BALAJI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Thiruporur , Thandalam, Chennai-603110

DEPARTMENT OF MATHENATICS

BRIDGE COURSE

CONTENT

S. no Topics Author name Page no.

1. Matrices Sumalatha.K 2
2. Vector Algebra Kavitha.K 5
3. Partial Fractions Sumalatha.K 7
4. Sequences and series Veeralakshmi.S 9
5. Analytical Geometry(2D) Veeralakshmi.S 11
6. Trigonometry functions Veeralakshmi.S 13
7. Differential Calculus Sinnapparaj 15
8. Integral Calculus Aarthi.R 22
9. Differential Equations Kavitha.K 26

1
 MATRICES
DEFINITIONS:

MATRIX: A set of elements arranged in a rectangular array having m rows and n columns ,
the numbers being enclosed by brackets [ ] or ( ) is called m x n matrix(read as “m by n matrix).

A m x n matrix is usually written as = .

This matrix contains m x n elements. Generally, a matrix is denoted by a single capital letter A or
B or C etc.

REAL MATRIX: A matrix is said to be real if all its elements are real numbers.

Eg: is a real matrix.

SQUARE MATRIX: A matrix in which the number of rows and columns are equal is called a
square matrix , otherwise it is called as rectangular matrix.

Thus, a matrix A= is a square matrix if m=n and a rectangular matrix if m ≠ n.

Eg: A= , a 3 x 3 square matrix.

Here of a square matrix are called its diagonal elements and the diagonal along
which these elements lie is called the principal diagonal.
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called its trace.

ROW MATRIX: A matrix having only one row and any number of columns (i.e. a matrix of
order 1 x n) is called a row matrix.
Eg. A=(7 3 4 1) is a row matrix.

COLUMN MATRIX: A matrix having only one column and any number of rows (i.e. a matrix
of order m x 1) is called a column matrix.

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Eg: B= is a column matrix.

NULL MATRIX: A matrix in which each elements is zero is called a null matrix or a zero
matrix.

Eg: is a 3 x 2 zero matrix.

DIAGONAL MATRIX: A square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero is called a
diagonal matrix. Thus, A= is a diagonal matrix if for i≠j.

Eg; Thus the diagonal matrix A can be written as

D[5,-3,7].

UNIT MATRIX OR IDENTITY MATRIX: A square matrix in which all the leading diagonal
elements are zero and all diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called as unit matrix.

Eg: ; .

UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX: A square matrix in which all the elements below the
principal diagonal are zero is called an upper triangular matrix.

Eg: ; .

LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX: A square matrix in which all the elements above the
principal diagonal are zero is called anlowertriangular matrix.

Eg: ; .

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TRIANGULAR MATRIX: A square matrix in which all the elements either below or above the
principal diagonal are zero is called a triangular matrix.

Eg: ; .
Thus a triangularmatrix is either upper or lower triangular matrix.

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX: The transpose of a matrix can be written by

changing rows to columns and columns to rows denoted by .

Eg: then .

SINGULAR MATRIX: A matrix A is said to be singular if the determinant of A is zero.

INVERSE OF A MATRIX: Let A be a non-singular matrix. Then the inverse of

VECTOR: An ordered set of n numbers is called a n-vector or a vector of order n. A vector of

order n is denoted by X. The numbers are called the components or elements of a vector. The n
components of a vector may be written in a row or a column.

Eg: .

LINEARLY DEPENDENT SET OF VECTOR: A set r-vectors is said to

be linearly dependent set if there exist r scalars not all zero , such that
.

LINEARLY INDEPENDENT SET OF VECTOR: A set r-vectors is said

to be linearly independent set if there exist r scalars such that
.

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ORTHOGONAL VECTORS: Two vectors are orthogonal if .

NOTATIONS OF ROWS AND COLUMNS OF A MATRIX:

A=

B=

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MATRIX AND DETERMINANT:

(I) A matrix cannot be reduced to a numbers. That means a matrix is a structure alone and is
not having any value. But a determinant can be reduced to a numbers.
(II) The number of rows may not be equal to the number of Columns in a matrix in a
determinant the numbers of rows is always equal to the number of columns.
(III) On interchanging the rows and columns, a different matrix is formed. In a determinant
interchanging the rows and Columns does not alter the Value of the determinant.

