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THE

Mi®SA14 OF

PROFESSIONS AND TRADES


OR

§f§M H5@©2S a

BY EDWARD HAZEN. it

EMBELLISHED WITH EIGHTY-TWO ENGRAVINGS.


f

PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY URIAH HUNT.
SOLD BY THE BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY.

1836 .
P

cp s~- /
STEREOTYPED

ENTERED

ACCORDING TO THE ACT OF CONGRESS

IN THE NEAR
13 U
w 1836, *<

> o
0 BY EDWARD HAZEN M
H a
t* IN THE *n
*ti >
H 0
W CLERK’S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT >
> 2
OF

THE EASTERN DISTRICT OF

PENNSYLVANIA.

1 8 3 6 .

zr -
CONTENTS
The first column of figures has reference to the pages of the text;— and the second
to those on which the questions are to be found.

PREFACE 7
THE AGRICULTURIST 13 295

THE HORTICULTURIST 21 296


THE MILLER 24 296

THE BAKER 27 2S6

THE CONFECTIONER 30 297

THE BREWER, AND THE DISTILLER 32 297


THE BUTCHER 36 297
THE TOBACCO PLANTER, AND THE TOBACCONIST..... 38 297
THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH 42 293
THE DYER, AND THE CALICO PRINTER 48 299
THE HATTER 52 299
THE ROPE-MAKER 56 299
THE TAILOR 59 300
THE MILLINER, AND THE LADY’S DRESS MAKER 61 300
THE BARBER 63 300
THE TANNER, AND THE CURRIER 67 300
THE SHOE AND BOOTMAKER 70 301

THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER, AND THE TRUNK-MAKER 73 301


THE SOAPBOILER, AND THE CANDLE-MAKER 75 301
THE COMB-MAKER, AND THE BRUSH-MAKER 80 302
THE TAVERN-KEEPER 84 302
THE HUNTER ... 87 303
THE FISHERMAN ...91 393
THE SHIPWRIGHT 100 304
THE MARINER 104 304
THE MERCHANT .‘
109 305
THE AUCTIONEER 1 18 30g
THE CLERGYMAN i 20 395
THE ATTORNEY AT LAW 124 307
THE PHYSICIAN 127 307
A 2
Vi CONTENTS.
THE CHEMIST 131 307
THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY 135 308
THE DENTIST 137 308
THE TEACHER 308
THE MUSICIAN, AND THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER.. 149 309
THE SCULPTOR 309
THE PAINTER . . .
. 310
THE ENGRAVER 168 310
THE COPPERPLATE PRINTER I 73 311
THE LITHOGRAPHER 311
THE AUTHOR , m 311
THE PRINTER lg 0 313
THE TYPE-FOUNDER 185 312
THE STEREOTYPER 187 312
THE PAPER-MAKER, AND THE BOOKBINDER 189 312
THE BOOKSELLER ...195 313
THE ARCHITECT 198 313
THE CARPENTER 205 313
THE STONE-MASON, THE BRICKLAYER, &c 207 314
THE PAINTER, AND THE GLAZIER ;..... 215 314
THE TURNER 219 315
THE CABINET-MAKER, AND THE UPHOLSTERER 221 315
THE CHAIR-MAKER 226 315

THE CARVER, AND THE GILDER 228 315

THE COOPER 230 316

THE WHEELWRIGHT .......232 316

THE POTTER 236 316

THE GLASS-BLOWER 241 316

THE OPTICIAN 246 317

THE GOLDBEATER, AND THE JEWELLER 252 317

THE SILVERSMITH, AND THE WATCHMAKER.. 260 318

THE COPPERSMITH, THE BUTTON-MAKER, &c 266 318

THE TIN-PLATE WORKER, &c - -271 319

THE IRON FOUNDER 276 319

THE BLACKSMITH, AND THE NAILOR 283 319

THE CUTLER 286 320

THE GUNSMITH 289 320

THE VETERINARY SURGEON 292 320


3.

1. The following work has been tinction; and, in this country espe-
written for the use of Schools and cially, such pursuit is deemed honour-
Families, as well as for miscellaneous able, and, in fact, indispensable to a
readers. embraces a class of sub-
It reputable position in the community.
jects in which every individual is Nevertheless, it is a fact that can-
deeply interested, and with which, as not have escaped the attention of per-
a mere philosophical inspector of the sons of observation, that many in-
affairs of men, he should become ac- dividuals mistake their appropriate
quainted. and engage in employments
calling,
2. They, however, challenge atten- for which they have neither mental

tion by considerations of greater mo- nor physical adaptation some learn :

ment than mere curiosity: for, in the a trade, who should have studied a
present age, a great proportion of profession ;
others study a profession
mankind pursue some kind of busi- who should have learned a trade.
ness as means of subsistence or dis- Hence arise, in a great measure, the
viii PREFACE.
ill success, and discontent
which so composed of many faculties both of
frequently attend the pursuits of men. the intellectual and the animal kinds,
4. For these reasons, parents should and the reasoning faculties were ori-
be particularly cautious in the choice ginally designed by the creator to
of permanent employments for their have the ascendency. In the present
children ;
and, in every case, capacity moral condition of man, however,
should be especially regarded, with- they do not commonly maintain their
out paying much attention to the com- right of precedence. This failure
parative favour in which the several arises from imbecility, originating, in
employments may be held for, a suc- ;
part, from a deficiency in judicious
cessful prosecution of an humble busi- cultivation, and from the superior
ness is far more honourable than in- strength of the passions.
feriority or a failure in one which may 8. This condition is particularly
be greatly esteemed. conspicuous in youth, and shows it-

5. To determine the particular ge- self in disobedience to parents, and in


nius of children, parents should give various other aberrations from moral
them, at least, a superficial knowledge duty. If, therefore, parents would have
of the several trades and professions. their children act a reasonable part,
To do this effectually, a systematic while in their minority, and, also, after
course of instruction should be given they have assumed their stations in
not only at the family fireside and in manhood, they must pursue a course
the school-room, but also at places of early instruction calculated to se-
where practical exhibitions of the cure the ascendency of the reasoning
several employments may
be seen. faculties.
These means, together with a com- 9. The subjects for instruction best
petent. literary education and some adapted to the cultivation of the young
tools and other facilities for mechan- mind are the common things with
ical operations, can scarcely fail of which we are surrounded. This is
furnishing clear indications of intel- evident from the fact, that it uniformly
lectual bias. expands with great rapidity under
6. The course just proposed is not their influence during the three or
only necessary to a judicious choice four first years of life : for it is from
of a trade or profession, but also as them, children obtain all their ideas,
means of intellectual improvement: as well as a knowledge of the lan-
and as such it should be pursued, at guage by which they are expressed.
all events, even though the choice of 10. The rapid progress of young

an employment were not in view. children in the acquisition of know-


7. We are endowed with a nature ledge often excites the surprise of pa-
PREFACE. ix

rents of observation, and the fact that garded in this light, our schools would
their improvement is almost impercep- now present a far more favourable
tible after they have attained to the aspect, and

we should have been farther
age of four or five years is equally removed from the ignorance and the
surprising. Why, it is often asked, do barbarism of the middle ages.
not children continue to advance in 14. Were this view of education

knowledge with equal and increased generally adopted, wouldteachers


rapidity, especially, as their capabili- soon find, that the business of com-
ties increase with age 1 municating instructions to the young
11. The solution of this question is has been changed from an irksome
not difficult. Children continue to to a pleasant task; since their pu-
improve, while they have the means pils will have become studious and
of doing so; but having acquired a intellectual, and consequently more
knowledge of the objects within their capable of comprehending explana-
reach, at least, so far as they may be tions upon every subject. Such a
capable at the time, their advancement course would also be attended with
must consequently cease. It is hardly the incidental advantage of good con-
necessary to remark, that the march duct on the part of pupils, inasmuch
of mind might be continued with in- as the elevation of the understanding
creased celerity, were new objects or over the passions uniformly tends to
subjects continually presented. this result.
12. In supplying subjects for mental 1 5. For carrying into practice a sys-
improvement, as they may be needed tem of intellectual education, the fol-
at the several stages of advancement, lowing work supplies an as. great
there can be but little difficulty ;
since amount of materials as can be em-
we are surrounded by works both of bodied in the same compass. Every
nature and of art. In fact, the same article may be made the foundation
subjects may
be presented several of one lecture or more, which might
times, and, at each presentation, in- have reference not only to the parti-
structions might be given adapted to cular subject on which it treats, but
the particular state of improvement also to the meaning and application
in the pupil. of the words.
13. Instructions of this nature need 14. The have been con-
articles
never interfere injuriously with those cisely written, as must necessarily be
on the elementary branches of educa- the case in all works embracing so
tion; although the latter would un- great a variety of subjects. This par-
doubtedly be considered of minor im- ticular trait, however, need not be
portance. Had they been always re- j
considered objectionable, since all

2
X PREFACE.
who may desire to read more exten- ledge of the origin and progress of
sively on any particular subject, can the various employments which are
easily obtain works which are exclu- in active operation all around, will
sively devoted to it. throw upon the busy world an aspect
17. Prolix descriptions of machine- exceedingly interesting.
ry and of mechanical operations have 20. It may be well, however, to
been studiously avoided; for, it has caution the reader against expecting
been presumed, that all who might too much information of this kind, in
have perseverance enough to read regard to most of the trades prac-
such details, would feel curiosity suf- tised in very ancient times. Many of
ficient to visit the shops and manu- the most were ef-
useful inventions
factories, and see the machines and fected before any permanent means
operations themselves. Nevertheless, of record had been devised and, in ;

enough has been said, in all cases, to after ages, among the Greeks and
give a general idea of the business, Romans, the useful arts were prac-
and to guide in the researches of those tised almost exclusively by slaves.
who may wish to obtain information The latter circumstance led to their
by the impressive method of actual general neglect by the writers among
inspection. these distinguished people
18. A great proportion of the whole 21. The information which may be
work is occupied in recounting his- obtained from this work, especially
connected with the in-
torical facts, when accompanied by the inspection
vention and progress of the arts. The of the operations which it describes,
author was induced to pay especial may be daily applied to some useful
attention to this branch of history, purpose. It will be particularly valu-
from the consideration, that it fur- able in furnishing subjects for conver-
nishes very clear indications of the sation, and in preventing the mind
real state of society in past ages, as from continuing in, or from sinking
well as at the present time; and also into, a state of idle indifference in re-
that would supply the reader with gard to the busy scenes of this world.
it

data, by which he might, in some 22. In the composition of “ The Pa-


measure, determine the vast capabil- norama of Professions and Trades,”
ities of man. all puerile expressions have been
19. This kind of historical informa- avoided, not only because they would
tion will be especially beneficial to be offensive to adult individuals of
the youthful mind, by inducing a taste, but because they are at least
and antiquarian useless, if not positively injurious, to
habit of investigation
research. In addition to this, a know- younger persons. What parent of
PREFACE. XI

reflectionwould suffer his children to 25. In the embellishment of “ The


peruse a book calculated to induce or Panorama,” great expenses have been
confirm a manner of speaking or incurred. The first title-page and the
writing, which he would not have representation at the commencement
them use after having arrived to man- of each article were designed express-
hood ] Every sentence may be ren- ly for the work. The designs were
dered perfectly plain by appropriate made by Messrs. Morton, Hoyle, Bur-
explanations and illustrations. ton, and Gimber, of New-York; and
23. No formal classification of the nearly the whole of the engraving
professions and trades been
has was executed by Mr. A. J. Mason, of
adopted, although those articles which the same city, but lately from London.
treat of kindred subjects have been The first title, the cut representing
placed near each other, and in that some of the operations of the manu-
order which seemed to be the most facturer, and the illustrations of archi-
natural. The paragraphs of the sev- tecture and of optics, were engraved
eral articles have been numbered for by R. S. Gilbert, of Philadelphia.
the especial accommodation of classes 26. Near the close of the volume
in schools : but this particular feature is a. copious set of questions upon the

of the work need meet with no se- articles which precede ;


and these are
rious from miscellaneous
objection numbered according to the para-
readers, as it has no other effect, in graphs to which they refer. It is re-

reference to its use by them, than to commended to parents and teachers,


give it the aspect of a school-book. to use not only these, but also many
24. While writing the articles on more, which they can easily construct
the different subjects, the author con- extemporarily.
sulted several works which embraced 27. The author cannot well close
the arts and sciences generally, as his preface without again recommend-
well as many which were more cir- ing to parents the practice of teach-
cumscribed in their objects. He, how- ing their children, not only when
ever, relied more upon them for his- the latter are deprived of the advan-
torical facts than for a knowledge of tages of school instructions, but even
the operations and processes which when they enjoy the best privileges
he had. occasion to detail. For this of this kind. The necessity of per-
he depended, as far as practicable, forming duty is evident from
this
upon his own personal researches, al- what has been already said but an :

though in the employment of appro- argument in its favour


additional
priate phraseology, he acknowledges may be derived from the circum-
his obligations to predecessors. stance, that the prevailing system
xii PREFACE.
of education is not sufficiently intel- 31. But the most formidable objec-
lectual. tion is this : “We are incapable of ex-
28. Many parents see the necessity ecuting a task so difficult, teaching
of domestic instructions but they ; not being our business.” To this it

commonly fancy that they have dis- may be answered: the difficulty is
charged their obligations by hearing much overrated. Any individual with
their children read and spell a little. a moderate share of intelligence, and
Some interpose their authority so far some reading, can name the materials
as to compel their children to commit of the furniture of his house, and de-
to memory the tasks imposed by the scribe the process by which each ar-
teachers, and, to determine the fact ticle has been manufactured. After
of the committal, go through the irk- having done this, he can easily extend
some task of hearing the recitations. his instructions upon other subjects
These efforts are certainly com-
29. of a similar nature.
mendable, and ought not to be dis- 32. A systematic course of instruc-
couraged but they do not embrace
;
tion,conducted on the principles pro-
the kind of instructions which the posed, would be attended with no-
author is particularly urgent in re- thing irksome or disagreeable. On
commending. He verily believes the contrary, it would add much in-
that more efficient aid can be afforded terest to the social intercourse be-
to the intellect in one hour, when tween parents and children; and the
common things are the subjects of in- former would soon discover in the
struction, than by a month’s severe latter a great increase of intellectual
discipline in the course just alluded strength, which would display itself
to.

30. The objection most commonly in an improved expression of coun-


urged to the performance of the duty tenance, as well as in a more rapid
proposed, is, “We have not time.” progress in their regular studies at
To this it may be answered parents school.
:

have time enough to provide food and 33. With the preceding remarks,
raiment, as well as every other means the author submits his work to the
to supply the wants of the animal na- public, in the confident expectation,
ture of their children; and if they that the subjects which it embraces,
would estimate, with any degree of that the care which has been taken in
exactness, their intellectual necessi- its composition, and that the skill of
ties, no such objection would be the artists employed in its embellish-
made, especially by those who feel ment, will secure to it an abundant
the influence of moral obligation. and liberal patronage.

/
3.

1. Agriculture embraces, in its broad Adam instructed his sons in the art of
whatever relates to the culti-
signification, husbandry; and that they, in turn, com-
vation of the fields, with the view of pro- municated this knowledge to their posteri-
ducing food for man, and those animals ty,together with the superadded informa-
which he may have brought into a state tion which had resulted from their own
of domestication. experience. Improvement in this art was
2. If we carry our observations so far back probably thenceforth progressive, until the
as to reach the antediluvian history of the overwhelming catastrophe of the flood.
earth, we shall find, from the authority of After the waters had retired from the
scripture, that the cultivation of the soil face of the earth, Noah resorted to hus-
was the first employment of man, after bandry, as the surest means of procuring
his expulsion from the garden of Eden, the necessaries and comforts of life. The
when he was commanded “to till the art of cultivating the soil, was uninterrupt-
ground from which he had been taken.” edly preserved in many branches of the
We shall also learn from the same source great family of Noah ;
but, in others,
it was,
of information, that “ Cain was a husband- at length, entirely lost.In the latter case,
man,” and that “ Abel was a keeper of the people, having sunk into a state of bar-
sheep.” Hence it may be inferred, that barism, depended for subsistence on the
B
14 THE AGRICULTURIST.

natural productions of the earth, and on other people for their military enterprise,
such animals as they could contrive to cap- were most attentive to the proper cul-
also
ture by hunting and fishing. Many of tivation of the soil; and many of their
these degenerate tribes did not emerge distinguished men, especially among the
from this condition for several succeeding Romans, were practical husbandmen.
ages. 7. Nor was agriculture neglected by the

4. Notwithstanding the great antiquity learned men of antiquity". Several works


of agriculture, the husbandmen, for several on this subject, by Greek and Latin au-
centuries immediately succeeding the thors, have descended to our times and;

deluge, seem to have been but little ac- the correctness of many of the principles
quainted with any proper method of re- which they inculcate, has been confirmed
storing fertility to an exhausted soil for ; by modern experience.
we find them frequently changing their 8. Throughout the extensive empire of
residence, as their flocks and herds requir- Rome, agriculture maintained a respecta-
ed fresh pasturage, or as their tillage land ble standing, until the commencement of
became unproductive. As men, however, those formidable invasions of the northern
became more numerous, and as their flocks hordes, which, finally, nearly extinguished
increased, this practice became inconve- the arts and sciences, in every part of Eu-
nient, and, in some cases, impracticable. rope. During the long period of anarchy
They were, therefore, compelled, by de- which succeeded the settlement of these
grees, to confine their flocks and herds, barbarians in their newly-acquired pos-
and farming operations, to lands of
their sessions, pasturage was, in most cases, pre-
more narrow and specified limits. ferred to tillage, as being better suited to
5. The Chaldeans were probably the peo- their state of civilization, and as affording
ple who first adopted the important mea- facilities of removal, in cases of alarm from

sure, of retaining perpetual possession of invading enemies. But when permanent


the w hich they had cultivated and,
soil ?
;
governments were again established, and
consequently, were among the first who the people enjoyed comparative peace, the
became skilful in agriculture. But all the regular cultivation of the soil once more
great nations of antiquity held this art in began to revive.
the highest estimation, and usually attri- 9. The art of husbandry was at a low ebb

buted its invention to superhuman agency. in England, until the fourteenth century,
The Egyptians even worshipped the image when it began to be practised with consi-
of an ox, in gratitude for the services of derable success in the midland and south-
that animal in the labours of the field. western parts of the island yet, it does
:

