Bridge engineering

UNIT V

Maintenance: Bridge Maintenance Techniques

CONTENT

BRIDGE MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES

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1. CATEGORIES OF BRIDGE INSPECTION

1.1 Routine Inspection

1.2 Detailed Inspection

1.3 Special Inspection

2. EQUIPMENT FOR FIELD ASSESSMENT DURING INSPECTION

3. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE FOR THE EVALUATION OF

PERFORMANCE OF BRIDGES AND OTHER STRUCTURES

3.1 Documenting the existing Practice

3.2 Formulating the Methodology

3.3 Considering the Available Data

3.4 Considering the Performance Objectives

3.5 Considering the Performance Conditions

3.6 Developing the Methodology

3.7 Establishing the ‘Condition Rating’ system

3.8 Establishing the Sufficiency Rating System

3.9 Considering the Optimization Criteria

4. INVENTORY AND CONDITION SURVEY

4.1 Structure Identification

4.2 Types of Crossing

4.3 Type of Structure

4.4 Inventory File

4.5 Condition Sub- model (Elements/ Components for Inspection)

5. BRIDGE COMPONENT INSPECTION GUIDANCE

6. CONCRETE

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 6.1 Factors causing Deterioration

7. STEEL

7.1 Factors causing Deterioration

8. FOUNDATION MOVEMENTS

8.1 Types of Movements

8.2 Causes of Foundation Movements

8.3 Effects on structures

9. WATERWAYS

10. INSPECTION ITEMS

11. RECORDS

11.1 Function

11.2 Reports

11.3 Original Bridge Reports

12. SUGGESTED GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION OF BRIDGES

12.1In-Office Review

12.2At-Site Inspection

12.3Report Preparation and Submission

13. REHABILITATION

13.1Inspections

13.2Identification of Corrosion and Damage of Concrete

13.3Remedial Measures

14. REFERENCES

BRIDGE MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES

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 The overall objective of the bridge maintenance management system is to identify the
need for structural maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement. It also provides guidelines
and methodologies to enable local engineers to reach rational, cost- effective decisions
regarding such maintenance and rehabilitation for bridges, culverts and tunnels.

Maintaining highway bridges and keeping them in a fit condition to provide safe and un-
interrupted traffic flow, is the primary function of a bridge maintenance engineer. Protection
of the investment in the structure facility through well programmed repairs and preventive
maintenance is second only to the safety of traffic and to the structure itself. To achieve the
desired result requires constant alertness and thorough inspection procedures.

1. CATEGORIES OF BRIDGE INSPECTION

All remedial and preventive maintenance or repair work, including replacement of

components, should be planned in time and economically, with minimum inconvenience to
traffic. Original completion reports must be available for all bridges, and these should form
the basis for detailed periodic bridge inspections. The data thus collected should be properly
evaluated from time to time to assess the need for remedial measures required to be
undertaken. Broadly, three categories of bridge inspection need to be conducted to collect the
performance data of bridges.

1.1 Routine Inspection

These are broad general inspections carried out quickly and frequently by highway
maintenance engineers having reasonable practical knowledge of road structures, though not
necessarily any special knowledge in design details or special construction problems of any
particular bridge or expertise in special problems of bridge inspection. The purpose of this
routine inspection is to report fairly obvious deficiencies which could lead to accidents or
future major repairs/ maintenance problems. Such inspections should be done monthly.

1.2 Detailed Inspection

This type of inspection can be of two categories, viz., general and major, defined by
the ‘frequently’ and ‘intensity’ of inspection respectively. General inspection could be made
at yearly intervals, and it should cover all elements of the structures against a prepared
checklist. It would be mainly a visual inspection supplemented by standard instrument aids. A
written report must be made of the conditions of the bridge and its various parts.

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 The major inspection should be more intensive and would require detailed
examination of all elements, even requiring setting up of special access- facilities where
required. Such inspection, depending upon the importance of the structure, could be spaced
between 2 and 3 years and even smaller intervals for sensitive designs, or for bridges in
aggressive environments.

1.3 Special Inspection

These could be undertaken to cover special circumstances such as occurrences of

earthquakes, passage of high intensity loadings, unusual floods, etc. These inspections should
be supplemented by testing as well as by structural analysis, and hence the inspection team
should have an experienced bridge design engineer available to them.

It is important that inspections are undertaken in those periods which offer the most
critical evaluation of the performance of the structure. For, example, items such as
foundations, protective works, scour effects, flood levels, etc., should be inspected before,
during and after the floods; bearings and joints, should be inspected during temperature
extremes, etc. The frequency of routine inspections could be determined by the importance of
the structure, environmental conditions and cost. The frequency indicated above may be
considered as a guide. A comprehensive check- list of items related to the form, material,
condition, and situation of the structure, should be drawn- up and followed by the inspecting
team.

Besides being a qualified bridge engineer, the inspection team leader must be familiar
with design and construction features of the bridge to be inspected, so that observations can
be properly and accurately assessed for a meaningful report. His competency to recognize
any structural distress/ deficiency and assess its seriousness with complete recommendations
for appropriate repairs, are important pre- requisites for entrusting this assignment to him.