Definitions
To everysquare matrix A of order n with entries as real (or) Complex numbers, we can
associate a number Called determinant of matrix A and it is denoted |A| (or) det (A) (or)

Example(1):
Thus determinant formed by the elements of A is said to be the determinant of matrix A.

VECTOR ALGEBRA

CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR:
ZERO OR NULL VECTOR:
A vector whose initial and terminal points are coincident is called a zero or null vector .
the zero vector is denoted by

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UNIT VECTOR:
A vector whose modulus is unity is called a unit vector

A unit vector in the direction of is denoted by .Thus =1

LIKE AND UNLIKE VECTORS:
Vectors are said to be like when they have the same sense of direction and unlike
when they have opposite directions
CO_INITIAL VECTORS:
Vectors having the same initial point are called co initial vectors
CO_TERMINUS VECTORS:
Vectors having the same terminal point are called co terminus vectors
COLLINEAR OR PARALLEL VECTORS:
Vectors are said to be collinear if they have the same line of action
NEGATIVE VECTOR:

The vector which has the same magnitude as that of but opposite direction is
called the negative of
RECIPROCAL OF A VECTOR:

Let be a non zero vector the vector which has the same direction as that of
but has magnitude reciprocal to that of is called the reciprocal of
FREE AND LOCALISED VECTOR:
When we are at liberty to choose the origin of the vector at any point then it is
said to be a free vector. When it is restricted to a certain specified point then the vector is said to
be a localized vector.

COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR: INTERMS OF COORDINATES OF AND

Let and be any two points in XOY Plane. Let and be unit
vectors along OX and OY respectively.
DIRECTION COSINES:

Let be any point in space with reference to a rectangular coordinate system

. Let be the angles made by OP with the positive direction of coordinate
axes respectively. Then are called the direction cosines of .

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DIRECTION RATIOS:
Any three numbers proportional to direction cosines of a vector are called its direction ratio’s.

are the direction ratios of the vector .

PARTIAL FRACTIONS
PROPER FRACTION:
A proper fraction is one in which the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator.

Example (2):

The expressions , are examples for Proper fractions.

IMPROPER FRACTION

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 An improper fraction is a fraction in which the degree of the numerator is greater than or
equal to the degree of the denominator.

Examples (3):

The expressions , are examples for improper fractions.

TYPES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

LINEAR FACTORS, NONE OF WHICH IS REPEATED
If a linear factor ax+b is a factor of the denominator q(x) then corresponding to this factor

associate a simple fraction , where A is a constant (A≠0). When the factors of the
denominator of the given fraction one all linear factor none of which is repeated, we write the
Partial fraction as follows.

Example (4):

Resolve into Partial fractions .

LINEAR FACTOR, SOME OF WHICH ARE REPEATED

If a linear factor ax+b occur n times as of the denominators of the given fraction, then
corresponding of the factors associate the sun of n simple fractions.

QUADRATIC FACTORS NONE OF WHICH IS REPEATE

If a quadratic factor a +bx+c which is not factorable in to liner factors occurs only
once as a factor of the denominator of the given fraction ,then corresponding to this factor

associate a partial fraction where A and B are constants which are not both zeros

consider .We can write this proper fraction in the form =

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The first factor of the denominator x+1 is of first degree, so we assume its numerator as a
constant A. The second factor of the denominator +1 is second degree and which is not
factorable into linear factors. We assume its numerator as a general first degree expression
Bx+C.

Example (5):

Resolve into partial into partial fractions

Series and Sequence

Sequence:

An ordered set of real numbers a1, a2,  an is called a sequence and is denoted by (an).
If the number at terms is unlimited then the sequence is said to be an infinite sequence.

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A sequence is a function from the set of natural numbers to the set of real numbers.
“A sequence is represented by its range”
Example:
Arithmetic Progression: An arithmetic progression (abbreviated as A.P) is a sequence of
numbers in which each term, except the first, is obtained by adding a fixed number to the immediately
preceding term. This fixed number is called the common difference, which is generally denoted by d.

