Engineering Frarrurv Mechanics Vol. 22. NO. 6. pp. 989-9%. 19X5 0013-7944/85 13.00 + .

a0
Printed in the U.S.A. 0 1985 Pergamon Press Ltd.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CAVITY GROWTH IN

DUCTILE RUPTURE

B. MARINI, F. MUDRY and A. PINEAU

Centre des MatCriaux-Ecole des Mines de Paris. B.P. 87-91003 Evry Cedex, France
UA CNRS 866

Abstract-Composite materials made of a steel matrix and spherical alumina particles were
prepared to study the growth of cavities nucleated from A1203 inclusions during deformation
at room temperature. Two materials containing different volume fractions of A1z03 particles,
i.e. f = 0.5% and 2%. were investigated. Axisymmetric notched specimens were employed to
determine the effect of stress triaxiality on cavity growth rate. These specimens were calculated
by finite element method. They were predeformed at room temperature and subsequently broken
at - 196°C. The experimental results are in broad agreement with the theoretical results derived
from Rice and Tracey model. In particular it is observed that the cavity growth is proportional
to the local strain obtained from the finite element calculations. Moreover the effect of stress
triaxiality intervenes exponentially as predicted by the Rice and Tracey model. However, the
theoretical proportionality factor in front of the exponential term is lower than the experimental
one. The reasons for this discrepancy. especially the effect of interactions between neighbouring
inclusions which are not taken into account in this model, are briefly discussed.

INTRODUCTION

THIS STUDY deals with the effect of mechanical factors on the growth of cavities nucleated from
inclusions. Many authors have emphasized the importance of this process in ductile rupture.
Recently a research effort has been made to investigate cavity nucleation, see, e.g.[l-31. On
the other hand, relatively little experimental research has been devoted to the study of cavity
growth once nucleation is completed, see, e.g.[4-51. This is partly due to experimr?:a! diffl-
culties, since in many engineering materials there exists an overlap between nucledircln and
growth. This difficulty can be circumvented using composite materials or model materials, as
those studied by Perra and Finnie[Sl, in which is added a second phase that has no cohesive
strength with the matrix. Under these conditions cavities are present at the onset of plastic
deformation. This type of material was employed in the present study, using spherical Alz03
particles in a sintered-forged steel.
From a theoretical viewpoint two main models have been proposed to account for the
effect of both plastic strain and stress triaxiality on cavity growth rate[6-71. These models lead
to similar results. In particular they show the drastic effect of stress triaxiality. In the present
study we refer essentially to the model proposed by Rice and Tracey because the basic as-
sumptions relating to the particle shape are in better accordance with the experimental con-
ditions. This model considers a single cavity initially spherical located within an infinite and
rigid perfectly plastic material which is subjected to a remote stress-strain field. The authors
assume that the local rate field near the cavity can be written as

ic; = i,Xj + D&f’ + Fit:, (1)

where the first term represents the contribution
volume change, while i& is related to the shape
two constants. The minimisation of a functional
general the solution is not simple. However, for
situation adopted in the present experiments, the
the near field can be expressed as
due to the far field, ic? is associated with the
modification. In this expression D and F are
gives two implicit equations for D and F. In
high stress triaxiality, which is relatively the
shape change factor F is negligible. Therefore

ici = PijXj + Dtiy, (2)

where D represents the cavity growth and is given by

990 B. MARINI et al.

With these assumptions the solution of the problem becomes

D = 0.558 sinh + 0.008 dcosh (4)

where u represents the far field state. For a tensile field I, = 1, for a pure shear deformation
v = 0, while for compression or biaxial extension, u = - 1. In the later expression u,,, is the
mean stress while 7. is the yield shear stress.
At large stress triaxiality, eqn (4) combined with eqn (3) gives

(5)

For simple radial loading this expression can be written as

dRIR = 0.283 depq exp

where decq is the Von Mises equivalent plastic strain.