6. The reader of ancient history can form not seem to have been cultivated as a sci-
some idea of the extent to which this art ence, until the latter end of the sixteenth
was cultivated in those days, from the century. The first book on husbandry,
warlike operations of different nations; printed and published in the English lan-
for, from no other source could the great guage, appeared in 1534. It was written
armies which were then brought into the by Sir A. Fitzherbert, a judge of the Com-
field, have been supplied with tire neces- mon Pleas, who had studied the laws of
sary provisions. The Greeks and the Ro- vegetation, and the nature of soils, with
mans, who were more celebrated than any philosophical accuracy.
,

THE AGRICULTURIST. ]5

10. Very little improvement was made on art, were chiefly


the cultivators of the soil
the theory of this author, for upwards of a guided by the precept and example of
hundred years, when Sir Hugh Platt dis- their predecessors, which were often inap-
covered and brought into use several kinds plicable. By the aid of chemical analy-
iof manures for fertilizing and restoring sis, it is easy to discover the constituent
exhausted soils. parts of different soils; and, with this
11. Agriculture again received a new knowledge, there is but little difficulty in

impulse, about the middle of the eighteenth determining the best mode of improving
century; and, in 1793, a Board of Agri- them, or in applying the most suitable
culture was established by an act of Par- crops.
liament, at the suggestion of Sir John Sin- 15. In the large extent of territory em-
clair, whp was elected its first president. braced within the United States, there is
Through the influence of this board, a great variation of soil and climate ;
but
great number of agricultural societies have in each state, or district, the attention of
been formed in the kingdom, and much the cultivators is directed to the produc-
valuable information on rural economy has tion of those articles which, under the cir-
been communicated to the public, through cumstances, promise to be most profitable.
the medium of a voluminous periodical In the northern portions of our country,
under its superintendence. the cultivators of the soil are called farm-
12. After the example of Great Britain, ers. They direct their attention chiefly
agricultural societies have been formed, to the production of wheat, rye, corn, oats,
and periodical journals published, in vari- barley, peas, beans, potatoes, pumpkins,
ous parts of the continent of Europe, as and flax, together with grasses and fruits
well as in the United States. The prin- of various kinds. The same class of men
cipal publications devoted to this subject in the southern states are usually denomi-
in this country, are the American Farmer nated planters, who confine themselves
at Baltimore ;
the New England
Farmer, principally to tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar-
at Boston; and the Genesee Farmer, at cane, or hemp. In some parts of that por-
Rochester. tion of our country, however, rye, wheat,
13. The modem improvements in hus- oats, and sweet potatoes, are extensively
bandry consist, principally, in the proper cultivated ;
and, in almost every part, com
application of manures, the mixture of dif- is a favourite article.
ferent kinds of earths, the use of plaster 16. The process of cultivating most of
and lime, the rotation of crops, adapting the productions which have been mention-
the crop to the soil, the introduction of new ed, is nearly the same. In general, with
kinds of grain, roots, grasses, and fruits, as the occasional exception of new lands, the
well as improvements in the breeds of do- plough is used to prepare the ground for
mestic animals, and in the implements the reception of the seed. Wheat, rye,
with which the various operations of the barley, oats, peas, and the seeds of hemp
art are performed. and flax, are scattered with the hand of
14. For many of the improved processes the husbandman, and are covered in the
which relate to the amelioration of the earth with the harrow. In Great Britain,
soil, we are indebted to chemistry. Before such seeds are sown in drills; and this
this science was brought to the aid of the method is thought to be better than ourss
16 THE AGRICULTURIST.

as admits of the use of the hoe, while the


it for themost speedy execution of the task.
vegetable is growing. Should the owner of the corn be sparing
and pumplrins,
17. Corn, beans, potatoes, of his refreshments, his want of generosity
are covered in the earth with the hoe. The is sure to be published, or sung, at every
ground is ploughed several times during similar frolic in the neighbourhood.
the summer, to make it loose, and to keep 21. Maize, or Indian corn, and potatoes
down the weeds. The hoe is also used in of all kinds, were unknown in the eastern
accomplishing the same objects, and in de- continent, until the discovery of America.
positing fresh earth around the growing Their origin is, therefore, known with cer-
vegetable. tainty ;
but some of the other productions
18. When ripe, wheat, barley, oats, and which have been mentioned, cannot be so
peas, are cut down with the sickle, cra- satisfactorily traced. This is particularly
dle, or scythe while hemp and flax are
;
the case with regard to those which have
pulled up by the roots. The seeds are se- been extensively cultivated for many cen-
parated from the other parts of the plants turies.

with the flail, or by means of horses or 22. The grasses have ever been valua-
oxen driven round upon them. Of late, ble to man, as affording a supply of food for
threshing machines are used to effect the domestic animals. Many portions of our
same object. Chaff, and extraneous mat- country are particularly adapted to grazing.
ters generally, are separated from the Where this is the case, the farmers usually
grain, or seeds, by means of a fanning-mill, turn their attention to raising live stock,
or with a large fan made of the twigs of and to making butter and cheese. Grass
the willow. The same thing was formerly, reserved in meadows, as a supply of food
and is yet, sometimes effected by the aid for the winter, is cut at maturity with a
of a current of air. scythe, dried in the sun, and stored in
19. When the corn, or maize, has become barns, or heaped in stacks.
ripe, the ears, with the husks, and some- Rice was first cultivated in the east-
23.
times the stalks, are deposited in large ern parts of Asia, and, from the earliest
heaps. To assist in stripping the husks ages, has been the principal article of food
from the ears, it is customary to call toge- among the Chinese and Hindoos. To this
ther the neighbours. In such cases, the grain may
be attributed, in a great mea-
owner of the corn provides for them a sup- sure, the early civilization of those na-
per, togetherwith some means of merri- tions and its adaptation to marshy grounds
;

ment and good cheer. caused many districts to become populous,


20. This custom is most prevalent, where which would otherwise have remained
the greater part of the labour is performed irreclaimable and desolate.
by slaves. The blacks, when assembled for 24. Rice was long known in the east,
a husking match, choose a captain, whose before it was introduced into Egypt and
business it is to lead the song, while the Greece, whence spread over Africa ge-
it

rest join in chorus. Sometimes, they di- nerally, and the southern parts of Europe.
vide the corn, as nearly as possible, into It is now cultivated in all the warm parts
two equal heaps, and apportion the hands of the globe, chiefly on grounds subject to
accordingly, with a captain to each divi- periodical inundations. The Chinese ob-
sion. This is done to produce a contest tain two crops a year from the same ground,
THE AGRICULTURIST. 17

and cultivate it in this way from genera- Egypt, and in many other parts of the
tion to generation, without applying any world, where the climate is sufficiently
manure, except the stubble of the prece- warm There are several
for the purpose.

ding crop, and the mud deposited from the species of this plant of which three kinds
;

water overflowing it. are cultivated in the southern states of the


Soon after the waters of the inun-
25. Union —the nankeen cotton, the green seed
dation have retired, a spot is inclosed with cotton and the black seed, or sea island
,

an embankment, lightly ploughed and har- cotton. The two first, which grow in the
rowed, and then sown very thickly with middle and upland countries, are denomi-
the grain. Immediately, a thin sheet of nated short staple cotton the last is culti-:

water is brought over it, either by a stream vated in the lower country, near the sea,
or some hydraulic machinery. When the and on the islands near the main land, and
plants have grown to the height of six or is of a fine quality, and of a long staple,

seven inches, they are transplanted in fur- 20. The plants are propagated annually
rows, and again water is brought over from seeds, which are sown very thickly
them, and kept on, until the crop begins in ridges made with the plough, or hoe.
to ripen, when it is withheld. After they have grown to the height of
26. The crop is cut with a sickle, thresh- three or four inches, part of them are pull-
ed with a flail, or by the treading of cat- ed up, in order that the rest, wfiile coming -

tle and the husks, which adhere closely


; to maturity, may stand about four inches
to the kernel, are beaten off in a stone apart. It is henceforth managed, until
mortar, or by passing the grain through a fully grown, like Indian corn.
mill, similar to our corn-mills. The mode 30. The cotton is inclosed in pods, which
of cultivating rice, in any part of the open as fast as their contents become fit to
world, varies but little from the foregoing- be gathered. In Georgia, about eighty
process. The point which requires the pounds of upland cotton can be gathered
greatest attention, is the keeping of the by a single hand, in a day but in Alaba- ;

ground properly covered with water. ma and Mississippi, where the plant thrives
27. Rice was introduced into the Caroli- better,two hundred pounds are frequently
nas in 1697, where it is now produced in collected in the same time.
greater perfection than in any other coun- 31. The seeds adhere closely to the cot-
try. The seeds are dropped along, from ton, when picked from the pods but they ;

the small end of a gourd, into drills made are properly separated by machines called
with one corner of a hoe. The plants, gins ; of which there are two kinds, the —
when partly grown, are not transferred to roller-gin, and the saw-gin. The essen-
another place, as in Asia, but are suffered tial parts of the former are two cylinders,
to grow and ripen in the original drills. which are placed nearly in contact with
The crop is secured like wheat, and the each other. By their revolving motion,
husks are forced from the grain by a ma- the cotton is drawn between them, while
chine, which leaves the kernels more per- the size of the seeds prevents their pas-
fect loan the methods adopted in other sage. This machine, being of small size,
countries. is worked by hand.

28. Cotton is cultivated in the East and 32. The saw-gin is much larger, and is
West Indies, North and South America, moved by animal, steam, or water-power,
3 B 2
;

18 THE AGRICULTURIST.

It consists of a receiver, having one side and Morocco. The Spaniards- obtained it
covered with strong wires, placed in a pa- from the Moors, and, in the fifteenth cen-
rallel direction, about an eighth of an inch tury, introduced it into theCanary islands.
apart, and a number of circular saws, It was brought to America and the West
which revolve on a common axis. The India Islands, by the Spaniards and Portu-
saws pass between these wires, and entan- guese. It is now cultivated in the United
gle in their teeth the cotton, which is States, below the thirty-first degree of
thereby drawn through the grating while ;
latitude, and in the warm parts of the
the seeds, from their size, are forced to globe generally.
remain on the other side. 37. Previous to the year 1466, sugar was
33. Before the invention of the saw-gin, known in England chiefly as a medicine
the seeds were separated from the upland and, although the sugar-cane was cultiva-
cottons by hand, —a method so extremely ted at that time in several places on the
tedious, that their cultivation was attended Mediterranean, it was not more extensively
with but little profit to This
the planter. used on the continent. Now, in point of
machine was invented in Georgia, by Eli importance, it ranks next to wheat and
Whitney, of Massachusetts. It was un- rice in the vegetable world, and first in
dertaken at the request of several planters maritime commerce.
of the former state, and was there put in 38. The cultivators of sugar-cane pro-
operation in 1792. pagate the plant by means of cuttings from
34. In the preceding year, the whole the lower end of the stalks, which are
crop of cotton in the United States was planted, in the spring or autumn, in drills,
only sixty-four bales; but, in 1834, it or in furrows formed by the plough. The
amounted to 1,000,617. The vast increase new plants spring from the joints of the
in the production of this article has arisen, cuttings, and are fit to be gathered for
in part, from the increased demand for it use in eight, ten, twelve, or fourteen
in Europe, and in the Northern States, but months. While growing, sugar-cane is

chiefly from the use of the invaluable ma- managed much like Indian corn.
chine just mentioned. 39. When ripe, the cane is cut and
35. Sugar-cane was cultivated by the brought to the sugar-mill, where the juice is
Chinese, at a very early period, probably expressed between iron or stone cylinders,
two thousand years before it was known in moved by steam, water, or animal power.
Europe but sugar, in a candied form, was
; The juice thus obtained is evaporated in
used in small quantities by the Greeks large boilers, to a syrup, which is after-
and Romans, in the days of their prosperi- wards removed to coolers, where it is agi-
ty. It was probably brought from Bengal, tated with wooden instruments called stir~
Siam, or some of the East India Islands, rers. To accelerate its cooling, it is next
as it is supposed that it grew nowhere else poured into casks, and, when yet warm, is
at that time. conveyed to barrels, placed in an upright
36. In the thirteenth century, soon after position over a cistern, and pierced in the
the merchants of the West began to traf- bottom in several places. The holes being
fic in Indian articles of commerce, the with canes, the part which
partially stopped
plant was introduced into Arabia Felix, remains in the form of syrup, filters
still

and thence into Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, through them into the cistern beneath,
;

THE AGRICULTURIST. m
while the rest is left in the form of sugar, 45. When a sufficient quantity of syrup,
in the state called muscovado. of a certain thickness, has been obtained, it

40. This sugar is of a yellow colour, be- is passed through a strainer, and, having
ing yet in a crude or raw state. It is further been again placed over the fire, it is clari-
purified by various processes, such as re- fied with eggs and milk; the scum, as it
dissolving it and again boiling it
in water, rises, being carefully removed with a

with lime and bullocks’ blood, or with ani- skimmer. When sufficiently reduced, it
mal charcoal, and passing the syrup through is usually poured into tin pans or basins,

several canvas filters. in which, as it cools, it consolidates into


41. Loaf-sugar is manufactured by pour- hard cakes of sugar.
ing the syrup, after it has been purified, 46. Most of the lands
in a state of na-
and reduced to a certain thickness by eva- ture, are covered with forest trees. This
poration, into unglazed earthen vessels of is especially the case in North America.

a conical shape. The cones have a hole When this division of our continent was
at their apex, through which may filter first visited by Europeans, it was nearly

the syrup which separates from the sugar one vast wilderness, throughout its entire
above. Most of the sugar is imported in extent; and even now, after a lapse of
a raw or crude state, and is afterwards re- three centuries, a great portion of it re-
fined in the cities, in sugar-houses. mains in the same situation. The indus-
42. Molasses is far less free from extra- trious settlers, however, are rapidly clear-
neous substances than sugar, as it is no- ing away the natural encumbrances of the
thing more than the drainings from the soil and before a similar period shall have
;

latter. Rum is distilled from inferior mo- passed away, we may expect that civilized
lasses, and other saccharine matter of the men will have occupied every portion of
cane, which will answer for no other pur- this vast territory which may be worthy of
pose. cultivation.
43. Sugar is also manufactured from 47. The mode of clearing land, as it is
the sap of the sugar-maple, in considerable termed, varies in different parts of the
quantities, in the northern parts of the Uni- United States. In Pennsylvania, and in
ted States, and in the Canadas. The sap is neighbourhoods settled by people from
Obtained by cutting a notch, or boring a that state, the large trees are deadened
hole, in the tree, and applying a spout to by girdling them, and the small ones, to-
conduct it to a receiver, which is either a gether with the underbrush, are felled and
rude trough or a cheap vessel made by a burned. This mode is very objectionable,
cooper. This operation is performed late for the reason, that the limbs on the stand-
in the winter, or early in the spring, when ing trees, when they have become rotten,
the weather freezing at night, and thaw-
is sometimes peril the lives of those that may
ing in the day. be underneath. It seems, however, that
44. The liquid in which the saccharine those who pursue
this method prefer risk-
matter is suspended, is evaporated by heat, ing life way, to wearing it out in
in this
as in the case of the juice of the cane. wielding the axe, and in rolling logs.
During the process of evaporation, slices 48. A very different plan is pursued by
of pork are kept in the kettle, to prevent settlers from New-England. The under-
the sap, or syrup, from boiling over. brush is first cut down, and piled in heaps
;

20 THE AGRICULTURIST.

the large trees are then felled, to serve as called black ley, which is evaporated in
foundations for log-heaps ;
and the smaller large kettles. The residuum is callect black
ones are cut so as to fall as nearly parallel salts, which are converted into pot-ash, by
to these as practicable. The smaller trees, applying to the kettle an intense heat.
as well as the limbs of the larger ones, are 52. The process of making pearl-ash is
cut into lengths of twelve or fifteen feet. the same, until the ley has been reduced
49. At a proper season of the year, to black salts, except that no lime nor salt
when the brush has become dry enough, is used. The salts are baked in large
fire is applied, which consumes much of ovens, heated by a blazing fire, which pro-

the small stuff. The logs are next hauled ceeds from an arch below. When suffi-
together, with oxen or horses, and rolled ciently scorched the salts are dissolved in
,

into heaps with handspikes. The small hot water. The solution is allowed to be
stuff which has escaped the first burning, at rest, until all extraneous substances have
is thrown upon the heaps, and, fire being settled to the bottom, when it is drawn off,

applied, the whole is consumed together. and evaporated as before. The residuum
50. In the Northern, Middle, and West- is called white salts. Another baking,
ern States, where a great proportion of the like the former, completes the process.
timber is beech, maple, and elm, great 53. Very few of the have an
settlers
quantities of ashes are obtained, in this ashery, as it is called, in which the whole
mode of clearing land. '
From these ashes process of making either pot or pearl-ash
are extracted the pot and pearl-ashes of is performed. They usually sell the black
commerce, which have been, and still are,, salts to the store-keepers in their neigh-
among the principal exports of the United bourhood, who complete the process of the
States. manufacture.
51. The usual process of making pot- 54. The trade in ashes is often profitable
ash, is as follows : the crude ashes are put to the settlers some of them even pay, in
:

into large tubs, or leeches , with a small this way, the whole expense of clearing
quantity of salt and lime. The strength of their land. Pot and pearl-ashes are pack*
this mixture is extracted, by pouring upon ed in strong barrels, and sent to the cities
it hot water, which passes through it into where, previous to sale, they are inspected,
a reservoir. The water thus saturated is and branded according to their quality.
1. The Creator of the Universe, having probably made soon after the waters
had
formed man from the dust of the ground, subsided and the statement in Scripture,
;

provided a magnificent garden for his resi- that “Noah planted a vineyard,” may,
dence, and commanded him “to dress it perhaps, be regarded as evidence sufficient
and keep it but, having transgressed the to establish it as a fact. If this were the
commandment of his lawful Sovereign, he case, the art, doubtless, continued progres-
was driven from this delightful paradise, sive among those descendants of Noah, who
thenceforth to gain a subsistence from the did not sink into a state of barbarism after
earth at large, which had been cursed with the confusion of tongues.
barrenness, thorns, thistles, and briars. 4. Among savage nations, one of the
2. Scripture does not inform us, that first advancement towards a
indications of
Adam turned his attention to gardening state of civilization, is the cultivation of a
nor have we any means of determining the little spot of ground for raising vegetables;
state of this art, in the centuries previous and the degree of refinement among the
to the flood : but
highly probable, that
it is inhabitants of any country, may be deter-
it had arrived to considerable perfection, mined, with tolerable certainty, by the
before the approach of this destructive taste and skill exhibited in their gardens.
visitation from Heaven. 5. Ornamental gardening is never at-
3. Gardens for useful purposes, were tended to, in any country, until the arts in
; .