2. EQUIPMENT FOR FIELD ASSESSMENT DURING INSPECTION

Some modern testing equipment which could be of use to the specialized inspecting team is:

a. Snooper- Crawler and adjustable ladders

b. Rebound hammer for in situ assessment of the strength of concrete

c. Magnetic detector for measuring thickness of concrete cover and for locating
reinforcement bars

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 d. Acoustic crack detector and magnetic crack definer or dye penetration, for detection
and location of cracks in steel

e. Mechanical extensometer and transparent templates for reading of crack- widths from
surface contact

f. Hydraulic devices, pressure transducers or load cells for measurement of forces or

pressures, etc.

g. Equipment for measuring vibrations

h. Electrical resistance metre

These could help in qualitative assessment, giving data which an experienced engineer
can usefully employ and interpret for appraisal of the structure. A wide variety of electronic
equipment is now available in the market in many countries for monitoring and inspection of
bridges.

3. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE FOR THE EVALUATION OF

PERFORMANCE OF BRIDGES AND OTHER STRUCTURES

The major factor in the development of a highway structure maintenance system is the
selection of criteria for use in the determination of sub sequent courses of action.
Traditionally, estimates of bridge maintenance needs are based on structural deficiencies,
functional obsolescence, or the fact that they are closed for various reasons.

There are numerous combinations of such criteria in use worldwide, including those that
go beyond the items mentioned above, to increase the sufficiency of decision- making bases.
For example, a functionally obsolete bridge may be in excellent condition and have many
years of left- over useful life even if it is narrow, has substandard clearances, or has poor
alignment. In addition, structurally inadequate bridges, by useful definition, are in need of
major repairs, rehabilitation, or sometimes, replacement.

3.1 Documenting the existing Practice

It is particularly desirable to make use of previously related work, to avoid

unnecessary and costly duplication. Thus, the first task should be an analysis of the
procedures and guidelines currently in effect by the concerned authority. In addition to review
of this current system, a thorough search of the literature should be conducted, with emphasis

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on recent development in the area of automated or computerized decision- making and
analysis theories.

3.2 Formulating the Methodology

Formulation of a standard procedure for evaluation of capabilities and performance is

imperative in establishing consistency throughout the various districts supported by the
central system. Every highway department has an abundance of forms for data acquisition,
historical records and decision- making.

Additional standards will include procedures for mathematical analysis of structures,

types and causes of common deficiencies, categories of highway importance, loads and
overloads, etc.

3.3 Considering the Available Data

Two primary sources of information exist for the evaluation of structures. The first and
the one available at the inception of this effort, is the historical and design data already
accumulated by the various highway departments. Some typical historical records that may
be available are:

♫ Information obtained from original plans, design calculations and other records

♫ Names of roads, map names and district names

♫ Current and historical design standards

♫ Information on the major or recurrent minor maintenance done in the past

♫ Information on the future physical requirements as a ‘thoroughfare plan’

The second source of information is from the Physical Inventory and the Condition Survey of
the structures.

3.4 Considering the Performance Objectives

The measure of performance will be an assessment representing standard observed services to

four elements in the environment of the structure:

a. Standard loading conditions

b. Type of structure relative to its intended use

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 c. Functional classification of the highway

d. Safety

In the consideration of standard loading conditions, an evaluation of current design

loading criteria should be made, to arrive at a recommended system of desired load
capabilities of the various types of bridges. These capabilities will become a part of the
sufficiency rating in the resulting developed methodology, being the highest level or no
action rating, against which current structure capacity can be compared.

The type of structure or intended use category represents the purpose of or the need for
the structure. Typical classifications are:

a. Bridging of waterways, valleys, railroads, other highways and other hazards

b. Passage of storm water run- off

c. Passage through mountains or under buildings or bodies of water

These capabilities will also become a part of the Sufficiency Rating, in that the purpose for
each structure will be determined as the highest rating, and the structure’s current capability
will be compared to that of the optimum level of performance.

The functional classification of the highway containing the bridge will be considered to
determine another part of the sufficiency rating. Typical classifications might be:

a. Major limited access highways

b. Primary arterial roads

c. Secondary arterial roads

d. Collector roads

e. Local or minor roadways

Each of these classifications should be established with functional criteria, which include,
at least, average daily traffic (ADT), speed, and roadway width. These objectives will
compromise a portion of the sufficiency rating in the form of the desired functional service
capability, against which current measurements can be compared to arrive at the ratings.

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 In considering the safety factor, existing geometric information has to be tabulated to
form standards for desired levels of structure- user safety. Typical items which might appear
in the table are:

a. Stopping sight distance

b. Structure roadway/ shoulder width

c. Approach roadway/ shoulder width

d. Vertical clearance over roadway

e. Vertical clearance below the superstructure

f. Median/ lane separation

g. Curve data

h. Railings and parapets

i. Impact attenuating devices

3.5 Considering the Performance Conditions

The measure of performance according to the above mentioned objectives would be

affected by the conditions under which any structure is required to operate. The primary
conditions expected to be considered are:

a. Climate

b. Overloads

c. Regional significance

d. Geometry

e. Utilization

f. Age (fatigue)

The effects of climate, overloads and utilization would influence performance of

sufficiency ratings under certain extreme conditions. Examples might be periodic flooding,
periodic over or under utilization and periodic overloads (such as strategic movement of
heavy defence vehicles and movement of unusual loads for strategic facilities).

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 Regional significance of a structure, or its associated roadway, could influence its
functional classification. A bias could arise from religious or political importance, or from
historical or aesthetic interests. Age, likewise, may not bear significance in the sufficiency
rating, if historical concerns take precedence. Also the geometry of the linked roadways may
preclude any improvements to the structure, thereby negating the effect of the sufficiency
rating on future levels of service.

