1.

on the detection of eosinophilia (blood eosinophil count >500–1000 per μl of blood), and on typical findings at
ultrasound or computed tomography scans. Confirmation relies on different types of diagnostic techniques.
 parasitological techniques to detect Fasciola eggs in stool samples; their cost and sensitivity may vary according
to the type used; they can only be employed in the chronic phase; some of them allow quantifying intensity of
infection (therefore estimating the severity of the infection);
 immunological techniques to detect worm-specific antibodies in serum samples or worm-specific antigens in
serum or stool samples; they are usually more sensitive than the commonly used parasitological techniques;
detection of antibodies does not allow distinguishing between current, recent and past infections; their ability to
quantify intensity of infection is disputed; stool tests are easier to perform and reportedly better accepted by
individuals in endemic areas;
 molecular techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction are still at experimental stage.
 2.)

3. Falsefascioliasis (pseudofascioliasis) refers to the presence of Fasciola eggs

in the stool because of recent ingestion of contaminated liver (containing
noninfective eggs). The potential for misdiagnosis can be avoided by having
the patient follow a liver-free diet for several days before repeating stool
examinations. In addition, serologic testing may be useful to exclude infection.
 O. felineus

1 .)
 O. (Clonorchis) sinensis:
 This organism is endemic in Southeast Asia, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and
most of China.
 There are an estimated 19 million cases of human infestation.
 It is relatively small (10-25 mm x 3 mm).
 It infects humans, dogs, pigs, cats, rats and a variety of wild animals.
 O. felineus/tenuicollis:
 This is normally an intestinal parasite of cats, dogs, foxes, pigs and
cetaceans (whales/porpoises/dolphins) in Eastern Europe, Siberia and
other parts of Asia.
 It is morphologically very similar to O. sinensis.
 There are an estimated 1.2 million cases worldwide.

2.)When stained on a slide, its branched testes,

lobed ovary, and follicular vitellaria are apparent as is
the long and convoluted uterus.
3. Opisthorchiasis is a trematode (fluke) infection caused by
infection with one of the species of the liver
fluke Opisthorchis, which is acquired by eating raw or
undercooked freshwater fish containing infectious
metacercariae.

4. The adult worms are flat, elongated, leaf or lanceolate shaped, generally 7-
12 mm in length, and 1.5-2.5 mm wide (OPISTO

 : The adult worms are flat, elongated, leaf or lanceolate shaped, generally 8-15 mm in length,
and 1.5-4.0 mm wide (CLONORCHIS)

PARAGO
1.) Diagnosisis based on microscopic demonstration of eggs in stool or
sputum, but these are not present until 2 to 3 months after infection. (Eggs are
also occasionally encountered in effusion fluid or biopsy material.)
Concentration techniques may be necessary in patients with light infections.
Biopsy may allow diagnostic confirmation and species identification when an
adult or developing fluke is recovered.
2.)
Eggs elicit a granulomatous response and ultimately fibrosis; worms
are associated with an exudate of eosinophils and neutrophils. he
detection of eggs in sputa or feces is the least invasive means to
achieve the definitive diagnosis of paragonimiasis
3.) Extra-pulmonary locations of the adult worms result in more severe manifestations, especially
when the brain is involved. Extra-pulmonary paragonimiasis is rarely seen in humans for the worms
migrate to the lungs but cysts can develop in the brain and abdominal adhesions resulting from
infection have been reported. Cysts may contain living or dead worms; a yellow-brownish thick fluid
(occasionally hemmorgahic). When the worm dies or escapes, the cysts gradually shrink, leaving
nodules of fibrous tissues and eggs which can calcify (17).

ECHINO
MALAYANUM

OVA (SAME WITH ILOCANUM

ILOCA
1ST IH
2ND IH

MALAYUM
IH MALAYUN]M
1.)
 2.)
3.) Humans can acquire echinostome infections by eating raw
mollusks, fish, crustaceans, and amphibians (e.g. snails, tadpoles)
and using night soil for fertilizer, which releases eggs into water
habitats.
4.)
SCHISOTSTOMA
1.)
 1.)
2. Parasitological Diagnosis

Parasitological diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium infection is readily undertaken by

urine filtration.
Antibody Tests

Patent schistosome infection is highly immunogenic, and anti-schistosome antibodies can be

readily detected using a wide range of immunodiagnostic techniques. Currently, the ELISA
technique, using soluble egg antigen (SEA) as the target, is the most widely used technique
[9,16-18]. Other techniques, such as Dipstick Dye Immunoassays (DDIA) are also used [11].
Antigen Detection

Schistosome antigens are present in serum and urine of infected subjects

Molecular Diagnosis
 The application of PCR as a technique for the detection of schistosomiasis has been explored
for S. mansoni and S. japonicum in human faeces [33,34] and urine [35]. The technique has
been evaluated in areas of medium and low intensity of infection.
3.Family: Schistosomatidae
Unlike all other trematodes, schistosomes are not hermaphroditic but dioecious, forming separate sexes.
Adult worms have elongate tubular bodies, each male having a unique gynecophoral canal (schisto-soma =
split body) in which a female worm resides.

 4. Eggs excreted in stool (S mansoni and S japonicum) or urine (S haematobium) into fresh water hatch
into motile miracidia, which infect snails.
 After development in the snails, cercariae emerge and penetrate the skin of humans encountered in the
water.
 The cercariae pass through lungs to liver where they mature, mate and pass down into mesenteric or
vescical venules to begin egg production.
 Communicability lasts as long as live eggs are excreted in the urine and feces.