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XXIV Italian Group of Fracture Conference, 1-3 March 2017, Urbino, Italy
XXIV Italian Group of Fracture Conference, 1-3 March 2017, Urbino, Italy
On the role of microstructural properties on mechanical behavior of
On the role of
XV Portuguese microstructural
Conference on Fracture, PCF
API-X46 properties
2016, 10-12on
steel February mechanical
2016, Paçobehavior of
de Arcos, Portugal
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Thermo-mechanical modeling
M.A. Beltrán , J.L. Gonzálezb, D.
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Hernándezc,turbine blade
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PhD student of the Metallurgy andgas turbine engine
a* b b c b
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Materials Department, ESIQIE IPN, México, D.F.
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P. Brandão , V. Infante , A.M. Deus *
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ofPosgraduate Studies and Research Section,, ESIME IPN,
IPN, México,
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cb
the Metallurgy and Department, ESIQIE D.F.
Professor of Posgraduate Studies and Research Section,, ESIME IPN, México, D.F.
c

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
Abstract Portugal
b
IDMEC, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
Abstract
Portugal
Thec dependence of the mechanical properties respect to the microstructural orientation of a low carbon steel API-5L grade X46
CeFEMA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
pipe was assessedofby
The dependence theCharpy impact
mechanical and tensile
properties strength
respect to thetests, through the orientation
microstructural use of samples oriented
of a low in the
carbon steellongitudinal (L) X46
API-5L grade and
Portugal
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Charpy impact thorough
tensilemicrostructural and EBSD
strength tests, through the analysis were made.
use of samples The in
oriented steel
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the material resistance process. ) and
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According
the to obtained
microstructural results,had
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lower fracture that the influence
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(KIC-CV banding and
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than the C oriented varies the
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undergo different ofX46
coefficient
types steel. The
“rrv” was
time-dependent
fracture resistance
degradation,
introduced oneand
to correlate tensile
of which isstrength
creep. Aare
quantitatively the mainly
model influenced
using the finite
microstructural byelement
crystallographic
properties tomethod texture,was
(FEM)
the anisotropic while the tensile
developed,
behavior in ductility
of the is associated
order to be
API-5L X46 able to
to predict
steel. The
the microstructural
the creep
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resistance banding
and of HPT
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strength areFlight
mainlydata recordsby(FDR)
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crystallographic aircraft,
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thecompany,
© 2017 were used
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microstructural to obtainbythermal
Published
banding Elsevierand mechanical data for three different flight cycles. In order to create the 3D model
B.V.
Copyright ©for
2017theThe Authors. Published byScientific
Elsevier B.V. Thiswasis anofopen
IGFaccess
and article under thecomposition
CC BY-NC-ND license
© needed
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by HPT
the blade
B.V.scrap
Committee scanned, Ex-Co. its chemical and material properties were
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
obtained. The data that was gathered was fed into the FEM model and different simulations were run, first with a simplified 3D
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of IGF Ex-Co.
Peer-review under
rectangular blockresponsibility
shape, in of the Scientific
order Committee of IGF Ex-Co.
Keywords: Mechanical anisotropy; API to better
steel; establish
fracture the
resistance. model, and then with the real 3D mesh obtained from the blade scrap. The
overall expected
Keywords: Mechanical behaviour
anisotropy;inAPIterms of fracture
steel; displacement
resistance.was observed, in particular at the trailing edge of the blade. Therefore such a
model can be useful in the goal of predicting turbine blade life, given a set of FDR data.
1. Introduction
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
1.Peer-review
Introduction
under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of PCF 2016.
The traditional criteria of fracture analysis idealize the mechanical properties of the metallic materials, considering
them homogeneous,
The traditional
Keywords: linear,
criteria
High Pressure of isotropic
Turbinefracture andFinite
freeidealize
analysis
Blade; Creep; of defects.
Element Idealization
the mechanical
Method; is compensated
3D Model;properties
Simulation. by the materials,
of the metallic use of safety factors,
considering
which are often raisedlinear,
them homogeneous, according to theand
isotropic criteria of defects.
free of the designer, so working
Idealization under these by
is compensated assumptions
the use ofissafety
risky factors,
and the
which are often raised according to the criteria of the designer, so working under these assumptions is risky and the

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +52-55-57296000 ext.54264; fax: 54267.

