The tension limits for various load conditions were also limited to
the respective tension limits of the existing transmission line.
GAP conductor proposed by M/s J Power Systems Corporation finally emerged successful in global
competitive bidding for the project. A comparison of the salient features of the finally selected GAP
conductor & the existing ACSR Moose conductor has been listed in the Table2 below.
Table 2 : A comparison of the salient features of GAP conductor
& ACSR Moose conductor
Conductor ACSR Moose conductor GAP conductor for 400 kV D/C
Parameters Siliguri-Purnea TL
Construction 54 (3.53 mm) Aluminium / 42(3.5 mm) TAL + 11(3.98 mm eq. dia
7 (3.53 mm) steel TW) TAL / 7 (3.1 mm) EHS steel
Max. DC resistance 0.0552 ohm/ km 0.0546 ohm/ km
Weight of Conductor 2.004 kg/m 1.943 kg/ m
UTS of conductor 161.2 kN 163.3 kN
Conductor 75 deg C at 614 A 125 deg C at 1228 A
temperature at
operating current
Maximum sag at 12.87 m at 614 A 12.87 m at 1228 A
operating current
13.3 UPGRADING
13.3.1 Basics of Upgrading
The basic premise of a voltage upgrading study is that an existing transmission line may have the
potential for operation at an increased voltage. This may be because there may be sufficient margin
in existing lines, especially at lower voltages for increasing the line operating voltage (voltage
upgrading) with relatively minimal modifications to the line. By exploiting these design margins, one
may be able to increase the power transfer capability of existing lines by increasing line voltage,
thus avoiding or delaying construction of new lines. A voltage upgrading study utilizes the best
available knowledge developed through EHV, UHV and compact transmission line research to
evaluate the parameters of the candidate line.
Voltage upgrading ranges from the occasional case where it is possible to increase operating
voltage with no modifications to the line itself, to cases where voltage increase is possible with
replacement or major modification of existing structures, to virtual reconstruction of the line. Voltage
upgrading can be economical over the thermal uprating only in situations, where there are no/
minimal modifications in the transmission line structures during the process of upgradation. Use of
insulated Cross arm as also insulated cage body of tower can be investigated. This eliminates use
of suspension strings thereby providing additional clearance for increase in voltage rating of TLs
13.3.2 Methodology Adopted for Upgrading
Voltage upgradation of existing transmission lines is generally carried out in two steps: a feasibility
study and a subsequent detailed analysis.
Feasibility analysis involves the process of review of the existing line design & ascertaining
whether the existing margins in the existing transmission line can be harnessed to enable a voltage
upgradation. The feasibility studies can generally be classified into two broad categories. Electrical
Feasibility Study & Mechanical Feasibility Study. If the electrical feasibility study indicates that the
original line design parameters (conductor diameter, ground clearance, phase spacing, insulator
leakage length, right-of-way width, live line working dimensions, etc.) are adequate for operation
of the line at the proposed higher voltage level then, there is no need to perform a mechanical
feasibility study, other than to verify that the line is in reasonably good physical condition. However,
if the electrical feasibility study indicates that the operating voltage of the existing line can be
increased to the next higher system level if certain physical changes are made to the line such as
increase in conductor bundles, phase spacing, insulator length, conductor tension, tower height
etc., then the mechanical feasibility study shall have to be carried out. Mechanical Feasibility study
will thereafter be used to identify the types of physical modifications that are necessary to meet the
changed electrical requirements and estimate how practical such changes might be.
Finally, the feasibility studies are concluded through the estimation of the total cost of voltage
upgradation & the actual benefits in terms of the increase in power flow through various modification
options.
After the feasibility studies reveal the practicality & techno-economical plausibility of upgrading
the transmission line, a detailed engineering analysis is done to develop actual methodologies for
carrying out structural modifications/ refurbishments of structures & line materials of the existing
transmission line.
13.3.2.1 Electrical Feasibility Studies
The following items are generally considered for electrical feasibility studies for a detailed voltage
upgrading analysis:
13.3.2.1.1 Detailed Review of Criteria Applied to Upgrading
Different design criteria may be applied to a voltage upgrading study, as opposed to a new line
design, for several reasons. It may be necessary to operate the upgraded line with reduced
insulation margin than would be customarily applied to a new line in order to achieve the desired
voltage without structure modifications. The reduced margin may be less insulator leakage distance
per kV or smaller-than-customary air gap clearances between phases or between conductors and
the structures. However, upon proper analysis, it may be found that the line could meet relaxed
criteria and still provide adequate performance.
Reevaluation of the original design criteria in the light of any improved technical data and calculation
methods and the appropriateness of the design criteria in light of the intended use of the upgraded
line (e.g., high daily power flows or rare high post contingency loading) can also enable upgrading
voltage with minimum or no modifications in existing structures.
13.3.2.1.2 Power Frequency Insulation
Increasing phase to ground voltage during voltage upgradation requires an increase in the
minimum allowable air gap spacing between conductors and grounded structural members to
avoid flashovers resulting from the stress of the higher power frequency voltage. As a result, the
length of insulator string may have to be increased if sufficient margin is not present in the existing
insulator string. Further, since, the live metal clearances under the most extreme wind conditions
are also goverened by the power frequency voltage, there may be a requirement to increase the
length of crossarms. However, it may also be prudent to use V-insulator string or post insulators in
replacement of the existing I insulator strings as V-insulator string or post insulators are immune to
insulator swings. Consideration may also be given to bracing insulators or adding additional weight
at the bottom of the insulator string to restrain wind swing if necessary.
Another power frequency insulation consideration is performance under contamination conditions

prevailing at the line location. Increasing phase to ground voltage generally requires increased
insulator leakage distance. In order to limit the length of insulator string to the minimum required
live metal clearance under still air conditions, it is prudent to use anti fog / semi fog insulators with
larger creepage distance-to-length ratio. Usage can also be made of the semiconductive glaze
insulators, where the porcelain glaze is deliberately made semiconducting to even out the voltage
distribution along the insulator string and reduce the effects of dry bands or of polymer insulators
whose qualities (such as better withstand voltage) may reduce the amount of leakage distance
required. Also, a study of the pollution level of the existing line may be carried out to determine the
present pollution levels so that a more appropriate insulation level can be finalised.
13.3.2.1.3 Switching Surge studies
Switching surge studies have historically been considered for the higher transmission voltages, and
are not customarily conducted on lower voltage lines. Upgradation may necessitate the existing
clearances to be re evaluated with respect to the higher switching surge strength requirements of
the new line voltage. In cases where it may not be possible to increase the live-metal clearances
governed by switching surge strength, the Probability of Flashover (PFO) may not meet the normal
criteria for new line designs, but it may be judged adequate for the special conditions of a voltage
upgrading. Alternatively, in such situations mitigation measures such as Circuit breaker preinsertion
resistors, synchronous closing of circuit breaker poles, or surge arresters can be used to reduce
the switching surge overvoltage distribution. This methodology of controlling the overvoltages may
enable using the same towers with no/ minor modifications for switching surge clearances.
13.3.2.1.4 Lightning analysis
Lightning performance of an overhead transmission line is frequently little changed by upgrading

the line voltage. However, upgrading of transmission line should be accompanied with an analysis
of the lightning performance of transmission line with respect to shielding failures for lines and or
back flashovers.
For transmission lines with existing overhead earthwires, it must be ensured that increase in cross
arm length or displacement of conductor away from the tower body is followed by the subsequent
alignment of earthwire so that the shielding angle remains within the stipulated values. Similarly,
voltage upgradation of a transmission line with one overhead earthwire may require installation
of two earthwires to protect against the increased horizontal displacement of conductors in
the upgraded line. The installation of two overhead earthwires to reduce shielding failures will
contribute additional wind structural loads to suspension, tension and termination structure and
additional tension loads to tension and or termination structures. In this regard, structures may
require substantial modification and structural capacity assessments to accommodate the additional
overhead earthwires.
For the backflashover analysis for half of the power frequency voltage sine wave cycle, the phase
voltage adds to the lightning impulse voltage. For the other half of the power frequency voltage sine
wave cycle, the phase voltage subtracts from the lightning impulse voltage. If there are minimal
modifications to the line, the net effect is for the impact of the increased line voltage to essentially
cancel out over a period of time, leaving a similar lightning backflashover tripout rate. However,
in order to limit the acceptable outage rate of the upgraded line to a value lower than the existing
transmission line, it may be required to reduce the incident of backflashovers through one of the
following strategies:
(i) increasing the insulator arcing distance and or increasing the conductor to structure clearance
thereby reducing the probability of back flashover;
(ii) reducing the structure earth resistance, thus reducing the structure voltage to earth and the voltage
across the insulators and reducing the probability of back flashover; The reduction in structure
earth resistance can be brought about by increasing the number of parallel paths through additional
shield wires or use of counterpoise earthing. Additional arrangements in the form of transmission
line arresters may be provided to further reduce the probability of backflashovers in the upgraded
lines.
(iii) reduce the conductor earthwire separation which improves the coupling and increases the conductor
voltage relative to the earth thereby reducing the voltage across the insulators and the probability
of back flashover.
Increasing the line voltage may increase fault current levels, thereby making it necessary to increase
the diameter of the existing shield wire which, in addition to lightning protection, also provides a
path for flow of fault currents.
13.3.2.1.5 Corona Effects
Voltage upgradation of the existing lines results into increase in the surface gradient of the
existing conductors which may be more than the corona onset gradient for the existing conductor
configuration, thereby resulting into escalation of radio noise, television noise, audible noise and
corona loss. Voltage upgradation of transmission lines situated in regions with high density of
rainfall, snowfall & local contaminations may pose a greater challenge wrt the corona & its effects.
In order to mitigate for the increase in radio noise, television noise, audible noise, etc., it may be
required to replace the existing conductor with a larger conductor or bundled with another similar
conductor. In such situations, the mechanical assessment of the transmission line becomes more
challenging since the existing structure loads will be much higher. The existing structures may have
to be reinforced or replaced.
Studies shall also be carried out to assess the adequacy of the present line hardware for operation
at the higher voltage. Armor rods may go into corona at the ends of the rods and be a source of
radio and television noise. The type of conductor clamps is also significant for corona. Replacement
of standard hardware with corona-free hardware may be necessary for operation at the higher field
levels.
13.3.2.1.6 Electric & Magnetic Field
Since, the strength of the electric & magnetic fields depends on both line voltage, line current and
on conductor geometrical parameters, upgradation of an existing transmission line results into
subsequent increase in the ground level electric and magnetic fields. The electric field decreases
rapidly with lateral distance from the line and is further reduced by grounded objects like trees, lamp
posts, buildings & other structures. The magnetic field also decreases rapidly with lateral distance
from the line.
Increasing the tower height and or using a delta phase configuration are the most effective ways
of reducing the maximum electric fields at ground level. Opportunities to minimize magnetic fields
also include increasing tower height, using delta phase configuration, phase reversal for double
circuit transmission lines, screening conductors and employing split phasing. Split Phasing involves
conversion into multi-phase systems such as division of 3-phase system into 6-phase systems. In
such cases, if the conductors are arranged in reverse- phased arrangement, then, the effective
ground-level magnetic field gets reduced because of field cancellation. However, since the strength
of a magnetic field is a function of line current rather than voltage, magnetic fields seldom become
a limiting factor in voltage upgrading.
In cases where upgrading results in closer conductor spacing, the electric field near ground level is
reduced due to mutual partial cancellation of individual electric fields of the conductor. As a result, it
may not be necessary to increase the height of the conductor due to voltage upgradation. In some
cases, right of way width may be increased to allow lower EMF fields at the edge of the right of
way.
13.3.2.1.7 Live Line Maintenance
Higher voltages require greater clearances for live working, and the upgrading may change work
practices, or even make live working impossible. Increasing the voltage of a transmission line
necessarily increases the minimum approach distance (MAD) that is required for live line working.
When contemplating modifications to an existing transmission line to make operation at a higher
voltage technically feasible, it is appropriate to review the changes to determine if there are any
low-cost modifications that could be employed to help facilitate live line working.
13.3.2.2 Mechanical Feasibility Studies
The electrical feasibility study, described in Section 3.2.1, may indicate that the original
line design parameters (conductor diameter, ground clearance, phase spacing, insulator
leakage length, right-of-way width, live line working dimensions, etc.) are adequate for
operation of the line at the proposed higher voltage level. In that case, there is no need
to perform a mechanical feasibility study, other than to verify that the line is in reasonably
good physical condition.
Most commonly, the electrical feasibility study may show that the operating voltage of the existing
line can be increased to the next higher system level if certain physical changes are made to the
line. For example, the electrical feasibility study may identify issues related to conductor corona
that could be resolved by replacing the original phase conductors with larger conductors, by adding
an additional conductor per phase, or by retensioning the existing conductors to reduce sag and
increase ground clearance. Or, if the electrical feasibility analysis shows the necessity of increasing
structure dimensions to accommodate greater phase spacing, longer insulator string lengths, or
larger air gap clearances, the mechanical feasibility study would emphasize whether the existing
structures can withstand increased tower loads.
The following items are generally considered for electrical feasibility studies for a detailed voltage
upgrading analysis:-
13.3.2.2.1 Review of Original Structure Loads
In a voltage upgrade, where the original conductor must be replaced with a larger diameter
conductor or by addition of additional conductor per phase, the transverse and vertical loading on
both suspension tangent and tension strain structures is increased. If the diameter increase is more
than 10 to 20%, it is probable that many suspension and strain structures will require reinforcement
or replacement.
In most lines, the majority of structures are tangent suspension towers, whose design is
determined primarily by transverse wind and vertical ice loads. These transverse loads on
tangent suspension structures are primarily determined by the diameter of phase conductors and
shield wires. Suspension structure loads are less sensitive to the maximum conductor and shield
wire tensions that determine the primary loads on the more expensive, but far less common,
angle and dead-end structures. In situations where, the diameter of the existing conductors is
adequate at the higher voltage, but an increase in ground clearance is necessary, retensioning
the existing conductors may be required to decrease the sag. In such situations, the suspension
structure loads may largely remain unaffected, but angle and dead-end structures may require
reinforcement or replacement.
Retensioning the original conductor also increases aeolian vibration problems and reduces the
conductor’s safety factor under maximum ice and wind load. As an alternative, when ground
clearance must be increased in order to allow a voltage upgrade, selectively raising the conductor
support points is attractive since it does nothing to increase loading on strain structures and only
marginally increases the ground line moment on those suspension structures whose support points
are raised.
13.3.2.2.2 Hardware
Line connectors and hardware will be replaced as part of any reconductoring. When new conductors
are bundled with old conductors, the hardware would need to be replaced, but original connectors
may be left in place if in good condition. Any existing vibration dampers should also be replaced
and, if the original conductor is re-tensioned to provide additional ground clearance, the entire
vibration damping control system should be reviewed and upgraded.
13.3.2.2.3 Insulators
If existing insulators are in good functional condition and are adequate for use at the higher voltage,
the need for their replacement may hinge on their mechanical strength, especially if the line is to be
reconductored with a larger conductor. Since, the mechanical rating of suspension insulators are a
function of the weight span, reconductoring with a heavier conductor may require replacement of
the existing insulators with a higher rating insulators. In such cases there may also be a requirement
to replace Single I suspension string with a Double I or a V insulator string. Further, in order to
reduce sag, replacement of conductor may be followed by increase in the everyday tension limits.
This places added tension stress on insulators on dead-end and heavy angle structures and may
require replacement with insulators of higher mechanical rating. Use of insulated cross arms of
polymer insulators may also be required for achieving necessary compaction.
13.3.2.2.4 Tower Geometry
The basic structure type establishes the geometrical framework of the line. Considering various
trade-offs between increased insulator length and electrical clearances to ground, a number of tower
geometries may be evaluated to obtain the most optimal geometry wherein minimal modifications
can be brought out in order to implement upgradation.
13.3.2.2.5 Shield Wires
Shield wires can be a significant part of the structure loading tree. Tension, vertical, and transverse
loads from shield wires occur at or near the top of the structure. Due to the attachment of earth
wire at the peak of the tower structure, even modest loads on the earth wire can result into large
overturning moments on the structure. Therefore, in situations where additional shield wire has
been provided or wire diameter has been increased, it may be necessary to respectively strengthen
the tower peaks.
13.3.3 CASE STUDY
Powergrid has carried out voltage upgradation of following transmission lines to carry increased
power through the existing transmission lines subject to minor modifications:-
(i) Upgrading of existing 66 kV D/C line to 132 kV D/C line
As a result of the upgradation, it was possible to increase the power flow capacity by approx. twice
with approx 70% of cost for new 132 kV D/C line.
The salient features of the upgradation are indicated in the Table 3 and Figure 15 as follows:
Table 3: A Summary of Salient Features for upgradation
of 66 kV D/C line to 132 kV D/C line
Existing 66 kV Upgraded 132 kV
Conductor Type ACSR Dog(14.15mm) AAAC 19/3.06 (15.3 mm)
Ground Clearance 5.5 m 6.1 m
Phase Clearance 2.0 m 2.7 m
Ckt-Ckt Clearance 4.2 m 4.2m
Conductor Sag at 65 deg 5.4 m 4.4 m
Conductor Current Capacity (@ 65 242 A 267 A
deg C)
Power Flow Capacity 55 MVA 120 MVA
Line Losses 113 KW/km (at 55 MVA) 113 KW/km (at 120 MVA)
ROW required 18 m 18 m
Fig. 15: An indicative diagram of upgradation of 66 kV D/C line to 132 kV D/C line
(ii) Upgrading of existing 132 kV D/C line to 220 kV D/C line
As a result of the upgradation, it was possible to increase the power flow capacity by approx.
twice with approx 70% of cost for new 220 kV D/C line. The salient features of the upgradation are
indicated in the Table 4 and Figure 16 as follows:

Conductor Type ACSR Panther (21.0 mm) AAAC 37/2.9 (23.03 mm)
Phase Clearance 4.0 m 4.4 m
Ckt-Ckt Clearance 7.0 m 6.0 m
Conductor Sag at 65 deg 6.6 m 6.3 m
Conductor Current Capacity (@ 65 363 A 456 A
deg C)
Line Losses 32 kW/km (at 165 MVA) 134 kW/km (at 345 MVA)
Fig. 16 : An indicative diagram of upgradation of 132 kV D/C line to 220 kV D/C line
(iii) Upgrading of existing 132 kV D/C line to 400 kV S/C line
As a result of the upgradation, it was possible to increase the power flow capacity by approx. four
times with approx 65-70% of cost for new 400 kV D/C line.
The salient features of the upgradation are indicated in the Table 5 and Figure 17 as follows:

Conductor Type ACSR (20.47 mm) Twin AAAC (24.5 mm) / Triple
AAC (19.35 mm)
Phase Clearance 4.5 m 6.0m
Ckt-Ckt Clearance 7.0 m --
Conductor Sag at 65 deg 6.7 m 6.7m
Line Losses 115 KW/km (at 150 MVA) 128 KW/km (at 600 MVA)
Fig. 17 : An indicative diagram of upgradation of 132 kV D/C line to 400 kV S/C line
(iv) Upgrading of Kishtwar- Kishenpur TL from 220 kV D/C to 400 kV S/C
The salient features of the upgradation are indicated in the Figure 18 as follows:
Fig. 18 : An indicative diagram of upgradation of Kishtwar- Kishenpur TL from 220 kV D/C line to 400 kV S/C line
13.4 CONCLUSION
With construction of new lines becoming increasingly difficult and costly, uprating/upgrading has
become an area of great importance to transmission companies. Uprating as well as Upgrading
offers advantages in terms of savings in Right of way, capital investment and project implementation
time. Despite the fact that the entire process of uprating or upgrading of existing transmission
lines requires detailed analysis for exploring possibility of uprating/ upgrading and to effectively
address implementation constraints, it is highly prudent to rigorously explore this option during
Power System planning in future.
Chapter 14
Mono pole TWOERS

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Traditionally hardwood poles, concrete poles, RSJ poles, lattice towers, and compact/narrow
based towers are commonly used to transmit electricity from one place to the other place. Steel
tubular poles started in late 1960s in United State of America and received wider acceptance in
1970 and 1980. Tubular steel structures have been used to support transmission and distribution
lines in the United States for more than 40 years. Before the 1960, different factors favored the use
of lattice towers including their low cost and large space available for their installation. In the mid
1960, Power Utilities and the general population became more aware of the environmental impact
of transmission lines and structures. Electrical lines did not create air or water pollution, but the
visual impact became a concern for Power Utilities as landowners objected to the large foundation
footprint, especially in urban and suburban locations. Simultaneously, testing was being performed
on tubular steel structures and this solution became more appealing and cost effective for United
States power utilities.
Historically, lattice and Compact/Narrow based towers have been used to support transmission
and distribution lines in India. As India population increases and area available to accommodate
transmission lines become scarce and more expensive, steel tubular poles would provide a viable
alternative in India. However, recently tapered tubular poles made from stronger materials such as
steel, have gained utility market share in India, as well.
Power Utilities poles are hot dip galvanized and used for 11 kV to 500 kV abroad and from 11 kV to
33 kV in India. These are classified as listed below.
(i) Distribution Pole

(ii) Transmission Pole
(iii) Substation Structures
14.1.1 Advantages of Steel Monopoles
The following are the major advantages of monopoles over the traditional lattice towers.
(i) Less right-of-way

(ii) Better Visual Appearance
(iii) Less components, faster installation, and less Installation Cost
(iv) Better reliability under extreme conditions
(v) Design Flexibility
(vi) Future maintenance and repairs
(vii) Safety
(viii) Vandalism
14.1.2 Less Right-of-Way i.e., Land Occupancy
(i) Transmission poles can be installed in locations where limited space is available due to
smaller foot print compared to lattice towers.
(ii) Transmission poles are installed in places with existing corridors already used by other
projects such as highways, roads, rail tracks, rivers and etc.
445
(iii) In rural areas, poles would increase the availability of land to the farmers compared to the
transmission line towers.
(iv) Usage of restricted space allows monopole a more direct line design which result in
optimizing the total line cost.
(v) Shorter length line would result in saving over conductors, insulators, hardware, foundation
and erection cost.
(vi) Shorter line would also minimize the electricity losses
14.1.3 Better Visual Appearance
(i) Remove “visual” pollution

(ii) Pole structures are compatible with the environment i.e. poles are environment friendly
structures.
14.1.4 Fewer Components, Faster Installation, and Less Installation Cost
(i) Typical components for a 30m transmission line pole for a double circuit line has 20 or less
components i.e.three sections, eight cross arms, anchor bolt assembly, connection bolts
and nuts, Anti-climbing device, step bolts/pipe ladder and etc.
(ii) Pole structures can be assembled in horizontal or vertical.
(iii) Having proper equipment and trained personal, transmission line pole can be installed in 1
to 3 hours.
(iv) Multiple structures can be installed in one day
(v) Transmission line poles are assembled in horizontal direction on the ground with all
components, lifted with the crane, and erected vertically on the foundation which reduces
installation time when compared with the vertical installation
(vi) Less installation cost
14.1.5 Better Reliability Under Extreme Conditions
(i) Steel monopoles are more flexible than lattice towers or concrete poles or wood pole under
heavy loads
(ii) In broken conductor case, bigger deflection of the steel pole reduces tension in intact span
and induces smaller bending moment at base
(iii) Round or multi-side profile induces less wind load
(iv) In past cases where lattice towers and wood poles failed in hurricane and tornado, no steel
poles were damaged
(v) Galvanization on monopole acts as effective corrosion protection
(vi) Integrity of the structure is maintained through service life
(vii) Controlled fabrication process and tolerances gives longer life to the product.
14.1.6 Flexibility in Design
(i) Embedded type pole design

(ii) Various structure configuration – monopoles and frames
(iii) Multi circuit with different voltages on same pole
(iv) Adding lines for lighting, telephone, cable TV, and etc.
(v) Pole structural model will be designed as cantilever beam
Mono Pole Towers 447
(vi) Bending moment is the predominant reaction in the pole design.

(vii) Deflection on the poles are more when compared to the lattice towers
14.1.7 List of Drawings for Reference
(i) Transmission line with poles (Fig 1.1)

(ii) Different types of double circuit poles (Fig 1.2)
(iii) Multi circuit pole (Fig 1.3)
(iv) General Arrangement Drawing (Fig 1.4)
14.2 Definitions
(i) Aeolian Vibration:High-frequency, low amplitude vibration generated by a low-velocity

steady wind blowing across the conductor on structural member. (Fig. 2.1)
(ii) Anchor Bolt Cage:A framework formed of anchor bolts with top and bottom templates so
that they can be lowered as a unit into the foundation prior to pouring. (Fig. 2.5)
(iii) Anti-climbing Device:Barbed type anti-climbing device shall be used, the height of anti-
climbing device shall be approximately 3m above ground level. (Fig.2.2)
(iv) Arm End Plate:This plate is located at the end of static wire and conductor cross arms to
facilitate the connections of wires. (Fig.2.2)
(v) Arm Mounting Bracket: The part of a static wire or conductor arm assembly that attaches
the arm to the main body of the structure. This usually consists of a plate formed into a
“U” shape or three piece bracket and welded to the base of the arm shaft. The required
bolt hole pattern is cut/drilled into each leg of the bracket prior to welding to the arm shaft.
Assembly to the structure is accomplished by securing the bracket to the corresponding
arm mounting vangs with bolts. (Fig.2.2)
(vi) Arm Mounting Vang: The part of the structure that the static wire or conductor arm assembly
is attached to. This usually consists of two through vangs set parallel to each other with a
bolt hole pattern matching the corresponding arm mounting bracket. (Fig. 2.2)
(vii) Blast Cleaning: Cleaning and descaling of a steel object using peening actin of shot,
sand, or abrasive powder under high pressure.
(viii) Backfill: Materials such as concrete, sand, crushed stone, or soil that are placed to fill an
excavation and/or surrounding an embedded structure.
(ix) Back-Up ring: A steel ring located inside a section and welded to the section to a base
plate, flange plate, or another section. The ring acts as a backing to place weld material in
the joint to achieve full penetration and allow for Ultra Sonic Testing. The ring is often 5 mm
thick for Utility product fabrication, but is limited by AWS to be sufficient to prevent burn-thru
during the welding process. The ring is formed to match the inside diameter of the member
it is being placed inside. (Fig.2.3)
(x) Base-plate: A plate welded to the bottom of the structure for attachment to an anchor
bolt foundation. The plate has bolt holes to accommodate the anchor bolt cage pattern.
(Fig.2.3)
(xi) Bearing Plate: A plate attached (welded/bolted) to the bottom of a direct embedded
section for the distribution/transmission line structures.
(xii) Camber (or Pre-camber): Pole curvature, induced in fabrication, used to counteract
predetermined pole deflection, such that the pole will appear straight under a specified
load conditions. Primarily used on angle poles structures, the process is accomplished by
applying heat to the structure sections during manufacturing. (Fig. 2.4)
(xiii) Complete Joint Penetration: A penetration by weld metal for the full thickness of the base
metal in a joint with a groove weld.
(xiv) Cantilever Structure: A self-supporting pole structure that has no other means of support
(guy wires, bracing members, etc.).
(xv) Circumferential Weld: A butt weld joining two pole sections together. This joint generally
involves a full penetration groove weld with back-up ring and ultra-sonic inspection. This
connection splice is often used when single piece shipment is required.
(xvi) Conductor Arm: A member of a structure that supports one or more conductors.
(xvii) Deadend Vang: A vang that resists the full tension of a conductor or static wire.
(xviii) Embedded Section: This is a type of structure foundation in which a section is placed in
the ground to a specified depth and back filled with either concrete, crushed rock or some
other material. A portion of the embedded section is left above grade for connection of the
remainder of the structure by slip joint or flange. (Fig. 3.1)
(xix) Finish: Usually refers to the surface protection of a structure. There are four basic types
that are commonly used and they are
- Hot Dip Galvanized: The entire member is immersed in molten zinc. This coating
provides protection to both the inside and outside of the member.
- Weathering Steel: Special type of steel that forms a protective oxidized coating when
exposed to the elements. Special precautions must be taken when using this material
to avoid corrosion failure.
- Painted: A wide variety of wet and powder primers and topcoats are available.
Members to be painted must either be sand blasted or wheel abrated. Members that
are painted are usually sealed so that the interior surfaces do not need to be coated.
- Metalized: This process sprays molten material on the exterior surface of the member.
The types of materials that can be applied include copper and tin with zinc being
the most widely used. This process is used mainly for members too large to hot dip
galvanize.
(xx) Full Penetration: A weld with 100% fusion for the thickness of the parent metal (in those
cases where too different thickness are welded together the thinnest is used).
(xxi) Galloping Vibration: Low-frequency, large-amplitude vibration that occurs when a steady
wind of moderate velocity blows over a conductor covered by a layer of ice deposited by
freezing rain, mist, or sleet.
(xxii) Ground Sleeve (or Corrosion Collar): A steel jacket that encapsulates a portion of a
direct-embedded pole immediately above and below the ground line. This is primarily used
on embedded structures to enhance the resistance to corrosion of the structure due to soil
contact.
(xxiii) Guyed Pole Structure: A pole that depends on the utilization of guy wires to be structurally
adequate to resist the loading applied to it. (Fig. 3.1)
(xiv) Guy Vang: A plate welded to the pole for the attachment of guy wires.
(xxv) Guy Wire: A cable used to support a structure by transferring loads to anchors in the
ground or another structure. (Fig. 3.1)
(xxvi) H-Frame Structure: Any of a large variety of structure configurations, which use multiple
members for framing action to increase the structural load carrying capacity. (Fig. 3.2)
(xxvii) Lamellar Tearing: Separation in highly restrained base metal caused by through-thickness
strains induced by shrinkage of the adjacent weld metal.
(xxviii) Longitudinal Weld: The seam weld made to join one or more pieces of a pole section to
form a tubular shape.
(xxix) Local Buckling: Introduction of a series of waves or wrinkles in one or more elements of
a column section or on the compressive side of a beam section because of the inability of
the section to resist the compressive stress in its current geometric shape.
(xxx) Loosely Bolted: Bolted connections in which the nuts are drawn into contact with the
mating surface without being tightened with tools.
(xxxi) Penetration: In the welding process, the distance from the original surface of the base
metal to that point at which fusion ceases.
(xxxii) Pole Cap: A cap to cover the top of a structure. This can either vented cap that is attached
with a bolt, a vented cap that is welded on, or a non-vented cap that is welded on. The type
of protective finish applied to the structure usually decides the type of cap.
(xxxiii) Rake: The amount of horizontal pole top displacement created by installing a pole tilted
out of plumb. It is used to counteract predetermined pole deflection such that the pole will
appear plumb under a specified load condition. (Fig.2.4)
(xxxiv) Saddle: A type of reinforcing used on pole areas where exterior welded vangs or high
concentrated loads are applied. The saddle, welded to the pole, usually consists of a plate
formed to the shape of a pole section but of a greater thickness. The attachment or vang
is then welded to the saddle that distributes the load over a greater pole area.
(xxxv) Section: Term given to identify given vertical members of a structure. Letters starting with
“A” being the bottom section, “B” the next section up, and so on identifies sections.
(xxxvi) Suspension Vang: Usually referred to as an attachment which carries only vertical and
horizontal loads created by its own weight and wind pressure on the conductor.
(xxxvii) Swing Bracket: An attachment used to decrease tensions under a broken wire condition.
The bracket swings providing more slack in the line.
(xxxviii) Snug-Tight: Tightness obtained manually through the full effort of a worker using an
ordinary spud wrench or as obtained through a few impacts of an impact wrench.
(xxxix) Stability: The ability of a structure or member to support a given load without experiencing
a sudden change in configuration.
(xli) Vang: Any number of various attachments placed on a structure for attaching insulators,
guy wires, static wires, etc. A vang has a minimum of one hole, which is used for an
attaching point. The vang can extend through a section or member and be welded on
both ends. This is referred to as a thru vang. A vang attached to the outside surface of a
member is referred to as an exterior welded vang.
(i) Anchor Bolt Cage Assembly (Fig. 2.1)

