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Moisture Equlilibrium and Moisture Migration

Article · June 2008

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Moisture equilibrium and moisture
migration
within transformer insulation
systems
Members:
Victor Sokolov †,
UA (Convenor)
Jacques Aubin, CA
Valery Davydov, AU
Hans-Peter Gasser, CH
Paul Griffin, US
There has been renewed interest in the subject of
water contamination in transformers in recent years,
which can be attributed to three reasons: Firstly a large
population of equipment operates under aged condi-
tions. Among aging phenomena moisture in the liquid
and solid insulation evolved into a frequently discussed
problem since it decreases the dielectric withstand
strength, accelerates cellulose decomposition and causes
the emission of bubbles at high temperatures. Secondly
there is an uncertainty as to the effectiveness of avail-
able measurement methods to assess the moisture con-
tent and hence the health of the equipment. To prevent
in-service failures and schedule drying, reliable tech-
niques are needed to determine whether a critical level
of water contamination has been reached and what the
permissible operating conditions are. Thirdly new mois-
ture sensors have become available for continuous on-
line condition monitoring as well as dielectric response
techniques for on-site moisture diagnostics.
The problems of insulation deterioration and reha-
bilitation of transformers are subjects of particular inter-
est for the CIGRÉ Working Groups 12.18 “Life Manage-
ment” (TB 227, 2003) and 37.27 “Ageing of the System
- Impact on Planning” (CIGRE Report, Electra 176,
December 2000). The relevant standards as IEC 60814
for water measurements by Karl Fischer titration and
IEC 60422 for supervising and maintaining mineral insu-
349
TECHNICAL BROCHURE
WG
A2.30
Maik Koch, DE
Lars Lundgaard, NO
Oleg Roizman, AU
Mario Scala, AT
Stefan Tenbohlen, DE
Boris Vanin, UA
lating oils in electrical equipment pay special attention
to moisture assessment.
In the opinion of the authors, a deeper understand-
ing of the processes of water ingress, equilibration and
migration, the dangerous effects of excessive water and
reliable diagnostic methods are necessary for effective
and efficient life management. This brochure describes
the physical processes and mathematics of moisture
ingress, migration and equilibrium in transformers. Tra-
ditional assumptions, which have been a basis for mois-
ture assessment and treatment, have to be substituted by
actual scientific findings. Early recommendations related
to bubble evolution were too simplified. Reasons for over-
estimation of water in cellulose through water in oil are
explained in detail and essential improvements are given.
The authors intend to base the technical brochure on sci-
entific evidence to clarify most common misunderstand-
ings about moisture in transformers and to provide reli-
able practical recommendations.
Transformers are dried during the manufacturing pro-
cess until measurements or standard practices achieve
moisture content in the cellulose insulation of less than
1.0 %.After initial drying, the moisture content of the insu-
lation system continually increases. There are three sources
of excessive water in transformer insulation:
No. 238 - June 2008 25

Ingress from the atmosphere
●
● Aging of cellulose and oil
● Residual moisture in the “thick structural com-
ponents”
Direct measurements of water content at pressboard
samples of about 100 transformers after 6 to 20 years of
service showed the rate of water contamination at open-
breathing conservators to be up to 0.2 % per year, but
typically 0.07 % per year. The rate of water contami-
nation for transformers with membrane-sealed con-
servator preservation systems is about 0.03 to 0.06 %
water in the cellulose materials per year based on a study
of about 80 units. Calculations revealed that mainte-
nance activities with the solid insulation exposed to air
result in greater moisture ingress than during service with
an imperfect preservation system for many years.
Figure 1 illustrates the sources of moisture contamina-
tion for transformers in service.
Mineral oil dissolves only a very small quantity
of water, thus oil serves as a water-transferring medium
within a transformer. Water molecules are attracted by
Figure 1: Sources of water contamination in power transformers
349
TECHNICAL BROCHURE
aromatic components, impurities and polar aging
WG
products. Particles, such as cellulose fibers in the oil,
A2.30
contain some water as well. The absolute water con-
tent in oil is linearly proportional to the water vapour
pressure up to the saturation level. As oils become oxi-
dized with increasing amounts of polar aging byprod-
ucts, their water solubility also increases. Figure 2
depicts the moisture solubility of new oils having 5
and 21 % aromatics, new standard oil, silicon oil
and aged mineral oil having a total acid number of
0.49 mg KOH/g oil. However, recent studies indicate
that not the total acidity but rather low molecular water
soluble acids increase the water solubility of service
aged oils.
Cellulose materials can typically take up 2000 times
more water mass than new mineral oil. The unsaturated
OH-groups of the molecules make cellulose very active
in attracting and adsorbing water molecules. Water
adsorption can be described by sorption isotherms, relat-
ing the water content to the relative water saturation (or
water vapour pressure) in equilibrium.
No. 238 - June 2008 27