For example, 1, 3, 5, 7, … is an A.P with common difference 2.

Geometric Progression: A geometric progression (abbreviated as G.P.) is a sequence of

numbers in which the first term is non-zero and each term, except the first is obtained by multiplying the
term immediately preceding it by a fixed non-zero number. This fixed number is called the common ratio
and it is denoted by the letter ‘r’.

The general form of a G.P. is a, ar, ar2, …, with a ≠0 and r ≠0, the first term is ‘a’

Harmonic Progression: A sequence of non-zero numbers is said to be in harmonic progression

(abbreviated as H.P.) if their reciprocals are in A.P.

1 1 1
The general form of H.P. is , , , , where a ≠0.
a a  d a  2d

1 1 1
For example the sequences 1, , , , is a H.P., since their reciprocals 1, 5, 9, 13, …, are in A.P.
5 9 13

Limit:

A sequence is said to tend to a limit l if for every  > 0 a value N of n can be found such
that an  l   for n  N

Convergence:
If a sequence (an) has a finite limit, it is called a convergent sequence. If (an) is not
convergent it is said to be divergent.

Bounded sequence:
A sequence (an) is said to be bounded if there exists a number k, such that an < k for every
n.

Monotone sequence:

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 The sequence (an) is said to increase steadily or to decrease steadily according as
an1  an or an1  an for all a values of n. Both increasing and decreasing sequence are called
monotonic sequence.

Convergent:
A monotonic sequence always tends to a limit, finite or infinite. Thus a sequence which is
monotonic and bounded is convergent.

Series:

If u1, u2,  un be an infinite sequence of real numbers, then u1  u2   un    is

called an infinite series. An infinite series is denoted by u n and the sum of its first n terms is
denoted by Sn.

Example:

Binomial series:  x  a   x n  nC1 x n 1a1  nC2 x n 2 a 2   nCr x n r a r   nCn a n

n

Exponential series:

x 2 x3 x 4
Logarithmic series: log 1  x   x    
2 3 4

x 2 x3
log 1  x    x   
2 3

Analytical Geometry
Fundamentals:
‘Geometry’ is the study of points, lines, curves, surfaces etc and their properties.

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The founder of Analytical Geometry (also called as Cartesian Geometry, from the latinized form
of his name Cartesius).

Basic concepts:
The distance between two points in the plane is the length of the line segment joining the
two points.
If the points have Cartesian coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)

d  x1  x2    y1  y2 
2 2

If the points have polar coordinates (r1, 1) and (r2, 2)

d  r12  r2 2  2r1r2 cos 1  2 

Straight Lines:
A straight line is the simplest geometrical curve. Every straight line is associated with an
equation. To determine the equation of a straight line, two conditions are required.
(1) Slope-intercept form:

i.e. y  mx  c where ‘m’ is the slope of the straight line and ‘c’ is the y intercept.

(2) Point-slope form:

i.e. y  y1  m  x  x1  where ‘m’ is the slope and ‘(x1, y1)’ is the given point.

(3) Two point form:

y  y1 x  x1
i.e.  where (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are the given point.
y2  y1 x2  x1

(4) Intercept form:

x y
i.e.   1 where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are x and y intercepts respectively.
a b
Normal form:
Equation of a straight line in terms of the length of the perpendicular p from the origin to
the line and the angle α which the perpendicular makes with x-axis.
The General form:

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 The equation ax  by  c  0 will always represent a straight line.

Parametric form:
If two variables, say x and y, are functions of a third variable, say ‘θ’, then the functions
expressing x and y in terms of θ are called the parametric representations of x and y. The variable
θ is called the parameter of the function.

Parallel Lines:

Let l1 : y  m1 x  c1 and l2 : y  m2 x  c2 be the two intersecting line. If the two straight

lines are parallel, then their slopes are equal, i.e., m1  m2

Example: Two straight lines 2 x  y  9  0 and 2 x  y  10  0 are parallel.