22 THE HORTICULTURIST.

general have advanced to a considerable the mode of laying out the gardens, plant-
degree of perfection and it uniformly de-
;
ing and trimming the trees, was too formal
clines with other fine, or ornamental arts. and fantastical.
Accordingly, we do not read of splendid 9. Several eminent writers, (among
gardens among the Babylonians, Egyp- whom were Pope and Addison,) ridiculed
tians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, and other this Dutch mode of gardening, as it was
nations of antiquity, until they had reach- called, and endeavoured to introduce an-
ed a very exalted state of refinement; other, more consistent with genuine taste.
and when these nations descended from Their views were, at length, seconded by
this condition, or were overthrown by bar- practical horticulturists ;
and those princi-
barians, this art declined or disappeared. ples of the art which they advocated, were
6. During the period of mental dark- adopted in every part of Great Britain.
ness, which prevailed between the eighth The English mode has been followed and
and thirteenth centuries, the practice of emulated, by the refined nations of the
ornamental gardening had fallen into such eastern continent, and by many opulent
general disuse, that it was confined exclu- individuals in the United States.
sively to the monks.* After this period, it 10. Since the beginning of the present
began again to spread among the people century, horticultural societies have been
generally. It revived in Italy, Germany, formed in every kingdom of Europe. In
Holland, and France, long before any at- Great Britain alone, there are no less than
tention was paid to it in England. fifty; and, it is satisfactory to add, that
7. In the latter country, but few culina- there are also several of these institutions
ry vegetables were consumed before the in theUnited States. The individuals
beginning of the sixteenth century, and who compose these societies, have for their
most of these were brought from Holland objects, the collection and general dissemi-
nor was gardening introduced there, as a nation of information on this interesting
source of profit, until about one hundred subject,with special reference to the in-
years after that period. Peaches, pears, troduction of new and valuable articles of
plums, nectarines, apricots, grapes, cher- cultivation.
ries, strawberries, and melons, were luxu- 11. The
authors who have written upon
ries but little enjoyed in
England, until scientificand practical gardening, at dif-
near the middle of the seventeenth cen- ferent periods, and in different countries,
tury. The first hot and ice-houses known are very numerous. Among the ancient
on the island, were built by Charles II., Greek writers, were Hesiod, Theophrastus,
who ascended the British throne in 1660, Xenophon, and ./Elian among the Latins,
:

and soon after introduced French garden- Vato was the first to whom succeeded,
;

ing at Hampton-Court, Carlton, and Marl- Cato, Pliny the elder, Columella, and Pal-
borough. _ |
ladius.
8. About the beginning of the eighteenth 12. Since the revival of literature, hor-
century, this art attracted the attention of common with agriculture, has
ticulture, in
some of the first characters in Great Bri- shared largely in the labours of the learn-
tain, who gave it a new impulse in that ed and many works, on this important
;

country. But the style which they imita- branch of rural economy, have been pub-
ted was objectionable, on the ground, that lished in every language of Europe. But
THE HORTICULTURIST. 23

the publications, on this subject, which at- pecially that branch of it called picturesque,
tract the greatest attention, are the peri- To produce a pleasing effect?
or landscape.
odicalsunder the superintendence of the in a garden of this kind, from twenty to
great horticultural societies. Those of one hundred acres are necessary, accord-
London and Paris, are particularly distin- ing to the manner in which the ground
guished. may be situated. In an area of that ex-
13. It is impossible to draw a distinct tent, every branch of this pleasing art
line between horticulture and agriculture, can be advantageously embraced.
since so many articles of cultivation are 17. Delicate exotic plants, which will
common to both, and since a well regulated not bear exposure to the open air during
farm approaches very nearly to a garden. the winter, are preserved from the effects
14. The divisions of a complete garden, of the cold, in hot, or green-houses, which
usually adopted by writers on this subject, may be warmed by artificial heat. A hot-
are the following : 1st. the culinary gar- house is exhibited in the representation of
den ;
2d. the flower garden ;
3d. the orch- a garden, at the head of this article. It is
ard, embracing different kinds of fruits; composed chiefly of window-glass, set in
4th. the vineyard ;
5th. the seminary, for sashes of wood. A
green-house is usually
raising seeds ;
6th. the nursery, for raising larger ;
and
designed for the preserva-
is

trees to be transplanted ;
7th. the botani- tion of those plants requiring less heat
cal garden, for raising various kinds of 18. The vegetables commonly cultivated
plants; 8th. the arbore turn of ornamental in gardens for the table, are, — corn, potatoes,
trees ;
and, 9th. the picturesque, or land- tomatoes, peas, beans, squashes, cucumbers,
scape garden. To become skilful in the melons, strawberries, raspberries, black-
management of even one or two of these berries, gooseberries, currants, beets, pars-
branches, requiresmuch attention; but to nips, carrots, onions, radishes, cabbages,
become proficient in all, would require asparagus, lettuce, grapes, and various
years of the closest application. kinds of fruits. The flowers, ornamental
15. In Europe, the professed gardeners shrubs, and trees, are very numerous, and
constitute a large class of the population. are becoming more so, by accessions from
They are employed, either in their own the forests and foreign countries.
gardens, or in those of the wealthy, who 19. The scientific horticulturist, in lay-
engage them by the day, or year. There ing off his garden, endeavours to unite
are some who devote their attention to this beauty and utility, locating the flowers,
business, in this country; but these are ornamental shrubs, and trees, where they
chiefly from the other side of the Atlantic. will be most conspicuous and those vege-
;

In our Southern States, the rich assign one tables less pleasing to the eye, in more
of their slaves to the garden. retired situations, yet in a soil
and expo-
16. Almost every family in the country sure adapted to their constitution. In im-
and villages of the United States, has its proving the soil of his garden, he brings
little garden for the production of vegeta- to his aid the science of chemistry, toge-
bles; in which are also usually reared, a' ther with the experience of practical men.
few flowers, ornamental shrubs, and fruit He is also careful in the choice of his fruit
trees: but horticulture, as a science, is trees, and in increasing the variety of their
studied and practised here by very few es- products, by engrafting, and by inoculation.
;
1. The Miller belongs to that class of
|
This simple contrivance is used in
still

employments which relates, to the prepa- India, as well as in some sequestered parts
ration of food and drinks for man. His of Scotland, and on many of the planta-
business consists, chiefly, in reducing the tions in the Southern States of our Union.
farinaceous grains to a suitable degree of But, in general, where large quantities of
fineness. grain are to be ground, it has been entirely
2. The simplest method by which grain superseded by mills not moved by manual
can be reduced to meal, or flour, is, by power.
rubbing or pounding it between two stones; 4. The modern corn and flour mill dif-
and this was probably the one first prac- fers from the ancient hand-mill, in the size
tised, in all primitive conditions of society, of the stones, in the addition of an apparatus
as pursued among some tribes of
it is still for separating the hullsand bran from the
uncivilized men. farinaceous part of the grain, and in the
3. The machine for comminuting
first power applied for putting it in motion.
grain, of which we have any knowledge, 5. The grinding surfaces of the stones
was a simple hand-mill, composed of a have channels, or furrows, cut in them,
nether stone, fixed in a horizontal position, which proceed obliquely from the centre
and an upper stone, which was put in mo- to the circumference. The furrows are
tion with the hand, by means of a peg. cut slantwise on one side, and perpendicu-
;
:

THE MILLER. 25

larly on the other; so that each of the distance between the stones can be easily
ridges which they form, has a sharp edge regulated, to grind either fine or coarse.
and when the upper stone is in motion, The grain about to be submitted to the ac-
these edges pass one another, like the tion of the mill, is thrown into the hopper,
blades of a pair of scissors, and cut the II, whence it passes by the shoe, or spout,
grain more easily, as it falls upon the fur- I, through a hole in the upper stone, and
rows. then between them both.
6. The upper stone is a little convex, 8. If the flour, or meal, is not to be se-

and the other a little concave. There is a parated from the bran, the simple grinding
trifling difference, however, between the completes the operation ;
but when this
convexity and concavity of the two stones separation is to be made, the comminuted
this difference causes the space between grain, as it is thrown out from between the
them to become less and
towards their
less stones, is carried, by little leathern buck-
edges and the grain, being admitted be-
; ets fastened to a strap, to the upper end of
tween them, is, consequently, ground finer an octagonal sieve, placed in an inclined
and finer, as it passes out in that direction position in a large box. The coarse bran
inwhich it is impelled, by the centrifugal passes out at the lower end of the sieve,
power of the moving stone. or bolt, and the flour, or fine particles of
7. By
a careful inspection of the follow- bran, through the bolting-cloth, at differ-
ing picture, the whole machinery of a com- ent places, according to their fineness. At
mon mill may be understood : the head of the bolt, the superfine flour
passes in the middle, the fine flour and
;
;

at the lower end, the coarse flour and fine


bran ;
which, when mixed, is called canel,
or shorts.
9. The best material of which mill-
stones are made, is the burr-stone, which

is brought from France in small pieces,

weighing from ten to one hundred pounds.


These are cemented together with plaster
of Paris, and closely bound around the cir-
cumference, with hoops made of bar iron.
For grinding corn or rye, those made of
sienite, or granite rock, are frequently
used.
10. A mill exclusively employed in
A, represents the water-wheel; B, the grinding grain consumed by the inhabit-
shaft towhich is attached the cog-wheel ants of the neighbourhood, is called
a grist
C, which acts on the trundle-head, D
;
and or custom mill; and a portion of the
grist
this, in turn, acts on the moveable stone. is allowed to the miller, in
payment for
The spindle, trundle-head, and upper stone, his services. The proportion is regulated
all rest entirely on the beam, F, which by law; and, in our own country, it varies
can -be elevated or depressed, at pleasure, ;

according to the legislation of the different


y a simple j

}
apparatus ; so that the : States.
C
26 THE MILLER.

11. Mills in which flour is manufactured 14. In our Southern States, hominy is a
and packed in barrels for sale, are called favourite article of food. It consists of the
merchant mills. Here, the wheat is pur- which have
flinty portions of Indian corn,
chased by the miller, or by the owner of been separated from the hulls and eyes of
the mill, who upon the difference
relies the grain. To effect this separation, the
between the original cost of the grain, and corn sometimes ground very coarsely in
is

the probable amount of its several products a mill but the most usual method is that
;

when sold, to remunerate him for the manu- of pounding it in a mortar.


facture, and his investments of capital. 15. The mortar is excavated from a log
In Virginia, and, perhaps, in some of the of hard wood, between twelve and eighteen
other States, it is a common practice inches in diameter. The form of the ex-
among the farmers to deliver to the mil- cavation is similar to that of a common iron
lers their wheat, for which they receive a mortar, except that it is less flat at the
specified quantity of merchantable flour. bottom, to prevent the corn from being
12. The power most commonly employ- reduced meal during the operation. The
to

ed to put heavy machinery in operation, is pestle is made by confining an iron


usually
that supplied by water.This is especially wedge in the split end of a round stick, by
the case, with regard to mills for grinding means of an iron ring.
grain; but when this cannot be had, a 16. The white flint corn is the kind
substitute is found in steam, and animal usually chosen for hominy ;
but any kind,
strength. The wind is also rendered sub- with the requisite solidity, will answer the
servient to this purpose. The wind-mill purpose. Having been poured into the
was invented in the time of Augustus Cae- moistened with hot water,
mortar, it is

sar. During the reign of this emperor, ;and immediately beaten with the pestle,
and probably long before, mules and asses until the eyes and hulls are forced from
were employed both by the Greeks and Ro- the flinty portions of the grain. The part
mans, in turning their mills. The period which has been reduced to
of the corn
at which water-mills began to be used can- meal, by the foregoing process, is removed
not be certainly determined. Some writers by means of a sieve, and the hulls by the
place it as far back as the Christian era. aid of the wind.
13. Wheat one of the staple
flour is 17. Hominy prepared for the table by
is

commodities of the United States, and boiling it in water for twelve hours, with

there are mills for its manufacture in al- about one-fourth of its quantity of white
most every part of the country, where beans, and some fat bacon. It is eaten
wheat is extensively cultivated but our ;
while yet warm, with milk, or butter ;
or,

most celebrated flour-mills are on the Bran- if suffered to get cold, it is again warmed
dy wine creek, in Delaware, and at Roches- with lard, or some fat substance, before it

ter, in New- York. is brought to the table.


THE B AKER.
4.

1. The business of the Baker consists expended in their completion, may fancy
in making bread, rolls, biscuits, and crack- tha.t there is nothing more easy than to
ers, and in baking various kinds of provi- grind grain, to make it and to
into paste,
sions. bake it in an oven : but it must have been a
2. Man appears to be designed by na- long time, before men came to prepare their
ture, to eat all substances capable of afford- • grain in any other way than by roasting it
ing nourishment to his system ;
but, being in the fire, or boiling it in water, and form-
more inclined to vegetable than to animal ing it into viscous cakes. Accident, at'
food, he has, from the earliest times, used length, probably furnished
some observing
farinaceous grains as his principal means person a hint, by which good and wffiole-
of sustenance. As these, however, can- some bread could be made by means of
not be eaten in their native state, without fermentation.
means have been contrived for
difficulty, Before the invention of the oven,
extracting their farinaceous part, and for bread was exclusively baked in the em-
converting it into an agreeable and whole- bers, or ashes, or before the fire. These
some aliment. methods, with sometimes a little variation,
3. Those who are accustomedto enjoy are still practised, more or less, in all parts
allthe advantages of the most useful in- of the world. In England, the poor class
ventions, without reflecting on the labour of people place the loaf on the heated
; ;

28 THE BAKER,

hearth, and invert over an iron pot, or


it ternal commotion in the particles of dough
kettle, which they surround with embers during fermentation.
or coals. There are three general methods of
9.

5. The invention of the oven must have making bread 1st. by mixing meal, or
:

added much to the conveniences and com- flour, with water, or with water and milk
forts of the ancients; but it cannot be de- 2d. by adding to the foregoing materials
termined, at what period, or by whom, it a small quantity of sour dough, or leaven,
was contrived. During that period of re- to serve as a fermenting agent and, 3d. ;

mote antiquity, in which the people were by using yeast, to produce the same gene-
generally erratic in their habits, the ovens ral effect.
were made of clay, and hardened by fire, 10. The theory of making light bread, is

like earthenware ;
and, being small, they not difficult to be understood. The leaven,
could be easily transported from place to or yeast, acts upon the saccharine muci-
place, like our iron bake-ovens. Such lage of the dough, and, by the aid of heat
ovens are still in use in some parts of Asia. and moisture, disengages carbonaceous
6 There are few nations
. that do not use matter, which, uniting with oxygen, forms
bread, or a substitute for it. Its general carbonic acid gas. This, being prevented
use arises from a law of our economy, from escaping by the gluten of the dough,
which requires a mixture of the animal causes the mass to become light and spongy.
fluids, in every stage of the process of di- During the process of baking, the increased
gestion. The saliva is, therefore, essen- heat disengages more of the fixed air,
tial and the mastication of dry food is
;
which is further prevented from escaping
required, to bring it forth from the glands by the formation of the crust. The super-
of the mouth. fluous moisture having been expelled, the
7. The farinaceous grains most usually substance becomes firmer, and retains that
employed in making bread, are,-— wheat, spongy hollowness, which distinguishes
rye, barley, maize, and oats. The flour good bread.
and meal of two of these are often mixed 11. Many other substances contain fer-
and wheat flour is sometimes advantageous- menting qualities, and are, therefore, some-
ly combined with rice, peas, beans, and times used as substitutes for yeast and
potatoes. leaven. The waters of several mineral
8. The component parts of wheat, rye, springs, both in Europe and America, being
and barley-flour, are, — fecula, or starch, impregnated with carbonic acid gas, are
gluten, and saccharine mucilage. Fecula occasionallyemployed in making light
is the most nutritive part of grain : it is bread.
found in and is especially abun-
all seeds, 12. The three general methods of making
dant in the potato. Gluten is necessary to bread, and the great number of materials
the production of light bread and wheat ;
employed, admit of a great variety in this
flour, containing it in the greatest propor- essential article of food so much so, that
;

tion, answers the purpose better than any we cannot enter into regards
details, as
other. The saccharine mucilage is equally the particular modes of manufacture adopt-
necessary, as this is the substance on which ed by different nations, or people. There
yeast and leaven act, in producing the in- are, comparatively, but few on the globe,
:

THE BAKER. 29

in which this art is not practised in some laws of a character


16. In this country,
way or other. somewhat similar have been enacted by
13. It is impossible to ascertain at what the legislatures of several States, and by
period of time the process of baking bread city authorities,with a view to protect the
became a particular profession. It is sup- community against impositions; but whe-
posed, that the first bakers in Rome came ther there be a law or not, the bakers regu-
from Greece, about two hundred years late the weight, price, and quality, of their
before the Christian era and that these,
;
loaves, by the general principles of trade.
together with some freemen of the city, 17. There is, perhaps, no business more
were incorporated into a^ college, or com- laborious, than that of the baker of loaf
pany, from which neither they nor their bread, who has a regular set of customers
children were permitted to withdraw. tobe supplied every morning. The twenty-
They held their effects in common, with- four hours of the day are systematically
out possessing any individual power of appropriated to the performance of certain
parting with them. labours, and to rest.
14. Each bake-house had a patron, or 18. After breakfast, the yeast is pre-
superintendent; and one of the patrons pared, and the oven-wood provided : at two
had the management of the rest, and the or three o’clock, the sponge the is set
care of the college. So respectable was hours from three to eight or nine o’clock,
this class of men in Rome, that one of the are appropriated to rest. The baking com-
body was occasionally admitted as a mem- mences at nine or ten o’clock at night;
ber of the senate ;
and
on account of
all, and, in large bakeries, continues until five
their peculiar corporate association, and o’clock in the morning. From that time
the public utility of their employment, until the breakfast hour, thehands are en-
were exempted from the performance of gaged in distributing the bread to custom-
the civil duties to which other citizens ers. For seven months in the year, and,
were liable. in some cases, during the whole of it, part
15. In many of the large cities of Eu- of the hands are employed, from eleven to
rope, the price and weight of bread, sold one o’clock, in baking pies, puddings, and
by bakers, are regulated by law. The different kinds of meats, sent to them from
weight of the loaves of different sizes must neighbouring families.
be always the same; but the price may 19. In large cities, the bakers usually
vary, according to the current cost of the confine their attention to particular branch-
chief materials. The law was such in the es of the business. Some bake
light loaf
city of London, a few years ago, that if a bread only others bake unleavened bread,
;

loaf fell short in weight a single ounce, such as crackers, sea-biscuit, and cakes for
the baker was liable to be put in the pillo- people of the Jewish faith. Some, again,
ry but now, he is subject only to a fine, unite several branches together
;
;
and this
varying from one to five shillings, accord- is especially the case, in small cities and
ing to the will of the magistrate before towns, where the demand for different
whom he may be indicted. kinds of bread is more limited.

