Aero Engineering 315

Lesson 31

Velocity vs. Load Factor (V-n) Diagrams

 V-n Diagram Objectives
 State reason for each limit in a V-N diagram
 State limitations and usefulness of V-n diagram
 Sketch a typical V-n diagram
 Annotate changes with weight and altitude
 Define and calculate corner velocity
 Given a V-n diagram find available and max
load factors, stall speeds, maximum velocity,
and corner velocity (velocity where max turn
rate and min turn radius is achieved)
 Actual min turn radius and max turn rate
may be calculated using corner velocity and
max g
 V-n Diagrams: Description
 Commonly known as the “flight envelope”
 Plot showing various structural and
instantaneous performance limits
 Aerodynamic (stall) limits

 Structural (g) limits

 Dynamic pressure (q) limit

 Many aircraft flight manuals have one of these

diagrams
 Each plot good for one weight, one altitude,
one configuration
 V-n Diagrams: Limits
+
"q" Limit
Stall limit

Structural Limit
n
V

-
Note: Flight within the “envelope” is possible
without stalling or damaging the aircraft.
(Safe operating region = inside the box)
 Aerodynamic (stall) limit
 The aerodynamic limit is a “lift limit”
and occurs where the aircraft stalls
 Varies as a function of the square root
of weight and load factor
 When stalling while above 1 g, it’s
known as an “accelerated stall”

2nW
Vstall =
ρ ∞ SCLmax
 Maximum n available prior to stall
 At any point in flight

L = nW = CL ρ SV2/2
 Solving for n:
CL ρ S 2
n= V
2W
 For a given weight, altitude and aircraft,
max n is

CLMAX ρ S 2 Defines stall limit load

nMAX = V factor line, not structural
2W limit load factor
 Structural (g) Limit
 Max design load factor (n)
 Positive and negative g limit

 Will vary as a function of weight and

configuration
 Heavier gross weight – lower g limit

 Flaps and gear down – lower g limit

 Carrying stores – lower g limit

 Speed or Mach may also effect structural limit

Typical structural limits: Fighter: -3 to +9 g

Transport: -1 to +3 g
 Dynamic pressure (q) limit
 Maximum design speed (Mach or KCAS or KEAS)
 Type and nature depends on specific aircraft
 Critical mach – controllability, mach tuck etc
 Aeroelastic effects – Aileron reversal, flutter,
etc
 High q – canopy implosion
 High Mach – Engine limit, directional stability
 Sustained High Mach – too high temperature,
heating
 May be affected by load factor

Typical q limits: Fighters: Mach 2.5 (heating)

Transports: ~ Mach 0.8 (critical mach)
 V-n Diagrams: Corner Velocity
+

* 2nmaxW
V =
ρ ∞ SC L max
n V *- Corner Velocity
V

- The corner velocity is the velocity at which the stall limit

and the structural limit make a corner on the graph

Flight at the corner velocity gives the minimum

turn radius and maximum turn rate
Corner Velocity Example
An A-10 with a wing loading (W/S) of
92 lbs/ft2 and CLmax = 1.5 has a
maximum structural load limit of 7g’s.
What is its corner velocity at sea level?
 Q: What is the corner velocity (V*) for this aircraft?

8
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Corner
Corner Velocity

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots

 Q: Where are the positive and negative stall limits for this aircraft?
Q: What’s the stall speed at 1g? How about at 4g’s?

8
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Stall speed @ 4g
Corner Velocity
~165 KCAS
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2 Stall speed
Negative Stall@Limit
1g
~80 KCAS
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots

 Q: What happens to stall limit when altitude is increased?

8
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Corner Velocity
Shift as h increases
(ρ decreases)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots

Q: Where are the positive and negative structural limits for this aircraft?

8 Positive g Limit
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
No shift as h increases
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Corner Velocity

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4 Negative g Limit
Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots
 Q: What happens when weight is increased?

8
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Corner Velocity

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots

 Q: Where is the ‘max q’ limit for this aircraft?

8
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit q limit q Limit

2 Corner Velocity

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots May shift as h increases

(M and ρ changes)
 V-n usefulness and limitations
 Works well for identifying:
 Instantaneous g capabilities

 g and speed limitations

 Corner velocity (point where max turn rate

and min turn radius occur)
 Does not give any indication of:
 Sustained performance

 Actual values for turn rate and radius

 These can be calculated from info on V-n

diagram though
 Performance at other weights, altitudes,
configurations, asymmetric load limits etc
 Design Considerations
To get small r and large ω:
 Minimize wing loading (W/S)
 Maximize “g” loading
 Structural considerations
 Physiological considerations
 Maximize lift coefficient
 Use high lift devices (maneuvering flaps,
slats)
 Example
V-n
Diagram

Vmax = 382 KIAS / 0.7 Mach

Page from T-37B

Flight Manual
 T-38 V-n
diagram for
9,600 lbs Vmax = 720 KEAS / 1.62 Mach
 T-38 V-n
diagram for
12,000 lbs Vmax = 720 KEAS / 1.62 Mach
 Homework #38
From the T-38 V-n diagrams…
a. What is the maximum instantaneous load factor for
a 12,000 lb T-38 at 15,000 ft and Mach 0.6?
b. What is the maximum instantaneous load factor for
a 9,600 lb T-38 at sea level and Mach 0.8?
c. What is the maximum Mach number for a 12,000 lb
T-38 at sea level?
d. What is the maximum Mach number for a 9,600 lb
T-38 at 15,000 ft?
e. What is the corner velocity for a 12,000 lb T-38 at
25,000 ft?
f. What is the corner velocity for a 9,600 lb T-38 at
sea level?
 Next Lesson (32)…
 Prior to class
 Read text 5.13
 Complete problems through #39
 In class
 Discuss specific excess power, energy
height