GENERAL SYSTEM THEORY

Reduction vs. Systems

 1950’s the main approach to understanding

was ‘reductionism’ – divide something into its
parts
 Ludwig von Bertalnffy proposed systems
thinking – discover how something interacts
with its environment
 General Systems Theory

 Science of understanding open systems theory

 GST provides a framework to study open systems
 GST is not too general nor too specific
Open Systems

 All living and many non-living things are open

systems
 Systems theory gives us a way to ‘think about’
open systems
 Systems theory lays the foundation for the
analysis and modelling of systems
 Systems theory provides an analytical
framework for comprehending dynamic
interrelated operating systems
Open System

Sense Response
OPEN
SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT
 University – Open System

Policy
Approved Funding
Industry Needs
Students UNIVERSITY

Funding Requests
New Knowledge
Graduates
Systems Thinking

 holistic approach to problem solving

 reflecting on how the organisation relates to
its business environment and
 how factors in the environment can affect the
organisation
Definition of ‘System’

“... an identifiable, complex dynamic entity

composed of discernibly different parts or
subsystems that are interrelated to and
interdependent on each other and the whole
entity with an overall capability to maintain
stability and to adapt behaviour in response
to external influences” [Webster’s]
Boulding’s Explanation

“Somewhere … between the specific that has

no meaning and the general that has no
content there must be, for each purpose and
at each level of abstraction, an optimum
degree of generality”
Beckett’s explanation

"The trust of general systems .. is to draw

attention to the study of relationships of
parts to one another within the wholes”
GST Traits

 Systems …
 are Goal Seeking
 are Holistic
 have Hierarchy
 have Inputs and Outputs
 transform inputs into outputs
 consume and/or create Energy
 are affected by Entropy
 have Equifinality
 have Feedback
 Goal Seeking
 All open systems must have goals
 There are two types
 Inner directed goals
 Outer directed goals
 Design strategies are typically “outer
directed” goals
 Maintenance strategies are an “inner
directed” goal
Holistic SU B
SYSTEM
SU B
SYSTEM
SU B
Bou nd ry
SU B SYSTEM
SYSTEM
SU B
SYSTEM
SU B
SYSTEM
SU B
SYSTEM

 Fredrick Hagel (1770-1831)

 The whole is more than the sum of the parts
 The whole determines the sum of the parts
 The parts cannot be understood if considered
in isolation from the whole
 The parts are dynamically interrelated and
interdependent
 Hierarchical
W H OLE
SYSTEM

PLAN T LEVEL
MOR E GEN ER AL

SU B
SU B SYSTEM
D EPAR TMEN T LEVEL
SYSTEM
SU B
SYSTEM SYSTEMS
C ELL L EVEL

W OR KSTATION L EVEL

SU B
MOR E D ETAIL
SU B SYSTEM
SYSTEM
PR OC ESS LEVEL
SU B
SYSTEM
Transform Inputs into Outputs
IN PU T

ER R OR
FEED BAC K
TR AN SFOR M
IN PU T OU TPU T
IN PU TS TO
OU TPU TS

IN PU T
OU TPU T

TR AN SFOR M OU TPU T
IN PU TS TO
OU TPU TS
IN PU T

STATU S FEED BAC K

Entropy

 A measure of the amount of disorder in a system

 Everything disintegrates over time
 Negative entropy or centropy
 Effects of entropy are offset by the system
transforming itself continuously
 Maintain order through such things as repairs,
maintenance and possibly growing by importing
‘energy’
Energy, Equifinality and Feedback

 Systems create/consume energy

 Physical
 Emotional
 Equifinality is the ability for systems to achieve
goals in a number of ways
 This flexibility allows systems avoid the effects of
entropy
 Systems have feedback - feedback can allow a
system to change its direction
Conclusions
 Views of GST are universal
 GST combats ‘isolationist’ tendencies among engineers,
systems analysts, business analysts, IT specialists, etc.
etc.
 GST offers a framework for understanding all systems
 Benefits of GST to design of systems are significant
 Theory of GST lays at the foundation of much new
thinking in - including ‘Learning Organisations’,
‘Structured Analysis’, ‘Sociotechnical Design’ and
‘Strategic Planning’
Boulding and the Hierarchy
of Systems Complexity
 Kenneth Boulding, “General System Theory –
The Skeleton of Science”, 1956
 The existing over-specialization of science and the
lack of communication between the different
areas.
 Each studies some kind of systems, a classification
is necessary if a general methodology for their
study is to be developed.
Boulding and the Hierarchy
of Systems Complexity [2]
 Frameworks
 Level of static structures and relationship
 Ex: the arrangement of atoms in a crystal, the
anatomy of genes, the organization of the
astronomical universe.