C 2
THE CONFECTIONER.

1. The Confectioner makes liquid and confects are made by boiling the fruit a
dry confects, jellies, marmalades, pastes, little and then drying it with
in syrup,
conserves, sugar-plums, ice-creams, can- a moderate heat in an oven. The ancients
dies, and cakes of various kinds. confected with honey; but, at present, the
2. Many of the articles just enumerated, more suitable article of sugar is almost
are prepared in families, for domestic use ;. exclusively employed for this purpose.
but, as their preparation requires skill and 4. Jellies resemble a thin transparent
practice, and is likewise attended with glue, or size. They are made by mixing
some trouble, it is sometimes better to pur- the juice of the fruits mentioned in the
chase them of the confectioner. preceding paragraph, with a due proportion
8. Liquid and dry confects are preserves of sugar, and then boiling the composition
made of various kinds of fruits and ber- down to a proper consistence. Jellies are
ries, the principal of which are, peaches, — also made of the flesh of animals; but
apricots, pears, quinces, apples, plums, such preparations cannot be long kept, as
cherries, grapes, strawberries, gooseberries, they soon become corrupt.
currants, and raspberries. The fruit, of 5. Marmalades are thin pastes, usually
whatever kind it may be, is confected by made of the pulp of fruits that have some
boiling it in a thick clarified syrup of consistence, and about an equal weight of
sugar, until it is about half cooked. Dry sugar. Pastes are similar to marmalades,
;

THE CONFECTIONER. 31

in their materials, and mode of preparation. of ingredients ;


the principal of which are,
The difference consists, only, in their being flour, butter, eggs, sugar, water, milk,
reduced by evaporation to a consistence, cream, yeast, wine, brandy, raisins, cur-
which renders them capable of retaining rants,caraway, lemon, orange, almonds,
a form, when put into moulds, and dried cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, and
in an oven. ginger. The different combinations of
6. Conserves are a species of dry con- these materials, produce so great a variety
fects, compounded of sugar and flowers. of cakes, thatit would be tedious to detail

The flowers usually employed, are, — roses, even their names.


mallows, rosemary, orange, violets, jessa- 11. The confectioner, in addition to
mine, pistachoes, citrons, and sloes: orange- those articles which may be considered
peel is also used for the same purpose. peculiar to his business, deals in various
7. Candies are made of clarified sugar, kinds of fruits and nuts, which grow in
reduced by evaporation to a suitable de- different climates. He also sells a variety
gree of consistence. They receive their of pickles, which he usually procures from
name from the essence, or substance, em- those who make it a business to prepare
ployed in giving them the required flavour. them.
8. Sugar-plums are small fruits, seeds, 12. Soda-water is, likewise, often sold by
little pieces of bark, or odoriferous and the confectioner. This agreeable drink is
aromatic roots, incrusted with hard sugar. merely water, impregnated with carbonic
These trifles are variously denominated acid gas, by means of a forcing-pump.
but, in most cases, according to the name The confectioners, however, in large cities,
of the substance inclosed by the incrustation. seldom prepare it themselves, as they can
9. Ice-cream is an article of agreeable procure it at less expense, and with less
refreshment, in hot weather. It is sold in trouble, ready made.
confectionary shops, as well as at the pub- 13. Sometimes, the business of the pas-
licgardens, and other places of temporary try-cook is united with that of the confec-
resort in cities.It is composed, chiefly, of tioner, especially with that branch of it
milk or cream, fruit, and lemon-juice. It which relates to making
cakes. Pies and
is prepared by beating the materials well which, when baked,
tarts consist of paste,
together, and rubbing them through a fin e becomes a crust, and some kind of fruit or
hair sieve. The congelation is effected by meat, or both, with suitable seasoning.
placing the containing vessel in one which The art of making pies and tarts is prac-
is somewhat larger, and filling the sur- tised, more or less, in every family : it is
rounding vacancy with a mixture of salt be particular in
not, therefore, essential to
and fine ice. naming the materials employed, or the
10. Cakes are made of a great variety manner in which they are combined.
;

THE BREWER, AND THE DISTILLER.

THE BREWER. until the saccharine matter in the barley


1. Brewing is the art of preparing a has been sufficiently evolved, by the nat u-
liquor which has received the general de- ral process of germination.
nomination of beer. This beverage can 3. The is next transferred to the
grain
be brewed from any kind of farinaceous kiln, which an iron or tile floor, perfora-
is

grain ;
but, on various accounts, barley is ted with small holes, and moderately heated
usually preferred. It is prepared for the beneath with a fire of coke, or stone coal.
brewer’s use, by converting it into malt Here, the grain is thoroughly dried, and
which is effected by the following process: the principle of germination completely
2. The grain is soaked in a cistern of destroyed. The malt thus made is pre-
water, about two days, or until it is com- pared for being brewed, by crashing it in
pletely saturated with that fluid. It is a common mill, or between rollers. Malt-
then taken out, and spread in a layer ing, in Great Britain, and in some other
nearly two feet thick, upon a floor. When parts of Europe, is a business distinct from
the inside of this heap begins to grow brewing; but in the United States, the
warm, and the kernels to germinate, the brewers generally make their own malt.
malster checks the rapid growth of the 4. The first part of the process of brew-

grain in that situation, by changing it to ing, is called mashing. This is performed

the outside. This operation is continued, in a large tub, or tun t having two bot-
;

THE BREWER. 33

toms. The upper one, consisting of several charged from the beer, is the yeast used
moveable pieces, is perforated with a great by the brewers.
number of small holes the other, though
; 10. The products of the brewery are
tight and immoveable at the edges, has denominated, beer ,
ale, and porter. The
several large holes, furnished with ducts, difference between these liquors arises,
which lead to a cistern beneath. from the manner in which the malt
chiefly,
5. The malt, designed for one mashing, has been prepared, the relative strength
is spread in an even layer on the upper imparted to each, and the extent to which
bottom, and thoroughly saturated and in- the fermentation has been carried.
corporated with water nearly boiling, by 11. There are several kinds of beer;
means of which are made to
iron rakes, such as table beer, half and half, and strong-
revolve and move round in the tub, by the beer. They are adapted to use, soon after
aid of machinery. The water, together being brewed, and differ from each other
with the soluble parts of the malt, at length but little, except in the degree of their
pass off, through the holes before mention- strength.
ed, into the reservoir beneath. 12. Ale and porter are called stock
6. The malt requires to be mashed two liquors, because, not being designed for
or three times in succession, with fresh immediate consumption, they are kept for
quantities of water; and the product of may improve
a considerable time, that they
each mashing is appropriated to making- in quality. Porter is usually prepared for
liquors, of different degrees of strength. consumption, by putting it into bottles.
7. The product of the mashing-tun is This is done, either at the brewery, or in
called wort, which, being transferred to a bottling establishments. In the latter case,
large copper kettle, is boiled for a con- the liquor is purchased in large quantities
ov»n lyl q fimo vtt-iPIi rmoTvfifvr o a E.
o
uionvij pTT 0
/-»£* ll-> T> ''•ATtTAT*
v, *-

ClUOl Cl l/l U KUUV W IOUl 5J


lAUJ-lOj Liio vy poi ouiid WiiU iimiLt) 2Z
<-«

and then drawn off into large shallow cis- their business to supply retailers, and pri-
terns, called coolers. When the mixture vate families.
has become cool enough to be submitted to 13. We have evidence that fermented
fermentation, it is drawn off into the work- liquor was in use, three thousand years
ing tun. ago. It was first used in Egypt, whence

8. The fermentation withis effected itpassed into adjacent countries, and after-
yeast, which, acting on the saccharine mat- ward into Spain, France, and England. It
ter, disengages carbonic acid gas. This part was sometimes called the wine of barley
of the process requires from eighteen to and one kind of it was denominated Pelu-
forty-eight hours, according to the degree sian drink, from the city Pelusium, where
of heat which may
be in the atmosphere. it was first made.
9. The beerthen drawn off into casks
is 14. Among
the nations of modern times,
of different dimensions, in which it under- the English are the most celebrated for
goes a still further fermentation, sometimes brewing good liquors. London porter is,

called, the brewer's cleansing. During especially, in great repute, not only in that
this fermentation, the froth, or yeast, works city, but in distant countries. Much fer-
out at the bung-hole, and is received in a mented liquor, of the different kinds, is
trough, on the edges of which the casks consumed in the United States, where it
have been placed. The froth, thus dis- is also made in considerable perfection.
: ;

34 THE DISTILLER,

THE DISTILLER. mains of the beer are given as feed to


1. Although alcohol can be extracted from hogs and cattle.
any substance containing saccharine mat- 6. Brandy is distilled from grapes, rum
ter, yet sugar-cane, grapes, apples, peaches, from molasses, arrack from rice, whiskey
rye, corn, and rice, on account of their from various kinds of grain, peach-brandy
abundance, and superior adaptation to the from peaches, and cider-brandy from apples.
purpose, are more commonly used than any 7. The great variety of articles employ-
other. As whiskey is the chief article ed in the production of different kinds of
of this kind, manufactured in the United ardent must necessarily vary the
spirits,
States, it will be selected to illustrate the process of distillation in some particulars
general principles of distillation. but, in all cases, fermentation and heat are
Corn and rye are the materials from
2. necessary to disengage the alcoholic pro-
which this liquor is mostly extracted and ; perties of the saccharine matter, and also
these are used, either together, or sepa- an apparatus for condensing the same from
rately, at the option of the distiller. The a gaseous to a liquid form. In some coun-
meal is scalded, and mashed in a large tub tries, the alembic is used as a condenser,
it is then permitted to stand until it has instead of aworm. The form of this in-
become a little sweet, when more water strument is much like that of the retort
is poured upon it, and, at a certain tempe- and when applied, it is screwed upon the
rature, regulated in part by the weather, top of the boiler.
a quantity of yeast is added. To aid in 8. Spirits which come to market in a
producing rapid fermentation, a little malt crude state are sometimes distilled, for the
is sprinkled on the top. purpose of improving their quality, or for
3. After a suitable fermentation has disguising them with drugs and colouring
taken place, the beer as it is called, is
, substances, that they may resemble supe-
transferred to a large close tub, from the rior liquors. The process by which they are
top of which leads a tube extending to thus changed, or improved, is called recti-
the worm in another tub filled with cold fication. Many distilleries in large cities,
water. The worm is a long pewter tube, are employed in this branch of business.
twisted spirally, that it may occupy a small 9. There is, perhaps, no kind of mer-
space. chandise in which the public is more de-
4. The heated in the close tub,
beer is ceived, than in the quality of ardent spirits
by means of steam, which is conveyed to and wines. To only
illustrate this, it is

it, from a large kettle or boiler, by a cop- necessary to observe, that Holland gin is
per or iron pipe. The heat causes the al- made by distilling French brandy with
coholic particles to rise like vapour, and juniper-berries; but most of the spirits
pass into the worm, where they are con- which are vended under that name, consist
densed into a watery fluid, which passes only of rum or whiskey, flavoured with the
out into a receiver. oil of turpentine. Genuine French brandy
5. At first, pure alcohol distils from the is distilled from grapes; but the article
worm but the produce becomes gradually
; usually sold under that denomination, is
weaker, until, at length, the spirit in the whiskey or rum coloured with treacle or
beer being exhausted, it consists only of burned sugar, and flavoured with the oil of
water condensed from steam. The re- wine, or some kind of drug.
; :

THE DISTILLER. 35

10. The ancient Greeks and Romans them with the feet, and rubbing them in
were acquainted with an instrument for the hands, or by some other means, with
distillation, which they denominated ambix. the view to press out the juice. The whole
This was adopted, a long time afterward, isthen suffered to stand in the vat, until it
by the Arabian alchymists, for making has passed through what is termed the
their chemical experiments ;
but they vinous fermentation, when the juice, which,
made some improvements in its construc- in this state, termed must, is drawn off*
is

tion,and changed its name to alembic. into open vessels, where it remains until
11. The ancients, however, knew no- the pressing of the husks is finished.
thing of alcohol. The method of extract- 15. The husks are submitted, in hair
ing this intoxicating substance, was proba- bags, to the press and the must, which is
;

bly discovered some time in the twelfth the result of this operation, is mixed with
or thirteenth century ;
but, for many ages that drawn from the vat. The whole is
after the discovery, it was used only as a then put into casks, where it undergoes
medicine, and was kept for sale exclusively another fermentation, called the spirituous
in apothecary-shops. It is now used as a this occupies from six to twelve days.
common article of stimulation, in almost The casks are then bunged up, and suffer-
every quarter of the globe. ed to stand a few weeks, when the wine is
12. But the opinion is becoming general, racked off from the lees, and again return-
among all civilized people, that the use of ed to the same casks, after they have been
alcohol, for this purpose, is destructive of perfectly cleansed. Two such rackings
health, and the primary cause of most of generally render the wine clear and bril-
the crimes and pauperism, in all places liant.
where its consumption is common. The 16. In many cases, sugar, brandy, and
formation of Temperance Societies, and flavouring substances, are necessary, to
the publication of their reports, together render the wine palateable; but the best
with the extensive circulation of periodi- kinds of grapes seldom require any of these
cal papers, devoted to the cause of tem- additions. Wine-merchants often adulte-
perance, have already diminished, to a rate their wines, in various ways, and af-
very great extent, the use of spirituous terwards sell them which are
for those
liquors. genuine. To correct acidity, and some
13. Although the ancients knew nothing other unpleasant qualities, lead, copper,
of distilling alcohol, yet they were well antimony, and corrosive sublimate, are
versed in the art of making wine. We often used by the dealers in wine though ;

read of the vineyard, as far back as the the practice attended with deleterious
is
time of Noah, the second father of nations effects to the health of the consumers.
and, from that period until the present, the 17. The wines most usually met with
grape has been the object of careful culti- in this country, are known by the follow-
vation, in all civilized nations, where the ing denominations, viz. Madeira and Tene-
climate and soil were adapted to the pur- riffe,from islands of the same names;
pose. Port, from Portugal Sherry and Malaga ,
;

14. The general process of making wine from Spain Champagne, Burgundy, and
;

from grapes, is as follows: The grapes, Claret, from France and Hock, from Ger-
;

when gathered, are crushed by treading many.


3.

THE BUTCHER.
1. Man is designed by nature, to subsist proportion both of animal and vegetable
on vegetable and animal food. This is substances is consumed.
obvious, from the structure of his organs Although the skins of beasts were
of mastication and digestion. It does not used for the purpose of clothing, soon after
follow, however, that animal food is, in the fall of man, we have no intimation
all cases, positively required. In some from the scriptures, that their flesh, or that
countries, the mass of the people subsist of any other animal, was used until after
chiefly, or entirely, on vegetables : this is the flood. The Divine permission was
especially the case in the East Indies, then given to Noah and his posterity, to
where rice and fruits are the chief articles use, for this purpose, “ every moving thing
of food. that liveth but in the law of Moses, de-
2. On the other hand, the people who livered several centuries after this period,
live in the higher latitudes subsist princi- many exceptions are to be found, which
pally on the flesh of animals. This is pre- were intended to apply only to the Jewish
ferred, not only because it is better suited people. These restrictions were removed,
to brace the system against the rigours of on the introduction of Christianity: the
the climate, but because it is most easily unbelieving Jews, however, still adhere to
provided. In temperate climates a due their ancient law.
THE BUTCHER. 37

4 The doctrine of transmigration has


. with a single animal at a time, on a credit
had a great influence in diminishing the of a few days.
consumption of animal food. This absurd 8.Every butcher who carries on the
notion arose somewhere in central Asia, business, has a house in which he kills his
and, at a very early period, it spread into animals, and prepares them for sale. When
Egypt, Greece, Italy, and finally among it is intended to slaughter an ox, a rope is

the remote countries of the ancient world. thrown about his horns, or neck, with
It is still entertained by the heathen na- which he is forced into the slaughter-house,
tions of Eastern Asia, by the tribes in the and brought to the floor by the aid of a
vicinity of Mount Caucasus, and by some ring. The
butcher then knocks him on
of the American savages, and African the head, cuts his throat, deprives him of
negroes. his hide, takes out his entrails, washes the
5. The leading feature of this doctrine inside of his body with water, and cuts
is, that the souls of departed men reappear him up into quarters: the beef is now
on earth in the bodies of animals, both as ready to be conveyed to the market-house.
a punishment for crimes committed during The process of dressing other quadrupeds
life, and as a means of purification from varies but little from this, in its general
sin. This dogma was adopted by the details. The cellular substance of mutton,
Pythagoreans, a sect of Grecian philoso- lamb, and veal, is often inflated with air,
phers; and, as a natural consequence, it that the meat may look fat and plump.
led them, as has ever done the votaries
it 9. In large cities and towns, the meat
of this opinion, to the veneration of ani- is chiefly sold in the market-house, where
mals, and to abstinence from their flesh, each butcher has a stall rented from the
lest they might devour that of some of corporation. It is carried there in a cart,
their deceased friends or relatives. and cut into suitable pieces with a saw,
6. People who dwell thinly scattered in knife, and a broad iron cleaver.
the country, rear and slaughter the ani- 10. In some of the large cities, it is a
mals for the supply of their own tables; practice among the butchers, to employ
but in villages, large towns, and cities, the runners to carry the meat to the houses
inhabitants depend chiefly on the butcher of those customers who may desire this
for their meat. The animals commonly accommodation. In villages, where there
slaughtered are, sheep, cattle, and hogs. is no market-house, the butcher carries his
7. The butchers obtain their animals meats from door to door, in some kind of
from the farmers, or from drovers, who vehicle.
make it a business to purchase them in 11. Those who follow this occupation
the country, and drive them to market. usually enjoy good health, and, as they ad-
The farmers near large cities, who have vance most cases, become cor-
in years, in
good grazing farms, are accustomed to buy pulent. Their good health arises from
lean cattle, brought from a distance, with exercise in the open air and their corpu-
;

a view to fatten them for sale. There are lency, from subsisting principally on fresh
also persons in the cities, who might, with meats. It is thought, however, that their
propriety, be called cattle brokers, since longevity is not so great as that of men hi
they supply the butchers of small capital many other employments.
D
;

THE TOBACCO PLANTER, AND THE TOBACCONIST.