E-mail address:author.
* Corresponding mabz_2205@hotmail.com
Tel.: +52-55-57296000 ext.54264; fax: 54267.
E-mail address: mabz_2205@hotmail.com
2452-3216 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review underThe
* Corresponding
2452-3216 © 2017 responsibility
author. Tel.: +351
Authors. of218419991.
theby
Published Scientific Committee of IGF Ex-Co.
Elsevier B.V.
E-mail address:
Peer-review amd@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of IGF Ex-Co.

2452-3216 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of PCF 2016.
Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of IGF Ex-Co.
10.1016/j.prostr.2017.04.009
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results are unpredictable because they can result in overestimates of resistance to Fracture generating oversizing and
cost overruns.
In real conditions the cracks occur in all possible directions and have a high degree of anisotropy. In the particular
case of steel, it has Joo et al. (2012) demonstrated that the anisotropy of the cracking is influenced by the orientation
of the microstructure, being of particular interest the banding of the perlite and the size, morphology and distribution
of the nonmetallic inclusions. However, it has not been determined how the orientation of these microstructural
features with respect to the path of the crack affect its propagation. In the particular case of pipes and containers at
internal pressure the behavior of the steel is essentially anisotropic and directional, which originates in the
manufacturing process (hot and normalized rolling) of the material. The microstructural characteristics of these steels
have been shown to exert a significant effect on the propagation of a crack. On the other hand, previous studies on
pipeline steel suggest that crystallographic textures have an important function on toughness anisotropy, as stablished
Zong et al. (2013) or Jang et al. (2007); however, detailed discussions about the relationship between crystallographic
textures and anisotropic fracture toughness are rare.
Fracture behavior has an important function in safety design of pipelines, although the API-5L steel only must
meet minimum standard specifications of its mechanical properties and it’s microstructural characteristics are not
described widely, hence the presence of mechanical anisotropy can compromise the safety of the component.
Therefore, it is necessary to understand the mechanical behavior of API-5L steel integrally and adequately describe
it, in order to produce safe structures and pipelines of low cost and high efficiency.
The objective of this work is to determine the influence of the microstructure orientation on the anisotropy of the
mechanical properties in order to correlate them quantitatively. .

Nomenclature

Ω12 microstructure orientation

Ai banding degree
C circumferential direction
Cv Charpy impact energy
CVN Charpy V-notch specimen
EBSD electron backscatter diffraction
HAGB high angle grain boundary
KIC-CV fracture toughness obtained by Charpy impact energy correlations
L longitudinal direction
LAGB low angle grain boundary
N normal direction
OM optical microscopy
rrv coefficient of relative variation
UTS ultimate tensile strength
YS yield strength

1. Materials and methods

1.1 Chemical composition

The assessed material was extracted from an API X46 steel tube with a nominal diameter of 24 in and a wall
thickness of 0.875 in. The experimental chemical composition obtained can be seen in Table 1, altogether with the
reference chemical composition for API-5L steel.
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2.2 Microstructural analysis

Specimens for microstructural analysis were set according to the standard procedures contained in ASTM E-3 for
specimen preparation including grinding, polishing and etching. The Microstructure was assessed in the longitudinal,
circumferential and normal sections by optical microscopy (OM) and electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD). The
EBSD samples were taken in the longitudinal and circumferential sections and its results were obtained by Oxford
HKL system incorporated on a 7000F JEOL field emission scanning electron microscope. The data was interpreted
by CHANNEL5 analysis software provided by Oxford Instruments HKL.

Table 1. Chemical composition API-5L X46 steel.

Experimental chemical composition of API-5L steel

Element Fe C Si Mn P S Cr Mo
w% 98.0 0.117 0.270 1.05 0.017 0.003 0.156 0.061
Reference chemical composition for API-5L steel
Element C (max) Mn (max) S (max) P (max)
w% 0.24 1.40 0.030 0.030

2.3 Tensile tests

Tensile specimens were machined as illustrated in Fig. 1a), according to the ASTM E-8 standard. The specimens
were orientated in the longitudinal (L) and circumferential (C) directions. Tests were conducted at room temperature
and humidity, using crosshead speed of 5 mm min-1 using a 10t Shimadzu machine.

Fig. 1. Specimens orientation, a) tensile tests samples, b) Charpy impact tests samples.