(ii) Conductor Arm (Fig. 2.2)
(iii) Base Plate Welding to Pole Shaft (Fig. 2.3)
(iv) Camber and Rake (Fig. 2.4)
(v) Anti-Climbing Device (Fig. 2.5)
14.3 pole types and shapes
14.3.1 Constructional Features
The below type of Pole Structures used in the power transmission lines based on constructional
features.
(i) Embedded type Pole (Fig. 3.1)

(ii) Base Plated type pole (Fig. 3.1)
(iii) Guyed Poles (Fig. 3.1)
(iv) A-Frame Structure (Fig. 3.2)
(v) H-Frame Structure (Fig. 3.3)
(vi) X-Frame Structure (Fig.3.3)
(vii) Y-Frame Structure (Fig. 3.3)
14.3.2 Section Joint Types
The following are acceptable methods of joining pole sections for different design conditions.
The use of two or more types in combination within a structure isalso acceptable based on site
conditions/client requirement.
(i) Slip Joint (Fig. 3.4)

(ii) Flange Joint (Fig. 3.4)
(iii) Butt Joint (Fig. 3.4)
14.3.3 Slip Joint
The type of connection between two tapered pole sections where the upper sections slips over the
lower section with hydraulically jacked or using chain pulley together to achieve a type fit.
Sections joined by telescoping splices shall be detailed for a nominal lap that will develop the full
required design strength. The minimum taper for slip joint splice sections shall be a minimum of 10
mm/m.
The maximum lap shall be restricted by practical factors such as maintaining the minimum height
of the assembled structure, minimum clearances between cross arms, interference with climbing
devices, etc. The female section’s longitudinal seam weld in the splice area shall be a complete
penetration weld for at least a length equal to the maximum lap dimension.
A complete slip joint splice requires the following:
(i) Slip joint splice covers the minimum lap length i.e. 1.5 times the outer tube inner
diameter.
(ii) A reasonably tight joint without significant gaps
(iii) Additional force applied through hydraulic jack/Chain Pully results in no additional movement
in the lap length.
In practice, the required overlap is a function of a number of variables including
(i) Jacking force

(ii) Fabrication tolerances
(iii) Reinforcement (Ex. sealer plates)
(iv) Cross section and taper.
Because of these variables, the minimum of 1.5 times the diameter shall be an absolute minimum
for galvanized (and other unreinforced male section designs). For these conditions the design
length of the overlap (in inches) shall be determined as follows:
Design Splice Length (L) =1.5D+3962.4/T+K where K=251.5-2.08D/W and K>0
L = design splice is in mm
D = bottom inside diameter of upper section in mm
T = taper, mm/m
W = lower section thickness, mm
A complete penetration seam weld should be used in the female section at slip joints. This portion
will be subjected to tensile stresses due to jacking. If a slip joint is to be welded or bolted for
strength purposes, then the weld or bolts should be designed for the full design axial load.
(For designs with a reinforced male section a nominal lap length of 1.5 times the diameter with a
minus 10% tolerance (i.e., 1.35 times the diameter) minimum seems reasonable.)
14.3.4 Flange Joint
A method of connection between flanges to join the two sections together by bolts. A plate is
welded to end of each section and then the plates are bolted together during erection of pole
structure. This method is generally used on H-frames where the tolerances on the length of the
assembled legs is more critical and to resist uplift/tension forces in one of the legs. This method is
also used frequently in guyed poles when the axial loads in the leg exceed the allowable for a slip
joint connection.
14.3.5 Butt Welded Joint
A connection between two sections end to end with back-up ring. These two sections are aligned
and welded together.
14.3.6 Pole Shapes
The following are the general tubular pole shapes used in distribution and transmission lines
1. Conical/Pipe Poles
2. Dodecagonal (12- sided polygonal)
3. Hexdecagonal (16-sided polygonal)
4. Octdecagonal (18 – sided polygonal)
The following are the general shapes used for the cross arms
1. Square tubes/shape
2. Hexagonal (6-Sided Polygon)
(i) Embedded, Base Plated, and Guy Pole (Fig. 3.1)
(ii) A-Frame Pole (Fig. 3.2)
(iii) H, X, Y – Frame Poles (Fig. 3.3)
(iv) Slip, Flange, Butt Joint Detail (Fig. 3.4)

14.4 loading, pole geometry and analysis
14.4.1 Pole Geometry
Tubular steel pole structures shall be designed with geometric configurations that are based on
electrical, economic, and safety requirements specified by the owner.
The typical transmission monopole is constituted of the following components.
1. Pole sections
2. Conductor arm assembly
3. Ground wire arm assembly
4. Anti-climbing device assembly
5. Step bolts or Pipe ladder assembly
6. Anchor Bolt Cage assembly
7. Connection nuts and Bolts
14.4.2 Loading Calculations
1. The following are the steps involved in loading calculation.

2. Selection of Pole type to be used
3. Clearance Drawing
4. Wind Pressure Calculations
5. Sag Tension Calculations
6. Load calculations and load trees
The following are the parameters required to perform the load calculations.
(i) Voltage levels

(ii) No. of circuits
(iii) Configuration (Vertical/Horizontal/any other)
(iv) Basic wind speed or location
(v) Topography
(vi) Terrain category
(vii) Reliability Level
(viii) Conductor and shield wire properties
(ix) Design temperatures
(x) Insulator details
(xi) Electrical Clearances
(xii) Live metal clearances
(xiii) Span details
(xiv) Type of poles i.e. suspension/angle/special poles
Steel poles are typically conical/polygonal tapered structures with a larger diameter in the base
than in its top. In order to reduce the effect of wind on the pole surface, transmission poles usually
have round, 12, 16, 18, 20 sides. Per Table 23 of IS 875 (Part 3) “Code of Practice for Design Loads
(Other Than Earthquake) For Buildings and Structures” Part 3 (Wind Loads), the shape factors
used to calculate the wind pressure on the pole varies as a function of their cross section.
14.4.3 Load Expression
Factor design loads shall be expressed in the form of load trees or in tabular form. Factored
design loads shall include the magnitude, direction, and point of application with respect to a single
orthogonal co-ordinate system.
14.4.4 Analysis of Pole Structure
The Structure designer shall use established principles of structural analysis to determine the
forces and moments caused by the factored design loads.
The Structure designer shall use geometrically non-linear analysis i.e P-Delta analysis.
The Structure designer shall be responsible for the analysis of all connections and Anchor Bolts.
This analysis shall be substantiated by stress calculations or by test results.
14.4.5 Climbing and Maintenance Provisions
The owner shall specify the types and positions of climbing and maintenance apparatus. This
includes information concerning ladder or step bolts, Anti-climbing device, grounding connection
provision, and “hot line” maintenance equipment attachment details, where applicable
14.5 Design of utility poles
14.5.1 Design of Pole Structure
Loads acting on transmission poles come from the same sources as lattice towers. Loads on the
transversal, longitudinal, and vertical directions are the result of weight of equipment, structure, ice,
and wires; wire tensions, wind, and line angles. Similarly, the intent of load cases is to cover the
different conditions that structures may face during their lifetime including extreme events, failure
containment, installation, maintenance, and occasionally seismic events. Despite the similarity
in the source of loads and conditions between lattice towers and transmission poles, the main
difference is the effect of these loads in the structural behavior of the poles. For more design
details, reference may be made to ASCE /SEI 48-11: Design of Steel Transmission Pole Structure
14.5.2 Regular Polygonal Tubular Members
The compressive stress, P/A+Mc/I on the extreme fiber shall not exceed the following.
Octagonal, Hexagonal, or rectangular members (bend angle > 45o)
(Eq. 5.2-6 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
(Eq. 5.2-7 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
14.5.3 Dodecagonal Members (bend angle = 30o)
(Eq. 5.2-8 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)

(Eq. 5.2-9 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
14.5.4 Hexdecagonal Members (bend angle = 22.5o)
(Eq. 5.2-10 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
(Eq. 5.2-11 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Where:
Fy = Specified minimum yield stress in MPa

Fa = Compressive stress permitted in MPa
W = flat width of a side
t = wall thickness
Ω = 2.62 for Fyand Fa in MPa
φ = 6.9 for Fain MPa
14.5.6 Compressive Stress
For round members or regular polygonal members with more than sixteen sides, the compressive
stress shall be proportioned to satisfy the following equation.
(fa/ Fa)+(fb/ Fb)< 1 (Eq. 5.2-12 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Where:
fa = Compressive stress due to axial load in MPa

fb = Compressive stress due to bending moment in MPa
Fa = Compressive stress permitted in MPa
Fb = Compressive stress permitted in MPa
Fa =FyWhen (Do/t) < 3800φ/Fy (Eq. 5.2-13 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Fa =0.75Fy + 950φ/(Do/t) when 3800φ/Fy< (Do/t) <12000φ/Fy (Eq. 5.2-14 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Fb =FyWhen (Do/t) <6000φ/Fy (Eq. 5.2-15 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Fa =0.7Fy + 1800φ/(Do/t) when 6000φ/Fy< (Do/t) <12000φ/Fy (Eq. 5.2-16 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Where:
Do = Outside diameter of the tubular section (flat-to-flat outside diameter for polygonal members)
t = Wall thickness
φ = 6.9 for Fy, FaorFbin MPa
14.5.6 Shear
The shear stress resulting from applied shear forces, torsional shear, or a combination of the two
shall satisfy the following equation.
(VQ/ Ib)+(TC/ J) <Fv WhereFv =0.58Fy (Eq. 5.2-17 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Where
V = Shear Force
Q = Moment of section about neutral axis
b = 2 times wall thickness (t)
T = Torsional moment
C = Distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber
J = Torsional constant of cross section
Fv = Shear Stress permitted, and
Fy = Specified min. yield stress
14.5.7 Bending
The stress resulting from bending shall not exceed either of the following
(Mc/I) <Ft
(Eq. 5.2-18 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
(Mc/I) <Fa
(Eq. 5.2-19 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
Where
M = Bending moment
C = distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber
I = moment of Inertia
Ft = tensile stress permitted
Fa = compressive stress permitted
Tensile Stresses shall not exceed either of the following
P/Ag<Ftwhere Ft =Fy (Eq. 5.2-1 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
P/An<Ftwhere Ft =0.83*Fu (Eq. 5.2-1 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
14.5.9 Combined Stresses
For a polygonal member, the combined stress at any point on the cross section shall not exceed
the following
<Ft or Fa (Eq. 5.2-20 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)
For a round member, the combined stress at any point on the cross section shall not exceed the
following.
<Ft or Fb (Eq. 5.2-21 of ASCE/SEI 48-11)

