ENGR 135: Heat Transfer - Lab #5

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Lab Section 02L

Experiment Date: 29 October 2018

Submitted: 16 November 2018

By Sebastian Edinger
Other group members: Brian Martin, Gabriel Picazo
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Abstract
Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law was verified by observing the relationship between radiative
power and the temperature of a radiation source. However, it was not numerically verified
because the area of the radiation emission was not measured. This was necessary to compare the
power input and outputs of the radiation sources. In the future is essential that the surface area of
radiation emission be measured. This will allow the power output of the system to be calculated
numerically and compared to the power input of the system. The ratio of the power input to
output of the system can be used to approximate the emissivity of the radiation source.
Despite the fact the area is not known, there is still a proportionality between the power
emitted by the lamp or radiation cube and the power delivered to these devices. This
proportionality can be observed in the linear relationship between the temperature measured by
the sensor and the resistance of the lamp. Each of these values are representative of the power
input and output respectively.
The relationship between Rlamp/Rref and Tlamp was linear and just about constant
throughout . A fourth degree polynomial related Rlamp/Rref and T4lamp . This relationship was
constant throughout. The relationship between (T4cube -T4rm) and Rcube had a fourth order
polynomial regression curve that did not as accurately relate the data points as in the high
temperature experiment. The graph of Tcube vs Rcube was very close to, but not exactly linear.
This indicates that at low temperatures the Stefan-Boltzmann law must incorporate the low
temperature Trm.

Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to prove the Stefan-Boltzmann law by observing the
relationship between radiant intensity and absolute temperature at high and low temperatures.
The power delivered to two different sources of thermal radiation was measured. Using electric
power to run these devices allowed the input power to be determined from current delivered at
various voltages. Thermal radiation output of these devices was measured by a sensor that
changed its voltage output dependent on incident thermal radiation. A table was used to convert
these values to output temperature of the radiation sources. These output temperatures were then
used to calculate the output thermal radiation. The ambient temperature of the room was also
measured for the low temperature experiment by measuring the output of the sensor when the
radiation source was off.
The high temperature radiation source was an incandescent lightbulb. The lightbulb
filament closely approximates a blackbody, because the amount of light it radiates is very large
compared to the amount of light it absorbs or reflects. A radiation cube was used as the low
temperature radiation source. The radiation cube was box with a lightbulb in it. The box
prevented light energy from leaving the bulb, so that the energy transfer was almost entirely
radiative heat transfer. A heat shield was placed between the radiation sensor and source to
prevent heat from accumulating in the sensor between trials.
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Lab Theory & Procedures:

Equipment:

Figure 1: Experimental setup used to verify the Stefan-Boltzmann Law at high

temperatures
The following equipment was used in both sections of the experiment: a radiation sensor,
multimeters, a heat shield, and a thermometer. The high temperature portion of the experiment
used a Stefan-Boltzmann lamp powered by a variable voltage power supply as the source of
radiation. Additionally, the high temperature portion of the experiment used and additional
multimer and a meter stick. The low temperature portion of the experiment used a Thermal
radiation cube as the source of radiation.

Figure 1: Experimental setup used to verify the Stefan-Boltzmann Law at low

temperatures
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Theory
A black body is an ideal object that absorbs all radiation, meaning no reflection occurs.
Black bodies convert all absorbed radiative energy into thermal energy. Black bodies are also
absolute radiators of energy. According to the Stefan Boltzmann Law, radiative energy absorbed
per unit time is proportional to the absolute temperature”
𝑞 = σ𝑇 4 𝐴
Where A is the area receiving or emitting the radiation and σ is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant,
σ=5.6703*10-8 [/(m2*K4)]. A gray body is a more realistic model, in which the object absorbs
radiation and also reflects and transmits radiation.

Figure 3: Irradiation types

Emissivity (ε) describes how closely a body behaves like a black body. A black body has
emissivity of one. Emissivity depends on material composition. The equation for radiative
energy absorbed per unit time can be updated to incorporate emissivity,
𝑞 = 𝜀σ𝑇 4 𝐴

When the temperature difference between the hot object and the environment is not that high, the
lower temperature must be incorporated into the equation,
𝑞 = 𝜀σ(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 4 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 4 )𝐴

The sensor detected radiation emitted from a body and delivered a voltage signal as the radiation
intensity changed. The following relationship was used to calculate the heat flux for high
temperature differences:
𝑞
𝑅= = εσ𝑇 4
𝐴
For low temperature differences, radiation loss was considered:
𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 = εσ(𝑇 4 ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇 4 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 )
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Procedure:
Stefan-Boltzmann at High Temperature
1. The room temperature Tref was taken using the thermometer and the resistance of the
lamp Rref was taken using a multimeter acting as an ohmmeter.
2. The power supply was connected to power the lamp. A multimeter acting as an ammeter
was connected in series between the lamp and the power supply. A second multimeter
acting as a voltmeter was connected across the lamp’s terminals.
3. The third multimeter was connected as a millivoltmeter to the radiation sensor.
4. The sensor was set at the same height as the lamp filament and 6 cm away from the bulb.
5. The heat shield was placed between the lamp and the sensor.
6. The power supply was powered on and set to the first voltage setting, 1 volt.
7. The heat shield was removed and the electric current through the lamp was recorded. The
heat shield was repositioned between the lamp and the sensor.
8. This process is repeated for each voltage setting between 1 and 11 volts.