2.4 Charpy impact tests

Charpy impact tests were performed on V-notch (CVN) specimens with a 10 mm x 10 mm x 55 mm size each
with a 2 mm-deep V-notch, according to ASTM E-23. Fig. 1b) shows the specified orientations of the specimens in
the L and C directions, the fracture planes in this cases are parallel to the crack propagation direction. The tests were
conducted at room temperature of 28 °C. To approximate a value of fracture toughness (KIC-CV) for the API-5L steel
used, the equation (1) that relates the KIC-CV and Charpy impact energy (Cv) was used. The KIC-CV was calculated for
the L and C directions.
60 M.A. Beltrán et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 3 (2017) 57–67
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2
 K IC CV  C 
   0.64  V  0.01 (1)
 YS   YS 

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Microstructure

Fig. 2 a) is an optical micrograph of the inclusions content of the API-5L X46 steel in the longitudinal,
circumferential and normal sections. It can be seen the type and distribution of the inclusions, with the presence of
non-metallic particles with spherical shape. Fig. 2 b) shows the micrographs of the API-5L X46 steel in the
longitudinal, circumferential and normal sections etched by 3% NITAL. The microstructure is composed of ferrite
grains and pearlite colonies which exhibit the characteristic banded microstructure of low carbon steels after rolling
and recrystallization. Banding is associated with chemical segregation, particularly manganese, inherited from the
solidification stage and spread into layers by the rolling deformation. Manganese is known to play a prominent role
in the development of bands because transformation to allotriomorphic ferrite occurs first in Mn-depleted regions so
that the residual austenite becomes enriched in carbon, to transform subsequently into pearlite depending on the rate
of cooling experienced by the steel. The banding degree (Ai) and microstructure orientation grade (Ω12) were
calculated for the three sections according to the ASTM E-1268-99 standard. Results indicate that longitudinal section
has a low banding degree but, in comparison, in the circumferential and normal sections there is a random and not-
oriented distribution of the microstructure. The sample has an almost homogeneous grain size in all sections, just with
a slight increase of it in the longitudinal section. The pearlite fraction content is larger in the longitudinal section than
in circumferential and normal sections.

Fig.2. a) Inclusions content, b) ferrite-pearlite microstructure. In both images the longitudinal, circumferential and normal sections of API-5L X46
steel are shown.

The quantitative analysis of the microstructural characteristics of the steel is presented in the Table 2, this results
were calculated for the three directions.

Table 2. API-5L X46 microstructural characteristics.

Section Ai Ω12 Grain Size (ASTM) Inclusion content (%) Ferrite % Pearlite %
L 1.53 0.25 7.5 0.171 83.91 16.09
C 1.09 0.05 7 0.177 86.31 13.69
N 1.00 0.00 7 0.083 88.72 11.28
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3.2 Texture analysis

For references aims, Fig. 3 a) presents the position of some α (<0 1 1> RD) and ϒ ({111} ND) texture fibers in
the φ2= 45° section of the orientation distribution function (ODF) in the Euler space. Such section is widely used in
steel literature to represent textures because of the main bcc texture components due to rolling and annealing have the
convenient property that they can all be represented in that section. The texture analysis was realized by the
CHANNEL5 software. Fig. 4 shows the obtained results for the measurements of pole figures for the API-5L X46
steel. According to results, it is observed an almost isotropic random texture typical of a hot rolled low carbon steel.

Fig. 3. a) Position of α (<0 1 1> RD) and ϒ ({111} ND) texture fibers in the φ2= 45° section of the ODF in the Euler space. b) Pole figures of
{200}, {110} and {211} planes in the API-5L X46 steel. The results are presented relative to the circumferential direction (TD) and rolling direction
(RD).

3.3 EBSD analysis

The results of the EBSD analysis of the API-5L X46 steel, in the longitudinal and circumferential section are
provided in the Fig. 4. The color coded orientation map along with the inverse pole figure can be seen from which a
qualitative view of texture can be made.

Fig. 4. Color coded map, longitudinal and circumferential sections of API-5L X46 steel. The results are presented relative to the normal direction
(ND), transversal direction (TD) and rolling direction (RD).