The main aim of the present study was to test the applicability of the later expression to
our model materials.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS

Materials
The composition of the steel matrix is given in Table 1. This material was prepared from
low carbon water-atomized alloyed steel powders to which a proper amount of carbon and
AllO was added. The procedure adopted to fabricate the material is similar to that adopted
by other authors and used in automotive industry[8]. It consists essentially in a sinter forging
process. Two ingots of about 10 kg were made, one containing a volume fraction of AlzO,
particles of 0.5%, the other one 2%. In both cases the mean diameter of the particles was 60
km. A histogram showing the relatively narrow size distribution is given in Fig. 1. After the
fabrication the material was given a heat-treatment reported in Table 1. This resulted in a quasi-
uniformly distributed tempered martensitic microstructure with spheroidized carbides [Fig.
2(a)]. In a number of cases, it was observed that the A&O3 particles were surrounded by a zone
which seems to contain less carbides [Fig. 2(b)]. This could be associated with a chemical
reaction taking place during the fabrication of the materials. The conventional tensile properties
are reported in Table 2.

Table 1. Composition (Wt %)

FL
Material C s P Si Mn Ni Cr MO (Al2031

1 0.22 0.012 0.01 0.02 0.22 1.80 0.07 0.48 2%

2 0.22 0.012 0.01 0.03 0.22 1.87 0.06 0.48 0.5%

Austenitisetion 900°C - 30 min + oil quench + tempering 675°C - 24 h.

Table 2. Tensile properties at room temperature

Reduction of area
UTS at failure
Material (;;a) (MPa) (o/c)

1 412 702 25.6

2 425 781 38.8
 Cavity growth in ductile rupture

Meon DlomQtQr (49. 8 pm)

50

0 3
0 50
II i ometer (pm)

Fig. 1. Histogram of size distribution for A1203 inclusions.

100

I I I I
500 km 50 pm

Fig. 2. (a) Optical micrograph at low magnification showing the distribution of inclusions in the
material containing 2% of A1203 inclusions. (b) Optical micrograph showing an AIz03 inclusion
associated with some ferritic areas.

Specimens
Axisymmetric notched specimens which have already been largely employed in previous
studies[9-111 were used (Fig. 3). In the present study the main interest in adopting these geo-
metries is to develop easily different stress triaxiality ratios.

Calculations
These specimens were calculated by the finite element method in elastoplasticity using
eight node isoparametric meshes. The details of the procedure and the results are given else-
where[12-131. Here it is enough to say that plastic deformation initiates from the notch and
reaches progressively all the minimum section. After a few percent of overall strain E = 2 Ln
&J+, where &, and C$are the initial and the actual minimum diameter, respectively, there
remains a gradient over the minimum section with a maximum in plastic strain at the notch
root. On the other hand, the stress triaxiality ratio given by u,Jupq, where ueq is the equivalent
Von Mises stress, reaches a maximum in the center of the specimens. After a few percent of
overall strain, u,/ueq reaches the values of 1.1 and 1.4 in AE4 and AE2 Type specimens,
respectively. These values can be considered to be large as compared to that corresponding
 992 B. MARINI et al.

N R 0.4 NR 0.2
Fig. 3. Specimen geometries (~$0 = 7.27 mm).

to uniaxial tension. Moreover, as already noticed elsewhere[l4-151, the stress triaxiality ratio
rapidly becomes constant. This property allows a direct integration of eqn (6) to be made to
give

3 (Jm
Ln(RIRo) = Oxeq exp 2o .
( eq>

In order to account for the work hardening effect which is not included in the Rice and Tracey
model we have substituted the equivalent Von Mises stress to the yield stress o. or TV.Moreover
in writing expression (7) we have used two parameters, B and (Y.It should be kept in mind that
in the Rice and Tracey model, cx = 0.283 while B = 3/2.