Stefan-Boltzmann at Low Temperature

1. A multimeter acting as an ohmmeter was connected to the cube and used to measure the
resistance of the cube. A second multimeter in the millivolt setting was connected across
the radiation sensor
2. The sensor was positioned to face the black surface of the cube. Care was taken to leave a
small gap to keep the sensor from actually contacting the surface.
3. The third multimeter was connected as a millivoltmeter to the radiation sensor.
4. The resistance of the cube Rrm was measured and converted to a temperature Trm which
was used as the reference temperature. The voltage received from the sensor was
recorded.
5. The heat shield was placed between the sensor and the cube. The power knob on the cube
was raised turned to max, turning the lamp on and heating the surface of the cube.
6. The resistance was checked on the cube and the power setting was reduced until the
resistance indicated a change of 12˚C.
7. The heat shield was briefly removed. During this time the resistance of the cube, Rcube
and the voltage on the radiation sensor were checked and recorded.
8. The heat shield was replaced between the sensor and cube and the power was raised to
max.
9. The temperature was recorded in 12˚C increments until a constant temperature was
reached.
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Results and Discussion

Stefan-Boltzmann at High Temperature
Reference values
α (1/K) 4.50*10-3
Tref (K) 293.15
Rref (Ohms) 0.4

The equivalent temperature for Rlamp/Rref was found using the corresponding table in the
appendix.

Voltage I (A) Rad (mV) Rlamp (Ω) Rlamp/Rref Tlamp (K) T4lamp (K)
1 0.89 0.4 0.449438 1.123596 328.74 1.17E+10
2 1.12 0.7 0.625000 1.562500 430.81 3.44E+10
3 1.36 1.4 1.029412 2.573529 645.79 1.74E+11
4 1.55 2.2 1.419355 3.548387 836.23 4.89E+11
5 1.71 3.3 1.929825 4.824561 1076.77 1.34E+12
6 1.91 4.7 2.460733 6.151832 1322.15 3.06E+12
7 2.09 6 2.870813 7.177033 1506.5 5.15E+12
8 2.2 7.6 3.454545 8.636364 1761.44 9.63E+12
9 2.33 9.2 3.948498 9.871245 1973.09 1.52E+13
10 2.47 11 4.453441 11.133603 2182.56 2.27E+13
11 2.6 12.7 4.884615 12.211538 2359.93 3.10E+13
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Relationship between the radiation sensor readings and T4lamp .

Tlamp vs Rlamp/Rref y = 182.37x + 170.4

R² = 0.9985
3000

2500

2000
Tlamp

1500

1000

500

0
0.000000 2.000000 4.000000 6.000000 8.000000 10.00000012.00000014.000000

Rlamp/Rref

T4lamp vs Rlamp/Rref y = 3E+08x4 + 2E+10x3 - 5E+10x2 + 1E+11x - 7E+10

R² = 1
3.50E+13

3.00E+13

2.50E+13
T4lamp (K)

2.00E+13

1.50E+13

1.00E+13

5.00E+12

0.00E+00
0.000000 2.000000 4.000000 6.000000 8.000000 10.000000 12.000000 14.000000
Rlamp/Rref

The relationship between Rlamp/Rref and Tlamp was linear and just about constant
throughout . A fourth degree polynomial related Rlamp/Rref and T4lamp . The relationship was
constant throughout.
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Stefan-Boltzmann at Low Temperature

Reference values
Trm (kΩ) 117.7
Trm (K) 294.70
T4rm (K4) 7.54E+09

Rad (mV) Rcube (Ω) Tcube (C) Tcube (K) T4cube (K4) (T4cube -T4rm) (K4)
1.7 67706.57651 33.55338 306.70338 8.85E+09 8.85E+09
3.8 40358.44662 45.5538 318.7038 1.03E+10 1.03E+10
6 24850.45374 57.55338 330.70338 1.20E+10 1.20E+10
8.7 15761.486 69.55338 342.70338 1.38E+10 1.38E+10
11.5 10271 81.55338 354.70338 1.58E+10 1.58E+10
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Tcube vs Rcube
y = -0.7852x + 355.66
R² = 0.9125

360
350
340
(Tcube (K)

330
320
310
300
290
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
Rcube (kΩ)

(T4cube -T4rm) vs Rcube

y = 3568.2x4 - 581878x3 + 3E+07x2 - 1E+09x + 2E+10
R² = 1
1.80E+10
1.60E+10
1.40E+10
(T4cube -T4rm) (K4)

1.20E+10
1.00E+10
8.00E+09
6.00E+09
4.00E+09
2.00E+09
0.00E+00
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
Rcube (kΩ)

The relationship between (T4cube -T4rm) and Rcube is not linear because the temperature has
been raised to the fourth power. The graph of Tcube vs Rcube is not linear. This indicates that at
low temperatures the Stefan-Boltzmann law must incorporate the low temperature Trm. However
the R2 value was 0.9125 which is fairly close to one. This indicates that data points were fairly
close to being linearly related. The R2 value is a measure of how close to linear a curve is.