Fa = Compressive stress permitted by section by section 5.2

Fb = Bending stress permitted by section by section 5.3
Ft = Tensile Stress Permitted 5.5
P = Axial force on member
A = Cross-Sectional area
Mx = Bending moment about X-X axis
My = Bending moment about Y-Y axis
Ix = Bending moment about X-X axis
Iy = Bending moment about Y-Y axis
Cx = distance from Y-Y axis to point where stress is checked
Cy = distance from X-X axis to point where stress is checked
V = Total resultant shear force
Q = moment of section about neutral axis
I = moment of Inertia
T = Torsional moment
J = Torsional constant of cross section
C = distance from neutral axis to point where stress is checked, and
t = Wall thickness
The bending stress (Mc/I) and shear stress portions of these equations shall be absolute values
(i.e. always positive). The same equation shall be used to check tension and compression stresses.
When checking tension, P/A is positive if the member is in tension and negative if the member is in
compression. The converse is true when checking compression.
14.5.9 Guy Poles
The maximum design tension force in a guy shall not exceed the following.
P <Pmax Where Pmax= 0.65*RBS
Where
P = tension force in the guy
Pmax = maximum tension force permitted in the guy, and
RBS = minimum rated breaking strength of the guy.
14.5.10 Deflection
In addition to strength requirements, deflection limits may also affect the design of transmission
poles. Compared to lattice towers, transmission poles will deflect more but this cannot be interpreted
as a sign of inadequate strength, or unsafe conditions. Deflection limits may be specified for
restrictions in the right of way, presence of adjacent lines, aesthetic reasons or to guarantee the
proper operation of arresters or similar equipment in riser poles.
Deflection is mainly defined as a percentage of the total height of the pole, but it can also be
specified as a percentage of the top diameter. There is no typical deflection value used in the
design of transmission poles and this is a requirement that each utility company defines based on
its own experience. When deflection limits are specified, normal values are 5% of the pole height
under maximum load or 1.5% to 2% of the pole height under everyday conditions.
There are three different ways used to control deflection. The first option is to modify the pole
dimensions by increasing the diameters, and modifying the taper and sections’ thicknesses. Second,
poles can also be raked by using leveling nuts to offset the pole in the opposite direction of the line
tension. When tensions are applied, the pole will move accordingly to achieve a straight look. Third
alternative to control deflection is cambering the pole shaft by applying heat to the sections during
fabrication.
14.6 assembly and erection
14.6.1 Single Pole Structures
Assembly shall be in accordance with the erection drawings and requirements by the owner
14.6.2 Slip Joints
Slip Joints shall be assembled in accordance with the structure designer’s requirement as to method,
equipment, minimum and maximum permissible assembly forces, as well as within the fabricator’s
specified tolerance for maximum and minimum overlap length. In the event an assembled slip joint
is not within the specified tolerance for overlap length, the actual overlap shall be reported to the
Structure Designer for review of acceptability.
14.6.3 Bolted Flange Joints
Mating surfaces shall be cleaned of all foreign matter before assembly. The bolts shall be installed
to snug-tight condition in a sequence to ensure the proper alignment of the two pole sections.
Following snug tightening, the bolts shall be tensioned in accordance with the structure designer’s
recommendations using a similar tightening sequence. In the absence of specific tightening
recommendations, the “turn-of-nut” method shall be used.
14.6.4 Attachments to Pole Sections
Installation of cross arms and other attachments to the pole structure shall be in accordance with
the fabricator’s recommendations.
14.6.5 Installation of Foundations
Anchor Bolt and Base Plate Installation
Installation shall be made in such a manner as to ensure that all anchor bolt nuts are tightened
to both the top and bottom of the pole base plate in accordance with the structure designer’s
recommendations.
Direct-Embedded Poles
The annular opening around the embedded pole shall be backfilled with the soil or concrete. Soil
shall be compacted in accordance with the line designer’s requirement.
14.7 testing of poles
14.7.1 This type of test verifies the adequacy of the main componentsof the proto-type and their connections
to withstand the static design loads specified for that structure as an individual entity under controlled
conditions. Proof test provide insight into actual stress distribution of unique configurations, fit-up
verification, performance of the structure in a deflected position, and other benefits.
The structure designer is responsible for ensuring that the structural design meets the loading,
deflection, clearances, and other design specifications set forth in the contract.
Testing Shall be Done in Accordance with IEC 60652

14.7.2 Assembly and Erection
It may be desirable to specify detailed methods or sequences for erecting the prototype to prove
the acceptability of the proposed field erection methods. Pick-up points designed in to the structure
should be used as part of the test procedure.
After the proto-type has been assembled, erected, and rigged for testing, the Owner should review
the testing arrangements for compliance with the contract documents.
14.7.3 Test Loads
Destruction is defined as the inability of the prototype to withstand the application of additional
load. Poles are tend to deflect more and destruction is not suggestible, the same pole can be re-
used if pole is successfully performed at the testing center after Inspection. However, max. % of
overload should be established before testing with mutual agreement between the supplier and
client.
14.7.4 Load Levels, Loading Rate, and Holding Period
The test loads shall be applied in increments to 50%, 75%, 90%, 95%, and 100% of the specified
loads.
For the final 100% level, the loads shall be maintained for a min. of 1min. and for a max. of 5 min.
The holding period chosen for the final level shall be included in the test programme.
14.7.5 Number of Load Cases AndSequence of Test Load Cases
Min. number of load cases required is three and the maximum load cases are mutually agreed
between the designer and client. The sequence of test loading cases shall be determined by the
client and stated in the test specification. It is recommended to choose first that test having the
least influence on the results of the successive tests. If agreed by the client, the testing station may
adjust the test sequence to simplify the test operations or to reduce the cost of the test.
14.7.6 Full Scale Test Acceptance Criteria
(i) The performance of the support shall be considered acceptable if it resists the specified
design loads (at 100%) for 1 min. without failure of any components or assemblies even
though a longer holding period may have been specified.
(ii) Permanent local deformations such as bowing or twisting of secondary members and
components are acceptable.
(iii) Ovalization of holes and permanent deformation of bolts shall be accepted.
14.7.7 Premature Failure
(i) In the event of failure at less than 95% of the specified design load, the failed component
(s) may be replaced by other component (s). The modified structure shall be retested to
resist 100% of specified design loads.
(ii) In the event of failure between 95% and less than 100% of the specified design loads, with
the exception of the final load case, the support shall be modified and retested. If failure
occurs in the final load case, the client may elect not to retest the modified support.
(iii) In the event of failure at 100% of the specified design loads but at less than 1 min. into the
holding period, the client may accept the support without modification.
14.7.8 Deflections
Points to be monitored should be selected to verify the deflections predicted by the design analysis.
Also, it should be realized that measured and calculated deflections might not agree. There are two
main reasons for this.
(i) The calculations for deflections generally do not include the effect of deflection and
distortions within the joints and connections.
(ii) The actual Stresses reached during testing often approach the yield strength of the material,
which, by definition, includes some permanent set in the steel. Upon release of test loads
after a critical test case, a prototype normally does not return fully to its undeflected starting
position.
14.7.9 Test Records Required From Test Center
The following are the documents required from the testing center
14.7.10 Before Testing
(i) Brief description of the test facility including the number, location, range, and calibration
charts or tables of every load transducer, as well as the accuracy of the equipment used to
measure the test loads.
(ii) Rigging loads, charts, diagrams and if any.
(iii) One table per test showing the loads at the various points on the structure and for the
various loading steps.
(iv) One table per test showing the various deflection values which may have been recorded.
14.7.11 After Testing
Test report shall include the following
(i) Type of tested monopole.

(ii) Name & Address of the monopole manufacturer
(iii) Name & Address of the client
(iv) Dates & location of testing
(v) Name of persons present during the test.
(vi) List of various assembly and shop drawings relating to the monopole tested, including any
modification of the drawings referred to.
(vii) Load Trees
(viii) Diagram showing the rigging arrangement used to apply the test loads.
14.7.12 In the Case of Failure
(i) Table showing the max. loads applied to the structure just before the collapse/failure.
(ii) Brief description of the failure.
(iii) Dimensional and mechanical characteristics of the failed elements.
(iv) Failure photographs, showing the whole of the structure and details of the failure.
14.8 foundations
There are four types of foundations generally used for the distribution and transmission poles
based on geotechnical investigation report and advised by the geotechnical engineer.
1. Direct-Embedded Poles (Fig. 3.1)
2. Raft Foundation (Fig. 4.1)
3. Pier Foundation (Fig. 4.2)
4. Pile Foundation (Fig. 4.3)
14.8.1 Direct-Embedded Poles
Direct-embedded pole foundations use the bottom portion of the steel pole as the foundation
member reacting against the concrete, soil, rock, and/or backfill.
A direct-embedded pole foundation typically is designed to transfer overturning moments to the

in-situ soil, rock, or backfill by means of lateral resistance. Axial loads can be resisted by a bearing
plate installed on the base of the pole.
The quality of backfill, method of placement, and degree of compaction greatly affect the strength
and rotation of the foundation system and, thereby, the design of the embedded pole. Direct-
embedded pole foundations have become popular because of their relatively low installation cost.
When using direct-embedded poles where there is high water table, buoyancy of the pole should
be considered.
i. Raft & Pier Foundation (Fig. 4.1)

ii. Pile Foundation (Fig. 4.2)
iii. Well Foundation (Fig. 4.3)
For Details on Foundations reference may be made to Chapter 10 of this manual and publication
on Pile Foundation which is under preparation.
Fig. 1.1
Fig. 1.2
Fig. 1.3
Fig. 1.4
Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.2
Fig. 2.3
Fig. 2.4
Fig. 2.5
Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.2
Fig. 3.3
Fig. 3.4
Fig. 4.1
Fig. 4.2
Fig. 4.3
Chapter 15
NEW GENERATION CONDUCTORS

15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.1.1 With the rapid expansion of the transmission network in the country, Right of Way (ROW) cost
is escalating day by day. Emphasis, therefore, is on optimizing the power transfer capability of
transmission lines (both existing & future) per unit cost of ROW and make use of existing lines
through Uprating / Upgrading effecting economy.
15.1.2 In later half of twentieth century, CW&PC/ CEA under Ministry of Irrigation & Power/Ministry of
Power based on Techno-economic studies and in consultation with power utilities had standardised
the following conductors for various voltage rating TLs:
Voltage Conductor Details

Rating (kV)
AC System Later half of Twentieth Century Beginning of Twenty-first Century*
36 Single Mink & Rabbit ACSR / AAC Single Mink & Rabbit ACSR/ AAAC/
AAC
72.5 Single Dog (6/ 4,72 mm Al +7/1.57mm Single Dog/ Panther ACSR/AAAC
St) ACSR
145/123 Single Panther (30/3 mm Al +7/3 mm St) Single Panther ACSR/ AAAC
ACSR
245/2 Single Zebra (54/3.18 mm Al +7/3.18 mm Single Zebra ACSR/ AAAC
St) ACSR
420 Twin & Quad bundle Moose (54/3.53 mm Twin & Quad bundle Moose &
Al + 7/3.53 mm St) & Bersimis (42/4.57 Bersimis ACSR/ AAAC equivalent to
mm Al+7/3.18 mm St) ACSR Bersimis
800 Quad bundle Moose (54/3.53 mm Al + Quad bundle Moose & Bersimis
7/3,53 mm St) & Bersimis (42/4.57 mm ACSR/ AAAC**
Al+7/3.18 mm st) ACSR
1200 - Octagonal (8) bundle Moose ACSR
(54/3.53 mm Al + 7/3.53 mm St)
DC System
± 500 Quad bundle Bersimis (42/4.57 mm Quad bundle Bersimis ACSR
Al+7/3.18 mm St) ACSR
± 800 - Hexagonal (6) bundle Lapwing
ACSR
*In eighties, with indigenous development AAAC and stress on reduction of transmission losses and damage
to ACSR in coastal area due to salt pollution, the use of AAAC / AAASR was promoted.
A few 400 kV TLs have been built with 3 conductor bundle Snow Bird ACSR and twin bundle Morkulla ACSR
conductor
**Private Entrepreneur have used Hexagonal (6) Zebra ACSR for 800 kV TLs
15.1.3 With the open access in vogue now, there is a large participation of private players in the power
transmission sector. Economical and faster construction is a key to the success of this business.
477
Thus high ampacity conductors have become the necessity. High Temperature Low Sag (HTLS)
conductors are now being accepted by utilities in this country.
15.1.4 New Generation conductors are also useful in uprating and upgradation of existing transmission
lines where fresh / increased ROW is not possible.
15.1.5 The New Generation conductors have different metallurgy and different parameters. Selection of
these types of conductors will depend upon the actual application on each and every new line or
existing line.
15.1.6 The New Generation Conductors covered in this Chapter are listed as under:
(i) LOW RESISTANT CONDUCTORS- AL59 ALLOY CONDUCTORS
(ii) HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-TACSR (THERMAL ALLOY

CONDUCTOR STEEL REINFORCED)
(iii) HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) – ACSS (ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR STEEL
SUPPORTED)
(iv) HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-ACSS TW (SHAPED WIRE

ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR STEEL SUPPORTED)
(v) HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-STACIR (SUPER THERMAL

RESISTANT ALUMINIUM ALLOY CONDUCTOR, INVAR REINFORCED)
The details and comparative current carrying capacity including losses for new generation
conductors are explained in the proceeding paragraphs
15.2 LOW RESISTANT CONDUCTORS- AL59 ALLOY CONDUCTORS
15.2.1 AL-59 alloy conductors are manufactured from Al-Mg-Si (aluminium-magnesium-silica) silicon rods.
The conductor comprises an inner core and concentrically arranged strands forming the inner and
outer layers of the conductor.
15.2.2 Merits of these conductors are as follows:
1. 26% to 31% more current carrying capacity as compared to ACSR of the same size, while maximum
sag remains the same & working tension is lesser than that of ACSR.
2. Resistivity is substantially lesser than that of ACSR/AAAC conductors, resulting in lower I2 R losses for
the same quantum of power transfer.
3. Higher corrosion resistance compared to 6201 alloy series (AAAC) conductors.

New Generation Conductors 479
4. They can be manufactured to maintain dimensions of ACSR/AAAC and ACSR.
15.2.3 On comparison of AL 59 conductors with conventional AAAC, ACSR, following is revealed:
1. Even though the ultimate tensile strength of the Al59 conductor is less compared to conventional
AAAC and ACSR, it can be strung at the same tension like conventional AAAC & ACSR conductors.
2. If the same span and the working tension is maintained, the sag of AL 59 conductor will be lower
compared to ACSR and AAAC. Thus this conductor can be used for up rating of existing lines as well
as for new lines.
3. If these conductors are operated at high temperature there will be a quantum jump in Ampacity
compared to ACSR/AAAC.
15.2.4 Following numerical data in tabular format shows enhanced option of using Al59 conductor for Re-
conductoring in place of existing ACSR conductor:
Technical Comparison-ACSR Dog & AL 59 (19/2.84)

Properties ACSR Dog AL59 (19/2.84)
Conductor Diameter (mm) 14.15 14.20
Weight (kg/km) 394.00 330.00
DC Resistance @ 20° C Temp (ohms/km) 0.2792 0.24570
Voltage Level (kV) 66 66
Line length (km) 1 1
Span in M 250 250
Maintaining Ampacity equivalent to ACSR in AL59 conductor
The following calculations are carried out at temp 75 71.83
stated besides:
Current to be maintained: 288 280
AC Resistance (ohms/km) 0.34068 0.29543
Line losses in kW/circuit 84.77 73.51
Ampacity at maximum operating temperature in both conductors

The following calculations are carried out at 75 85 95
temp stated besides:
Current in Amp: 288 409
Line losses in kW/circuit 81 151
Power Factor 0.9 0.9
Power Transferred in MW/circuit 28.74 40.81
Sag at above mentioned temp & 0% wind 5.255 5.84

Tension to be maintained at 32 0C & 100% wind 2008 2008
Assumptions: Coefficient of Emissivity = 0.6, Wind velocity = 0.6 m/s, Solar absorption co-efficient = 0.5,
Average ambient temp = 450, Constant of mass temperature coefficient of resistance of conductor per ºC =
0.004 for ACSR and 0.0039 for Al59, Wind Pressure = 117.96 kg/m2 ,Solar Radiation = 1200 W / m2
The following points can be inferred from the above table:
1. Weight of Al59 conductor (kg/km) is 16% less as compared to ACSR.