THE TOBACCO PLANTER. 3. The introduction of this nauseou


1. Tobacco is a native production of plant into Europe, was everywhere attend
America, which was in common use among ed with ridicule and opposition.
Hundred:
nearly all of the Indian tribes, when this of pamphlets were published, in varioui
continent was discovered by Europeans. languages, dissuading from its use in th
Its originalname among the nations of the strongest terms. Even James the Firsl
islands, was yoli whilst, with those of king of Great Britain, did not regard it a
the continent, it was termed petum. The inconsistent with the royal dignity to taki
Spaniards, however, chose to call it tobacco ,
up pen on the subject. In his “ Court
his

a term in the Haytian language, which ter-blast to Tobacco ,” published in 1603

designated the instrument in which the occurs the following remarkable passage
herb was smoked. “ It is a custom loathsome to the eye, hatei

2. This plant was first introduced into ful to the nose, harmful to the brain and;

Spain, then into Portugal and France, and, in the black fume thereof, nearest resemt

at length, into other countries of the East- bling the horrible Stygian smoke of th!

ern continent. Sir Walter Raleigh car- pit that is bottomless.”

ried it from Virginia to England, and taught 4. Pope Urban VIII. excommunicated
his countrymen the various methods of who took tobacco in churches ana
those ;

consuming it among the natives. Queen Elizabeth also prohibited its use it
;

THE TOBACCO PLANTER. 39

louses of public worship. In 1689, an mixed with ashes, are sown as evenly as
irdinance was published in Transylvania, possible. After they have been covered
;hreatening those who should plant tobacco with earth, the ground is trodden down
cviththe confiscation of their estates. The with the bare feet. The tobacco beds are
rrand-duke of Moscow, and the king of made in March, and the plants become fit

Persia, prohibited its use under the penalty for the field in eight or ten weeks.
if the loss of the nose, and even of life. 9. The which the cultivation of
field, in

A.t present, however, the consumption of the crop is to be continued, is ploughed


tobacco is looked upon with so much two or three times, and then cross-plough-
greater indulgence, that all the sovereigns ed into equal checks, in each of which is
of Europe, and most of those of other na- made a hill. Immediately after a rain, the
tions, derive a considerable revenue from plants are transferred to these hills, in the
the trade in this article. same manner in which cabbages are trans-
5. But it is truly astonishing, that the planted. While the tobacco is growing,
discovery of a nauseous weed, of an acrid the ground ploughed several times, in
is

taste, disagreeable odour, and deleterious order to keep it light, and to aid in destroy-
qualities, should have had so great an in- ing the weeds. When the plants are
fluence on the social condition of nations nearly grown, the tops are lopped or cut
that its culture should have spread more off; to prevent them from running to seed,

rapidly than that of the most useful plants and to cause the leaves to grow larger and
and that it should, consequently, have be- thicker.
come an article of extensive commerce. 10. In July or August, the tobacco-
6. Of this plant there are several spe- worms begin to make their appearance,
cies, which differ from each other, in size, and to threaten the whole crop with de-
strength, and flavour. Some one or more struction. To arrest the ravages of these
of these varieties, are cultivated in various insidious enemies, all hands, both great
parts of the world but especially in North
; and small, together with all the turkeys
and South America, and in the West In- that can be mustered, are brought into the
dies. It is one of the staple productions field. These worms are produced from
of Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and the eggs of a large insect, called the horn-
Ohio. The whole value of the tobacco bug.
exported annually from the United States, 11. The tobacco, when ripe, is cut near
amounts to about five millions of dollars. the ground, and hung on small sticks about
7. The following description of the mode five feet in length, generally by pegs
of cultivating this plant, and preparing it driven into the stalks. These
sticks are
for the tobacconist, is applicable to the then laid upon poles arranged at proper
State of Maryland. A little variation in distances from each other, in the tobacco-
some of the details, would render it appli- house, shed, or hovel, as the case may be.
cable to other parts of the world. It isthen suffered to dry gradually in the
8. A small piece of ground, say one- atmosphere or a large fire is made in the
;

sixteenth of an acre, is prepared by burn- tobacco-house, to effect the drying more


ing a large quantity of brush upon it. The rapidly.
surface is rendered light and even, by 12. The leaves are next stripped from
means of a hoe and rake ;
and the seeds, the stalks, and tied in small bunches, ac-
40 THE TOBACCONIST.

cording to their quality. This can only several ingredients, agreeable to the olfac-
be done when in order, or rather, when tory nerves, are employed.
the leaves are rendered tough by the ab- 5. Cigars are composed of two parts,
sorption of moisture from the atmosphere. called the wrapper and the The
filling.
These bunches, when the leaves are so former is made of pieces of thin leaves,
damp that they will not break, and so dry cut to a proper shape, and the latter of
that they will not heat, are packed in those which are more broken. In all
hogsheads by the aid of a large lever cases, the leaves used in the manufacture
press. The tobacco is inspected in public of cigars are deprived of the sterns, which
warehouses, by men who have been ap- are reserved, either to be converted into
pointed for tire purpose by the public au- inferior kinds of snuff, or for exportation
thorities. to Holland, where they are usually flatten-
ed between rollers, and afterwards cut fine
THE TOBACCONIST. for smoking tobacco, to be sold to the poorer
1. It is the business of the tobacconist class of people.
to convert the leaves of the tobacco plant 6. The value of cigars depends chiefly
into snuff! cigars, and smoking and chew- on the quality of the tobacco. The best
ing tobacco. kind for this purpose, grows on the island
2. Although there may seem to be a of Cuba, near Havana. Tobacco from this
great variety of snuffs, yet they may be seed is raised in many other places ;
and
all reduced to three kinds, viz. Scotch, such, among tobacconists, is called seed:
rappee, and maccouba. These are various- but it passes, among smokers of limited
ly modified by the quality of the tobacco,
4.
experience, for the real Havana. A very
by some little variation in the manufac- fine silky tobacco of this sort, grows in
ture, and by the articles employed in Connecticut, which ismuch esteemed.
communicating the desired flavour. 7. An expert hand will make five or six
8. In manufacturing snuff! the tobacco hundred Spanish cigars in a day, or from
is ground in a mill of a peculiar construc- one thousand to fifteen hundred of those
tion. Before the weed is submitted to this composed of Maryland or Kentucky tobac-
operation, it is reduced to a certain degree co. Making cigars, being light work, is
of fineness, by means of a cutting ma- well adapted to females, of whom great
chine and then spread in a heap, one or
;
numbers are regularly employed in this
two feet thick, and sprinkled with water, branch of the business. Tobacco intended
that it may heat and sweat. The time for the pipe, is cut in a machine ;
and, after
required in this preparation depends upon having been properly dried, it is put up in
the state of the weather, and the kind of papers of different sizes.
snuff for which the tobacco is designed. 8. Chewing tobacco is almost exclusive-
Scotch snuff is made of the strongest ly prepared from the species of this plant
sort of tobacco, and is put up in bladders which is cultivated in Virginia, chiefly in
and bottles, without being scented. Rap- the vicinity of James river. It is better

pee and maccouba are put up in jars and adapted than any other, to this purpose, on
bottles and the former is generally scent-
;
account of its superior strength, and the
ed with bergamot, and the latter with the great amount of resinous matter which it

ottar of roses, Sometimes, a mixture of contains.


THE TOBACCONIST. 41

9. The first operation in preparing chew- well known, that few are willing to avow
ing tobacco, is to deprive the leaves of the it, in their own case.
stems. The former are then twisted, by Tobacco is used, in some one of its
12.
hand, into plugs of different sizes, or spun various forms, by a great majority of man-
into a continued thread by the aid of the kind; and, although it is generally ac-
tobacco-wheel, which is a simple machine knowledged to be, in most cases, injurious
moved by a crank. The thread thus pro- to the constitution, and often destructive
duced is formed into bunches or twists, of health, yet consumption seems to be
its

containing a definite amount of tobacco. on the increase. It is one of the objects

10. The tobacco having been put into of trade, even in the most obscure parts of
the form desired, moistened with water,
is the world and its devotees must and will
;

packed in strong kegs, and then pressed have a supply, even though they stint
with powerful screw-presses. The whole themselves in food and clothing.
process is completed by heating the kegs, 13. As regards the irresistible influence
with their contents, for several days, in an which assumes over its votaries,
this plant

oven or a tight room made for the purpose. it may be classed with alcohol and opium
The same change in the quality of tobacco although its effects are not so destructive,
is also produced by suffering it to stand nor is the expense so considerable :
yet
nine or twelve months, before it is disposed this is an item by no means unworthy of
of to the consumers. attention, as the aggregate sum annually
11. Snuff is very commonly used in the expended for this useless narcotic, in the
southern states, as a dentifrice, or, at least, United States, would be sufficient for the
it is applied to the teeth with this ostensi- support of common schools in every part
ble object. The application is made by of the country.
means of a small stick, with the fibres 14. The
general use of tobacco is per-
minutely divided at one end. Although petuated from generation to generation, by
the tobacco seems to have the desired the desire, common to children and young
effect upon the teeth, so far as respects people, to act and appear like older per-
their appearance, yet its stimulating and sons. Few
ever begin the use of this nau-
narcotic powers are more to be dreaded in seous weed, because it is agreeable to the
this mode of using it than in any other. senses to which it is applied but because ;

Many females ruin their complexion and they fancy, in their childish simplicity,
constitution, by rubbing snuff; and the that it confers upon them some additional
deleterious effects of the practice are so importance
6
D 2
'

THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH.

1. Men, in the primitive ages, were clad operations must be separately described.:
with the skins of animals, until they had For the purpose of illustration, cotton, wool,
acquired sufficientskill to supply them- and flax, will be selected because these:
;

selves with a better material. It cannot are the materials of which our clothing isi
be determined, from history, at what time principally fabricated. The operations of
cloth began to be manufactured from ani- making cloth, may be comprised under
mal or vegetable fibre but it is evident,
;
carding and combing spinning, weaving,',
,

that it was done at a very early period; and dressing .

probably, long before the flood. 4. Carding and Combing .^—Wool and
2. The fibres of the vegetable kind, cotton are carded, with the view of disen-
most commonly applied to this purpose, tangling the fibres, and' arranging them
are the bark of several kinds of trees, longitudinally, in small rolls. This is done
together with hemp, flax, and cotton and ;
by means of the teeth of two instruments
those of the animal kingdom are, silk, the called cards, used by hand on the knee, or
wool of the sheep and lama, and the hair in the carding machine, which acts on the
dr wool of the goat and camel. same principle, although far more expedi-
3. That the general process of manu- tiously.
facturing cloth may be perfectly under- 5. Machines for carding wool are to be
stood, the maimer of performing several found in every district of country in the
THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 43

United States, in which the people manu- ster is turning the wheel with the right
facture much of their woollen cloths in hand, she brings back from the spindle her
their own families. On account of the left, with which she has laid hold of the

roughness of the fibres of wool, it is ne- roll a few inches from the upper end.
cessary to cover them well with grease, or When the yarn thus produced has been
oil, that they may move freely on each sufficiently twisted, she turns it upon the
other, during the cardingand spinning. spindle, and repeats the same operation
6. Long, coarse, or hard wools, used in until it is full. This yarn is formed into
the manufacture of camlets, bombazines, skeins, by winding it upon a reel.
Circassians,and other worsted fabrics, are 10. The mode of spinning tow is a little
not carded, but combed. In England, and different. The material having been form-
in other countries where much of this ed into bats by hand-cards, the fibres are
kind of wool is used, wool -combing forms drawn out from between the fingers and
a distinct trade. The operation consists, thumb by the twisted thread, while the spin-
Chiefly, in drawing the locks through steel ner gradually moves backward. Worsted
combs, the teeth of which are similar to is spun from combed wool nearly in the

our common flax-hatchel. The comb is same manner.


heated to a certain temperature, to cause 11. The flax or little wheel is moved ,

the fibres to and to remove


straighten, by the foot, so that both hands of the spin-
from them the roughness which might ner are used in supplying, disposing, and
otherwise cause the cloth made of them occasionally wetting the fibres, as they are
to thicken in washing, like flannel. drawn from the Two
bands pass
distaff
7. The old method of combing wool, from the periphery of the wheel, each of
however, has been in part superseded by which performs a distinct office the one :

the application of machines, the first of keeps in motion the spindle, which twists
which was invented by Edmund Cart- the thread; the other moves the fliers,
wright, of England, about the year 1790. which wind the thread upon a spool, as fast
lire fibres of flax are arranged, and freed as it is produced.
from tow, by drawing them through a Spinning was almost exclusively
12.
hatchel. performed in the modes just described,
8. Spinning . —The process of spinning until the year 1767, when Richard Hear-
consists in twisting the fibres into threads. greaves, of England, invented a machine
The most simple method by which this is for spinning cotton, which he called a
effected, is by means of the common spin- jenny. This consisted, at first, of eight
ning wheel. Of this well-known machine, spindles, moved by a common wheel, or
there are two kinds one of which is ap-
; cylinder, which was worked by hand.
plied to spinning wool, cotton, and tow, and The number of spindles was afterwards
the other to spinning flax. increased to eighty-four.
9. This operation is, in most cases, per- Richard Arkwright, also
13. In 1769,
formed by females, in the following man- an Englishman, invented the water spin-
ner. The roll of cotton, or wool, is attached ning frame. The essential and most im-
to the spindle, which is put in rapid motion portant feature of this invention, consists
by a band passing over it from the rim, or indrawing out the cotton, by causing it to
periphery, of the wheel. While the spin- pass between successive pairs of rollers,
44 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH.

which revolve with different velocities, axle. From these spools, the yarns are
and which act as substitutes for the thumb stretched,upon pegs, to the length of the
and fingers, as applied in common spinning. proposed web, and are carried round or
These rollers are combined with the spin- doubled a sufficient number of times to
dle and fliers of the common flax wheel. make it to the proper width. The same
14. Another machine was invented by object is more expeditiously by
effected,
Samuel Crompton, in 1779. It is called a winding the yarn spirally on a revolving
mule, because it combines the principles frame.
of the two preceding machines. It pro- 18. The next step consists in winding
duces finer yarn than either of them, and the warp on a cylindrical beam, which is
has nearly superseded the jenny. Before usually about ten inches in diameter. The
the cotton is submitted to the spinning threads, being put through a harness, com-
machine, it is prepared by several others, posed of moveable parts, called heddles,
by which it is carded, extended, and par- and also through a sley or reed, are fastened
tially twisted. on the other side to a round stick, from
15. In the manufactories, the fine short which three ropes extend to another cylin-
wools, used in the fabrication of broad- der, on which the cloth is wound as fast as
cloths, flannels, and a variety of other it is woven.

by machinery, and spun


cloths, are carded 19. The heddles are suspended from
on a slubbing or roving machine, and a cross-pieces, on the top of the loom, by
jenny, or mule, in both of which the spin- means of cords and pulleys and, during ;

dles are mounted on a carriage, which is the operation of weaving, are moved up
moved backwards in stretching and twist- and down, alternately, by the aid of trea-
ing the material, and forwards in winding dles. This reciprocal motion up and down

the thread upon the spindle. causes the web to open and, while in this
;

16. Worsted still continues to be spun, position, a shuttle, containing the woof,
in most cases, on the common spinning weft, or filling, on a quill or bobbin, is
wheel, as it can be done more perfectly in passed through from right to left, or from
this way, than by any other machine which left to right this being done as often as
;

has hitherto been invented. Several ma- the position of the warp is changed. The
chines have been constructed, which spin threads of the filling are beaten up by the
coarse threads of flax very well, and with reed, or sley, which is placed in the lay.
great rapidity ;
but the materials for fine 20. Weaving a business extensive in
is

linen fabrics are still spun on the ancient its application, being divided into almost
flax wheel. as many branches as there are woven
17. Weaving . —The first step prepara- fabrics. Plain cotton, linen, woollen, and
tory to weaving, is to form a warp, con- twilled cloths, silks, satins, carpets, &c.,
sisting of a number of threads, which are all woven some
in looms of kind, con-
extend through the whole piece. To pro- structed on the same general principles.
duce this parallel arrangement, the yarn is Power-looms, driven by water or steam,
wound upon which are afterwards
spools, are now generally introduced into the cot-
placed in a frame perpendicularly, by means ton and woollen manufactories, both in
of rods, on which they move as upon an Europe and in this country. One person
THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 45

can attend to two of these looms at the manufacture of cloth, constitutes a sepa-
same time, and each one will weave be- rate trade. The art is only applied to
tween twenty and forty yards in a day. stuffs composed of wool, or hair, as these
21. Dressing . —
Cotton fabrics, when the only possess the properties which render it
webs are taken from the loom, are covered applicable. The practicability of fulling
with an irregular nap, or down, formed by cloth, depends on a certain roughness of
the protruding ends of the fibres. From the fibres, which admits of motion in one
the finest cottons, removed, by
this is way, and retards it in another. This may
drawing them rapidly over an iron cylin- be more fully understood, by consulting the
der, kept constantly red-hot by a fire within. article on making hats.
The flame of coal-gas has recently been 26. The cloth, having been prepared by
applied, to effect the same object. a proper cleansing, is deposited in a strong
22. Common domestic fabrics are taken box, with a quantity of water and fuller’s
from the loom, and, without further pre- earth, or soap, and submitted to the action
paration, are folded up into pieces for sale. of the pestles ,
or stampers, which are
Finer articles are usually whitened and moved in a horizontal direction, backwards
calendered, before they pass from the hand and forwards, by means of appropriate
of the manufacturer. Stuffs of all kinds, machinery. This operation reduces the
made of vegetable fibres, are now whitened dimensions of the cloth, and greatly im-
by immersing them in a solution of oxy- proves the beauty and stability of the tex-
muriate of lime. Cotton and linen goods, ture. The cloth is afterwards dried in the
with a view of making them smooth and open air, on frames prepared for the pur-
glossy, are calendered by causing them to pose.
pass between two steel rollers. 27. After the cloth has been dyed, a
23. Many of the fine cottons are con- nap is raised on one side of
it, by means

verted into calicoes, by transferring to them of the common teazle. The nap is next
various colours. The process by which cut off to an even surface. This was for-
this is done, is called calico-printing, which merly done with a huge pair of shears;
will be described in a separate article. but, within a few years, it has most com-
24. The texture of the fabrics made of monly been effected by a machine, the
worsted, or long wool, is completed, when essential part of which is a spiral blade,
issued from the loom. The pieces are that revolves in contact with another
subsequently dyed, and then pressed be- blade, while the cloth is stretched over a
tween heated metallic surfaces, to com- bed, or support, just near enough for the
municate to them the required
gloss. But projecting filaments to be cut off at a uni-
weaving does not always complete the form length, without injuring the main
texture of the stuffs made of the short texture. Pressing and folding the cloth
wools. Whentaken from the loom, the complete the whole process.
web is too loose and open, to answer the 28. A great proportion of the woollen
purposes to which such cloths are usually fabrics worn in the United States, are
applied. It is, therefore,
submitted to manufactured in families, part of which is
another process, called fulling. sent to the clothiers to be dressed. Much
25. Fulling, in common with
almost cotton yarn, spun at the manufactories, is
every other operation pertaining to the purchased for domestic use : formerly, the
;