From the inverse pole figures it could be seen that, in both sections, the sample´s orientation distribution doesn’t
favor the formation of preferential orientations of notable manner and there is not an orientation clustering. Therefore,
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the analysis of the variation in area percent of {100}, {101}, {111} and {112} planes with the directions L and C was
made, results are shown in Fig. 5. It is seen that the area percent of the {100} and {112} planes is fairly uniform, and
thus the distribution of these planes is unlikely to affect the anisotropy of the mechanical properties. However, the
proportion of the {110} and {111} planes changes significantly from the L to the C direction. Because of the most
densely packed planes in BCC are {101}, implies that the increase in grains oriented in this specifics crystallographic
planes might lead to increase the amount of plastic deformation and thus the fracture toughness in the C direction.

Fig. 5. Variation of area percent in {100}, {101}, {111} and {112} planes in the C and L directions.

In order to assert the previous comments, the discrete pole figures are shown in Fig 6 which were obtained from
the inverse pole figures. These pole figures sustain the absence of a preferential orientation in the sample, it could be
seen a homogenous density in all families plane orientations.

Fig. 6. Discrete pole figures obtained by EBSD analysis.

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3.4 Mesotexture analysis.

The grain boundaries having different orientations of 15° and higher are high-angle grain boundaries (HAGB),
and this boundaries are generally considered to be effective ones, which can play a role in blocking the cleavage crack
propagation as Sang et al. (2007) said. Although, it has been stablished that the HAGB are high energy and high
mobility boundaries, they are considered weak boundaries, Venegas et al. (2007). The intergranular cracks would
propagate most of the cases, across the HAGB, which are high susceptible to fracture. On the other hand, the special
boundaries with low angle (LAGB) are considered like low energy boundaries, according to Mahn et al (2016). The
Fig. 7 presents a histogram of the distribution of misorientation angle in the longitudinal and circumferential sections,
where could be seen a larger presence of LAGB in the circumferential section than in the longitudinal section with a
20% difference between sections.

Fig. 7. Histogram of grain boundary type distribution. A) Longitudinal section B) Circumferential section.

The effective grain sizes of the longitudinal and circumferential sections were measured. The circumferential
section has the larger effective grain size and might have better low-temperature fracture toughness and the largest
fracture toughness in the ductile fracture regimen, as stablished Hai et al. (2014). Table 3 presents the effective grain
sizes and the ASTM grain size of longitudinal and circumferential sections.

Table 3. Effective grain size of longitudinal and circumferential sections.

Direction Grain size Effective grain size

ASTM μm μm
Longitudinal 7.5 26.7 24.62
Circumferential 7 31.8 36.73

3.5 Tensile properties

Room-temperature tensile stress-strain average curves are presented in Fig. 8, from which tensile properties were
obtained as listed in Table 4.
The steel showed a yield strength (YS) over 340 MPa (49 ksi), satisfying the tensile strength requirements of API
X46 grade pipeline steel. According to the tensile tests, the specimens oriented in the C direction have a higher yield
and tensile strengths than the L direction. However, the C oriented specimens showed a low elongation percentage,
comparing to the L oriented ones, which could be attributed to the orientation of the microstructural banding respect
to the sample’s load axis. On the other hand, the C direction does not show the yield point phenomenon, whereas the
L direction do. Kim et al (2005), explained the yield behavior in terms of presence and amount of secondary phases
contained in the acicular ferrite structure. They reported that the quasi-continuous yield behavior occurred with
increasing volume fraction of the polygonal ferrite.
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Fig. 8. Tensile stress properties in the L and C directions of API-5L X46 steel.

Table 4. Tensile mechanical properties of API-5L X46 steel.

Direction Ys (MPa) UTS (MPa) Elongation %

API-5L X46 Steel 
L 339 504 35.5
C 424 530 31.6
Literature API-5L Steel properties 
X46 Min-317 Min-434 -
X52 Min-360 Min-460 -

3.6 Charpy impact properties

Charpy impact tests results, of all the specimens in the longitudinal and circumferential orientations, are shown in
Table 5. The CVN energy in the L direction is lower than the C direction. According to the CVN results, the fracture
toughness values (KIC-CV) were calculated in order to estimate the fracture resistance difference between the L and C
directions. It could be seen both a difference larger than 13% in CVN energy and KIC-CV.
Table 5. CVN energy and KICcv results in the L and C crack propagation directions within the API-5L X46 steel.