These conditions should be compiled as ‘exceptions to the rule’, in the form of an ‘exception
report’ or as a ‘flag’ in the course of action selection program.

3.6 Developing the Methodology

Once the data, objectives and conditions have been formulated, analysis or evaluation can
begin. The methodology should be developed based on at least the following component
parts:

a. Physical bridge inspection

b. Investigative structure computations for analysis and stress check

c. Condition rating

d. Sufficiency rating

3.7 Establishing the ‘Condition Rating’ system

Normally there are five categories of ‘condition’ to be applied, as reiterated below:

a. Structures containing elements which are in good condition without any signs of
deterioration and requiring no immediate action.

b. Structures containing elements which show signs of distress or deterioration, but

which, under the operating conditions of the total structure, may not advance to a
serious defect, and which can be easily rectified through routine maintenance.

c. Structures containing elements which show signs of deterioration and which, due to
distress under operating conditions, would affect structural integrity of the elements
(cracking, corrosion, deflection, unusual. Vibration, any other deformation).

d. Structures containing elements which show signs of progressive failure due to

excessive loading, possibly necessitating load restrictions, strengthening, or
replacement.

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 e. Structures containing elements which have been understand or poorly constructed or
are overloaded, and show structural cracks or deterioration, possibly resulting in use
limitations or replacement.

The elements examined in the condition survey should be categorized and sorted to result in a
Condition Rating, following the above described general guideline, which can be used
numerically from 5 to 0, as enumerated below, to determine the course of action.

5 No action

4 Routine maintenance

3 Special maintenance/ Rehabilitation/ Repair

2 Reduced allowable load after special repair

1 Further investigation, but in the interim. Reduce load and speed and use speed
breakers and rumble strips in the approaches to the bridge

0 Replacements

The condition Rating can also be made on a scale of 9 to 0 (Equivalent Rating Conditions of
the US Federal Highway Authority) as depicted in table.

Table: 1 Equivalent Rating Conditions

Description Rating
 Not applicable N
 New condition 9
 Good condition- no repairs needed 8
 Generally good condition- potential exists for minor maintenance 7
 Fair condition- potential exists for major maintenance 6
 Generally fair condition- potential exists for minor rehabilitation 5
 Marginal condition- potential exists for major rehabilitation 4
 Poor condition- repair or rehabilitation required immediately 3
 Critical condition- need for repair or rehabilitation is urgent. Facility should 2
be closed until the indicated repair is complete
 Critical condition- facility is closed. Study should determine the feasibility 1
for repair

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  Critical condition- facility is closed and is beyond repair
0

3.8 Establishing the Sufficiency Rating System

In addition to the conditions ratings, a further numerical representation can be developed in

each of the following areas related to performance, as Sufficiency Rating:

a. Load performance

b. Safety performance

c. Remaining life

This rating system will use, as its basis, the elements that have already been under
performance objectives and performance conditions.

3.9 Considering the Optimization Criteria

The criteria for both- priorities and ‘itemizing’ the courses of action- fall into five primary
categories:

a. Financial

b. Environmental

c. Political/ Regional

d. Defence

e. Restoration of lost services

All five of the optimization criteria, figure in the timings of any maintenance efforts.
They will exist as either justification or constraints, in establishing a work program. Budgets
will allow or prevent elements of work, and the availability of money will determine the
timing of the work. The environment will control the seasonal aspect of the work program.
The remaining three criteria will, at times, over- ride the first two according to the urgency of
political or defence needs, and the necessity to restore services where structures have been
closed by catastrophic situations.

4. INVENTORY AND CONDITION SURVEY

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 Each bridge should be classified, inspected and evaluated in relation to the various
parameters which affect the structural integrity and performance characteristics of the
structure. The primary goal in developing a methodology for the inspection of bridges and
structures is to provide a uniform system of interactive parameters which provide a common,
yet sound base from which structures can be analyzed on the basis of life cycles and
performance capabilities.

4.1 Structure Identification

The initial task which must be considered is the development of an inventory system
which establishes a unique identity for each structure. This can be done by establishing a
code number, which relates the structure location with respect to the highway, district and / or
province, highway route number and the number of kilometers from an established base point
of the highway on which the structure is located.

Codes can be easily utilized for adaption to computer analysis, while translation to
written text for the purpose of structural evaluation reports, is likewise a simple task when
computer programs are utilized.

Structure identification need not be limited to the previously stated format. Subject to
the specific desires and needs of the authorities, it may be desirable to include identification
codes related, for instance to defence considerations, highway importance, or latitude and
longitude, instead of or in addition to, the physical location of the structure.

4.2 Types of Crossing

The type of bridge- crossing should be noted and coded as a supplementary identification
because the type of crossing may assist in ‘prioritizing’ of certain structures. Crossing can be
identified as follows:

a. Over water- course

b. Over highway

c. Over railway line

d. Over land feature

When identifying the type of crossing (watercourse, highway, railway line, or land feature,
that is spanned), the structure should be identified by name.

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4.3 Type of Structure

Once the preliminary identification of the structure and crossing- type has been
established, the identification of the type of structure should be made. With the utilization of
computer analysis in mind, coupled with an awareness of the many possible combinations of
structure types, a coding system for identification of the structure- type is advisable. The
three digit code for identification of ‘type of structure’ which is used by FHWA, US DOT, is
recommended.

An example of the utilization of the three digit code for identification of ‘type of
structure’ is given in table.