2. DC Resistance at 200C of Al59 conductor is 13% lower as compared to ACSR thus boosting
up ampacity and simultaneously decreasing losses.
3. Maintaining Ampacity equivalent to ACSR, line losses of AL59 conductor is 14% less.
4. Al59 conductor can operate at its maximum temperature of 950C as compared to that of ACSR
at 750C thus boosting up the current by 42% as compared to conventional ACSR conductors.
5. Power Transferred (MW) of Al59 conductor at its maximum operating temperature is 43%
higher as compared to that of ACSR.
6. Maintaining tension of ACSR at 320C & full wind as starting condition in AL59 conductor as
in the case of Re-conductoring, we obtain reduction of 4% in the values of sag at maximum
operating temperature as compared to conventional ACSR conductor.
15.3 HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-TACSR (THERMAL ALLOY

CONDUCTOR STEEL REINFORCED)
15.3.1 TACSR Conductors are high ampacity conductors, wherein the inner core is made of Galvanized
Steel and surrounded by heat-resistant aluminium twist-paired with thermal resistant aluminium
alloy stranded conductors (surrounded by 1/2/3 layers of thermal resistant aluminium alloy wires).
1- Aluminium clad steel, 2-Thermal resistant Aluminium alloy conductor
15.3.2 Different types of aluminium alloy conductor used for the formation of TACSR conductor. The
Properties of these alloys are tabulated below:
Aluminium Conductivity Tensile Strength Continuous Current carrying

Alloys (%) (M operating Capacity
pa) Temperature (0c) (%)
EC 1350 61 160 85 100
TAL 60 160 150 160
15.3.3 These conductors find utility for the following:
1. Used in lines where allowable current levels are 1.5-1.6 times higher than conventional ACSR
conductors.
2. Appropriate for overhead transmission lines in areas where corrosion arising from contact
between two different metals may occur.
3. Ideal for overhead transmission lines in areas where low-sag limitations are not a problem.
4. If the amount of power to be transmitted is fixed, there is a reduction in cost of line components
(towers, foundation etc).
5. The continuous operating temperature of conductor is 150°C.
6. The conductors with cross section area of 240-1440 mm2 are widely used in bus bars of
switchyard.
7. TACSR conductors are used to enhance the capacity of the existing transmission line by simply
replacing the existing conductor without any modifications to the tower or foundations.
15.3.4 Following numerical data in tabular format shows enhanced option of using TACSR conductor for
Re-conductoring in place of existing ACSR conductor:
Technical Comparison of ACSR Panther & TACSR conductor

Properties ACSR Panther TACSR Panther
Cross Sectional Area (mm2) 262.00 262.00
Weight (kg/km) 974.00 916.00
o
DC Resistance @ 20 C Temp (ohms/km) 0.13900 0.12882
o
Maximum Operating Temperature ( C) 85 150
Span in m 325 325
Maintaining same Ampacity in TACSR conductor
stated besides:
Line losses in kW/circuit 90 82.9
Ampacity at maximum operating temperature in TACSR conductor
The following calculations are carried out at temp 75 150
stated besides:
Power Transferred in MW/circuit 83.8 178
Tension to be maintained at 320C & 100% wind 4255 4253

Assumptions: Coefficient of Emissivity = 0.6, Wind velocity = 0.6 m/s, Solar absorption co-
efficient = 0.5, Average ambient temp = 480C, Constant of mass temperature coefficient of
resistance of conductor per ºC = 0.004 for both conductors, Wind Pressure = 117.96 kg/m2 ,Solar
Radiation = 1200 W / m2
1. TACSR conductor can operate at its maximum temperature of 1500C as compared to that
of ACSR at 850C, thus boosting up the current by 100% as compared to conventional
ACSR conductors.
2. Power Transferred (MW) of TACSR conductor at its maximum operating temperature is
101% higher as compared to that of ACSR.
3. If the tension of ACSR conductor is 320C and 100% wind is maintained, the sag of TACSR
conductor is slightly higher but the existing tower structure/design can be utilized by slight
reduction in span or by providing extensions.
15.4 HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) – ACSS (ALUMINUM CONDUCTOR STEEL
SUPPORTED)
15.4.1 ACSS conductors are manufactured from Annealed Aluminium 1350 wires and an inner high tensile
strength core of Galfan (Zn 5% Al Mischmetal) coated steel wires or Aluminium Clad steel.
15.4.2 Properties of Annealed Aluminium 1350 wires are as follows:
1. Annealed Aluminium wire can operate continuously up to 250 deg C without any loss in strength
(As already Annealed, further strength drop is nil).
2. When the complete conductor is stressed, Aluminium elongates and transfers the entire load
to steel core.
3. Lower compressive forces between annealed Aluminium and Steel Core enables higher
self damping capacity because of this increased elongation in annealed Aluminium.
15.4.3 Comparison between Hard drawn 1350 Al and Annealed Aluminium 1350 is tabulated below:
Properties Hard drawn 1350 Al Annealed Aluminium 1350

Tensile strength (MPa) 160 60
Conductivity (% IACS) 61.2 63
% Elongation 1.2-2 20-30
15.4.4 Properties of Mischmetal steel wires are as follows:
1. Mechanical and physical properties of Mischmetal steel wire are similar to that of the galvanized
steel wires.
2. Corrosion resistance of Mischmetal steel wires is better than that of galvanized steel wires.
15.4.5 Comparison between Galvanized steel and Galfan steel
Properties Galvanized Steel Galfan Steel

Tensile strength (MPa) 1410 1410
% Elongation 4 4
Continuous temperature coating 150/200 250
can withstand
15.4.6 ACSS is a composite concentric-lay stranded conductor. Steel strands form the central core of
the conductor with one or more layers of aluminium 1350-0 wire stranded around it. The steel
core carries most of all the mechanical load of the conductor due to the (fully annealed or soft)
temper aluminium. Steel core wires are protected from corrosion by galvanizing, aluminizing, or
mischmetal alloy coating. Corrosion protection can be selected to suit the environment to which the
conductor will be exposed during service span.
15.4.7 ACSS conductors are manufactured in accordance with the requirements of the latest applicable
ASTM specification B856. The “O” tempers of the aluminium, a fully annealed or soft temper and
causes most or the mechanical load on ACSS to be carried by the steel.
The steel core may consist of 7, 19, 37 or more wires. Class A zinc coating is usually adequate for
ordinary environments.
15.4.8 These conductors find the following applications:
1. With the same tower loadings an ACSS conductor can carry up to double the current of a
ACSR conductor with the same diameter.
2. They are especially useful in re-conductoring applications requiring increased current

without any change in existing support structures/foundation.
3. If used for new lines there can be reduction in the cost of line components (towers,
foundations etc) due to reduction in sag for same quantum of power transfer.
4. New line constructed using this conductor can take higher emergency load (for short
duration).
15.4.9 These conductors have following benefits:
1. ACSS can operate continuously at high temperatures (200°C) without damage; it sags less
under emergency electrical loadings than ACSR.
2. Self-damping if pre stretched during installation and its final sags are not affected by long
time creep of the aluminium.
3. High resistance to Aeolian vibration.
4. Higher conductivity of the annealed aluminium (63% IACS).
15.4.10 Following numerical data shows option of using ACSS conductor for Re-conductoring purpose over
existing ACSR conductor:
Technical Comparison of ACSR Panther & ACSS Lark conductor

Properties ACSR Panther ACSS Lark
Weight (kg/km) 974.00 925.00
Maximum Operating Temperature (˚C) 75 250
Span in m 325 325
Maintaining same Ampacity in ACSS conductor
stated besides:
Ampacity at maximum operating temperature in ACSS conductor
stated besides:
Tension to be maintained at 32 0C & 100% wind 4255.00 3653.5
Assumptions: Coefficient of Emissivity=0.6, Wind velocity = 0.6 m/s, Solar

efficient = 0.5, Average ambient temp = 480, Constant of mass temperature coefficient of
resistance of conductor per ºC = 0.004 for both conductors, Wind Pressure = 117.96 kg/m2,
Solar Radiation = 1200 W / m2
The following can be inferred from the above table:
1. DC Resistance at 200C of ACSS conductor is 4% lower as compared to ACSR thus boosting up

ampacity and simultaneously reducing losses.
2. Maintaining Ampacity equivalent to ACSR, line losses of ACSS conductor is less by 5%.
3. ACSS conductor can operate at its maximum temperature of 200/2100C as compared to that of
ACSR at 750C thus boosting up the current carrying capacity by 150% as compared to conventional
ACSR conductors.
4. Power Transferred (MW) of ACSS conductor at its maximum operating temperature is 151% higher
as compared to that of ACSR.
5. If the tension of ACSR conductor is 320C and 100% wind is maintained, the sag of ACSS conductor
is slightly higher but the existing tower structure/design can be utilized by slight reduction in span
or by providing extensions.
15.5 HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-ACSS TW (SHAPED WIRE

ALUMINUM CONDUCTOR STEEL SUPPORTED)
15.5.1 ACSS/TW (Trapezoidal ACSS) is an enhancement of the original product where the aluminum
strands are pre-shaped into wedge-like shapes to fit tightly together and reduce empty spaces
between strands.
ACSS-TW (Shaped Wire Compact Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminium Conductor Steel Supported)

is a concentrically stranded conductor with one or more layers of trapezoidal shaped hard drawn
and annealed 1350-0 aluminium wires on a central core of steel.
15.5.2 Importance of Annealed Aluminium Strands
Both ACSR and ACSS conductors are made from two different metals-aluminium and steel.
Consequently, the composite conductor behaviour is determined by the combined electrical and
mechanical properties of the two materials that make up the conductor. Although ACSR and ACSS
are made with 1350 alloy aluminium, their electrical and mechanical properties are very different.
Electrically, the conductivity of hard drawn aluminium in ACSR is 61.2 percent; whereas, soft
aluminium has a conductivity of 63 percent relative to copper (100 percent). This means that the
soft aluminium in ACSS is more efficient at transmitting power.
Mechanically, the tensile strength (resistance to breaking) of hard drawn aluminium in ACSR is
approximately three times that of soft aluminium. This means that the aluminium in ACSS conductor
contributes much less to the overall strength, and the composite conductor behaves more like
steel.
15.5.3 The TW enhancement to ACSS was transferred from existing technology developed for ACSR
(Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) and AAC (All Aluminium Conductor) TW conductors.
ACSS/TW is typically manufactured to meet the aluminium cross-sectional area of a standard round
conductor, but allows the overall diameter to be reduced by approximately 10 percent. ACSS/TW
can also be manufactured to meet the existing diameter of a standard conductor, incorporating 20
percent to 25 percent more aluminum cross-sectional area.
15.5.4 Difference between ACSS & ACSS-TW is as follows:
If we consider the same area, a minimum of 10% reduction in diameter is observed in ACSS-TW,
If we consider the same diameter the aluminium content in ACSS-TW is higher by 20 to 25%.
15.5.5 From the outside ACSS and ACSS/TW conductors look like traditional ACSR. All are manufactured
with steel cores and aluminium outer strands.
The key difference is that the ACSR aluminium is made from hard drawn aluminium, while ACSS
uses soft aluminium (i.e., annealed or “O” temper). In the ACSS/TW trapezoidal conductor, the
aluminium strands are not round but trapezoidal shaped.
15.5.6 When ACSR conductors are operated at temperatures in excess of approximately 930C, the
aluminium starts to anneal. The annealing weakens the conductor and can potentially cause the
conductor to break under high wind or ice conditions. To prevent this from happening, utilities
generally limit conductor temperatures to 850C for an ACSR conductor.
ACSS/TW and ACSS conductors are manufactured using soft (annealed) aluminium, where
operation at higher temperatures has no further effect on the aluminium’s tensile strength. Operation
of the ACSS product at higher temperature (e.g. 2500C) warrants the use of an enhanced type of
galvanizing, which provides more durable high temperature endurance performance (Mischmetal-
zinc/aluminium alloy coating). Another option for high temperatures is aluminium clad steel.
15.5.7 Pros & Cons of operating ACSS & ACSS-TW up to 2500C are as under:
1. The higher the current, the hotter the conductor and the greater the power losses. Ideally, lines are
designed to minimize these power losses and keep normal day-to-day power loads well below the
2000C operating temperature limits.
2. The hotter the conductor, the more it will sag and to compensate, the use of larger and/or stronger
structures would be required.
3. Electrical current also passes through the conductor joints (splices) and end fittings (dead ends),
forming “weak links” that can mechanically and electrically fail because of overheating and
Conductor supports and insulators also become more susceptible to failure.
15.5.8 Following are the important features of the conductor:
1. ACSS/TW can either be designed to have an equal aluminium cross sectional area as that of a
standard ACSS which results in a smaller conductor diameter maintaining the same ampacity level
but reduced wind loading parameters or with diameter equal to that of a standard ACSS which
results in a significantly higher aluminium area, lower conductor resistance and increased current
rating.
2. ACSS/TW is designed to operate continuously at elevated temperatures, it sags less under

emergency electrical loadings compared to ACSR.
3. Excellent self-damping properties.
4. Final sags are not affected by long-term creep of aluminium.
5. ACSS/TW also provides many design option in new line construction: i.e., reduced tower foundation
cost, decreased sag, increased self-damping properties, increased operating temperature and
improved corrosion resistance.
15.5.9 Following are the important applications of these conductors:
1. The ACSS/TW conductor could enable a tremendous emergency load carrying capability that the
utility could call upon when needed.
2. Cyclic Loads and Peak Demand can be accommodated using ACSS/TW because it can operate at
temperatures higher than ACSR.
3. ACSS/TW enables utilities to plan for future situations of increased power requirements because
ACSS/TW has power carrying capacity already built into the system.
15.5.10 Following numerical data shows option of using ACSS-TW conductor for Re-conductoring purpose
over existing ACSR conductor:
Technical Comparison for ACSR Zebra & ACSS-TW Conductor

Properties ACSR Zebra ACSS-TW
Span in m 350 350
Maintaining same Ampacity in ACSS-TW conductor
stated besides:
Line losses in kW/circuit 104.5 80.6
Ampacity at maximum operating temperature in ACSS-TW conductor
stated besides:
Current in Amp: 104.5 2114
Line losses in kW/circuit 104.5 1371
Tension to be maintained at 32 C & 100% wind
0
5687.00 5092.00
Assumptions: Coefficient of Emissivity = 0.6, Wind velocity = 0.6 m/s, Solar absorption co-efficient
= 0.5, Average ambient temp = 480, Constant of mass temperature coefficient of resistance of
conductor per ºC = 0.004 for both
1. Utilities can also turn to ACSS products in situations where they need additional power capacity
along existing right-of-ways, but are facing the environmental challenges of building new
lines. The ACSS/TW re-conductoring option may be the only solution available to upgrade
lines with minimal changes along existing routes conductors, Wind Pressure=117.96 kg/m2,
Solar Radiation = 1200 W / m
2. DC Resistance at 200C of ACSS-TW conductor is 25% lower as compared to ACSR, thus boosting
up ampacity and simultaneously reducing losses.
3. Maintaining Ampacity equivalent to ACSR, line losses of ACSS-TW conductor are 26% less.
4. ACSS-TW conductor can operate at maximum temperature of 200/2100C as compared to that of