Experiments and observations

At room temperature AE4 and AEZ type specimens were given various prestrains el. Then,
after unloading they were broken at - 196°C. Brittle fracture taking place at this temperature
occurs after negligible plastic deformation. The fracture surfaces were observed by scanning
electron microscopy. Photographs of the cavities nucleated from the A1203 inclusions were
taken at a magnification of 800. The position of these cavities onto the fracture surfaces were
carefully determined. Then using a digital tablet attached to a microcomputer the area ZZof a
given cavity observed onto the fracture surface was measured to determine from classical
quantitative microscopy expressions[l6] its volume radius expressed as

From the position of this cavity and by using the results of finite element calculations, the value
of the local strain eeq and the value of the stress triaxiality factor can be determined. According
to eqn (7) the initial radius of the cavity, i.e. the radius of the particle which nucleated the
observed cavity, should also be determined. However, for a number of practical reasons, in
particular lost and broken inclusions, we used for Ro the mean volume radius of the alumina
particles. This procedure is valid provided that enough inclusions were examined. In the present
case, about 100 particles were observed for each geometry.
 Cavity growth in ductile rupture 993

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 4 shows the variation of cavity growth rate, RIRo, as a function of equivalent plastic
strain. It is observed that at a given stress triaxiality ratio and a given volume fraction there
exists a linear dependence between R/R0and eCq, as predicted by eqn (7). In this figure we
have also included the results published by Perra and FinnietSl. These authors used plain strain
specimens containing a small graphite filament aligned with the wideness. They measured both
the increase in the cross section of the cavity formed from the filament and its shape change.
In Fig. 4 only the dimensional change R/R0is plotted. A relatively good agreement between
their results corresponding to u,Joea = I/t/3 and ours obtained at the some stress triaxiahty
ratio is observed. In Fig. 4 we have also drawn two curves corresponding to eqn (7) with the
theoretical values for the coefftcients cyand l3, i.e. 0.283 and 312, respectively. An important
difference in the slopes of the theoretical curves and those corresponding to the experimental
results is noticed. This difference indicates that the theoretical model tends to largely under-
estimate the actual cavity growth rate.
In order to determine whether this difference comes from the preexponential term 01or
the exponential one, eqn (7) can be transformed into

Ln Ln RJR0=
+ M4, (9)
e-?
This expression is plotted in Fig. 5, where the experimental results corresponding to the
two volume fractions investigated are included. In this figure, we have included a scatter band
which represents either the scatter in the experimental results relating to cavity dimension or
the scatter associated with the determination of the mechanical factors, i.e. E,, and ~,,Ju,~.
The later scatter is related to the position of the particles observed onto the fracture surface.
In this figure we have also reported the results obtained by Mudry[ 1I] on a low strength alloyed
steel, A508 steel, in which a procedure similar to that employed in the present study was used
to investigate the growth rate of cavities nucleated from manganese sulfide inclusions. In the
later case the volume fraction of particles was much lower (f = 3 x 10M4). Another set of
results published recently by Quing er aI. is also given in Fig. 5. These results were obtained
in a ferritic nodular cast iron where the cavities formed from graphite nodules were observed.

I-~.*.,.,,.,*.,,.,.,,,,~,*,*~,~
crm/odq
I
l 0.60 05 Present Rocultc .
.Q - A
n 0.45
1.00 .05
: 1 I
.e 0 0.60 Port-o ond Finn;e (Ref. 5) 1
-----0. 50 RICO ond Trocay (Ref. 7)
_ .-. 1. 00 Race and Trocey (Ref;7) .
ij . 7-
F 0

0 . 1 .2

Equlvolent Piostrc Stroln feeq)

Fig. 4. Cavirl growth vs equivalent piastic strain (f, = 0.5%).

994 B. MARINI er al.

Present Resul

0 .5 1 1.5
Stress Trlaxlol>ty Rotlo.
/ om /’ QOQ
Fig. 5. Comparison between the results from this study and those given from in Refs. [l I] and
[17] as a function of the stress triaxiality ratio (~,/a,,).