Table: 2 Type of Structure

1st Digit 2nd and 3rd Digits

1 Concrete 01 Slab

2 Concrete, continuous 02 Stringer/ Multi- beam of girder Steel

3 Steel 03 Girder and floor beam system

4 Steel, continuous 04 Tee beam

5 Pre-stressed concrete 05 Box beam or Girder- multi

6 Pre-stressed concrete, continuous 06 Box beam or Girder- single

7 Timber 07 Frame

8 Stone or masonry 08 Orthotropic

9 Aluminium 09 Truss- deck type

10 Truss- through type

11 Arch- deck type

12 Arch- through type

13 Suspension

14 Stayed girder

15 Movable- Lift type

16 Movable- bascule type

17 Movable- swing type

18 Tunnel

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 19 Culverts

20 Other

4.4 Inventory File

As an aid to classification and analysis, key physical characteristics of the structure

will require catalouging. Characteristics which need to be identified include overall length,
width, and number of spans and span lengths, deck depth, beam spacing and vertical
clearance beneath the structure. It is generally desirable, when creating a bridge inventory
file, to make sketches showing key components and general layout of the structure, so that a
ready reference is available at all times. Reference to the age of a structure is desirable for the
purpose of analysis, particularly when inspection reports begin to report signs of
deterioration, and a decision between maintenance and replacement is warranted.

4.5 Condition Sub- model (Elements/ Components for Inspection)

A condition sub- model is an integral part of the bridge maintenance management

system. It contains, in an interactive mode, the inspection results on bridges, culverts, and

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structures. The inspection which is performed visually and, when warranted, by mechanical
or ultra sound methods, identifies and records, signs of distress and/ or deterioration which
may be cause for corrective action. Specific bridge or structure components are identified and
rated in relation to structural condition and functionality. Bridge components and sub-
components which must be given attention are itemized as follows.

Bridge Super structure Components

1. Deck components

a. Deck slab

b. Kerbs/ Walkways

c. Bridge railing

d. Expansion joints/ Expansion devices

e. Drainage devices

2. Beams/ Girders (longitudinal)

3. Diaphragms of cross frames

4. Truss components

a. Floor beams

b. Connections

c. End posts

d. Top chord

e. Lower chord

f. Lateral bracing

g. Sway bracing

h. Portals

i. Lacing

5. Bearing devices

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 6. Arch components

a. Arch

b. Arch columns

c. Supports

7. Other components (if applicable)

a. Spandrel walls

b. Suspension system

c. Hangers

d. Suspenders

e. Anchorage

f. Towers

8. Paint/ snowsem

9. Connections

a. Welds

b. Rivets

c. Bolts

d. Hinges/ Articulations

10. Bridge machinery (if applicable)

11. Collision damage preventers/ Reducers (if applicable)

Bridge Sub-structure Components

1. Abutments

a. General condition

b. Beam seats and shaft/ Wall/ Columns

c. Back walls/ Dirt walls

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 d. Wing Walls

e. Footing/ Piles, etc

f. Settlement

g. Scour

2. Piers

a. General condition

b. Beam seats and shaft/ Wall/ Columns

c. Footings/ Piles, etc.

d. Fenders and dolphins

e. Scour

f. settlement

3. Paint (if applicable)

4. Debris on beam seats and bearings

Culverts (if applicable)

a. General condition

b. Alignment

c. Adequacy

d. Debris accumulation

e. Headwall or end wall condition

f. Condition at inlet and outlet

Channel Condition (if applicable)

a. Alignment

b. Protection (vegetation, rip rap, etc.)

c. Waterway adequacy

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 d. Scour

e. Deflection of water- course and the resulting ponding and oblique attack on some
foundations

Approaches to Bridge

a. Alignment

b. Grade

c. Approach slabs

d. Guard rail

e. Embankment condition

f. Relief joints

General Components

a. Warning signs

b. Navigational lights

c. Utilities on Bridge (pipes, cables, etc.)

d. General appraisal and operating status

In addition to the ‘serviceability’ and ‘function ability’ of bridge components, each

component must be analyzed for structural deficiencies and/ or deterioration. Concrete
structural components warrant inspection for various cracking patterns (longitudinal,
diagonal, mesh pattern, etc.), deck spalling and other signs of distress or deterioration. Steel
structural components warrant inspection for rust and loss of section due to similar corrosive
action, stress cracks, buckles, kinks, collision damage and other indications of strength
reduction and distress. Timber structural components should be inspected for structural decay
or damage due to fungus, insects, dry rot, weather, chemical attack, life cycle wear, collision
and other causes of loss of structural integrity. Stone and masonry components warrant
inspection for damage due to weathering, spalling, plant growth (in joints and cracks),
abrasion due to wind- blown particles, seasonal expansion/ contraction, and other strength
reducing factors.

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 Based on the evaluation procedures developed from structural data compiled, bridge-
type inspection ratings made on each individual structure, the known or estimated age of the
structure and historical or empirical data related to structure- performance under projected
environmental conditions, a life cycle evaluation can be performed for each structure. Such
an evaluation will be of great value in projecting maintenance, repair and replacement needs
for the future and become a basis of refinement for future comparison in evaluating
transportation needs.

5. BRIDGE COMPONENT INSPECTION GUIDANCE

The bridge inspector should be familiar with the terminology and elements of bridge
construction. He should be familiar with the tools, devices and specialized equipment used
during the bridge inspections. He should also be aware of the safety precautions that must be
taken in the course of his inspection. The bridge inspector should have an understanding of
the planning, organization and preparation that is necessary to undertake and complete a
meaningful bridge inspection.