ACSR at 850C, thus boosting up the current by 193% (nearly 2 times) as compared to conventional
ACSR conductors.
5. Power Transferred (MW) of ACSS-TW conductor at its maximum operating temperature is 194%
6. If the tension of ACSR conductor is 320C and 100% wind is maintained, the sag of ACSS-TW
conductor is slightly higher but the existing tower structure/design can be utilized by slight reduction
in span or by providing extensions.
15.6 HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-STACIR (SUPER THERMAL

RESISTANT ALUMINUM ALLOY CONDUCTOR, INVAR REINFORCED)
15.6.1 Super Thermal Resistant Aluminium Alloy conductor, INVAR reinforced conductor is manufactured
from Super Thermal Aluminium (STAL) alloy wires and the inner core is composed of aluminium
clad INVAR (Metal alloy with 36% Ni in Steel) wires.
15.6.2 This conductor finds following applications:
Replacing the installed ACSR/AAAC conductor by STACIR equivalent conductor. STACIR is a

solution to up rate existing transmission lines in a short time frame. Modification or reinforcement
of the towers is not required.
15.6.3 Following are the properties of INVAR:
1. Less Coefficient of linear Expansion-3.7*10-6 /0C.
2. It is aluminium claded so 14% more conductivity.
15.6.4 Following are the benefits of these conductors:
1. Possibility to increase the capacity of existing lines by 100% as compared to ACSR

conductors.
2. Excellent Sag properties due to INVAR core.
3. Modification or reinforcement of the existing towers is very limited or not required.
15.6.5 Following numerical data shows option of using STACIR conductor for Re-conductoring purpose
Technical Comparison of ACSR Moose & STACIR Conductor

Properties ACSR Moose STACIR
Weight (kg/km) 2004 1950
Maximum Operating Temperature (°C) 75 210

Span in m 400 400
Maintaining same Ampacity in STACIR conductor
The following calculations are carried out at temp stated 75 74.17
besides:

Power Transferred in MW/circuit 439 439
Ampacity at maximum operating temperature in STACIR conductor
The following calculations are carried out at temp stated 75 210
besides:
Power Transferred in MW/circuit 439 1183.6
Tension to be maintained at 320C & 100% wind 6603 6593
resistance of conductor per ºC = 0.004 for both conductors, Wind Pressure=117.96 kg/m2, Solar
1. With the same tower loadings, STACIR conductor can carry up to two times the current of a
conductor with the same diameter.
2. DC Resistance at 200C of STACIR conductor is 3% lower as compared to ACSR thus increasing

ampacity and simultaneously reducing losses (since INVAR 14% conductivity and Al alloy with 60%
conductivity).
3. Maintaining Ampacity equivalent to ACSR, line losses of STACIR conductor is 3% less.
4. STACIR conductor can operate at its maximum temperature of 2100C as compared to that of ACSR
at 750C thus boosting up the current by 205% (nearly 2 times) as compared to conventional ACSR
conductors.
5. Power Transferred (MW) of STACIR conductor at its maximum operating temperature is 205%
6. If the tension of ACSR conductor is 320C and 100% wind is maintained, the sag of STACIR conductor
is slightly higher but the existing tower structure/design can be utilized by slight reduction in span or
by providing extensions.
15.7 HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-ACCC (ALUMINiUM CONDUCTOR

COMPOSITE CORE)
15.7.1 Aluminium conductor composite core consists of hybrid carbon and glass fiber core which is
wrapped with trapezoidal shaped aluminium strands. The high strength structural core carries most
of the conductor’s mechanical loads, while the fully annealed aluminium strands carries all of the
conductor’s electrical current. ACCC conductor composite core is stronger than conventional
or high strength steel core.
Inner section-Composite core, Outer layer-Trapezoidal wires
15.7.2 The composite core is 30% lighter than aluminium, stronger than steel, and expands at less than
15% of steel. This results in savings on tower steel, foundation and losses. (Very less Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion=1.6*10-6/0C) ACCC conductors will carry about 28% more annealed aluminium
in a trapezoidal configuration giving greatly increased conductivity, greater ampacity, reduces line
losses and less temperature, without any increase in the conductor’s overall diameter or weight.
The carbon core provides increased strength and dimensional stability which affords fewer or lighter
structures on new lines.
Lower coefficient of thermal expansion virtually eliminates high temperature sag allowing more
efficient operation at up to 175°C.
The carbon fiber core is having strength around 2150 N/mm2 compare to normal steel 1340 N/
mm2.
15.7.3 ACCC conductor utilizes a high-strength, light-weight and dimensionally stable, single strand,
composite core that is wrapped with trapezoidal shaped aluminium strands. Hybrid composite core
resists degradation from vibration, corrosion, ultraviolet radiation, corona, chemical and thermal
oxidation and most importantly, cyclic load fatigue.
15.7.4 Following are the important features and applications of these conductors:
1. Mitigate Thermal Sag - ACCC conductor’s carbon composite core has a much lower coefficient of
thermal expansion compared to steel, aluminium, or other core materials.
2. Reduce Line Losses - Under equivalent load conditions, ACCC conductor reduces line losses by
30% to 40% compared to other conductors of the same diameter and weight. This is because of
lower resistance.
3. ACCC conductor’s additional aluminium content improves conductivity and reduces line losses,
which can increase overall system efficiency
4. ACCC conductor can reduce the cost of upgrading existing lines or new corridors due to its greater
strength, reduced sag, and increased capacity.
5. ACCC conductor’s ability to reduce line losses can provide significant reductions in fuel consumption
and their associated emissions from fossil fuel sources or improve the overall efficiency and
economic performance of renewable resources. Increased power delivery can also reduce the
demand for new sources of energy.
6. This conductor does not rust, corrode or cause electrolysis with aluminium conductor or
components. This makes this conductor suitable for polluted and oceanic zones.
15.7.5 Following are the applications of these conductors:
1. Reduced line losses in new line:
• Under equal loading conditions reduces line losses by 30 to 40% compared to conductors of
same diameter and weight.
• 100% more capacity built towards future demand.
2. Ideal for Re-conductoring on existing lines and for up gradation of existing lines:
• Increases capacity by improving line clearance.

• Reduces strain on structures thus increasing life.
15.7.6 Following numerical data shows option of using ACCC conductor for Re-conductoring purpose
Technical Comparison of ACSR Panther & ACCC conductors

Properties ACSR Panther ACCC Casablanca
Weight (kg/km) 974.00 834.4
Span in m 325 325
Maintaining same Ampacity in ACCC conductor
besides:
Ampacity at maximum operating temperature in ACCC conductor
besides:

Tension to be maintained at 320C & 100% wind 4255 3839.6
resistance of conductor per ºC = 0.004 for both conductors, Wind Pressure=117.96 kg/m2, Solar

1. DC Resistance at 20 0C of ACCC conductor is 27% lower as compared to ACSR thus increasing

ampacity and simultaneously reducing losses.
2. Maintaining Ampacity equivalent to ACSR, line losses of ACCC conductor is 27% less.
3. ACCC conductor can operate at its maximum temperature of 175 0C as compared to that of ACSR
at 75 0C thus boosting up the current by 155% (nearly 2 times) as compared to conventional ACSR
conductors.
4. Power Transferred (MW) of ACCC conductor at its maximum operating temperature is 157% higher
5. If the tension of ACSR conductor is 32 0C and 100% wind is maintained, the sag of ACCC conductor
is slightly higher but the existing tower structure/design can be utilized by slight reduction in span or
by providing extensions.
15.8 HTLS (HIGH TEMPERATURE LOW SAG) CONDUCTORS-GZTACSR (GAP TYPE THERMAL
RESISTANT ALUMINUM ALLOY CONDUCTOR)
15.8.1 GTACSR/ GZTACSR have a unique construction featuring a small gap between the steel core and
(super) thermal-resistant aluminium alloy layer.
15.8.2 The Gap conductor consists of a core of high strength steel, surrounded by a small gap filled with
temperature resistant grease and, stacked around this gap, circular layers of trapezoidal (1st layer
is Trapezoidal & next layers may be either round or Trapezoidal) aluminum all y wires. The filling
factor of the AlZr (Aluminium Zirconium Alloy) layers can reach 98.5% giving the possibility to make
optimal use of the maximum acceptable outer diameter of the conductor. (The steel can move
freely inside the conductor)
15.8.3 Thermal-resistant aluminium alloy (TAI) and Super thermal-resistant aluminium alloy (ZTAI) improve
its thermal-resistant characteristics by adding zirconium. ZTAI and TAI can keep its tensile strength
in high temperature condition.
TAI can withstand up to 150 deg C and can carry 1.6 times current of hard drawn aluminium
(1350).
ZTAI can withstand up to 210 deg C and can carry 2.0 times current of hard drawn aluminium
(1350).
Both TAL and ZTAL maintain nearly the same Mechanical and Electrical characteristic as hard
drawn aluminium (1350).
15.8.4 Mechanical and Electrical Characteristic of Aluminium Alloy conductor is as follows:
The aluminium alloys used are aluminium zirconium (AlZr). This can be either TAL or ZTAL
depending on the current carrying capacity increase required. For both TAL and ZTAL the strength
characteristics are not reduced by thermal cycles up to the maximum temperature given in the table
below.
Continuous Peak
GTACSR 150 180
GZTACSR 210 240
Above the stringing temperature the thermal expansion characteristic of the gap conductor is
that of the steel core, which allows small sag at high operating temperatures. Below the stringing
temperature the characteristics are the same as for a mechanically equivalent ACSR conductor.
In heavy load conditions (low temperatures, heavy wins, ice) the aluminium is contributing to the
strength of the gap conductor.
15.8.5 The important features of these conductors are as follows:
1. Extra and Ultra High Strength steel core with adequately tested galvanization and temperature
resistance up to 250°C.
2. High temperature grease developed to allow the aluminium to move freely over the steel core while
protecting the core from long term corrosion, resistant to temperatures up to 300°C.
3. The first layer consisting of Trapezoidal over which either Trapezoidal or round wire.
4. Environmentally friendly surface finish for an emissivity higher than 0.6 from day one.
15.8.6 Facts & Figures of Alloys used in GAP Conductor are as under Series of aluminium-zirconium alloys
that resisted the annealing effects of high temperatures. These alloys can retain their strength at
temperatures 180/2300C with respect to TAL/ZTAL wires. T-aluminium conductor INVAR reinforced
(GTACSR) is capable of operation up to 1500C (302 0F), with ZTACSR capable of 2100C (410 0F).
The thermal expansion coefficients of all the conventional steel-cored conductors are governed by
both materials together, resulting in a value between that of the steel and that of the aluminium.
This behaviour relies on the fact that both components are carrying mechanical stress.
However, because the expansion coefficient of aluminium is twice that of steel, stress will be
increasingly transferred to the steel core as the conductor’s temperature rises. Eventually the core
bears all the stress in the conductor. From this point on, the conductor as a whole essentially takes
on the expansion coefficient of the core. For a typical 54/7 ACSR (54 aluminium strands, 7 steel)
this transition point (also known as the “knee-point”) occurs around 100°C (212°F).
If a conductor could be designed with a core that exhibited a lower expansion coefficient than
steel or that exhibited a lower knee-point temperature, more advantage could be taken of the high-
temperature alloys. A conductor that exhibits both of these properties uses Invar, an alloy of iron
and nickel. Invar has an expansion coefficient about one-third of steel (2.8 micro strain per Kelvin
up to 100°C, and 3.6 over 100°C, as opposed to 11.5 for steel).
15.8.7 The principle of the Gap-type conductor is that it can be tensioned on the steel core alone during
erection. A small annular Gap exists between a high-strength steel core and the first layer of
trapezoidal-shaped aluminum strands, which allows this to be achieved. The result is a conductor
with a knee-point at the erection temperature. Above this, thermal expansion is that of steel (11.5
micro strain per Kelvin), while below it is that of a comparable ACSR (approximately 18).
This construction allows for low-sag properties above the erection temperature and good strength
below it as the aluminum alloy can take up significant load.
15.8.8 Following are the disadvantages of these conductors:
1. Generally, Invar is not required in GAP Conductor. If Invar core used, we prefer STACIR & not
GAP.
2. Gap-type conductor is its complex installation procedure, which requires de-stranding the aluminium
alloy to properly install on the joints. There is also the need for “semi-strain” assemblies for long line
sections (typically every five spans). Gap-type conductor requires about 25% more time to install
than an ACSR.
15.8.9 Small sag in GAP Conductor is due to the following facts:
At the time of sagging, all tension is applied to the steel core by a special stringing method. As a
result, the thermal expansion characteristics of GTACSR/GZTACSR become that of steel core. The
thermal expansion coefficient of steel core is 11.5 X10-6(/ °C) and it is approximately half of normal
ACSR (around 20 X10-6(/ °C)).
GTACSR/GZTACSR has better thermal expansion characteristics than conventional ACSR. So

GTACSR/GZTACSR can maintain small sag in high temperature condition.
15.8.10 The following needs to be noted for the accessories used in GAP Conductor:
1. The size of dead-end clamp for GTACSR/GZTACSR is slightly larger than conventional ACSR
allowing it to carry large current. Other accessories are same as conventional ACSR.
2. In case of replacing an existing transmission line, only compression type dead-end clamp should
be changed. Other Accessories can be reused.
15.8.11 Benefits of using GAP Conductor are as under:
1. Augmentation of line capacity, supporting the emergency loading currents and permanent increment
of electric load, maintaining adequate electrical clearances.
2. No modification or reinforcement required for existing towers and foundation.
3. Low cost and short construction period of lines.
15.8.12 Following numerical data shows option of using GAP conductor for Re-conductoring purpose over
existing ACSR conductor:
Technical Comparison for ACSR Zebra & GAP Conductor

Properties ACSR Zebra GZTACSR 440
SQMM
DC Resistance @ 20°C Temp 0.06868 0.0661
(ohms/km)
Maximum Operating Temperature (°C) 75 210