In this material the volume fraction of “inclusions,” i.e. graphite nodules, is much larger since
f = 0.12.
Figure 5 shows that each group of data is distributed along straight lines with a slope close
to 3/2 in all cases, except in nodular cast iron, where a slope closer to 0.7 is observed. Therefore
from this observation, except in the later material there exists a good agreement between the
theoretical value for the coefficient l3 and the observed values. However, Fig. 5 shows also
that, as far as the coefficient (Yis concerned, the theoretical model largely underestimates the
actual cavity growth rate. This is better illustrated in Fig. 6, where it is noticed that the pro-
portionality factor CLappears to be an increasing function of inclusion volume fraction.
This observation underlines the limit for the applicability of the model which was estab-
lished for an infinitively dilute material. In our materials, like in A508 steel and more specifically
in nodular cast iron, the deviation from the theoretical model is likely due to the interactions
taking place between neighbouring cavities. To illustrate this in Fig. 7 we have reproduced the
observation made on the fracture surface in the center of a AE4 Type specimen containing a

‘;i
”

a - 0.28 Rice and Trocoy

<Ref. 7)

Volume Fraction of II-IC~US~IXS

Fig. 6. Variation of the preexponential term (1 with the volume fraction of macroscopic
inclusions.
 rth in dl 99.5

I I I I
50 pm 5 km

Fig. 7. Scanning electron micrographs illustrating the interaction between two neighbouring
inclusions.

volume fraction of alumina of 0.5%. This specimen was given at room temperature a prestrain
of 12% which represents 75% of the expected rupture strain. In this specific case two alumina
particles are very close to each other. This results in important interaction effects. In particular
a strong anisotropy effect in the growth process is observed. Moreover, a close examination
of the matrix in the vicinity of both cavities shows that the material is strongly deformed and
locally broken by a dimple ductile rupture process, most likely taking place around the carbide
particles. This in turn suggests that another limit for the application of the model could arise
from the fact that the microcavities nucleated from other inclusions, such as small oxide par-
ticles or strengthening phases, such as carbides in steels or intermetallic compounds in Al
alloys, could also contribute to the increase in growth rate by coalescence with macrocavities.
Further work is clearly needed before a conclusion is reached concerning these two aspects.
In spite of this difficulty a concluding remark relating to ductile rupture can be made. It
has recently been proposed[l8] that to model this process for a specific material, especially
low alloyed steels such as A508 steel, a convenient parameter is a critical cavity growth ratio,
WRo), , which within a first approximation can be considered to be independent of the stress
triaxiality ratio. Experiments on axisymmetric notched specimens combined with eqn (7) can
be used to assess the value of (RIRo)c. In spite of the difficulty related to the value of a coefficient
the present experiments reinforce the basis of our approach. The fact that this coefficient is
not strictly equal to the theoretical value is not too fundamental for practical purposes in the
sense that it intervenes only as a proportionality factor.

CONCLUSIONS
1. The growth of cavities nucleated from alumina particles in a low strength steel ap-
proximately obeys the Rice and Tracey theoretical expression.
2. The coefficient p in the exponential term associated with the efffect of stress triaxiality
is close to 3/2, which is the value predicted by the model. This coefficient appears to be
independent of the cavity volume fraction over of broad range of practical values between
3 x 10e4 and 2 x lo-*.
3. However, the theoretical expression largely underestimates the actual cavity growth
rate especially at large values of inclusion constant. This is due to the fact that the theoretical
value for the proportionality factor cx is reached only at extremely low volume inclusion frac-
tions.
4. The reasons for this discrepancy between the theoretical model and the experimental
results are associated either with interaction effects between neighbouring inclusions and/or
with the formation of a second population of microcavities nucleated from carbides which
coalesce with the main cavities.

Acknowledgmenr-This study was partly supported by the DklCgation G&kale & la Recherche Scientifique et Tech-
nique (DGRST). This investigation is part of the “Grandes Deformations et Endommagement” GRECO research
program.
996 B. MARINI et al.

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