The type of materials used in the construction of the bridge will establish initially, the
particular ‘kinds of deterioration’ the inspector will be looking for during his inspection. For
example rust is the great enemy of steel; concrete deteriorates because of scaling, spalling
and cracking; while timber is subject to weathering, decay and fungus and insect attacks.

In addition to construction materials, another very important material involved in

bridge construction is the strata on which the bridge foundation rests. When the soil or the
bridge foundation ‘moves’, serious structural difficulties can develop. These movements fall
into several categories- lateral movement, vertical movement (settlement), pile settlement and
rotational or tipping movements. The causes of these movements are slopes slides, bearing
failures, consolidation of soil, seepage, frost action, ice, thermal forces, including pavement
thrust and drag down forces on piles.

A common cause of bridge failure is the physical failure of a member due to overload
or collision, assuming design and construction were satisfactory. Substructure and
superstructure elements should be closely inspected for the types of distress.

6. CONCRETE

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 Concrete is essentially a compression taking material. Although concrete has low
tensile strength, reinforcing it with steel bars produces a material that is suitable for the
construction of flexural members, such as deck slabs, bridge girders, etc. Pre-stressed
concrete is produced by a technique which applies compression to concrete by means of
highly stressed strands or bars of high strength steel. This compressive stress is sufficient to
offset the subsequent tensile stress caused by the applied loads. Pre-stressing has greatly
increased the maximum span length of concrete bridges.

While concrete possesses several other properties such as thermal conductivity, capacity for
volume change and energy absorption, these are not directly related to the problems of bridge
maintenance.

i. Strength: Compressive strength is high, but shear and tensile strengths are much
lower, being about 12% and 10%, respectively of the compressive strength.

ii. Porosity: Concrete is inherently porous and permeable since the cement paste never
completely fills the spaces between the aggregate particles. This permits absorption of
water by capillary action and the passage of water under pressure.

iii. Extensibility: Concrete is said to be extensible, i.e. undergoes extensions without

cracking up to a limit. However, this presupposes a high quality concrete and freedom
from restraint, which is not always the case.

iv. Fire resistance: High quality concrete has a reasonable high resistance to the effects
of fire. However, intense heat will damage concrete. It is more dangerous in case high
grade steel (reinforcement or pre-stressing cables) is used, as it loses its high grade
properties under heat.

v. Elasticity: Concrete under ordinary loads is elastic, i.e. stress is proportional to strain
within a certain range. Under sustained loads the elasticity of concrete is significantly
lowered due to creep. This causes increase in deflection with time.

vi. Durability: The durability of concrete is affected by its porosity, lack of strength and
climate and exposure. In general, as the water cement ratio is increased, the durability
will decrease correspondingly. Properly proportioned, mixed and placed concrete is
very durable, provided it is very dense and of very low porosity.

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vii. Anisotropy: Concrete itself is generally isotropic, but once reinforced with steel bars
or pre-stressed with steel wires, it becomes anisotropic, i.e. its strength varies
depending on the direction in which it is loaded.

6.1 Factors causing Deterioration

 Freezing and Thawing

 Salt action

 Differential thermal strains

 Unsound aggregates

 Reactive aggregates and high alkali cement

 Sulphate compounds in adjacent soil and water and in the aggregates

 Leaching

 Chemical attack

 Wear or Abrasion

 Foundation Movements

 Shrinkage and Flexure forces

 Rusted Reinforcing Steel

7. STEEL

Steel, a highly reliable and versatile construction material, is available in many forms-
wire, cable, plate and shaped bars or beams.

i. Strength: Steel possesses high compressive and tensile strengths, and is highly
resistant to shear forces. Thin steel sections, however, are vulnerable to compressive
buckling.

ii. Ductility: both the low- carbon and low- alloy steels, normally used in bridge
construction, are quite ductile. Brittleness may occur because of heat treatment,
welding, metal fatigue, or through freezing under stress.

iii. Durability: steel, when protected properly, is extremely durable.

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 iv. Fire Resistance: Steel is subject to a loss of strength when exposed to high
temperatures such as those resulting from fire and random welding. Special electrodes
are needed for welding high yield strength deformed bars. No welding, whatsoever,
can be permitted of pre-stressing steel.

v. Corrosion: Unprotected carbon- steel corrodes readily. However, it can be protected

by adequate painting.

vi. Weld ability: Although steel is weldable, it is necessary to determine the chemistry of
the steel and to select a suitable welding procedure and appropriate electrodes before
starting welding operations on a bridge.

vii. Others: Steel is elastic and conducts heat and electricity.

7.1 Factors causing Deterioration

 Air and Moisture

 Industrial Fumes

 De- icing Agents

 Sea water and Mud

 Thermal strains or overloads

 Fatigue and Stress concentrations

 Fire

 Collisions

 Animal Wastes

 Welds

 Galvanic Action

8. FOUNDATION MOVEMENTS

Most foundation movements are caused by movement of the supporting strata. For
this reason, it is desirable to give a brief description of these movements. Soil deformations
are caused by volume changes and settlement or subsidence in the soil or by a shear failure.