Figure 2: Solubility curves of water in mineral and silicon oil
The solid transformer insulation can be divided into
three different moisture characteristics, which arise from
dissimilar dimensions (ratio of surface to volume) and
operating temperatures:
● “Thick structures” are mostly supporting compo-
nents and comprise about 50 % of the total cel-
lulose insulation mass.
● “Thin cold structures” are those that operate at bulk
oil temperatures: pressboard barriers, end caps, etc.
These components comprise 20-30 % of the total
mass of the cellulose materials and retain a large
amount of the water which is available for migra-
tion over relatively short time periods such as daily
temperature cycles.
● “Thin hot structures” are those which operate at
temperatures close to the conductor temperature
(paper wrapped on conductors). Moisture migra-
tion will be most rapid in this region because of the
higher operating temperatures.
Moisture equilibrium bases on thermodynamic equi-
librium, where the migration of moisture molecules inside
materials and between oil and cellulose goes to zero. Mois-
ture migrates until the water vapour pressure gains the
349
TECHNICAL BROCHURE
same value; differences in the mois-
WG
ture vapour pressure are the driving
A2.30
force for moisture migration.
Assuming the same temperature
and pressure rules, moisture
exchange can be described in terms
of relative saturation. Here the mois-
ture content relative to saturation in
adjacent materials becomes equal.
Since relative saturation is equiva-
lent to water activity, moisture
exchange can also be expressed in
terms of water activity. A change of
temperature will always result into
moisture migration inside materi-
als and between cellulose and oil,
since the water solubility in oil and
the sorption capacity of cellulose
materials depend on temperature.
With increasing temperature the water solubility in oil
increases (Figure 2) while the water adsorption capacity
of cellulose decreases. Thus the equilibrium process forces
water molecules to migrate from cellulose to oil. At
decreasing temperatures the cellulose materials again take
up water from the oil.
It is a standard technique for transformer opera-
tors to derive the moisture content in cellulose (%) from
the moisture content in oil (ppm). This approach con-
sists of three steps: (1) sampling of oil under service con-
ditions, (2) measurement of water content by Karl Fis-
cher Titration and (3) deriving moisture content in paper
via equilibrium diagrams from moisture in oil.
Unfortunately this procedure is affected by crucial
errors: sampling, transportation to the laboratory and
moisture measurement by Karl Fischer titration, equi-
librium conditions are rarely achieved (depending on
temperature after hours/days/months), a steep gradi-
ent and high uncertainty in the low moisture region com-
pounds the accuracy, diagrams from various literature
sources lead to different results, the temperature gradi-
ent in windings (up to 30 K) causes an uneven moisture
distribution and finally equilibrium depends on mois-
ture solubility in oil and moisture adsorption capacity
of cellulose.
No. 238 - June 2008 29