46 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH.

raw material was procured, and spun into continual increase in these divisions of
yarn on the big wheel. Coarse linens are, American enterprise.
also, extensively manufactured in families,
especially among the German population. THE SILK-WORM.
29. The manufacture of cloth, from 1. Silk is the production of a worm,

was introduced into Britain by the


wool, of the caterpillar species, which, in due
Romans, some time in the Augustan age. course, passes through several transforma-
At Winchester, they conducted the busi- tions, and, at length, becomes a butterfly,
ness on a scale sufficiently large to supply like others of the genus. It is produced
their army. After the Romans withdrew from an egg, and when about to die, or
from the island, in the fifth century, the rather again to change its form, spins for
art was comparatively neglected, and gra- itself an envelope, called a cocoon. The
dually declined until the reign of Edward worm then changes to a chrysalis, and,
III. This monarch invited into his do- after remaining in this state twenty days,
minions workmen from Flanders, in which the butterfly, or moth, comes out, forcing
country the manufacture had, for a long its way through the cocoon. The moths,
time, been in a flourishing condition. or butterflies, eat nothing ;
and die as soon
30. Shortly after the first immigration as they have provided for the propagation
of the Flemish manufacturers into Eng- of their species. Enough of these are suf-
land, an act was passed prohibiting the, fered to come to maturity, to provide a
wearing of cloths made in any other coun- sufficient stock of eggs. The rest are
try; and, in the time of Elizabeth, the killed, in a few days after they have spun
manufacture had become so extensive, that their task, either by heating them in an
the exportation of the raw material was oven, or by exposing them to the rays of
forbidden by law. the sun.
31. It is supposed that there are now in 2. The fibres are wound upon a reel.
Great Britain, thirty millions of sheep; To render this practicable, the cocoons are
whose annual produce of wool is worth, on put into water heated to a suitable tempe-
an average, about seven millions of pounds rature, which dissolves the gummy sub-
sterling : to this may be added, five mil- stance that holds the fibres together. A
lions of pounds weight from foreign coun- number of threads being detached, and
tries. This amount is increased in value, passed through a hole in an iron bar, form,
by manufacturing skill, to twenty or thirty by the aid of the remaining glutinous mat-
millions of pounds. Not less than three ter, one thread, which is wound upon a

millions of persons are supposed to be em- reel into skeins.

ployed branch of British industry.


in this 3. The raw silk, thus produced and pre-
32. Both the woollen and cotton manu- pared, is sold to the manufacturers, who
factures have arisen to great importance, twist and double the fibres variously, and

of late years, in the United States; and, finally form them into threads, for sewing
from the mechanical skill of our country- or weave them into a great variety of
men, the abundance of the raw material, fabrics, which are too well known to need
and the vast amount of water-power, there particular description here.
is every reason to anticipate a rapid and j
4. According to the ancients, the silk
THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 47

worm was originally a native of China, and nant at the rapacity of the silk-merchants,
the neighbouring parts of Asia, and had determined, if possible, to supply his people
there been domesticated for a long time from the insect itself.

before was known in Europe. For many


it 9. After many unsuccessful attempts,
years, after silk was sold among the nations he, at length, obtained a small quantity of
of the West, even the merchants were the eggs from India, by the assistance of
ignorant both of the manner and place of two Persian monks, who had contrived to
its production. conceal them in the hollow of their canes.
5. The Greeks became acquainted with The seeds of the mulberry tree, on the
silk, subsequently to the time of Alexander leaves of which the worm feeds, were also
the Great; and the Romans knew little procured at the same time, together with
of the article, until the reign of Augustus. instructions necessary for the management
Dresses composed entirely of this material, of the worms.
were seldom worn but the fabrics which
; 10. For six hundred years after the period
had been closely woven in the East, were just mentioned, the rearing of these worms
unravelled, and recomposed in a looser in Europe was confined to the Greek em-
texture, intermixed with linen or woollen pire ;
but, in the twelfth century, Roger,
yarn. king of Sicily, introduced it into that island,
6. The prodigal Heliogabalus is said to whence it gradually spread into Italy,
have been the first individual in the Roman Spain, France, and other European coun-
empire, who wore a robe of pure silk. It tries.

is also stated, that the Emperor Aurelian 11. The silk-worm was introduced into
refused his wife a garment of this descrip- England, by James the First; but it has
tion,on account of its exorbitant price. never succeeded well in that country, on
At that time, as well as at previous pe- account of the dampness and coldness' of
riods, it usually sold for its weight in gold. the climate. The manufacture of fabrics
7. A kind of gauze, originally made by from silk, however, there very exten-
is

the women on the island of Cos, was very sive; the raw material being obtained,
celebrated. It was dyed purple, with the chiefly, from Bengal, and Italy. In the
substance usually employed in communi- latter of these countries, in France, and
cating that colour in those days but this ;
other parts of Europe, as well as in Asia,
was done before it was woven, as in that the manufacture is also extensive.
state it was too frail to admit of the pro- 12. Some attention has been paid to the
cess. Habits made of this kind of stuff, rearing of silk- worms in the United States,
were denominated “ dresses of glass,” for and attempts have been made to introduce
the reason, that the body could be seen the manufacture of silks. The mulberry
through them. has been planted, in various parts of the
8. The Roman empire had been supplied Union; and it, is highly probable that, in a
with silk through the medium of the Per- few years, we shall be able to obtain ex-
sians, until the time of Justinian, in the year cellent silks, without sending for them to
555. This emperor, having become indig- [
foreign countries.
'

THE DYER, AND THE CALICO-PRINTER.

THE DYER. I
on those of silk, are removed by some kind
1. The dyeing consists in im-
art of of alkali. Their natural colour is, also,
pregnating flexible fibres with any colonr discharged by the fumes of sulphur. The
which may be desired, in such a manner resinous matter, and natural colour of cot-
that it will remain permanent, under the ton and linen, are removed by bleaching.
common exposures to which it may be 4. The materials used in dyeing are
liable. divided into two —substantive and
classes
2. Theunion of the colouring matter adjective. The former communicates du-
with the fibres receiving the dye, is purely ;
rable tints, without the aid of any other
chemical, and not mechanical, as in the substance previously applied ;
the latter
case of the application of paints. Wool j
requires the intervention of some agent
has the greatest attraction for colouring which possesses an attraction, both for the
substances; silk comes next to it; then colouring matter and the stuff to be dyed,
cotton; and, lastly, hemp and flax. These in order to make the colour permanent.
materials, also, absorb dye-stuffs, in differ- I
The substances used for this purpose, are
ent proportions. usually termed mordants.
3. Previously to the application of the 5. Agents capable of acting, in some
dye, the greasy substance which covers way, as mordants, are very numerous but ;

the fibres of wool, and the gluey matter i


alumina alum, the sulphate, or acetate of
,
THE DYER. 49

iron, the muriate of tin, and nutgalls, are themselves to certain colours, such as scar-
principally employed. The mordant not letand blue. The principal profits of the
only fixes the colour, but, in many cases, dyer, when unconnected with manufactur-
alters and improves the tints. It is always ing establishments, arise from dyeing gar-
dissolved in water, in which the stuffs are ments, or stuffs, which have been partly
immersed, previously to the application of worn.
the dye. Dyeing substances are also very 10. The origin of the art of dyeing is
numerous but a few of the most import-
; involved in great obscurity, as the ancients
ant have, in practice, taken precedence of have not furnished even a fable, which
the others. might guide us in our researches. It is
6. Blue, red, yellow, and black, are the evident, however, that the art must have
chief colours, for which appropriate colour- made considerable progress, long before
ing substances are applied but, by a judi- ; authentic history begins. Moses speaks
cious combination of these same materials, of stuffs dyed blue, purple, and scarlet,
and by a proper application of mordants, and of sheep-skins dyed red. The know-
intermediate hues of every shade are pro- ledge of the preparation of these colours,
duced thus, a green is communicated by
:
implies an advanced state of the art at
forming a blue ground of indigo, and then that early period.
adding a yellow, by means of quercitron 11. Purple was the favourite colour of
bark. the ancients, and appears to have been the
7. The blue dye is made of indigo the ; first which was brought to a state of tole-
red dye, of madder, cochineal, archil, Bra- rable perfection. The discovery of the
zil-wood, or safflowers ;
the yellow dye, of mode of communicating it, is stated to
quercitron bark, turmeric, hickory, weld, have been accidental. A shepherd’s dog,
fustic, or saffron; the black dye, of the while on the- sea-shore, incited by hunger,
oxide of iron, combined with logwood, or broke a shell, the contents of which Stained
the bark of the common red, or soft maple, his mouth with a beautiful purple; and
with the sulphate, or acetate of iron. The the circumstance suggested the application
dyes made of some of these substances re- of the shell-fish as a colouring substance.
quire the aid of mordants, and those from This discovery is thought to have been
others do not. made about fifteen hundred years before
8. In communicating the intermediate the advent of Christ.
hues, the different dye-stuffs forming the 12. The Jews esteemed this colour so
leading colours are sometimes mixed and, ;
highly, that they consecrated it especially
at other times, they are made into sepa- to the service of the Deity, using it in
rate dyes, and applied in succession. stuffs for decorating the tabernacle, and
9. In this country, the business of the for the sacred vestments of the high-priests.
dyer isoften united with that of the clo- The Babylonians, and other idolatrous na-
thier but where the amount of business
; tions, clothed their idols in habits of pur-
will justify it, as in manufactories, and in ple, and even supposed this colour capable
cities or large towns, it is a separate busi- of appeasing the wrath of the gods.
ness. The dyers sometimes confine their 13. Among the heathen nations of anti-
attention to particular branches : some dye quity, purple was appropriated to the use
wool only, or silk, while others confine of kings and princes, while their subjects
7
;

50 THE CALICO-PRINTER,

were debarred the use of this favourite principally by means of the intercourse
colour. In Rome, at a later period, purple arising from the Crusades.
habits were worn by the chief officers of 18. Although indigo seems to have been
the republic, and, at length, by the opu- known to the ancient Greeks and Romans,

lent, until the emperors reserved to them- yet it does not appear to have been used
selves the exclusive privilege. for dyeing. The first that was applied to
14. There were several hinds of shell- this purpose in Europe, was brought from
fish, from which this colouring substance India by the Dutch; but its general use
was obtained, each of which communicated was not established, without much opposi-
a shade somewhat different from the others. tion from interested individuals. It was
The kind collected near Tyre was the best ;
strictly prohibited in England, in the reign
and hence the Tyrian purple acquired es- of Elizabeth ;
and, about the same time, in
pecial celebrity. So highly was it esteem- Saxony. Many valuable acquisitions w ereT

ed by the Romans, in the time of Augustus, made to the materials employed in this
that wool imbued with this colour was sold art, on the discovery of America ;
among
for one thousand denarii per pound, which, which may be enumerated, cochineal, log-
in our currency, amounts to one hundred wood, Brazil-wood, and nicaragua, together
and sixty-eight dollars. with the soft maple and quercitron barks.
15. After all, the boasted purple of anti- 19. The first book on the art of dyeing

quity supposed to have been a very


is was published in 1429. This, of course,
inferior dye, when compared with many remained in manuscript, as the art of
which we now possess; and this is only printing had not then been discovered an :

one among many instances wherein mo- edition was printed in 1510. The authors
dern science has given us a decided supe- to whom the world is most indebted for

riority over the ancients. correct information on this subject, are

16. The colour second in repute with the Dufuy, Hallet, Macquir, and Berfhollet,
people of antiquity, was scarlet. This of France and Henry, and Bancroft, of
;

colour was communicated by means of an England ;



all of whom wrote in the eigh-

insect called coccus, and which is now de- teenth, century.

nominated kermes. Besides the various


hues of purple and scarlet, several others THE CALICO-PRINTER.
were in some degree of favour; such as 1. Calico-printing a combination of
is

green, orange, and blue. The use of ve- the arts of dyeing, engraving, and printing,
getable dyes appears to have been but wherewith is produced a great variety of
little known to the Romans but the Gauls
;
figures, both in regard to form and colour-
had the knowledge of imparting various ing. This art is applicable to woven fa-
colours, even the purple and scarlet, with brics, and chiefly to those of which the
the juice of certain herbs. material is cotton.

17. The irruption of the northern bar- 2. The first object, after preparing the :

barians into the Roman empire, destroyed stuffs, as in dyeing, is to apply a mordant \

this, with the rest of the arts of civiliza- to those parts of the piece which are to :

tion, in the western parts of Europe but, ;


receive the colour. This is now usually <

having been preserved, more or less, in the done by means of a steel or copper cylin- >

East, it was again revived in the West, der, on which have been engraved the j
THE CALICO-PRINTER. 51

proposed figures, as on plates for copper- 7. Calico-printing, so far as chemical


plate-printing, affinities are concerned, is the same with
3. During the printing, the cylinder, in dyeing. The difference consists, chiefly,
one part of its revolution, becomes charged in the mode of applying the materials, so
with -the mordant, the superfluous part of as to communicate the desired tints and
which is scraped off by a straight steel figures. The dye-stuffs most commonly
edge, leaving only the portion which fills employed by calico-printers, are indigo,
the lines of the figures. As the cylinder madder, and quercitron bark by a dexter- :

revolves, the cloth comes into forcible con- ous application of these, and the mordants,
tact with it, and receives the complete a great variety of colours can be produced.
impression of the figures, in the pale colour Indigo, being a substantive colour, does
of the mordant. not require the aid of mordants, but, like
4. The cloth, after having been washed them, when other dyes are used, is applied
and dried, is passed through the colouring directly to the cloth, sometimes by the en-
bath, inwhich the parts previously printed graved cylinder or block, and at others
become permanently dyed with the intend- with the pencil, by hand.
ed colour. Although the whole piece re- 8. Calico-printing was practised in India,
ceives the dye, yet, by washing the cloth, twenty-two centuries ago, when Alexander
and bleaching it on the grass in the open the Great visited that country with his vic-
air, the colour is discharged from those torious army. The operation was then per-
parts not impregnated with the mordant. formed with a pencil this method is still
:

5. By the use of different mordants, suc- used in the East, to the exclusion of every
cessively applied, and a single dye, several other. The art was also practised in Egypt,
colours are often communicated to the in Pliny’s time.
same piece of cloth: thus, if stripes are 9. Calicoes were first brought to Eng-
first made with the acetate of alumina, land in the year 1631. They derive their
and then others with the acetate of iron, a name from the city of Calicut, whence
colouring bath of madder will produce red they were exported to Europe. This
first

and brown stripes. The same mordants, branch of business was introduced into
with a dye of quercitron bark, give yellow London, in the year 1676. Since that
and olive, or drab, time, it has been encouraged by several

6. Sometimes, the second mordant is ap- acts of parliament; but it never became
plied by means of engravings, on wooden extensive in England, until the introduc-
blocks. Cuts designed for this purpose, tion of the machinery for spinning cotton.
are engraved on the side of the grain, supposed, that the amount of cottons
It is
and not on the end, like those for printing annually printed in the United States, can-
books. not be less than twenty millions of yards.
THE HATTER.
1. The business, peculiar to the hatter, the fur, iscut from it with one of a circu-
consists in making hats from the fur or lar form, such as the saddlers and harness-
hair of animals, by the process called felt- makers use in cutting leather.
ing. The hair of animals is the only ma- 3. In the application of the materials,
terial, which can be firmly matted together the first object of the hatter is to make the
in this way ;
yet, that of every animal is body. In the common three, four, and five
not suitable for this purpose. The fur of dollar hats, the body is composed of the
the beaver, the otter, the seal, the musk- wool of the sheep ;
but in those of greater
rat, the rabbit, the hare, the coney, and the value, it is usually made of the wool of the
nutria, together with the wool of the lama, lama, and different kinds of cheap furs.
sheep, and camel, are employed, to the In describing the process of making hats,
exclusion of almost every other. one of the latter kind will be selected.
2. The skin of all animals having fur, 4. A sufficient quantity of the materials
is covered with two kinds of hair ;
the one, for the body, is weighed out, and divided
long and coarse ;
the other, short, fine, and into two equal parts. One of these is

thickly set. The coarse hair is pulled out placed on a table, or, as the hatters call it,

from the skin, by the aid of a shoe-knife, a hurl. The individual hairs composing
and thrown away, while the fine, which is this portion are separated, and lightly and
THE HATTER. 53

regularly spread out into a proper form, by hurl, like the conical cap first described.
the vibrations of a bow-string, which is In applying the nap to the body, the latter
plucked with a wooden pin. is wet with hot water, and flakes of the
5. The fur is then carefully compressed former are matted down upon it, by work-
with a flat piece of wicker-work, denomi- ing it, on the planks, around the kettle.
nated a hatter’s basket, and covered with After three layers have been put on in this
a damp piece of linen which it is
cloth, in way, the cap is beaten, while wet, with
afterwards folded, pressed, and worked with sticks, to raise the nap, and then drawn
the hands, until, it becomes matted together over a cylindrical block, which gives it the
into a bat. This bat is next folded over a general form of a hat.
triangular piece of paper, and formed into 10. The nap having been raised with a
a conical cap. card, it is prepared to be coloured. The
6. When another bat has been made in dye is made, chiefly, of the extract of log-
the same way, from the other half of the wood, copperas, and verdigris. The hats,
materials, the two are put together to form to the number of forty-eight, or more, are
one, which is then worked in the damp hung upon a wheel, by means of pegs,
cloth as before, until it is much contracted which pass through the centre of the
and matted together. After this, having blocks. This wheel can be turned, so as
been conveyed to another room, it is rolled to keep one half of the hats alternately in
in a woollen cloth, pressed, rubbed, and the dye. After having been properly co-
worked with the hands and a rolling-pin, loured, they are taken from the blocks,
around a kettle of hot water, into which washed, and dried.
it is often plunged during the operation. The hat is now prepared for the
11.
This is called planking . finisher who first whips up the nap with
,

7. In this way, the materials are conso- a ratan, and, after having rendered it plia-
lidated into felt, and the body contracted ble with steam, draws it over the finishing
to the proper size. The reason why the block. The composing the nap are
fibres
process just described produces this effect, properly disposed with a card and brush,
may be found in the nature of the fibres and rendered smooth and glossy by means
themselves. Upon a close examination, it of a hot iron. The superfluous part of the
will be observed that these are covered rim is cut off with a blade, placed in a
with little scales or beards, which admit of gauge. The hat is finished by adding suit-
motion in one direction, but retard it in the able trimmings, the nature of which, and
other. This peculiar formation causes the mode of application, can be easily
them to interlock in such a way, that they learned, by examining different kinds of
become closely matted together. hats.
8. When the body has been dried, and Hats of various colours have been
12.
shaved on the knee with a sharp knife, to worn; but those most in use are black,
free it from projecting filaments, it is stif- white, and drab. The white hats, which
fened with gum-shellac dissolved in alco- are intended only for ladies and children,
hol, and then steamed in a box, to cause have a nap of rabbits’ fur, selected from
the stiffening to set. It is now prepared the white skins. Drab hats are also made
for being napped. of stuffs of the natural colour, assorted for
9. The fur for the nap is prepared on the that purpose.
|
^9
54 THE HATTER.