Span in m 350 350
Maintaining same Ampacity in GAP conductor
besides:
Ampacity at maximum operating temperature in GAP conductor

besides:
Assumptions: Coefficient of Emissivity=0.6, Wind velocity = 0.6 m/s, Solar absorption co-
resistance of conductor per ºC = 0.004 for both conductors, Wind Pressure=117.96 kg/m2,
Solar Radiation = 1200 W /m2
1. GAP conductor can operate at its maximum temperature of 210 0C as compared to that of ACSR at
75 0C thus boosting up the current by 155% (nearly 1.5 times) as compared to conventional ACSR
conductors.
2. Power Transferred (MW) of GAP conductor at its maximum operating temperature is 156% higher
15.9 RECOMMENDATIONS ON SELECTION OF NEW GENERATION CONDUCTORS
1. The continuous maximum operating current rating of the existing conductor should be reviewed
keeping in view the maximum surface temperature (Ambient + Heat due to passage of current) of
the conductor. This shall not exceed the limit prescribed by the manufacturer (from the deformation
point of view).
2. The proposed increment in the power flow and resultant increment in the current shall be worked out.
3. The Re-survey of the existing line shall be carried out to establish the existing span between the
towers and the angle of deviation on each angle tower.
4. The stringing chart shall be prepared for this line for existing conductor.
5. New Generation conductors will be selected in such a way that mechanical loadings on the tower
due to the new conductor shall not exceed the design limits of existing tower.
6. If the designs of the existing towers are not available they will be randomly Re-designed with
existing conductor and with existing line profile (span & angle of deviation).
7. Calculations shall be done to establish the value of the temperature at which the selected new
generation conductor satisfies the required current capacity (worked out from the proposed
augmentation of power transfer capability).
8. Stringing charts shall be prepared for the line once again with the maximum temperature worked
out as mentioned in (7) above.
9. It shall be ensured that in any of the span the sag do not increase beyond the value worked out for
the existing conductor as indicated in (1) & (4) above.
10. If the maximum sag in any one of the span in the line is more than that of existing conductor under
maximum temperature condition, the selected conductor shall be considered as un suitable.
11. Another conductor then shall be selected and the complete procedure as above shall be repeated.
The exercise shall continue till desired results are achieved.
12. Re conductoring may also include up gradation of lines (increasing the voltage level). The exercise
as above. The tower structure may need modification to afford electrical clearances.
13. Normally the standard clamp and connectors suitable for ACSR and AAAC conductors can be used
for Re-conductoring applications if the New Generation conductor is not likely to attain a maximum
temperature of more than 1500c with augmented power transfer capability. Failing this, clamp and
connectors shall be Re-designed to withstand elevated temperature.
15.9.1 While selecting a conductor for application of New Transmission line following need to be attended
to:
1. The details of maximum power flow expected and the voltage level shall be obtained from the
utility/client. Simultaneously the climatic conditions prevailing in the region through which the line is
expected to pass shall be obtained.
2. It is preferable to carry out Walk over survey along the proposed route of the new transmission line.
This is necessary to establish the angle points, power line crossing, railway crossing, river crossing
and other obstructions.
3. A new generation conductor shall be selected in such a way that it satisfies the desired power
transfer capability. The exact surface temperature of the conductor (Ambient + Heat due to passage
of current) for the desired power transfer capability shall then be worked out.
4. The sag & Tension calculations shall be done for the selected conductor to find out if it can be
preferably laid on the type tested towers with /without extensions. The mechanical strength of the
existing type tested tower and minimum ground clearance for the voltage rating of the proposed
transmission line shall be the criteria.
5. If the selected conductor tails to meet the requirement of power flow and or mechanical strength of
the existing tower, the exercise as in (4) above shall be repeated.
6. If the proposed transmission line with proposed deployment of new generation conductors is very
long (say more than 100 km) and the time available for construction is more than 18 months, the
utility/client concerned can decide up on whether to opt for tested tower design or to develop tailor
made designs and resort to the proto model tower testing.
7. The clamp and connectors shall be designed to suite to the proposed new generation conductor.
15.9.2 The selection of voltage level will depend up on the system to which the new transmission line is
to be connected. If the new line is part of a standalone system, the voltage level can be selected
depending up on the generator voltage, transformation ratio and voltage level of actual power
consumption.
The cost of ROW along the route of the transmission line shall be one of the main criteria for
selection of new generation conductor for the selected voltage level. Therefore, it is necessary to
work out cost economics while deploying new generation conductors.
15.9.3 For longer lines losses are important and therefore while selecting the conductor for new long
transmission line the loss factor shall also be tower taken in to account.
Chapter 16
Polymer Insulators for Use On

Transmission Lines
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The fast pace of industrialization, urbanization and the (road) transport explosion have caused
voluminous discharges of pollutants into the atmosphere, thereby escalating the air pollution to
manifolds.
Power grid having largest EHV and UHV network spread over India experienced a larger brunt
of air pollution resulting into severe tripping of Transmission lines in Northern region (especially
Northern Capital around Delhi) due to increase in pollution intensity. The History of Northern Grid
Lines failure incidents including Northern constituents lines in foggy winter 2007-08 as recorded
by Power Grid are given in the below Table:
Date No. of Power Grid Northern No. of NR Constituents Lines/

Region Lines / ICTs tripped ICTs Tripped
14th Dec 2007 21 9
25 Dec 2007
th
9 4
7 Jan 2008
th
17 6
5 Feb 2008
th
25 7
6 Feb 2008
th
21 7
4 March, 2008
th
15 8
7 March, 2008
th
30 14
8 March, 2008
th
12 4
9 March, 2008
th
29 4
Power Grid, in 2008, commenced a prestigious project (in three phases) for replacement of
conventional insulators (glass & porcelain disc insulators) on critical lines in the Northern region
(NCR of Delhi) which were always threatening stability of NR Grid itself and other connected grids.
The programme covered 48 transmission lines and replacement of about 73000 insulator strings.
Power Grid also started measuring pollution level in Northern Region to make Pollution Map of
Northern region finally ending up in preparation of Pollution Map of India like wind map, temperature
map, seismic map, etc. of India.
Similarly, ESKOM South Africa in 2006 had studied the pollution intensity on 400 kV transmission
lines in their western grid which included analysis of pollution, ageing and flashover performance of
different type of insulators and those studies resulted into re-insulation of the transmission system
with silicone rubber polymer insulators with specific creepage distance of 31 mm/kV as against
16 mm/kV adopted on those lines.
In India, the transmission lines upto year 2000 were designed with porcelain and glass insulators
suitable mostly for light category of pollution (13 to 16 mm/kV) The Standing EHV Committee
of CEA set up by Govt of India in 1977 on Standardization of Parameters and Specification of of
Major Items of 400 kV Equipment in the Country in their report (Vol I: Substation Equipment and Vol
II. Transmission Line Material) published in 1978 inter-alia made recommendations on creepage
distance of 25 mm/kV for insulation of TLs and S/S equipment.
497
16.2 Pollution Phenomenon
Wetting of Pollution with atmospheric moisture (winter fog a common phenomenon in Northern
Region of India) leads to electrical flashovers. Most of the effected UHV and EHV Transmission
lines are around the NCR of Delhi. The pollution phenomenon has been on the increase over the
past years commensurate with the increase in industrial houses where as fog in this region has
been here since time memorial. Over the previous four-five years before 2007, EHV Lines around
NCR have reached very high pollution and experienced extremely dense fog levels.
The pollution flashover posed serious threat to the reliability of the system. Whenever a line was
closed after a pollution flashover, there existed probability of repeated flashover after some delay
causing the line outage for a prolonged duration. The delayed line auto reclosing were resorted to
avoid repeated flashover on the transmission lines exposed to severe pollution intensity.
Pollution phenomenon has been equally experienced on Transmission Lines constructed in the
coastal area exposed to salt pollution and thereby required to be given same treatment as that
given to TLs in Northern Region.
Presently, the share of HVDC power transmission in the Indian power transmission sector is
consistently on the increase and the HVDC transmission line insulators are subjected to the same
polarity of voltage level throughout their lifetime. The contamination level of these insulators are
much higher as compared to the AC lines. Therefore, the pollution performance of insulators plays
a significant role in the reliability of HVDC transmission lines.
In such a situation, it is prudent to either use ceramic insulators with higher creepage distance or
use polymer insulators which have better pollution performance.
16.3 Polymer Insulators
As per IEC-61109, those insulators whose insulating body consists of at least one organic based
material are known as polymer insulators. Composite insulators are those insulators that are made
of at least two insulating parts, namely a core and a housing equipped with metal fittings. As per
this definition, all transmission line polymer insulators are composite in nature.
Generally, the transmission-line polymer insulators, are made up of either ethylene propylene
rubber (EPR) or silicone rubber (SIR). Since, SIR-based materials provide a hydrophobic weather
shed surface and EPR-based materials provide a hydrophilic surface, SIR is the most widely used
material. This Chapter therefore, elaborates upon the Silicone rubber polymer insulators, their
properties, components, manufacturing processes, operational issues and case study.
16.3.1 Brief History
Polymer insulators were first introduced in the late 1950s as line insulators with reduced weight
and improved electrical and mechanical characteristics relative to conventional ceramic string
insulators. This is more essential for UHV transmission lines (800 kV and above) where weight
of conventional insulator strings runs over a tonne and make the tower weight heavier thereby
enhancing financial investment.
GE introduced first non-ceramic insulators in 1959. However, it was unsuccessful due to several
tracking and erosion failures related to epoxy sheds. A few years later, European manufacturer like
Rebosio in Italy, Rosenthal in Germany and Transmission Development in England introduced the
first generation of present day non-ceramic line insulators. These insulators had a core composed of
a fiber glass rod covered with Polymer sleeve & sheds made from polymer materials and hardware
attached to the core in various ways.
At that time, manufacturers utilized various type of polymer shed materials including Teflon, epoxy,
resin, ethylene propylene monomers (EPM) and copolymers, ethylene propylene diene monomer
Polymer Insulators for Use on Transmission Lines 499
and copolymers, and copolymers of silicone and ethylene rubbers, instant set polymers based on
urethane chemistry, and polypropylene. Some of these polymers were filled with inorganic filers
such as silica and alumina tri-hydrate to obtain the desired anti-cracking properties.
The process of attaching Silicon rubber shells to glass rod are: (i) Low room temperature vulcanizing
(RTV) silicon rubber and (ii) high temperature vulcanizing (HTV) silicon rubber.
The metal end fittings are attached to the rod in different ways, which included gluing with epoxy
resin, insertion of wedges or cones into fiber grass rod and compression of the metal to grip the
rod
As with ceramic and glass insulators, the initial designs were plagued by problems and suffered
especially from material-aging effects, through a continuous evolution of designs, polymer insulators
have developed into a mature product since 1980s and become generally acceptable and are in
use in large numbers on transmission lines.
The advantages of polymer insulators such as their light weight, resistance to vandalism, small
profile, and improved contamination performance has resulted into their widespread demand
among the power transmission utilities of the world.
Fig. 1: Number of utilities that apply composite insulators at each voltage level as well as the number of utilities that
have transmission lines at each voltage level. The line indicates the results as a percentage
16.4 MECHANISM OF POLLUTION FLASHOVERS - A COMPARISON OF PORCELAIN / GLASS

INSULATORS & POLYMER INSULATORS
16.4.1 Transmission line Porcelain insulators are generally used either in the form of individual discs
strung together through cap & pin arrangement or as long rod units (also used individually or
strung together through cap & pin arrangement depending upon voltage level). While the glass
and porcelain disc type insulators consist of a dielectric shell cemented between a cap and pin
metal end fitting, the porcelain long rod insulators comprise a high-strength porcelain body (with a
number of sheds), with metal end caps cemented to each end.
Fig. 2 : Showing A Conventional disc insulator & Composite Long rod insulators
Glass and porcelain insulators are characterized by hydrophilic surfaces. A hydrophilic surface has
a high surface tension that causes water to form a thin film on the surface.
Fig. 3 : Showing a typical Hydrophilic surface
In polluted conditions, the surface conductance of the insulator increases during wetting conditions,
allowing increased leakage currents across the surface of the insulator. This increased leakage
current, in turn, leads to the formation of dry bands in the areas with the highest current density due
to localized heating. Since the electric field distribution along the string is not uniform, the voltage
across the units closest to the conductor is higher, and hence these units dry out first, forming a
dry zone. A wet zone is usually formed at the midsection of the string, where the voltage drop is the
lowest.
As the dry zone dries out further (thereby further increasing the resistance to the flow of leakage
current) and the wet zone becomes wetter, the voltage across the dry zones increases. Finally,
the units on the bottom section can no longer withstand the voltage stress, and they flash over.
Formation of an arc bridging the bottom insulator units of the string takes place.
The activity develops upward. The arcs bridging the bottom section result in an overvoltage over
the rest of the string, producing leakage current surges along the entire string. The dynamics of this
process may result into the flashover spanning the entire insulator string.
Silicone rubber polymer insulators are, however, hydrophobic in nature. Hydrophobic surfaces have
a low surface tension, which causes water to bead when coming into contact with it. In contamination
conditions this provides an advantage because it inhibits the formation of a continuous water layer
on such a surface, which, in turn, reduces leakage currents and the likelihood for flashover.
Fig. 4 : A typical Hydrophobic Surface
Hydrophobic surface Hydrophilic surface

Fig. 5 : showing water bridging phenomenon in hydrophilic surface
vis-a-vis hydrophobic surface
Hydrophobicity of silicone polymer insulators also prevent formation of continuous water filament
bridging the sheds even during heavy rain. Instead the water leaves the insulator underskirt
as individual water drops thereby creating a lesser probability of flashover vis-à-vis hydrophilic
insulators where the water falls in a continuous channel bridging the air gap between the skirts.
On a perfectly hydrophobic silicone polymer insulator surface, there is no significant water drop
elongation at the rim of the skirts of the insulator. However, continuous water film is formed on
hydrophilic insulators, which causes bigger pendant drops distributed on the periphery of the
underskirts. Studies have revealed that the hanging water droplets from hydrophilic insulators
substantially reduce the dielectric strength between the sheds. Thus, inter-shed discharges could
be ignited and a flashover may be triggered.
16.4.2 Pollution Level
The pollution level expressed in terms of Creepage distance per kV of Line voltage and categorized
as per IEC 60815 for AC Transmission System is given in Annexure 1.
The Creepage distance for DC System is also given in Annexure 1.
The Example of Typical Environments corresponding to Pollution Categorization reproduced in
Table 1 are as per IEC 60815.
16.5 COMPONENTS OF COMPOSITE INSULATORS
A polymer insulator consists of a load bearing core covered by a polymeric housing with sheds.
Metal end fittings are provided at both ends of the core for connecting the insulator to the supporting
tower, conductor, or other pieces of equipment. The main components of a polymer insulator are as
follows:
16.5.1 Core Rod
The internal insulating part of a polymer insulator is a fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) rod, which
is designed to carry the mechanical loading of the insulator. It consists of axially aligned glass-fibers
that are imbedded by a pultrusion process into a resin matrix to achieve maximum mechanical
strength. The fibers are typically 5 to 25 μm in diameter and make up 75 – 80% of the total weight
of the rod. A hydrolysis-resistant resin—epoxy, vinyl ester, or polyester based—is used as the resin
matrix.
Fig. 6 : A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image showing the fibers and resin
The mechanical strength of a FRP rod is much higher under a tension load than it is under
compression, torsion, or bending (cantilever) loads. Electrically, the rod is a good insulator as long
as it is dry and uncontaminated.
16.5.2 Polymer Insulator Housing Material
The function of the polymer housing is to hermetically seal the rod from the environment, and
to provide sufficient leakage distance to withstand both environmental and electrical stresses to
which the insulator may be subjected. The housing typically comprises sheds and sheath (shank)
sections.
For transmission-line polymer insulators, the housing may be based on either an ethylene propylene
rubber (EPR) or a silicone rubber (SIR).
In general, SIR-based materials provide a hydrophobic weather shed surface, and EPR-based
materials provide a hydrophilic surface.
There are three broad categories of silicone rubber that are used for insulation:
• High Temperature Vulcanizing (HTV), also known as High Temperature Cured Rubber (HCR)
• Room temperature cured vulcanizing (RTV)
• Liquid silicone rubber (LSR), also referred to as Liquid Injection Molding (LIM)
Most transmission-line applications today utilize HTV or LSR rubbers.
Fig. 7 : The chemical building block for silicone rubber

It consists of an inorganic silicon-oxygen (Si-O) backbone and two organic side chains attached to
the silicon atom. A methyl group (CH3) is most often utilized for high-voltage applications, but other
organic groups, such as phenyl or vinyl, may also be used.
Aluminium tri-hydrate (ATH) or silica is added to improve resistance to discharges, arcing, and
tracking.
In addition to their hydrophobic property, silicone rubbers also have a unique property whereby
lightweight silicone molecules migrate into the contamination layer, resulting in a transfer of
hydrophobicity.
There are, however, conditions during which the silicone rubber may temporarily lose its hydrophobic
properties. If the insulator is subjected to significant levels of discharge activity during this time, the
result may be a significant degradation of the rubber material and in extreme cases the exposure
of the core rod.
16.5.3 Metal End Fittings
The metal end fittings provide the mechanism by which the fiberglass rod is attached to the structure
and conductor hardware. These components are made of hot-dipped, galvanized, forged steel or
ductile iron.
A range of connection methods are available that can be fitted to fiber Glass rod. Some of the most
often used metal fittings include socket, ball, oval eye, and Y clevis. The metal end fittings are
generally glued with epoxy resin, swaged or crimped onto the rod by a compression process.
Fig. 8 : Showing typical cross-sections of crimped end fittings
Care needs to be taken to avoid over-compressing during manufacture, resulting in stress

concentrations and possibly rod fracture. Care also needs to be taken to avoid under-compression,
resulting in a mechanically weak insulator that may fail due to pull-out
16.5.4 End Fitting Seal
One of the most vulnerable regions of a polymer insulator is the interface between the end fitting,
polymer housing, and the core rod, known as the end fitting seal. Its function is to prevent moisture
or contamination from penetrating to the FRP rod, an event that may precipitate a failure.
End fitting seals may be made in a number of ways, such as follows:
• Direct bonding of the rubber weather shed system to the metal end fitting.
• Single or double O-rings.