 Clockworks
 The Solar System  simple dynamic system with
predetermined motion
 Car engines and dynamos
Boulding and the Hierarchy
of Systems Complexity [3]
 Cybernetic Systems
 Control mechanism, characterized: feedback
mechanisms with transmission and interpretation
of information.
 A thermostat with teleological behavior

 Cell
 Self-maintaining structure
 Open-system level
Boulding and the Hierarchy
of Systems Complexity [4]
 Plant
 Process of the plant level take place without
specialized sense organs, the reaction to changes in
the environment is slow.

 Animal
 Wide range of specialized sensors convey a great
amount of information via a nervous system to a brain
where information can be stored and structured.
 Reaction to changes in the environment are more or
less instantaneous.
Boulding and the Hierarchy
of Systems Complexity [5]
 Human
 Sophisticated language capability and the use of
internal symbols through which man accumulates
knowledge.

 Social Organization
 The units assumed roles and these are tied together
by the channel of communication.

 Transcendental
 Unknowable, presupposed exhibit systemic structure
and relationship.
Boulding and the Hierarchy
of Systems Complexity [6]
 Physical Scientist
 Category of physical and mechanical systems:
framework, clockwork, cybernetics
 Biologist, Botanist, and zoologist
 cell, plant, and animal
 Social Scientist
 Human and social organization
 Philosophy
 Transcendental systems
Checkland and the Systems
Typology
 Peter Checkland, “Systems Thinking Systems
Practice”, 1981.
 The absolute minimum number of systems
classes necessary to describe the existing
reality is four  natural, human activity,
designed physical, designed abstract,
systems.
Checkland and the Systems
Typology [2]
 Natural Systems
 “they are systems which could not be other than
they are, given a universe whose patterns and
laws are not erratic”

 Human Activity Systems

 Have a tendency to integrate in such a way that
they can be viewed as a whole.
 Social system
 Ex: agricultural, defence, trading, transportation
Checkland and the Systems
Typology [3]
 Designed Physical Systems
 Systems fitted with purpose of mind because a need
for them in some human activity has been identified
 Individual tools, individual machines, other designed
and fabricated material entities

 Designed Abstract Systems

 Various type of theological, philosophical or
knowledge systems.
 Only associated with human beings.
 General System Theory
Komponen-komponen dari
suatu sistem berinteraksi
Sebuah sistem adalah suatu
keseluruhan
Sistem dibuat untuk tujuan
tertentu (goal seeking)
Sistem memiliki masukan dan
keluaran
Sistem mengubah masukan
untuk menghasilkan keluaran
Sistem menunjukan adanya
entropi
Sistem harus dikendalikan
Sistem membentuk hirarki
Sistem memperlihatkan
adanya diferensiasi
Sistem memperlihatkan
adanya equifinality
Kepentingannya bagi Desain Sistem Informasi
Gambarkan komponen-komponen dan hubungan antar
mereka selama proses analisis
Yakinkan untuk merumuskan keseluruhan sistem sebelum
menguji sub sistem
Apa tujuan sistem informasi yang dibangun?
Tujuan utama desain adalah menentukan masukan dan
keluaran
Tugas utama desain adalah menentukan proses pengolahan
untuk menghasilkan keluaran berdasarkan masukan
Pengolahan informasi adalah hal krisis bagi keberhasilan
suatu organisasi
SI membantu mengendalikan organisasi; SI harus mempunyai
umpan balik
Disain SI merupakan tugas berhirarki; sistem terdiri dari
hirarki subsistem
SI mempunyai banyak bagian-bagian khusus
Ada banyak cara untuk mendisain SI untuk mencapai sasaran
yang dikehendaki.