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Slope slides and bearing- failures are good examples of shear failures. Where loads are not
large enough to cause shear failure, settlements may still occur as a result of volume change.
The length of time and magnitude of the settlements depend upon the composition of the soil.
Granular soils such as sand will usually undergo a relatively small volume change in a short
period of time. However, cohesive soils, such as clay, can undergo large deformations, or
volume changes, which may continue for years. This latter process, called consolidation, is
usually confined to clays and clayey silts. Sub-structures that are supported directly by a
cohesive soil may continue to settle for a long period of time. Consolidation usually produces
vertical settlement.

8.1 Types of Movements

For convenience, foundation movements may also be classified, somewhat arbitrarily into the
following:

i. Lateral Movements: Earth- retaining structures, such as abutments and retaining

walls, are susceptible to lateral movements, although piers too sometimes undergo
such displacements.

ii. Vertical Movements (Settlements): Any type of sub-structure not founded on solid
rock may be subject to settlement. (Fig:1)

Fig: 1 Differential settlement under an abutment

iii. Pile Settlements: Pile settlement could be listed under lateral or vertical movements.
Some of the causes of failure are peculiar to piled foundations.

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 iv. Rotational Movement (Tipping): Rotational movement of substructure can be
considered to be the result of unsymmetrical settlements or lateral movements.

8.2 Causes of Foundation Movements

The following causes of foundation movements, except as specifically noted, can procedure
lateral and/ or vertical movements depending on the characteristics of the loads or sub-
structures.

i. Slope Failure (Embankment Slides): These are the shear failures manifested as
lateral movements of hillsides, cut slopes or embankments. Footing or embankment
loads imposing shear stresses greater than the soil shear strength are common causes
of slides. (Fig:2)

Fig: 2 Slide Failure

ii. Bearing Failure: Bearing failures are settlements or rotations of footings due to a
shear failure in the soil beneath. When bearing failures, or slope failures take place on
an older structure, it usually indicated a change in the subsurface conditions. This may
endanger the security of nearby structures and foundations.

iii. Consolidation: Serious settlement can result from consolidation action in cohesive
soils. Settlement of bridge foundations may be caused by changes in the ground water
conditions, placement of additional embankments near the structure, or increase in the
heights of existing embankments.

iv. Seepage: The flow of water from a point of higher head (elevation or pressure)
through the soil through which the water is passing. Seepage results in lateral
movement of the retaining walls by:
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 a. An increase in weight (and lateral pressure) of the backfill because of full or
partial saturation.

b. A reduction in resistance provided by the soil in front of the structure.

v. Water Table Variations: Large cyclic variations in the elevation of the water table in
loose granular soils may lead to a compaction of the upper strata. The effects of non-
cyclic changes in the water table such as consolidations, slides and seepage have been
described. Changes in the water table may also change the characteristics of the soil
which supports the foundation. Changes in soil characteristics may, in turn, result in
the lateral movement or the settlement of the foundation.

vi. Frost Action: Frost- heave in soil is caused by the growth of ice lenses between the
soil particles. Footings located above the frost line may suffer from the effects of frost
heave and a loss in the bearing capacity due to the subsequent softening of the soil.
The vertical lifting by frost and ice actions is not unheard of.

vii. Expansive Soils: Some clay, when wet, absorbs water and expands, placing large
horizontal pressures on any wall retaining such soil. Structures founded on expansive
clay may also experience vertical soil movements (reverse settlement).

viii. Ice: Ice can cause lateral movement in two ways. Where fine- grained backfill is used
in the retaining structures and the water table is above the frost line, the expansion due
to freezing of water will exert a very large force against a wall. The piers of river
bridges are also subject to tremendous lateral loads when an ice jam occurs at the
bridge.

ix. Thermal Forces from Superstructures: On structures without sliding bearings, or

where the sliding bearings fail to operate, thermal forces may tip the sub-structure
units. Any horizontal thrust is another force that will have the same effect.

x. Drag Forces: additional embankment loads or slow consolidation of a subsurface

compressive stratum will exert vertical drag down forces on the bearing piles. This
may cause yielding or failure of the piles.

xi. Deterioration, Insect Attack and Construction Defects: Piles may develop weakness
leading to foundation settlements from one or more of these causes:

a) Timber, steel and concrete piles are subject to loss of section because of decay,
rusting and deterioration.

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 b) Timber piles are vulnerable to marine borer and ship worms.

c) Construction defects include over- driven piles, under- driven piles, failure to
fill pile shells completely with concrete or imperfect castings of a cast in situ
pile. Any of these defects will produce a weaker pile.

Settlement will probably be gradual in improperly driven piles or in piles with weak
or voided concrete. Piles suffering severe loss of section due to rust, spalling,
chemical action, or insect infestation, may fail suddenly under an unusually heavy
load.

xii. Scour (Erosion): Scour can cause extensive settlement which may also be uneven.
Since water will carry off particles of soil in suspension, a considerable hole can be
formed around piers or other similar structural objects. This condition results in a
greater turbulence of the water and an increased amount of soil particles that can be
displaced.

8.3 Effects on structures

 Magnitude of Movements

 Types of settlements

a. Uniform settlement

b. Differential settlement

 Types of structure

a. Simple spans (Determine)

b. Statically Indeterminate Bridges

9. WATERWAYS

Waterways should be inspected in order to determine whether any condition exists

that could cause damage to the bridge or to the area surrounding the bridge. In addition to
inspecting the channel’s present condition, a record should be made of any significant
changes that may have taken place in the channel, attributable either to natural or artificial
causes. When significant changes have occurred, an investigation must be made into the
probable or potential effects on the bridge structure. Events which tend to produce local
scour, channel degradation, or bank erosion are of primary importance.