Trigonometry
Introduction:
Trigonometry is one of the oldest branches of Mathematics. The word trigonometry
means “triangle measurement”. The study of angles and of the angular relationships of planar

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and three-dimensional figures is known as trigonometry. The trigonometric functions (also called
the circular functions) comprising trigonometry are cosecant csc x, cosine cos x, cotangent cot x,
secant sec x, sine sin x, tangent tan x.

Domain and Co-domain of all trigonometric functions:

(i) The domain of sin x is R and its range is [–1, 1] i.e., x  R  1  x  1

(ii) The domain of cos x is R and its range is [–1, 1]

(iii) The domain of tan x is

     
R   2n  1 , n  I    x  R : x   2n  a  , n is an integer 
 2   2 

(iv) The domain of cot x is R   n : n  I   x  R, x  n , n is an integer and its Range

is R.

  
(v) The domain of sec x is R   2n  1 , n  I  and its range is
 2 

 ,1  1,   x  R, x   1,1

(vi) The domain of cosec x is R  n , n  I  and its range is

 ,1  1,   x  R, x   1,1

Notation of hyperbolic functions:
The hyperbolic functions sinh x, cosh x, tanh x, csch x, sech x, coth x (hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic
cosine, hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cosecant, hyperbolic secant, and hyperbolic cotangent) are
analogs of the circular functions, defined by removing s appearing in the complex exponentials.
eiz  eiz e z  e z
For example, cos z  so cosh z 
2 2

The hyperbolic functions are defined by

e z  e z
sinh z 
2
  sinh( z )

e z  e z
cosh z 
2
 cosh( z )

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 ez  ez
tanh z  z
e  ez
e2 z  1
 2z
e 1

2
csch z 
e  e z
z

2
sech z 
e  e z
z

ez  ez
coth z 
ez  ez
e2 z  1
 2z
e 1
Relation between circular and hyperbolic functions:

sin  ix   i sinh x sinh ix   i sin x

cos  ix   i cosh x cosh  ix   i cos x

tan  ix   i tanh x tanh  ix   i tan x

sec  ix   i sech x sech  ix   i sec x

csc  ix   i csch x csch  ix   i csc x

cot  ix   i coth x coth  ix   i cot x

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
THEORY OF EQUATIONS:
Definition:

15
 An expression of the form ,( is an
equation of order n, having n roots where n is non-negative integer and are all
integers.
In the above equation,
if n=1 , then the equation is linear.
If n=2, then the equation is quadratic…. Etc.,

Relation between roots and coefficients:

(i) The solutions of quadratic equation, ) is given by

The expression is called discriminant of quadratic equation.

(ii) If are the roots of quadratic equation, ). Then

(a)

(b)

(c) =
(iii) A quadratic whose roots are α and β is (x- α)(x- β)=0.

Ie.,

Sum of roots= .

Products of roots=

Example: (1)

Solve.

Solution:

Given

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 X=5 or

Excercise

1. Solve

2. Solve

Nature of roots:

Consider a quadratic equation, having as its roots,

. Then
(i) If D=0 , then the roots are equal
(ii) If D 0, then the roots are unequal
(a) D>0 then its roots are real
(b) D<0 then its roots are imaginary.
(iii) If D is perfect square then its roots are rational
(iv) If D is not a perfect square then its roots are irrational

Example: (2) Discuss the roots of the equation

Solution: Given
The discriminant of the equation is

=8 – 4 = 4 > 0
and a perfect square, so roots are real and different but we can’t say that roots are rational
because co-efficients are not rational. (This is irrational)
Roots are real and irrational.

Important results:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
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 (v)
THEORY OF LIMITS:
Domain and Range of a Function: Let A and B be any two sets and let f denotes a rule
which associates to each member of A a member of B. We say that f is a function from A into B.
Also A is said to be Domain of this function. If x denotes a member of the set A, then the
member of the set B, which the function f associates to x ∈ A, is denoted by f (x) called the value
of the function f for x or at x. The function may be described as x → f (x), or y = f (x) where x ∈
A and y ∈ B. Range of f = {f (x) : x ∈ A}.

