Introduction

People of all ages can improve the quality of their lives and reduce the risks
of developing coronary heart disease, hypertension, some cancers, and type 2
diabetes with ongoing participation in moderate physical activity and exercise.
Daily exercise will also enhance one’s mental well-being and promote healthy
musculoskeletal function throughout life. Fitness programs involving progressively
increasing intensities of exercise will elicit even greater cardio protective benefits
(Swain and Franklin, 2006).
Swain, D.P. and Franklin, B.A. (2006). Comparison of cardioprotective benefits of
vigorous versus moderate intensity aerobic exercise. American Journal of
Cardiology, 97: 141-147.

Power: Definition and Types

Power and physical performance have been closely related and investigated
by various investigators using different protocols. The ability of an athlete to
produce high forces at high velocity is an important component of the physical
performance and functional capacity. There is no agreement in the literature over
the definition of power. However, power has been defined as the product of force
(or torque) and velocity, ie, rate of doing work (Thomas et al 1997). It is of two
types, aerobic or endurance and anaerobic.

According to Brukner and Khan (2001), power is the equivalent of explosive

strength. Young and Bilby (1993) have used the term "speed-strength" synonymous
with power. Paavolaienen et al (1999) have suggested that muscle power is the
ability of neuromuscular system to produce power during maximal exercise when
glycolytic and oxidative energy production is high and muscle contractility may be
limited.

Schmidtbleicher (1992) has defined power as the ability of neuromuscular

system to produce greatest possible impulse in a given time period, which depends
on resistance of the load, and organisation of the acceleration. The latter
parameter is influenced by the sport played by the athlete. There are others
factors as well, which are pertinent for power generation. The exploration of these
factors is important for understanding the alterations in the power production
under different conditions.

Factors Influencing Power

Maximal velocity of shortening has a significant influence on power output.

It is dependent on intrinsic speed of the muscle contraction. The proportion of the
muscle fibre type and length of the muscle determine the maximal velocity. Type-I
muscle fibres generate less power than type-II. Muscle shorter in length has few
sarcomeres in series and hence, generates less power. Maximal velocity can not be
changed by training.

Maximal isometric strength is directly proportional to power output.

Determination of appropriate external resistance for maximum power can be used
to establish adequate training stimulus to train muscle power. There is controversy
in the literature as to maximum external resistance against which muscle power
can be generated. According to Thomas et al (1997), training to improve maximal
power output should be done at 56-78% of the maximum dynamic strength.
Although there is no agreement for the various training protocols to achieve this
objective but cross sectional area and neural adaptations of muscles in response to
training must be addressed.

Muscle strength and power are inseparable variables and have direct
confluence on physical performance. According to Sale (1991), muscle strength is
the peak force developed during a maximal voluntary contraction under a given set
of conditions. These conditions comprise of speed of movement, posture, and
patterns and mode of contraction. The role of different modes of muscle
contraction like isometric, isotonic and isokinetic, and their relation with power
has not been accounted for and is beyond the scope of this debate.

Neuromuscular characteristics as a determinant of power and hence,

physical performance was interpellated by Paavolainen et al (1999). They found
that force-time characteristics differed with different muscle fibre types. Force
output of muscle contraction was reported to depend on the rate and force of
myofibrillar cross-bridge cycle activity, and effective storage and release of elastic
energy during stretch - shortening cycle.

Anaerobic characteristics have also been reported to impair muscle

contraction on the inchoation of fatigue which results in increased H+ ion
concentration and increased blood lactate concentration thereby impeding muscles'
physiological process (Paavolainen et al 1999).

According to Thomas et al (1996) who studied the relation of leg power with
the body composition, strength and function in young women; double leg press
showed a significant correlation with vertical jump (R2 = 0.584, p < 0.004). They
carried out their study using double leg press, leg extensor power rig, and Wingate
anaerobic power test. Habitual gait and maximal gait velocity, and vertical jump
test were also carried out. They concluded that strength was a key component of
power development and vertical jump was a suitable test for evaluating explosive
leg power.

Thomas et al (1997) recruited sedentary untrained female subjects in their

study. Hence, the results can not be generalised to elite population. Two different
kinds of equipment were utilised to assess muscle power namely, double leg press
and leg extensor power rig. Given that the two machines used to evaluate power
involved the similar group of muscles, there was no agreement between two
outputs. It may be because double leg press measures the power output through
the full range of motion and requires the subject to overcome the initial inertia of
the flywheel to which it is attached. On the other hand, leg extensor power rig
uses pneumatic piston and evaluates the individual’s ability to generate power
internally against a relatively low resistance. Muscle strength was not assessed
though it has been mentioned to be the key component of power development.

There was an oversimplification of assumptions by Chelly et al (2001) in

calculating hopping stiffness by spring mass model. This model did not account for
harmonic oscillation during running performance. They also considered leg muscle
volume to be an indicator of muscle strength and muscle power, which is in
contrast to the findings of Maylia et al (1999).
 Maylia et al (1999) conducted a study on 11 subjects and measured thigh
muscle bulk, and knee extensor and flexor peak torque using an isokinetic
dynamometer. They reported that there was no correlation between muscle power
and thigh girth individually or as a group. Chelly et al (2001) failed to address the
issue of muscle strength and its relationship with power. They used simple
ergometric treadmill to evaluate and assess muscle power rather than accurate
equipment like high-speed cameras and long force platforms used by other
investigators. It could have biased the power assessment allowing the error factor
to influence the final results.

Brukner P and Khan K (2001)

Clinical Sports Medicine. (2nd ed.) McGraw-Hill Book Co. Sydney
Chelly SM and Denis C (2001)
Leg power and hopping stiffness: relationship with sprint running
performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 33:326-333.
Maylia E, Fairclough JA, Nokes LD and Jones MD(1999)
Can muscle power be estimated from thigh bulk measurements? A
preliminary study. Journal of Sports Rehabilitation 8:50-59.
Paavolainen LM, Numella AT and Rusko HK (1999)
Neuromuscular characteristics and muscle power as determinants of 5-km
running performance.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 31:124-
130.
Sale D (1991)
Testing strength and power. In J MacDougall, H Wegner and H.Green (eds),
Physiological Testing of the High Performance Athlete (2nd ed.). (pp21-
106). Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers.
Schmidtbleicher D (1992)
Training for power events. In P. Komi (Ed.) Strength and Power in Sport, Vol
3, IOC Medical Commision Publication.
Thomas M, Fiatarone MA and Fielding RA (1997)
Leg power in young women: relationship to body composition, strength, and
function. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29:1321-1326.
Young WB and Bilby GE (1993)
The effect of voluntary effort to influence speed of contraction on strength,
muscular power, and hypertrophy development. Journal of Strength
Conditioning 7:172-172.

physical fitness can be defined as a set of attributes that people have

or achieve relating to their ability to perform physical activity and plays an
important role on their performance. It is a dynamic, multidimensional,
related to heredity, environment and personal interest. Different sports
depending on their duration and intensity require different types of specific
energy system, strength and skills. Components of physical fitness include
cardiorespiratory function, relative leanness, flexibility, muscular strength
and endurance.