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 Scour

It is defined as the removal and transportation of material from the bed and
banks of rivers and streams as a result of the erosive action of running water. Some
general scouring takes place in all stream beds, particularly at the flood stage. The
characteristics of the channel influence the amount and nature of scour. Accelerated
local scouring occurs where there is an interference with the stream flow, e.g.
approach embankments extended into the river or piers and abutments constructed in
the river flow. The amount of scour in such cases depend on the degree to which
stream flow is distributed and obstructed by the bridge and on the susceptibility of the
river bottom to scour- action. Scour depth may range from zero in hard rock to about
10m or much more in very unstable river bottoms. In determining the depth of local
scour, it is necessary to differentiate between true scour and apparent scour. As the
water level subsides after flooding, the scour holes that were produced tend to refill
with sediment. Elevations taken of the stream bed at this time will not usually reveal
true scour depth.

However, since material borne and deposited by water will usually be

somewhat different in character from the material in the substrata, it is often possible
to determine the scour depth on this basis. If, for example, a stratum of loose sand is
found overlying a hard till substratum, it is reasonable to assume that the scour
extends down to the depth of the till. This can often be confirmed by sounding or
probing, provided the scour depth is limited to a few metres. Where coarse deposits or
clays are encountered, sounding will probably be unsuccessful.

 Stream Bed Degradation

Stream bed degradation is usually due to artificial or natural alteration in the

width, alignment or profile of the channel. These alterations which may take place at
the bridge site or some distance upstream or downstream upset the equilibrium, or
regime, of the channel. A channel is said to be stable or in regime if the rate of flow is
such that it neither picks up material from the bed nor deposits it. In the course of
years the channel will gradually re- adjust itself to the changed condition and will tend
to return to a stable, i.e. regime condition. Stream bed degradation and scour seriously
endanger bridges whose foundations are located in erodible river bed deposits and
where the foundation does not extend to a reasonable depth below that of the
anticipated scour. Removal of material adjacent to the foundation may produce lateral

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 slope instability causing damage to the bridge. Either concrete slope protection or
riprap is often provided to prevent bank erosion or to ‘streamline’ the flow at
obstructions. It is particularly important where flow velocities are higher or where
considerable turbulence is likely. It may also be necessary where there is a change in
direction of the waterway. Slope cones around abutments are very susceptible to
erosion and should be protected.

 Waterway adequacy

Scour and stream bed degradation are theoretically the result of inadequate waterway
under the bridge. The geometry of the channel, the amount of debris carried during
high water periods and the adequacy of freeboard should be considered in determining
waterway adequacy. Where large quantities of debris are expected, sufficient
freeboard is of the greatest importance.

10. INSPECTION ITEMS

The inspection should include (but not be necessary limited to) the following items:

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  Approaches  Curbs

 Waterways  Side walls

 Piers and Abutments  Bridge Railings

 Bents  Barrier Railings

 Stringers  Wearing coat

 Steel girders  Steel Trusses

 Bearings  Timber Trusses

 Expansion joints  Suspension Span

 Dolphins and Fenders  Signs

 Deck  Aesthetics

11. RECORDS

11.1 Function

One of the important functions of bridge maintenance is a

complete, accurate and current record of each bridge on the highway
system. Records should provide a full history of the structure including
all recommendations for strengthening and repair along with the actions
which have been taken on these recommendations.

11.2 Reports

The basic records shall contain the general description, history,

dimensions and conditions of the structure as well as any
recommendations which may have been necessary at and since the time
of the first investigation.

11.3 Original Bridge Reports

Original bridge reports should show a minimum of the following

information:

1. Bridge Number 3. Name of the Bridge

2. Date of Investigation 4. Location of the Bridge

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 5. Description 19. Date built

6. Skew 20. Plans and Dimensions

7. Spans 21. Condition of the

Structure
8. Total Length
22. Restrictions
9. Roadway Width
23. Miscellaneous
10. Surfacing
24. Stress analysis
11. Sidewalks
25. Recommendations
12. Railing
26. Signature
13. Alignment
27. Channel Profile
14. Traffic Lanes
28. Encroachments
15. Design Live Loading
29. Environmental
16. Waterway
conditions
17. Other Features crossed
30. Average Daily Traffic
18. Clearances

12. REHABILITATION

Guidelines for Maintenance and Repairs of Existing Concrete

Bridges susceptible to being Affected by Corrosion

Concrete bridges, mainly in the coastal areas, are vulnerable to

corrosion due to the aggressiveness of the ambient environment.
Repairs to the affected structures have to be made as soon as
deterioration is noticed, and this requires a regular and timely
inspection of the existing bridges by a competent engineer.

It is essential that records are maintained to provide a complete up- to-

date history of structure right from the construction stage itself, with a

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mention of any special anti- corrosive treatments adopted at the stage of
design and construction.

12.1 Inspections

All bridges shall be inspect at least twice a year to ascertain if there are
any signs of distress such as appearance of rust stains, cracks, spalling,
etc., and action taken to remedy such defects. Such bridges shall be
kept under constant observation by resorting to frequent inspections
and further remedial measures undertaken as considered necessary.

The reports shall be compared with previous reports to get an idea of

the rate of deterioration. If the rate of deterioration is alarming, further
detailed investigations to ascertain causes of deterioration, etc., shall be
undertaken. Thereafter, the desired adequate remedial measure should
be suggested.