One step to improve equilibrium diagrams is to use
the relative saturation in oil (%) or water activity instead
of moisture by weight (ppm). The advantages are that
oil aging and its influence on equilibrium diagrams
becomes negligible, the graphs become less temperature
dependent, errors due to transportation to the lab and
titration are excluded and finally a continuous measure-
ment becomes possible.
A more detailed description of moisture measure-
ment methods is provided in the appendix of the
brochure, dealing with Karl Fischer titration, capaci-
tive probes, chilled mirror hygrometers and dielectric
response methods.
A rise in temperature, especially at thick insulation
layers, causes evaporation of adsorbed water with a high
vapour and gas pressure within the inner layers of paper.
This pressure may become so high as to press out the oil
of the macrocapillaries of paper insulation. This phe-
nomenon results in two dangerous effects: the formation
of vapour-filled cavities (bubbles) on the insulation sur-
face with subsequent decrease of the dielectric strength
and a deimpregnation of the turn insulation.
The risk of a dielectric breakdown due to bubbling
is considered to be low, since just the “Hot Spot” of a
winding which has high operating temperatures and
sharp temperature gradients is rather dry. On the other
hand transformers which were out of service for a long
time behave more critically; here the hot spot is moist-
ened due to moisture migration.
A high moisture saturation in oil combined with par-
ticles and a high acidity of oil dramatically decreases the
breakdown strength. It is worth to emphasizinge that the
breakdown voltage of oil correlates better with moisture
saturation (%) than with water content (ppm). Reasons
for this behavior are that relative saturation reflects the
available water which increases the particle conductiv-
ity and enables acids to dissociate, resulting in charge car-
riers.
349
TECHNICAL BROCHURE
Up to a relative saturation of 15 % the influence
WG
on breakdown voltage is insignificant. A further increase
A2.30
in moisture saturation reduces the dielectric properties
of the oil. A relative saturation of 70-80 % means nearly
a full loss of the dielectric strength. The fewer the par-
ticles available, the weaker the effect of water on the
dielectric strength.
Based on the potential of oil to develop high water
saturation, a classification scheme can be derived.
Moisture saturation reduces the dielectric withstand
strength of the oil especially during temperature
cycling.
– dry transformer, water content in
the insulation is below 1.0 % in average. The relative sat-
uration of water in oil under equilibrium is typically
below 5 % at a constant operating temperature of
60-70 °C.
– the moisture saturation of oil
remains below 50 % at load cycling even at the coldest
temperatures. Typically the maximum water content in
the solid insulation does not exceed 2 %. The relative
saturation of water in oil under equilibrium is expected
to be less than 8 % at 60-70 °C.
– at temperature cycling
the relative saturation of water in oil may exceed 50 %
at the lowest operating temperatures.
– under normal operating condi-
tions an emulsion of water in oil can form as the relative
saturation exceeds 100 %.
Excessive moisture in transformers continues to be
a problem today. Empirical evidence has revealed some
of the problems and moisture distribution within the
insulation structures of service-aged transformers. The
solid insulation (paper, pressboard and wooden con-
struction elements) attracts the bulk of water. Oil serves
as a transfer medium only. However its ability to dissolve
water increases especially with aging.
No. 238 - June 2008 31
 349
TECHNICAL BROCHURE
A mathematical description for moisture ingress,
WG
adsorption and partitioning has been given. Moisture
A2.30
diffusion tries to establish equilibrium in the way that BROCHURE N° 349
water vapour pressure is the same in paper and the sur-
rounding oil. Differences in water vapour pressure are
the driving force of diffusion processes.
The conventional application of equilibrium dia-
grams to derive moisture content in cellulose (%) from
moisture content in oil (ppm) is effected by substantial
errors. To exclude the interference due to oil aging, the
moisture saturation in oil (%) is more appropriated
instead of moisture content (ppm). Before onsite sam- €
pling the operating temperature is recommended to be
held constant (above 50°C) for several hours.
Bubble evolution in a wet oil-paper-insulation
depends, beside temperature and moisture distribution, €
on the properties of oil and paper, e.g. influenced by
aging. The probability to form water vapour bubbles at
a given temperature can be determined if the moisture
content of the cellulosic insulation can be estimated.
Standard operation temperatures induce a very low risk
for bubble evolution only. ■

No. 238 - June 2008 33

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