Direction CVN energy (J) KICcv(MPa√m)

C 340 301
L 300 254

3.7 CVN fracture surfaces

The fracture surfaces of the CVN specimens oriented in the L and C directions are shown in the Fig 9. A larger
amount of plastic deformation associated to the fracture in the CVN specimen oriented in the C direction than the L
oriented specimen is observed. The area reduction percent was measured in the central region of the fracture surface,
in order to stablish the amount of plastic deformation associated to the fracture, results are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Reduction area percent (%RA) of the CVN specimens oriented in the L and C directions within the API-5L X46 steel.

Direction RA (mm) % RA (%)

L 6.86 31.2
C 5.91 41.0
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L C
Fig 9. Fracture surfaces of CVN specimens oriented in the L and C directions of API-5L X46 steel.

3.8 Coefficient of relative variation

From the mechanical tests results, it was observed that the behavior of the analyzed material moves away from the
isotropy, since the value of its mechanical properties depends on the direction in which they are measured. This
condition is mainly attributed to the microstructural characteristics of the material, however, there is no parameter that
relates the anisotropic mechanical behavior to the microstructural characteristics. Therefore, the variation of the
microstructural and mechanical properties between the C and L directions were assessed by a comparison parameter
designated as the coefficient of relative variation “rrv”, which enable to correlate the influence of the microstructural
properties on the mechanical anisotropic behavior of the API-5L. This parameter was obtained using the values in the
L direction as the base parameter to divide the C values. Hence if the rrv value is equal to 1, the mechanical property
possesses an isotropic behavior, on the other hand, if the rrv≠1 there is an anisotropic behavior. The rrv results are
shown in the Table 7.

Table 7. The rrv coefficient values for the L and C directions within the API-5L X46 steel.

C
rrv  c 
Property L

(Unit less)
YS 1.25
UTS 1.05
Cv 1.13
KIC-CV 1.11
% RA 1.31
Ai 0.71
(101) oriented planes 1.75

Consistent with the rrv coefficient values, the anisotropy on the fracture resistance properties (Cv, KIC-CV) and tensile
strength properties (YS, UTS) are directly related to the content of grains oriented in the {101} planes. Thus, the
higher content of grains oriented in the planes {101} the better the fracture resistance will be. On the other hand, the
microstructural banding (Ai) shows an inverse relationship by reducing the pipeline steel fracture resistance (CV, KIC-
CV). Hence, the higher banding degree the lower CV energy and KIC-CV values.

Conclusions

According to the obtained results, the API-5L X46 pipe-line steel showed an anisotropic behavior, getting a larger
fracture resistance in the C crack propagation direction than the L direction, which variation is about the 18%. Also
the tensile strength properties shows the same behavior, with larger values of YS and UTS in the C oriented specimens
than the L oriented specimens. The variation of the microstructural and mechanical properties between the C and L
66 M.A. Beltrán et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 3 (2017) 57–67
10 Author name / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

directions was assessed by the coefficient of relative variation "rrv", which allows to quantitatively relate the influence
of the microstructural properties on the mechanical anisotropic behavior of the API -5L.
The assessment by the relative variation coefficient (rrv), shows that the anisotropy on the fracture resistance
properties (Cv and KIC-CV) and tensile strength (YS, UTS) of the API-5L steel are mainly influenced by the amount of
grains oriented in the planes {101}. As a result, the larger density of grains oriented in the planes {101}, the larger
fracture resistance and ductility. This behavior is due to the slip system {101} ˂111˃ is the major source of plastic
deformation in materials with bcc crystal structure.
The microstructural banding (Ai) of the material, shows an inverse relationship by reducing the pipeline steel
fracture resistance (CV, KIC-CV) and tensile strength properties (YS, UTS). Hence, the higher banding degree (Ai)
values the lower Cv energy values. This trend shows that a microstructural banding parallel to the crack propagation
reduces the fracture resistance of the material, while a perpendicular orientation increases it. On the other hand, with
respect to the tensile properties, the higher banding degree (Ai) values the lower tensile strength properties. This trend
shows that, if the alignment of the bands is parallel to the direction of the specimen's necking, the ability of the material
to strain is reduced by increasing its tensile resistance. The opposite condition occurs when the banding is
perpendicular to the direction of necking.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN), the National Council of Science
and Technology (CONACYT) and the Analysis Integrity of Pipelines Group (GAID) for the financial support to carry
out this research.

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