Limit: Let the function y = f (x) be defined in a certain neighbourhood of a point a or at certain
points of this neighbourhood. The function y = f (x) approaches the limit b(y → b) as x
approaches a(x → a), if for every positive number ε, no matter how small, it is possible to
indicate a positive number δ such that for all x, different from a and satisfying |x − a| < δ, we
have |f (x) − b| < ε. If b is the limit of the function f (x) as x → a, we write .

Some properties of limits:

1.

2.

3.
4.

Some important limits:

Left hand and Right Hand Limits:

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If f (x) approaches the limit b1 as x takes on only values less than ‘a’ we write ,
then b1 is called the limit on the left at the point ‘a’ of the function.

If x takes on only values greater than a, we write , then b2 is called the limit on
the right at the point ‘a’ of the function.
If the limit on the right and the limit on the left exist and equal, that is, b1 = b2 = b, then b will be
the limit of f (x) at point ‘a’.

Concepts of Continuity: A function f is continuous at a point b if and only if

1. b is in the domain of f
2. lim x→b f (x) exists
3. lim x→b f (x) = f (b)
If f is not continuous at x=a, then it is discontinuous there. If f is continuous at each point of
an open interval (a,b),then f is said to be continuous on the interval (a,b). in addition, if
, then f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b].
1. polynomial functions are continuous everywhere

2. A rational function , where f(x) and g(x) are polynomial functions,are continuous
everywhere except at x=c where g(c)=0.

3. Suppose f(x) is a piecewise function given by where r(x) is

continuous for x<a and s(x) is continuous for x>a. then f is continuous everywhere
provided f is continuous at x=a.
If f (x) is continuous on the closed, bounded interval [a, b], then it is bounded above and
below in that interval. That is there exists numbers m and M such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M , for every x
in [a, b].

Example 3: If f(x)= , for what values of x is f continuous?

f is continuous for all x except those for which .

thus , f is continuous for all x
except x=2 or x=-1.

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Example 4: If for what values of x is f continuous?
f is obviously continuous for all x<1 or x>1. Is f continuous at x=1?

Differentiability:

Differentiability at a point: Function f (x) is differentiable at x = c if and only if f ‘(c) exists.

That is, f ‘(c) is a real number.

Differentiability on an interval: Function f (x) is differentiable on an interval (a,b) if and

only if it is diffferentiable for every value of x on the interval (a,b).

Differentiability: Function f (x) is differentiable if and only if it is differentiable at every value

of x in its domain.

Relation between Differentiability and Continuity:

Differentiability implies Continuity, Continuity does not imply Differentiability.

 If a function f (x) is differentiable at x = c, then it must be continuous also at x = c.

 If a function is continuous at x = c, it need not be differentiable at x = c.

 If a function is not continuous, then it can't be differentiable at x = c.

Left- hand derivative and right-hand derivative:

1. The left-hand derivative of the function f at x=a is given by ,

provided this limit exists(or , provided this limits exists).

2. The right-hand derivative of the function f at x=a is given by ,

provided this limit exists(or , provided this limits exists).

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 It is a theorem from calculus that if f is differential at x=a, then f is continuous at x=a.
The contrapositive of this theorem states that if f is not continuous at x=a, then f is not
differentible at x=a. Thus , f is not differentiable x=a if:
i. f is not continuous at x=a; or
ii. f has a “corner point “ at x=a(f is continuous at x=a but left-hand derivative is not
equal to right-hand derivative); or
iii. f has a vertical tangent line at x=a.

Some statements:
1. Let the function f (x) be continuous at x = a and let c be a constant. Then the function
cf (x) is also continuous at x = a.
2. Let the functions f (x) and g(x) be continuous at x = a. Then the sum of the functions
f (x) + g(x) is also continuous at x = a.
3. Let the functions f (x) and g(x) be continuous at x = a. Then the product of the functions
f (x)g(x) is also continuous at x = a.
4. Let the functions f (x) and g(x) be continuous at x = a. Then the quotient of the functions
f (x) is also continuous at x = a.