At higher temperatures differences, T4hot is much larger than T4cold and the latter value
can be considered insignificant. The difference between these values increases exponentially
when the values are raised to the fourth power.
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Discussion:
The filament in the lamp approximates a black body because the amount of light the
filament in the bulb reflects is insignificant compared to the amount of light it radiates.
A power regression curve can be used to find the emissivity of the black body and verify
the Stefan Boltzmann law.
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = εσ(𝑇 4 ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇 4 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 )𝐴

If total efficiency is assumed (the efficiency will in effect be the emissivity, ε)

𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Power input to the lamp is voltage times current delivered

𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖 ∗ 𝑉

𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = εσ(𝑇 4 ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇 4 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 )𝐴

If the power output of the lamp is known, then σ(𝑇 4 ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇 4 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 )𝐴 is known, then ε can be
treated as the slope of the line of the form y=mx+b.
If a plot is made of σ(𝑇 4 ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇 4 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 )𝐴 vs 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 , then slope of the resulting line is ε, the
emissivity of the lightbulb in the Stefan-Boltzmann lamp. However, the surface area of radiation
emission, A would need to be known for these calculations to be performed.
Despite the fact the area is not known, there was still a proportionality between the power
emitted by the lamp or radiation cube and the power delivered to these devices. This
proportionality was observed in the linear relationship between the temperature measured by the
sensor and the resistance of the lamp. Each of these values were representative of the power
input and output respectively.

Experiment design considerations:

The experiment was designed to allow for easy measurement of power delivered to two
different sources of thermal radiation. Using electric power to run these devices allowed the
input power to be determined from current delivered at various voltages. Thermal radiation
output of these devices was measured by a sensor that changed its voltage output dependent on
incident thermal radiation. A table was used to convert these values to output temperature of the
radiation sources. These output temperatures were then used to calculate the output thermal
radiation. The ambient temperature of the room was also measured for the low temperature
experiment by measuring the output of the sensor when the radiation source was off.
A major improvement to this experiment would incorporate a method for measuring the
area of thermal radiation. This would allow the power output of the system to be measured
numerically and compared to the power input of the system. This would allow emissivity of the
thermal radiation source to be approximated.
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Conclusion
Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law was verified by observing the relationship between radiative
power and the temperature of a radiation source. However, it was not numerically verified
because the area of the radiation emission was not measured. This was necessary to compare the
power input and outputs of the radiation sources. The emissivity of these devices could also have
been approximated had the area of emission been known.
Despite the fact the area is not known, there is still a proportionality between the power
emitted by the lamp or radiation cube and the power delivered to these devices. This
proportionality can be observed in the linear relationship between the temperature measured by
the sensor and the resistance of the lamp. Each of these values are representative of the power
input and output respectively.
The relationship between Rlamp/Rref and Tlamp was linear and just about constant
throughout . A fourth degree polynomial related Rlamp/Rref and T4lamp . The relationship was
constant throughout. The relationship between (T4cube -T4rm) and Rcube was not linear because the
temperature has been raised to the fourth power. Also the fourth order polynomial regression
curve did not as accurately relate the data points. The graph of Tcube vs Rcube was also not linear.
However, the R2 value was 0.9125 which is fairly close to one. This indicates that data points
were close to being linearly related. The R2 value is a measure of how close to linear a curve is.
This indicates that at low temperatures the Stefan-Boltzmann law must incorporate the low
temperature Trm.
If this experiment were to be performed again in the future is essential that the surface
area of radiation emission be measured. This will allow the power output of the system to be
calculated numerically and compared to the power input of the system. The ratio of the power
input to output of the system approximates the emissivity of the radiation source. The slope of
the line of best fit of multiple power input vs output points would allow the emissivity to be
calculated in a way that incorporates multiple trials.

References:
[1] Frank P. Incropera and David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Wiley

(2007).

[2] Anthony F. Mills, Basic Heat and Mass Transfer, IRWIN (1995).

[3] PASCO Scientific, Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for Thermal Radiation System,

(March, 1999).

[4] “Why Are Light Bulbs Black Body Radiation Emitters?” Physics Stack Exchange,
physics.stackexchange.com/questions/350531/why-are-light-bulbs-black-body-radiation-emitters.
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Appendix