13. The value of hats depends, of course, bouring nations, borrowed the turban from
upon the workmanship, and the cost of the the Persians ;
they
but, at a later period,
materials used in the manufacture. So very commonly adopted the cap which the
great is the difference in these respects, Romans were accustomed to give to their
that their price ranges between seventy- slaves, on their manumission.
five cents and The woollen
fifteen dollars. 19. The ancient helmet, made of steel,
bodies, used by hatters, are now often brass,and sometimes of more costly mate-
procured from persons who devote their rials, was worn as a piece of defensive
attention exclusively to that part of the armour in war, instead of the ordinary
business. coverings, used while engaged in peaceful
14. Woollen cloths have been made in occupations.
England, by the process of felting, without 20. Roman citizens went bare-headed,
spinning and weaving but, on trial, they
;
except upon occasions of sacred rites,
were found to be deficient in firmness and games, and festivals or, when engaged in
;

durability. travelling or war. They were accustomed,


15. Some kind of covering for the head, however, in the city, to throw over their
either for defence or ornament, appears head the lappet of their gown, as a screen
to have been usually worn, in all ages from the wind or sun. The people of
and countries, where the inhabitants have Scotland used to wear a kind of bonnet, as
made the least progress in the arts of in some parts of that country they do at

civilized life. the present time and the English, before


;

16. The form, substance, and colour of the invention of felt hats, covered the head
this article of dress, have been exceedingly with knit caps and cloth hoods, and some-
various in different ages, according to the times with hats made of thrummed silk.
circumstances, or humour, of the wearer. 21. The Chinese do not wear hats, but

The aneient Persians wore turbans, similar use a cap of a peculiar structure, which
to those of the modern Turks; and the the laws of civility will not allow them to
nations inhabiting the Indian Peninsula put off in public. The form and material
wore a kind of head-dress so large, that it of this is varied with the change of the
divested the person of all proportion. season. That used in summer is shaped
17. The imperial turban is said to have like a cone, is made of a beautiful kind of
been composed of a great many yards of mat, and lined with satin to this is added,
;

muslin, twisted and formed into a shape at the top, a large tuft of red silk, which

nearly oval, and surmounted with a woollen falls all round to the lower part of the

cap, encircled with a radiated crown. The cap, and which fluctuates gracefully on all
turban of the prime minister was smaller sides, while the wearer is in motion. The

in its dimensions, but of greater altitude. kind worn in winter is made of shaggy
The chief magi, on account of his superior cloth, bordered with some kind of fur, and

eminence, wore a higher turban than those ornamented in a similar manner.


of the monarch and minister united. Those 22. Head-dresses, from their variety, sim-
worn by the inferior magi, were regulated plicity, and mutability, were little regu-
by the dignity of the stations which they lated, in a commercial or manufacturing

held. point of view, until the introduction of felt


18. The Jewish people, and the neigh- hats, which has occasioned a uniformity in
THE HATTER. 55

this article of dress, unknown in former 26. When some of the clergy first adopt-
ages. ed this article of dress, it was considered
23. Curiosity is naturally excited to be- an unwarrantable indulgence: councils
come acquainted with the particulars of were held, and regulations published, for-
their invention, and the subsequent stages bidding any priest, or monk, to appear
!of improvement in the manufacture. But abroad, wearing a hat and enjoining
;

the operation of individual interest, so them to keep to the use of chaperons, or


generally connected with the useful arts, hoods, made of black cloth, with decent
seems have concealed the whole in ob-
to cornets ;
if they were poor, they were, at
scurity and little information on the sub-
;
have cornets fastened to their hats,
least to
ject, can now be obtained. upon penalty of suspension and excommu-
24. The hatters have a tradition, that nication.
the art of felting originated with St. Cle- 27. At length, however, the pope per-
ment, the fourth bishop of Rome. Under mitted even the cardinals to wear hats;
this impression, in Catholic countries, they but enjoined them to wear those of a red
adopt him as their patron saint, and hold colour, at public ceremonials, in token that
an annual festival in his honour. The they were ready to spill their blood for
principle of felting is said to have been their religion.
suggested to his mind, by the following 28. In England, considerable opposition
circumstance : while fleeing from his per- was made to the use of the hat. By a
secutors, his feet became blistered, and, statute,enacted in the thirteenth year of
to obtain relief, he placed wool between the reign of Elizabeth, every person be-
them and his sandals. On continuing his tween certain ages was obliged, on Sun-
journey, the wool, by the perspiration, mo- days and holidays, to wear a woollen cap,
tion,and pressure of the feet, assumed a made by some of the cappers of that king-
compact form. dom, under the penalty of three shillings!
25. Notwithstanding this tradition, it and four-pence for every day’s neglect.
appears that felt hats were invented at This law continued in force, for about
Paris, by a Swiss, about the commence- twenty-five years. The manufacture of
ment of the fifteenth century; but they hats was commenced, in England, in the
were not generally known, until Charles time of Henry the Eighth, by Dutchmen
the Seventh made his triumphal entry into and Spaniards.
Rouen, in the year 1492; when he as- 29. Hats made of plaited straw, grass,
tonished the people, by wearing a hat, lined or chip, are much used in the summer;
with red silk, and surmounted with a plume and caps, of cloth or fur, are now frequently
of feathers. substituted for hats, in cold weather.
THE ROPE-MAKER.
1. Ropes may be made of any vegetable mile in length. These are usually cover-
substance, which has a fibre sufficiently ed with a slight shed, the nature and ap-
flexible The Chinese, and
and tenacious. pearance of which are well exhibited in
other orientals, in making ropes, use the the preceding picture.
ligneous parts of certain bamboos and 3. The first part of the process consists
reeds, the fibrous covering of the cocoa- in spinning the material into yarn. The
nut, the filaments of the cotton pod, and principle onwhich this is effected, is the
the leaves of certain grasses ;
but the bark same as that by which cotton or wool is
of plants and trees, is the most productive drawn out and twisted into threads, al-
of fibrous matter suitable to this manufac- though the machinery, and the mode of
ture. That of the linden-tree, the willow, operating, are different.
and the bramble, is frequently used. In 4. The kind of wheel employed in spin-
Europe and America, however, the fibres ning rope-yarn, is also exhibited in the
of hemp and flax are more frequently em- cut. A band passes around the periphery,
ployed, for this purpose, than any other and over the semicircle above it, in which
material. is placed a number of wheels, the pivots
2. The operations of rope-making are of which terminate, on the other side, in
commonly performed in rope-tvalks, which small hooks.
are sometimes more than a quarter of a 5. The spinner, having a quantity of the
:

THE ROPE-MAKER. 57

material properly disposed about the waist, yarns. A further twisting of the strands,
attaches a number of fibres to one of the during this part of the process, is prevent-
hooks, which, being put in motion by the ed by the motion of the loper, which gives
band passing over the whirl, twists them way to the strain, and, at the same time,
rapidly into yarn the part already twisted
: causes the strands to entwine about each
draws along with it more fibres from the other,and form a cord. To prevent them
bundle, and, as the spinner is regulating from entwining too rapidly, an instrument
their uniform arrangement, he walks back- is interposed, which, from its form, is called
ward towards the other end of the walk. the top it has two or more notches, which
6. When the thread has been spun to terminate at the apex, and a handle called
the proposed length, the spinner cries out a staff. As the top is moved from the loper
to another, who immediately takes it off to the wheel, it regulates the degree of
from the hook, gives it to a third person, twist which the cord or rope is to receive.
and, in turn, attaches his own fibres to the 10. The principle on which large cord-
same hook. In the meantime, the first age is laid, or closed, is the same, although
spinner keeps fast hold of the end of his some part of the machinery is different.
yarn, to prevent it from untwisting or The strands for large ropes and cables are
doubling ; and as it is wound on the reel, formed of many yarns, and require con-
he proceeds up the walk, keeping the yarn siderable hardening. This cannot be done
of an equal tension throughout. with whirls driven by a wheel-band it :

7. The second part of the process con- requires the power of a crank, turned by
sists in forming the yarn into various kinds hand, or by some other considerable force.
of ropes. The component parts of cord- The strands, also, when properly hardened,
age, are called strands and the operation
;
become very stiff, and, when bent round
of uniting them with a permanent twist, is the top, cannot transmit force enough to
called laying when applied to small ropes,
,
close the unpliant rope: it is, therefore,
and closing when applied to cables or
,
necessary that the loper, also, be moved by
other large ropes. a crank.
8. The simplest twist is formed of two 11. Cordage, which is to be exposed to
strands. The thread used by sail-makers, the alternate action of air and water, is

and pack-thread, furnish examples of this usually tarred. The application of this
kind but cordage, with two strands, is not
: substance is made, in most cases, while
much used ; that with three, is the most the material is in a state of yarn. In ef-
usual. Lines and cords less than one and fecting this object, the threads are drawn
a half inches in circumference, are laid by through boiling tar, and then passed be-
means of the spinning-wheel. Prepara- tween rollers, or through holes surround-
tory to this operation, the workman fastens ed with oakum, to remove the superfluous
the hither end of the yarns to separate tar. In like manner, ropes and cables are
whirl-hooks, and the remote ends to the superficially tarred.
hook of a swivel, called the loper. Various improvements have been
12.
9. The strands having been properly made, in the machinery for performing the
distended, the spinning-wheel is turned in different operations of rope-making; but,

the same direction as when twisting the these not having been generally adopted,
8
;

58 THE ROPE-MAKER.

it isunnecessary to notice them more par- than a bed-cord. The formation of cloth!

ticularly especially, as they do not affect


;
from hemp, is also very common ;
and ini

the general principles of the art. the yarn for the coarse cloths is
this case,
13. Within a few years, cotton-yarn has spun on the rope-maker’s wheel, in the
been employed in the manufacture of ropes; manner already described. The cloth is

but this material has not yet been suffi- generally used for making bags, sacking
ciently tested, to determine its fitness for bottoms for beds, and sails for vessels.
the purpose. A kind of vegetable fibre 16. Rope-making is a manufacture or
brought from Manilla, and hence called general utility, as cordage of some kind is

Manilla hemp, is very extensively applied used more or less in every family in all

in making ropes, and, for some purposes, is civilizedcommunities nor are there many
:

preferred to other materials. trades capable of being carried on, with


14. The intestines of animals are com- convenience, without it. But the great
fibres, and those of
posed of very powerful utility of cordage, in all its varieties, is most
sheep and lambs are manufactured into conspicuous in the rigging and equipment
what is called cat-gut, for the use of mu- of vessels and the extensive demand for
;

sical instrument-makers, hatters, watch- it, rope-making


in this application, renders
makers, and a variety of other artificers. one of the most important and extensive
Animal hair, as that from the tail and of the primitive trades.
mane of horses, is frequently employed 17. Nor does the utility of cordage end
as the material for ropes; and such are with its application to the purposes for
durable, elastic, and impervious to moisture. which it was originally designed. Old
They, however, are not applicable in cases ropes are converted into oakum, by un-
where the rope is subject to considerable twisting and picking them to pieces. The
friction. oakum thus produced is driven into the
15. Hemp is cultivated in various parts seams of vessels, to render them water-
of the world, and especially in Russia, tight.
whence it is exported to other countries in 18. As regards the invention of this art,
great quantities. It is also produced, to a nothing can be gathered from ancient re-
considerable extent, in the state of Ken- cords. We
only know, in general, that
tucky, and many other parts of the United cordage was in considerable use among
States. Flax is still more generally culti- the nations of antiquity, especially among
vated, than hemp ;
but its chief application the Greeks and Romans, who probably
is to the manufacture of cloth, as it does learned its application to rigging vessels
not answer well for any cordage larger I from the Phoenicians.
:

THE TAILOR. 4.

1. The business of the tailor consists, with a large pair of shears. This is per-
principally, in cutting out, and making formed, either by the individual who car-
'clothes for men and boys ;
together with ries on the business, or by a foreman. The
habits and cloaks, for ladies. It is usual parts are sewed together, and the trim-
for persons who
carry on this business, in ming applied, by means of thread and silk
cities and large towns, to keep a stock of this is commonly done by those who devote

cloths and other stuffs adapted to the sea- their attention to this branch of the trade.
son, which they make up into garments, to It sometimes happens, however, that the

the order of customers. In such cases, they same person performs the whole of the
are termed merchant tailors. work: this is particularly the case in

2. The operation, preparatory to cutting country places, where the business is very
out the cloth for a garment, is that of limited in extent.
taking the measure of the person for whom Females often serve an apprenticeship
it is designed. This is done with a nar- to this business. Many of them learn to
row strip of paper, or parchment, and the cut out, and make with skill, certain kinds
dimensions are either marked on the mea- of garments ;
and are afterwards employed
sure with the scissors, or entered in a pat- in families, or by the tailors. Most of the
tern-book kept for the purpose. ready-made clothing, kept for sale in cities,

3. The cloth is cut to the proper shape, is made up by females.


;

BO THE TAILOR

5. The instruments employed in per- 9. We have no means of determining


forming the operations of the tailor, are at what period of the world this art was
few and simple : the principal of these are first practised, as a particular professions
the shears, the scissors, the needle, the We know, in general, that the dress of;
thimble, the bodkin, the goose, and the the ancients was usually more simple in
press-board. its construction, than that of the people of
6. The great art of a master-tailor con- modern times; and, consequently, it re-i

sists in fitting the dress to his customer, in quired less skill to put the materials in the;

such a manner as to conceal any defect of required form. It may, therefore, be in-i

form, and display his person to the best ferred, that either the females or the slaves
advantage. He should, therefore, be a of each family usually made up the clothing
good judge of the human figure as from ;
of all its members.
this knowledge arises, chiefly, the supe- 10. The distinguishing dress of the Rm<
riority of one workman over another, in mans was the toga, or gown ;
as that of;

this branch of the business. the Greeks was the pallium, or cloak. The
7. The first hint on the art of clothing toga was a loose woollen robe, and covered
the human body, was given to man by the nearly the whole person: it was round:
Deity himself; for we read in the Scrip- and close at the bottom, and open at the
tures, that “ Unto Adam and to his wife top, having no sleeves, but only a large
the Lord God made coats of skins, and flap, or lappet, which was either thrown

clothed them.” From that time to the over the left shoulder, or over the head;
present, the art of cutting out garments, to protect it from the heat or cold.
and of sewing their different parts together, 11. The Romans, an early period of:
at
has been practised, more or less, in every their history, used no other dress, and il
place, where there has been any degree of was also, at that time, worn by the women.
civilization. Afterwards, they wore, under the toga, a
8. For a long time, it is probable that white woollen vest called tunica, which
thongs and the sinews of animals were extended a little below the knee at first :

used, for want of thread made of silk or it was without sleeves. Tunics reaching
vegetable fibre ;
and, doubtless, the same to the ancles, or having sleeves, were
necessity caused the substitution of pointed reckoned effeminate; but under the em-i
bones and thorns, instead of needles. Such perors, they became fashionable.
rude materials and instruments are still 12. The toga was usually assumed at

employed for similar purposes, by savage the age of seventeen. Until then, the
nations. The dresses of the people of youth wore a. kind of gown, bordered with
Greenland are sewed together with thongs purple, denominated toga prcctexta; and
made of the intestines of the seal, or of such a garment was also worn by females;
some fish, which they have the address, to until they were married. The youthful
cut fine, after having dried them in the dresswas laid aside, and the toga virilis, or
air; and even the inhabitants of Peru, al- manly toga, assumed with great solemnity
though considerably advanced in civiliza- as, by this act, the individual assumed

tion, when that country was first visited by the responsibility of a citizen. The toga:

the Spaniards, made use of long thorns, in was worn chiefly in the city, and only by:
sewing and fixing their clothes. Roman citizens.
THE MILLINER, AND THE LADY’S DRESS-MAKER.