5. Let f (x) be differentiable at the point x = a. Then the function f (x) is continuous at that
point. But the converse is not true.
6. If a function f(x) is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] with f(a) = A and f(b) = B where
A ≠ B, then f(x) takes every value between A and B at least once. (The Intermediate
Value Theorem).
7. A function that is continuous in a closed interval is bounded there.
8. A function that is continuous in a closed interval attains maximum and minimum values
in the interval

TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION:
Partial derivatives:
First order partial derivatives:
Let u=f(x,y) be a function of two independent variables. Differentiating u with respect to x
keeping y as a constant is known as the partial differential coefficient of ‘u’ with respect to ‘x’. it is

denoted by .

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 If we differentiate u with respect to ‘y’ keeping ‘x’ constant is known as the partial differential

coefficient of ‘u’ with respect to ‘y’. it is denoted by .

Higher order partial differentiation:

Let u=f(x,y) be a function of two variables x and y. then and represent the first partial

derivatives of u with respect to x and y. here both and are again a function of x and y. here each
of these partial derivatives may be differentiated with respect to x and y and it is denoted by

Important points:

1.

2.

3.

4.

(a) .

(b) .

(c)
Eulers theorem:

22
Statement:

Example 5:

Total differentiation:

Definitions:

Important points:

1.

2.

3.

Examples:

9.

10.

23
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Definitions:
 Proper Integral:
 An Integral which has neither limit infinite and from which the
integrand does not approach infinity at any point in the range of
integration.
 Improper Integral:
An improper integral is a definite integral that has either or both
limits infinite or an integrand that approaches infinity at one or more
points in the range of integration.
 Definite Integral:
An integral that is calculated between two specified limits, usually

expressed in the form .

 Indefinite Integral:

The integral of the form (without limits)

(ie) A function whose derivative is a given function.
 Integration by Parts:
Integration by Parts method is generally used to find the integral when
the integrand is a product of two different types of functions or a

24
 single logarithmic function or a single inverse trigonometric function
or a function which is not integrable directly.

Examples:

1. Find
Solution:

2. Find
Solution:

 Bernoulli’s Formula:

25
 Where are successive derivatives of and
are repeated integrals of .
Example:

1. Find
Solution:

By Bernoulli’s formula,

 Integration by Partial Fraction Method:

Find
Solution:

26
 Consider

Put

Put

 Reduction Formula:
A formula which expresses (or reduces) the integral of the nth
Indexed function in terms of that of (n-1)th
Indexed (or lower indexed) function is called a reduction formula.

27
 =

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

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 A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS is said to be linear if the dependent variable
and its differentiation coefficients occur only in the first degree and not multiplied together.

+ where and are the functions of

NON_LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

Equations in which and occur other than in the first degree are called non
linear partial
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS of the first order.
HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATION WITH CONSTANT COEFFIENTS:
An equation of the form

z/ +….+ z/ =F(x,y)

In which are constants is called a homogeneous linear partial DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS of the nth order with constants confidents .it is called homogeneous because all
terms contain derivative s of the same order
NON HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATION:

IF IN THE EQUATION the polynomial expression

is not homogeneous then it is a non homogeneous LINEAR PARTIAL
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
ORDER:
The order of a DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS is the order of the highest derivative
appearing in it
DEGREE:
The degree of a DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS is the degree of the highest derivative
occurring in it

NEED OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONSN AND IMPORTANCE:

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS FROM MANY PROBLEMS IN OSCILLATIONS
OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS, BENDING OF BEAMS,
CONDUCTION OF HEAT, VELOCITY CHEMICAL REACTIONS ETC and as such play a
very important role in all modern scientific and engineering studies .it is also used in study of
electro mechanical vibrations and other engineering problems.

RELATION BETWEEN CONSTANT COEFFIENTS AND VARIABLE COEFFIENTS:

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 If the equation is differential equation with constant coeffients then we can solve easily
If the equation is differential equation with variable coeffients then we give some
transformation to change the variable coeffients to constant coeffients after that we can solve
easily.
FORMATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
General form of a linear differential equation of the nth order with constants coeffients

+ +….+

Denote where D is the differential operator

+ +…+ )

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