• A compression seal between the polymer housing and the metal end fitting.
• A metal connection piece between polymer housing and the metal end fitting.
• An external or internal sealant applied in the interfacial region. In some cases, a so-called meta-
stable sealant is utilized, which is one that does not fully cure and remains “tacky.” This allows
for different coefficients of expansion between the materials used in the sealing interface.
Some designs incorporate more than one of the above sealing methods.
16.5.5 Electric Field Grading Devices
Research and service experience have shown that the electric field (E-field) within the rubber and
rod material, as well as in the air close to the surface of a polymer insulator, needs to be controlled
because it affects both the long- and short-term performance.
Fig. 9 : Corona Ring
Corona rings need to be dimensioned by considering the system voltage, hardware geometry,
structure dimensions, conductor bundle configuration, insulator parameters, and manufacturer
recommendations. Depending on the system voltage level, corona rings may be necessary at the
live end or/and at the grounded end of the insulator. Other aspects that need to be considered when
designing corona rings is their power arc withstand capability and attachment method.
16.6 COMPARISON OF PORCELAIN, GLASS AND COMPOSITE INSULATORS
Composite insulators are much lighter than equivalent porcelain and glass insulators. Light weight
which results in a more economic design of the towers or alternatively enabling to upgrade the
voltage of existing systems without changing the tower dimensions.
Typical comparison of weight of conventional & polymer insulator strings is indicated in the table
below:
Voltage Class 132 kV 220 kV 400 kV +/- 500 kV HVDC

Wt. of conventional insulator string* 50 kg 80 kg 138 kg 450 kg
Wt. of Polymer insulator string* 3.5 kg 6 kg 12 kg 38 kg
* Weight of insulator string without hardware
Silicone composite insulators exhibit hydrophobicity and thus are not easily wetted by water. This
resistance to water wetting is desirable as it increases the surface resistance of the insulator under
wet and contaminated conditions as compared to porcelain & glass.
The property of Silicone composite insulators to regenerate its hydrophobicity in polluted conditions,
enable a reliable pollution performance. Thus, washing of in-service composite insulators is
(invariably) not required with some exception. However, accumulation of dirt/ pollutants on surface
of Porcelain/ Glass insulators cause increase in the leakage currents, increased flashovers and
poor pollution performance. Therefore, washing of in-service Porcelain/ Glass insulators in polluted
stretches is a must.
The reduced surface leakages in composite insulators also result into marginal energy losses vis-
à-vis conventional disc insulators.
The composite insulator (shells) are made up of non-brittle materials. Therefore, composite
insulators are much easier to handle and install (except in case of damage to glass core). As
because of its non-brittle nature these insulators are also less susceptible to in-service damages
due to gun shots, slings and vandalism as compared to porcelain/ glass insulators.
Composite insulators have an added advantage of good aesthetics and visual impact due to its
sleek design and absence of coupling joints.
Since, the housings or weather sheds of composite insulators are made from organic materials,
mainly hydrocarbon, these insulators are more easily prone to deterioration by heat from electrical
discharge activity, chemicals and natural elements like sunlight, humidity, temperature etc. Hence,
composite insulators can undergo a reduction in electrical and mechanical properties with time.
Porcelain/ Glass insulators on the other hand are inert to most chemicals, sunlight, humidity,
temperature, etc. and thus no considerable aging affects have been observed.
16.7 OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCES/FAILURES
A failure may be defined when a composite insulator is unable to fulfill either of its principal roles, i.e.,
either unable to insulate under power frequency conditions or unable to hold everyday mechanical
load. The inability of an insulator to withstand transient over voltages or temporary mechanical
overloads within rating may also be considered a failure.
16.7.1 Mechanical Failure Modes
16.7.1.1 Brittle Fracture (Stress Corrosion Cracking of Fiberglass Rod)
- A brittle fracture is a mechanical failure of the fiberglass rod, i.e., a complete separation
of fibers in fiberglass rod. An illustration of the brittle fracture condition is shown in Fig 11.
This chemical attack (Formation of Nitric Acid due to ingress of water to the glass rod and
effect of sun rays results into damage to outer layer initially and spread later on to complete
glass rod), together with the mechanical load, results in transverse cracking. The cracking
will progress until the remaining cross section of the rod can no longer support the applied
load, and total separation occurs.
Fig. 10 : Brittle Fracture

16.7.1.2 Mechanical Failure Due to End Fittings Pulling Out or Mechanical Failure of the Rod
The Mechanical failure modes are (categorized) where either the insulator mechanically fails when
the rod separates from the end fittings or the rod itself mechanically fails. These failures may occur
due to mishandling, errors in the manufacturing process, and/or degradation e.g., overheating of
the fiberglass rod during manufacturing, decomposition of the epoxy in an epoxy-cone-type end
fitting, etc. Figure 11 shows an example of a fiberglass rod that failed mechanically in-service. The
reason for failure was traced back to a manufacturing defect.
Fig. 11 : End fitting Pullout
16.7.1.3 Core and/ or Hardware damage during crimping During crimping, if the pressure of crimping is
very high, the core inside may get damaged. Cracks may also develop on core or on the metal
fittings when the tolerances between the outside core diameter and the inside hardware diameter
are too large. Unless subjected to acoustic test methods, these cracks may get un-noticed and the
insulators may pass routine mechanical proof load test only to fail later in the field.
16.7.2 Electrical Failure Modes
16.7.2.1 Flash Under-Tracking Along or Through the Fiberglass Rod Resulting into Flashover
Flash under-tracking is an electrical failure mode. This failure mode occurs when moisture comes
in contact with the fiberglass rod and tracks up the rod or the interface between the rod and rubber.
When the moisture and by-products of discharge activity due to the moisture extend a critical
discharge along the insulator, the insulator can no longer withstand the applied voltage and a flash
under occurs. A flash under is characterized by tracking through the rod or along the rod-rubber
interface or by the presence of puncture hole.
16.7.2.2 Destruction of Rod by Discharge Activity
Internal defects or moisture or contaminant ingress may result in internal discharge activity. If the
rod becomes carbonized, a larger conductive defect is formed. These discharges degrade the rod
until the unit is unable to hold the applied mechanical load and the rod separates. Figure 12 shows
images of a rod damaged by discharge activity.
Fig. 12 : Failure due to discharge activity

16.7.2.3 Erosion at Mold Parting Lines
Composite insulators erode under the action of dry band arcing or corona discharge. Erosion of
composite insulators that are highly filled with inorganic fillers is an extremely slow process and of
little concern unless channeled. The Channeled erosion resulting from dry band arcing along mold
parting lines can lead to failure. Once erosion exposes the core to dry band arcing, the composite
insulator may fail through tracking along the core.
16.8 HANDLING, CLEANING & PACKAGING
Composite insulators are easily damaged through rough handling. Damage to the housing during
transport comes about quite easily through contact with sharp or abrasive surfaces. In hoisting,
rope and slings can also cause damage to the housing. During installation, cracking of core has
occurred because of cantilever or torsion loads. Once damage to housing occurs, the effect of
moisture and voltage can result in one of two possible failure modes; tracking along the core and
brittle fracture.
Therefore, proper handling, packaging & storage of composite insulators are significant for their
safe operation and longevity
16.8.1 Handling
Composite insulators should be lifted by metal end fittings only. Care must be taken so that no
cantilever loads are applied to insulators which may damage the rod. If composite insulator has
any nicks, cuts or indentation of the polymeric surfaces, it should be set aside until inspected by a
knowledgeable person. A composite insulator that has its fiberglass rod exposed, however slightly,
should be discarded.
16.8.2 Cleaning
Composite insulators, normally, should not require cleaning. However, if dirty, wiping with a wet
cloth should be all that is necessary to clean them. If insulators are very dirty, a mild detergent
may be used but must be thoroughly rinsed with clean water so that no soap residue remains on
insulator. Care must be taken not to damage the end fitting sealant when washing. Solvent of any
kind should not be used on composite insulators.
16.8.3 Storage
The Composite insulators or the containers should not placed in direct contact with the ground.
Moss can form on composite insulators during storage. Small amounts of Moss will not be harmful.
If the Moss is very heavy it may be removed by washing the insulator with dilute solution of chlorine
laundry bleach (1 part chlorine bleach to 4 parts water).
In-service composite insulators should not ordinarily require line washing. However, special
condition, precautions are necessary to ensure that high pressure water washing does not damage
the housing of composite insulators.
16.8.4 Packaging
Insulators are stored outdoors. In warm moist climate, the cardboard deteriorated within several
months and leaves a residue on the insulator that is difficult to remove. Encapsulating individual
insulators or group of insulators with plastic may cause concerns because of moisture condensation
inside the plastic.
Crates shall be strong enough not to get damaged during loading/ unloading from trucks, stacking,
so that insulators are not damaged. After arriving at the utility, they shall be inspected internally,
repacked, handled and stored.
Annexure I
Classification of Pollution Categorization for AC and DC System
Categorization Creepage Distance for Creepage Distance for Example of Typical Environments
AC System DC System corresponding to Pollution
(mm/ kV line) mm/kV Categorization.
Light 16 30 Ref Table -1 of IEC 60815 Paced
Medium 20 38 at Annex
Heavy 25 56
Very Heavy 31 78
Table 1
SUPREME & CO. PVT. LTD.

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Research Report / Publication No.

CENTRAL BOARD OF IRRIGATION & POWER

CENTRAL BOARD OF IRRIGATION & POWER

Designed and Published by: Shri V.K. Kanjlia, Secretary

Since, Transmission Lines are the vehicles for optimum transmission

Shri M.L. Sachdeva Shri D. Chowdhury

Shri Karnail Singh Shri Umesh Chandra

Shri M. Krishnakumar Shri Rajesh Kumar

Shri Pankaj Kumar Shri Gopal ji

Shri J.B. Mondal Shri S.K. Ray Mohapatra

Shri S.M. Takalkar Shri C. Suresh Babu Reddy

Shri B.B. Shah Shri E.V. Rao

Dr. Hemlata Vyas Ms. Renu Singhal

Shri V.K. Kanjlia Shri Siraj Bhattacharya

Shri P.P. Wahi Shri S.K. Batra

Shri Gorokh Thakur Dr. Prabhat Mohan

Dr. V. Kalyanaraman Shri S. Arun Kumar

Shri A.K Vyas Shri P.K. Mishra

Shri Rajiv Gandhi Shri Neeraj Kumar

Shri Surendra Kumar Shri Sidhartha Mitra

Shri P. Bhattacharya Shri Sujalkumar B. Shah

Shri Nitin S. Deshpande Ms. Dhwani Shah

Shri Kishore Gaikwad Shri C. N. Devarajan

Chapter 2 - TOWER TYPES AND SHAPES 11

Chapter 3 - TOWER GEOMETRY 24

Chapter 4 - ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES 74

Annexure-1 : Over Voltages Experienced in Transmission system 86

Chapter 5 - DESIGN PARAMETERS 90

Annexure 1 : An example of Sag-tension calculation of conductor 115

Chapter 6 - LOADINGS 118

Chapter 8 - TESTING OF TOWERS 180

APPENDIX - 1 : Calibration Chart 188

Appendix - I : Quality Assurance Plan 205

Chapter 10 - Design Of Foundations 246

Chapter 11 - Construction Of Transmission Line 334

Chapter 12 - Multi Circuit & Narrow Base Towers 415

Chapter 13 - Uprating And Upgrading Of transmission Lines 425

Chapter 14 - Mono Pole Towers 445

Chapter 15 - New Generation Conductors 477

Chapter 16 - Polymer Insulators For Use On Transmission Lines 497

Annexure 1 : Classification of Pollution Categorization for AC and DC System 508

(b) Direct current HV Lines - + 500 kV, + 600 kV and + 800 kV

1.1.3 Land Mark Events of Transmission System in the Power Sector

1950-1960 Growth of State grids and introduction of 220 kV Voltage Level

1977 Introduction of 400 kV Voltage level

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF POWER SYSTEMS IN INDIA

Particulars Xth Plan (2002-2007) XI Plan (2007-2012) XII Plan (2012-17)

1.2.3 Development of Super Voltage Transmission Line

(i) ±-800 kV Multi-Terminal System

(ii) 1200 kV UHVAC Transmission System

1.3 Transmission Line Support Structures

2. Mono Poles / Narrow base towers

1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL AWAKENING

1.5 PHILOSOPHIES IN DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINES

1.6 concepts used in transmission line design

1.6.1 The design concept is based on the following :

(i) Design based on limit load concept.

(ii) Use of probabilistic method of design.

(iii) Use of Reliability levels in transmission lines design.

(iv) Use of Co-ordination in strength of line components.

(vii) Carrying out anticascading checks on all angle towers.

1.8 BRIEF OF TOPICS COVERED IN THE MANUAL

1.8.3 Chapter 2 – 11 of Manual published in 1998 (CBI&P Publication No. 268)