12.2 Identification of Corrosion and Damage of Concrete

The durability of the structures varies considerably in various zones of

exposure which could be separated for the purpose of applying these
specifications as follows:

a. Submerged zone: is that part of the structure which falls

below the splash zone.

In this area the primary concern is to prevent chemical

deterioration of concrete, corrosion of embedded of embedded
steel and abrasion

b. Splash zone: is area of the structure subjected to repeated

wetting and drying by sea water. It is the difference between
the highest and the lowest water levels reached by the waves
with a statistical return period of 6 months superimposed on
the highest and lowest level of spring tides plus one metre
above highest tide level.

In this area, attention has to be paid to chemical deterioration

of concrete and corrosion of embedded steel. In very cold

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 climate the aspect of freezing and thawing has also to be
considered.

c. Atmospheric zone: is the part of the structure above the splash

zone which is exposed to the atmosphere.

In this area, attention has to be paid to the prevention of

corrosion of embedded steel due to spray and wind actions
carrying salt/ sand particles.

The causes leading to corrosion of reinforcement and the consequent

cracking/ spalling of concrete shall be investigated to ascertain as to
which of them have been responsible for the deterioration of
concrete and steel.

12.3 Remedial Measures

Remedial measures are taken, based on detailed inspection and

identification of the causes leading to defects in the structure. These
may be classified as follows.

 Inadequate Cover: For components having inadequate cover,

surface treatment by way of providing additional good quality
dense concrete cover with 20 mm size of aggregates, so as to
have a minimum cover of 50 mm shall be considered. But this is
done only if rusting is minimal and ingress of moisture can be
locked.

 Repairs to Cracks: where corrosion has just set in and rust

cracks have begun to appear, and spalling has not yet started, it
may be adequate in some such cases to just seal the narrow
cracks against ingress of moisture, etc. For this purpose, where
the cracks are of the dormant type, rigid type sealant is required,
and it may be sufficient to cement grout or gunite the cracks or
inject into the cracks a suitable epoxy formation with adequate
bonding and tensile strength. For live cracks, flexible sealants
are used, and a chase should be cut along the line of crack and
then sealed with a thermoplastic material, poly- sulphide rubber,
or by the insertion of a prepared neoprene or rubber- bitumen

33
 sealing- strip. Even after such a treatment, it will be necessary
to keep a constant watch on its performance, so as to undertake
further steps as and when required.

 Repairs to damaged/ spalled concrete: For repairs to damaged/

spalled concrete, where extensive damage has already occurred
due to corrosion, the defective concrete should be cut out to the
full depth but not less than 50 mm beyond the loose concrete
layer and all loose materials removed. The exposed
reinforcement should be thoroughly cleaned up to the root of the
rust with brushes, sand blasting, chemical solution, etc.

 Exposed components of expansion joints shall be protected by a

suitable covering of proven specification.

The performance of the remedial measures undertaken should be

carefully watched and monitored and the use of non- destructive tests
should be considered, if absolutely necessary.

13. SUGGESTED GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION OF

BRIDGES

The inspection comprises of the following steps:

 In-Office review

 At-site inspection,

 Report preparation and submission

13.1 In-Office Review

 Study the supervising engineer’s ‘summary report’. This should

contain details about the project, various bills of quantities and
change orders, list of deficiencies, problems encountered during
execution of work, etc.

 Study project drawings, as- built drawings and all the special
and general specifications pertinent to the structure.

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  Spot- check through the results of various tests conducted by the
supervising engineer during the execution of the work.

 While it is necessary to inspect each bridge it is not so with

culverts. When inspecting them, it is sufficient to select only
representative culverts, provided all of them were built by the
same contractor.

 Although it is not possible to prescribe in advance the time

required for all the inspections, but based on the above, at least
a rough time estimate should be prepared for general guidance.
To cut this down, arrangement should be made in advance, for
various facilities and equipment to be readily available at the
site.

13.2At-Site Inspection

All possible details pertinent to the structure, its construction and

performance:

 Effective bridge drainage as well as surface drainage, including

correct sizes and detailing of all fittings

 Effective arrangement of civil works for lighting.

 Installations of bearings in correct directions and ensuring their

freedom to perform the intended functions.

 Fixation and performance of expansion joints and the

corresponding riding quality of the bridge.

 Workmanship

 Concrete Strengths

 Strengths of reinforcement steel, pre-stressing steel, structural

steel.

 Details at connections, joints, corners, welds, hinges, etc,

 Correctitude of dimensions

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  Any undue cracks in concrete possible remedies if called for.

 Whether the structure has actually already been in service or

not.

 Bulging and tilting at joints and treatment of concrete at joints.

 Fixing details of parapets, hand rails, guard rails.

 Whether wadi- channel is free of obstructions and susceptible to

deviation.

 Adequacy of slope protection works and of their toe- walls, size

of stone used, thickness etc.

13.3 Report Preparation and Submission

 Assemble all the findings

 Compare these with the supervising engineer’s ‘summary

report’, in the light of the as-built drawings, change orders, the
‘initial’ and the ‘revised’ bills of quantities and the special
conditions of contract.

 Compile the report including the recommended penalties and

submit it to the construction department of the client authority
for discussion and final approval.

14. REFERENCES

i. “Concrete Bridge Practice”, construction, Maintenance and

Rehabilitation, V.K. Raina, TATA McGraw-HILL, 1988.

ii. “Essentials of Bridge Engineering”, D. Johnson Victor,

OXFORD & PUBLISHING CO, 1980.

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