THE MILLINER. 3. Ladies’ hats are also made of rye


1. The milliner is one who manufac- straw, and a kind of grass, which grows in
tures and repairs bonnets and hats, for la- Italy: those made of the latter material
dies and children. Her business requires are called Leghorns, from the name of
the use of pasteboard, wire, millinette, the city, in or near which they are princi-
silks, satins, muslins, ribands, artificial pally made. A few years since, these had
flowers, spangles, and other materials, too almost superseded those made of straw
numerous to be mentioned. but the latter, of late, have nearly regain-
2. The first part of the process of making ed their former ascendency.
a hat, or bonnet, consists in forming a 4. In the United States, and likewise in
crown of millinette; which operation is various parts of Europe, there are several
performed on a block, of a suitable size and establishments for making straw hats, in
shape: and to this is applied pasteboard, which the proprietors employ females to
or millinette, edged with wire. The foun- perform the whole labour. The straw is
dation having been thus laid, it is usually first cut into several pieces, so
as to leave
covered and lined with some of the mate- out the joints, and then whitened by
rials just enumerated, and finished by ap-
smoking them with the fumes of brim-
plying to it the trimmings required by the
stone. They are next split longitudinally
fashion, or by the individual customer.
into several pieces, by a simple machine.
; : :
;

62 THE LADY’S DRESS-MAKER.

and afterwards plaited with the fingers pared with those of several periods in pre-
and thumbs. The braid, or plait, thus ceding ages.
produced, is formed into hats, according
to the prevailing fashion.
5. Great quantities of straw are, also, THE LADY’S DRESS-MAKER.
plaited in families, especially in the NeW- 1. This business is nearly allied to the
England and sold to neighbouring
states, foregoing, and is, therefore, often carried
merchants, who, in turn, dispose of it to on in conjunction with it. This is espe-
those who form it into hats. The milli- cially the case, in villages and small towns,
ners usually keep a supply of Leghorn and where sufficient business cannot be obtain-
straw hats, which they line and trim ac- ed in the exclusive pursuit of one branch.
cording to the fancy of their customers. 2. The customers of the lady’s dress-
6. Head-dresses were probably used maker, are not always easily pleased, as
nearly as early as any other part of dress they frequently expect more from her skill
and their form and material have likewise than it is possible to accomplish. She,
been equally variable. In the early days however, can do much towards concealing
of Rome, the head-dress of the women of the defects of nature ; and, by padding and
that city was very simple ;
and when they other means, can sometimes render the
went abroad,which was seldom, they co- person tolerably well proportioned, when,
vered their faces with a veil; but when in its natural shape, it would be quite inele-
riches and luxury had increased, dress gant. It is to be regretted, however, that
became, with many, the principal object dress-makers are guided by fashion and
of attention hence, a woman’s toilet and
;
whim, in moulding the external form of
ornaments were called her world. females, rather than by the best specimens
7. The head-dresses of the ladies, in of the human figure, as exhibited by emi-
various parts of Europe, especially in the nent painters and sculptors.
eighteenth century, were particularly ex- 3. The dress-maker should have some

travagant; being sometimes so high, that , acquaintance with the anatomy and func-
the face seemed to be nearly in the centre tions of those parts to which pressure is
of the body. In 1714, this fashion was at usually applied : for, whothat knows the
its height, in France; but two English structure, size, and office of the liver, and
ladies, visiting the court of Versailles, in- other internal organs of digestion and vi-
troduced the low head-dresses of their own tality, would venture to apply to them a
country. compressive force, calculated to interfere
8. The high head-dresses had no sooner most seriously, if not dangerously, with:
fallen into disuse in France, than they their healthful action!

were adopted in England, and even carried 4. The fashions for ladies’ dresses are:
to a greater degree of extravagance. To chiefly procured from France, and the:
build one of these elevated structures in dress-makers from that country are, there-
the fashionable style, both the barber and by fashionable ladies
fore, often preferred

milliner were necessary. The head-dresses sometimes, however, a dress-maker, having


of the ladies of the present age, are cha- a name with a French termination, will
racterized by great simplicity, when com- answer the purpose.
1. It is the business of the barber to cut Before this time, however, many of the
and dress the hair, to make wigs and false Greeks shaved their beards.
curls, and
to shave the beards of other 3. The
practice does not appear to have
men. In ancient times, he used also to been introduced amongst the ancient Ro-
trim the nails; and even at the present mans, until about the year 296 before
day, in Turkey, this is a part of his em- the Christian era, when Paulus Ticinius
ployment. Mssnas brought to Rome a number of bar-
2. The precise period when men began bers from Sicily. Scipio Africanus was
to shave their beards, is not certainly the first man who shaved his beard every
known. It appears that the practice was day.
common among the Israelites, in the time 4. At first, the barbers had no shops, but
of Moses; as that legislator has left on shaved their customers at the corners of
record a prohibitory law concerning it. the streets. After a while, they followed
They probably borrowed the custom from their vocation in shops, or shades and, at
;
the Egyptians. It is stated by Plutarch, this period, it was customary females to
for
that Alexander the Great ordered his men officiate in the various branches of the art.
to be shaved, that their enemies might not These places, however, were frequented
lay hold of their beards in time of battle. only by the poorer class of the people, as
;

64 THE BARBER.

opulent families generally kept slaves for 7. Among the European nations that
the performance of these duties. The day have been curious in whiskers, the Span-
on which a young Roman first cut off his iards have been particularly distinguished
beard, was celebrated by him and his and the loss of honour among them used
friends as one of peculiar interest; and to be punished by depriving the individual
this much-desired indication of manhood of his whiskers.
was consecrated to some one of the gods, 8. The Portuguese were but little, if at
generally to Jupiter Capitolinus. all,behind the Spaniards, in their estimate
5. The return of barbarism, in the fifth of these valuable ornaments. As an evi-
and sixth centuries, banished this custom dence of this, it is stated, that in the reign
from the western empire of Rome; nor of Catharine, Queen of Portugal, the brave
was it again revived until the seventeenth John de Castro, having taken the castle of
century. During the reigns of Louis XIII. Diu in India, and being afterwards in
and Louis XIV. of France, both of whom want of money, applied to the inhabitants
ascended the throne in boyhood, the cour- of Goa to loan him one thousand piastres,
tiers and fashionable people began to use and, as security for that sum, sent them
the razor, that they might appear with one of his whiskers, telling them that,
smooth chins, and thus resemble, in this “ All the gold in the world cannot equal

particular, the youthful monarchs. From the value of this natural ornament of my
France, the fashion, at length, spread all valour.” The people, in admiration of his
over Europe. At one time, in the reign of magnanimity, sent him the money, and, at
the English queen Elizabeth, the fellows the same time, returned his incomparable
of Lincoln’s Inn were compelled by statute whisker.
to shave their beards at least once in two 9. In the reign of Louis XIII. of France,

weeks omission was punished with fine,


: whiskers attained the highest degree of
loss of commons, and finally with expul- favour. They also continued in fashion
sion. during the early part of the succeeding
6. The custom of shaving was intro- reign : Louis XIV. and the great men of
duced into Russia by Peter the Great, who France, took a pride in wearing them. It

compelled his subjects to pay a tax for was no uncommon thing, at that time, for
the privilege of retaining their beards. the ladies to comb and dress the whiskers
This singular impost was exceedingly un- of their beaux; and the men of fashion
popular, and excited greater complaints were particular in providing whisker-wax,
amongst the people, than any other mea- and every article necessary to this agreea-
sure of that emperor. The decree was ble pastime.
rigidly enforced, and every one who would 10. The whiskers of the Chinese phi-
not, or could not,pay the tax, was forcibly losopher Confucius, attached to his idol,

deprived of this favourite ornament, if he which is preserved by his countrymen, are


would not remove it voluntarily. Some supposed to be capable of conferring upon
of the people saved the sad trimmings of those who might wear them, a portion of
their chins; and, that they might never the wisdom and manly beauty of that illus-

be entirely separated from these precious trious sage. Great care, however, is taken
relics, ordered that they should be depo- that none shall enjoy these great personal
sited with their bodies in their coffins. qualifications, by such easy means ; as i
THE BARBER. 65

decapitation is the penalty for plucking trim their hair or beards. In grief and
the whiskers from the position which they mourning, the Romans suffered their hair
occupy. and beards to grow: the Greeks, on the
11. When the practice of shaving off contrary, when in grief, cut their hair and
the heard was again revived in Europe, shaved their beards, as likewise did some
instrumental music was employed in the of the barbarous nations of early time.
barber’s shop, to amuse customers waiting 15. Artificial hairbegan to be fashiona-
their turn ;
but at the present time, news- ble, at an early period and was used by
;

papers are furnished for this purpose. In the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans.
taking off the beard, soft water, good soap, In the time of Ovid, blond hair was in
a brush, and a sharp razor, are the usual great favour at Rome ;
and those ladies
requisites. The razor should be placed who did not choose to wear wigs, powdered
nearly on the face, and be moved from
fiat their hair with a kind of gold dust. They
point to heel. Barbers usually have many wore hanging curls all round the head, to
regular customers, each one of whom, in which they were fastened with circular
general, has a box of soap and a brush ap- pins *rf silver. Every wealthy Roman lady
propriated to his individual use. of fashion kept at least one slave, to frizzle
.

12. In ancient times, great attention and curl the hair.


was paid to dressing the hair. The He- 16. The time when wigs first came into
brew women plaited, and afterwards con- use, cannot be now ascertained. It is cer-
fined with gold and silver pins: they
it tain, however, that they were worn by
also adorned it with precious stones. The females a long time before they became
Greeks, both male and female, at nearly fashionable among the men.
every period of their ancient history, wore 17. Wigs, perukes, or periwigs, were
long hair, which they usually permitted to revived in the seventeenth century. In
hang gracefully upon the shoulders, back, the reign of Louis XIII., or about the year
and sometimes upon the breast. 1629, they became fashionable at Paris;
IB. Adult males, among the Romans, and, as that city was generally imitated by
usually wore their hair short, and dressed the rest of Europe, in things of this nature,
with great care, especially in later ages, they soon became common. The wigs
when attention to this part of the person were very large, as may be seen by ex-
was carried to such excess, that ointments amining ancient portraits, and were covered
and perfumes were used even in the army. with a profusion of hair-powder. At first,

The hair was cut for the first time, when


was disreputable for young people to
it

the boy had attained his seventh year, and wear them, as the loss of the hair, at an
the second time when he was fourteen early age, was attributed to a disease,
years old. His locks, at each cutting, which was, of itself, discreditable.
were commonly dedicated to Apollo or 18. When wigs were first introduced
Bacchus. into England, some of the clergy opposed
14 Both men and women, among the them violently, considering their use more
Greeks and Romans, sometimes permitted culpable than wearing long hair, since, as
their hair to grow in honour of some divi- they alleged, it was more unnatural.
nity. The Jews, also, when under the Many preachers inveighed against wigs
vow of a Nazarite, were not permitted to in their sermons, and cut their own hair
1

9 F2
;

66 THE BARBER.

shorter, to manifest their abhorrence of the wards boiling it in water. It is then dried,
reigning mode. and baked in an oven. Thus prepared, it
19. The worldly-wise, however, observed is woven on a strong thread, and is subse-

that a periwig procured for the wearer a quently sewn on a caul fitted to the head.
degree of respect and deference which False curls are made on the same principle.
otherwise might not have been accorded 22. Wigs and false curls were not made,
and hence there was a strong tendency to in ancient times, precisely in the same
the use of this appendage. The judges manner ;
although their appearance, when
and physicians, especially, understood well finished, was probably similar. The hair
this influence of the wig, and gave to it was then applied directly to a piece of
all the advantages of length and breadth. thin leather, by means of some adhesive
The fashion, at length, was adopted by the substance, or composition.
ecclesiastics themselves, not only in Eng- 23. Many barbers, especially those who
land, but in most of the European king- have a reputation for making wigs and
doms, as well as in the British colonies of false curls in a fashionable style, keep for
America. sale perfumery, as well as a variety of cos-
20. The fashion, however, except in metics.
cases of baldness, wherein alone it is ex- 24. From the eleventh to the eighteenth
cusable, is now nearly banished from Eu- century, surgical operations were almost
rope and America. This desirable change exclusively performed by the barbers and
was effected, principally, by the example bath-keepers. As phlebotomy was one of
of republican America, and by the influence the chief sources of profit to the barbers,
of the French Revolution. The law passed they adopted a sign, emblematical of this
in England in 1795, imposing a tax of a operation. of a pole, repre-
It consisted

guinea a head per annum on those who senting the staff which the individual held
wore hair-powder, contributed to the same in his hand, while the blood was flowing
result, as well as to diminish the use of from the arm. The white band wound
that article. spirally about the pole, represented the
21. The manufacture of wigs and false fillet of linen, with which the arm was
curls, is an important branch of the busi- afterwards secured.
ness of the barber. The first process in 25. It is hardly necessary to remark,
forming a wig, is to produce in the hair that the same sign employed by the
is still

about to be used for this purpose, a dispo- barbers, although, with a few exceptions,
sition to curl. This is done by winding it they have ceased to perform the operation
on a cylinder of wood or earth, and after- of which it was significant.
THE TANNER. into leather
4.
was practised in remote ages,
1. The art of tanning consists in con- yet it was not until near the end of the
verting hides and skins into leather, by eighteenth century, that the true principle
impregnating them with astringent matter. of the processwas understood. Before this
2. It is impossible to determine the pe- time, it was supposed that the astringent
riod at which the art of tanning was dis- principle of the agents employed was a
covered. It was doubtless known to the resinous substance, which adhered me-
ancients, and probably to the antediluvians, chanically to the fibres, and thus rendered
in some degree of perfection since skins
; them firm and insoluble. The correct ex-
were applied as means of clothing the hu- planation was first given by Deyeux, and
man body, before the arts of spinning and afterwards more fully developed by M.
weaving were practised. It is likely, how- Seguin. These chemists clearly proved,
ever, that they were applied to this pur- that the formation of leather was the result
pose, a considerable time, in their
for of a chemical union between a substance
natural state and that accident, at length,
;
called tannin, and the gelatinous part of
suggested the means of rendering them the skin.
more applicable, by saturating them with The however, was not tho-
subject,
certain mineral or vegetable substances. roughly understood, and reduced to scien-
3. Although the art of converting skins tific principles, until the year 1803, when
:

68 THE TANNER.

Sir Humphry Davy gave it a careful in- then scraped off, on a beam, with a circu-
vestigation, in a series of chemical experi- lar knife.
ments. These inquiries resulted in the Nothing' now remains but the cutis,
8.
conviction, that the method of tanning or true skin. Several hides, in this state
which had been in general use, may, with of preparation, are put together into a vat,
a few alterations, be considered preferable for the purpose of impregnating them with
to that by which the process is carried on tannin, This substance is found in as-
with more rapidity. tringent vegetables, and is obtained in a
5. The skin which envelopes the bodies proper state for application, by infusion in
of animals, consists of three layers: that water. In that condition, it is called ooze,
on the outside is a thin, white, elastic which is first applied in a weak state.
membrane, called the cuticle or scarf skin;
, After the ooze of different degrees of
9.

that on the inside is a strong membrane, strength has been renewed several times,
denominated the cutis, or true skin; be- they are put between layers of bark, and
tween these two is a very thin membrane, suffered to remain several months ;
fresh
to which anatomists have given the name bark, from time to time, being supplied.
rete mucosum, and in which is situated the The whole process generally occupies from
substance which gives colour to the ani- twelve to sixteen months. When strong
mal. The cutis is composed of fibres, solutions of tannin are used, the leather is
which run in every direction, and, being formed in a much shorter time; but, in
by far the thickest layer, is the one that is that case, it is much more rigid, and liable

converted into leather. to crack. rendered smooth and com-


It is
6. The skins of large animals, such as pact, by beating it with a wooden beetle,
those of the ox and horse, are denominated or by passing it between rollers.
hides and those of smaller animals, as of
;
10. Oak bark, on account of it3 cheap-
the calf, goat, and sheep, are called skins. ness, and the quantity of tannin which it
Of the former description, is made thick, contains, is more extensively employed
of the latter, thin leather. The process by tanners, than any other vegetaole sub-
of tanning different skins, varies in many stance. In sections of country where this
particulars, according to the nature of the kind cannot be conveniently obtained, the
leather, and the uses to which it is to be bark of the hemlock, spruce, and chestnut,
applied. the leaves of the sumach, and various other
7. The general process of changing astringents, are substituted.
thick hides into sole-leather, is as follows 11. The process of tanning calf-skins is

They are first soaked in water, to free somewhat different in many of its details.

them from dirt and blood; and then, if They are first put into a solution of lime,
they are beaten and rubbed, or rolled
rigid, where they remain during ten or fifteen
under a large stone, to render them pliable. days, and are then scraped on both sides,
They are next soaked in lime-water, or on the beam, with a circular knife, as in
hung up in a warm room, and smoked the former case, and for the same purpose.
until a slight putrescency takes place. They are then washed in water, and after-
The hair, cuticle, rete mucosum, on one wards immersed in an infusion of hen or
side, and the fleshy parts on the other, are pigeon’s dung: here they are left for a
:

THE CURRIER. 69

week or ten days, according to the state plicable in one case will convey a suffi-
of the weather and other circumstances; ciently accurate idea of the whole. We
during which time, they are frequently shall, therefore, select the calf-skin, since
handled, and scraped on both sides. By it is more frequently the subject of the
these means, the lime, and saponaceous
oil, currier’s skill, than any other.
matter, are discharged, and the skin is 3. The skin is first soaked in water,
rendered pliable. until it has become sufficiently soft, and
12. They are next put into a vat con- then shaved with the currier’s knife, on
taining weak ooze, and afterwards removed the inner side, over the currier's beam:
to several others of regularly increasing- it is then placed on a table, somewhat in-

strength. In the mean time, they are clined from the workman, and scoured on
taken up and handled every day, that they both sides with the edge of a narrow,
may be equally acted upon by the tanning- smooth stone, set in a handle and again,
;

principle. The time occupied in the whole with an iron sleeker of a similar shape.
,

process, is fromtwo to six months. The The skin is next stuffed with a composi-
light,and thin sorts of hides, designed for tion of tallow and tanner’s oil on the flesh
upper leather, harnesses, &c. are treated side, and then hung up to dry. Afterwards
in a similar manner. it is rubbed on the hair side with a board,

13. The tanner procures his hides and and again scraped on the flesh side with
skins from various sources, but chiefly the knife. Having been thus prepared,
from the butcher, and from individuals the skin is blacked on the flesh side with
who kill the animals for their own con- lampblack and tanner’s oil, and subse-
sumption. Great quantities of dry hides quently rubbed with paste, applied with a
are also obtained from South America, brush. When it has been dried, the whole
where cattle are killed in great numbers, process is finished by rubbing both sides
principally for the sake of this valuable with a glass sleeker.
envelope of their bodies Horse hides are blacked on the hair
4.
side, or, as the curriers term it, on the
grain, with a solution of copperas water.
THE CURRIER. Leather designed for harnesses, for cover-
1. It is the business of the currier to ing carriages, and for other similar pur-
dress the thinner kinds of leather, which poses, is also blacked on that side in the
he procures from the tanner in an unfinish- same manner.
ed state. In most cases, in the United 5. The trade of the currier is divided
States, except in and near large cities, the into two or three branches. Some
dress
business of tanning and currying are usu- only calf-skins, and other thick leather de-
ally united in the same individual ;
or, at signed for shoes, harnesses, and carriages
least, the two branches of business are others confine themselves to dressing skins,
carried on together, by the aid of workmen which are to be applied to binding books,
skilled in their respective trades. and to other purposes requiring thin lea-
2. The mode of dressing the different ther. It may be well to remark here,
kinds of skins, varies in some respects; that the dressers of thin leather usually
but, as the general method of operating is tan the skins ^
jmselves, using the leaves
the same in every sort, a description ap- of sumach, instead of bark,
;

4.

1. As the shoe an article of primary


is a latchet, or lace. The solea, or sandal,
utility, it was used, more or less, in the ear- was a thick cork sole, covered above and
liest ages. Some writers suppose, that the beneath with leather, and neatly stitched
Deity, in clothing man with skins, did not on the edge : it left the upper part of the

leave him to go barefooted, but gave him foot bare, and was fastened to it by means
shoes of the same material. of straps, which were crossed over the
2. The shoes of the ancient Egyptians instep, and wound about the ankle. Ro-:
were made of the papyrus. The Chinese, man citizenswore the calceus with the
as well as the inhabitants of India, and toga, when they went abroad in the city
some other nations of antiquity, manufac- while the solea was worn at home, and on
tured them from silk, rushes, linen, wood, journeys. The solea was also used at en-:
the bark of trees, iron, brass, silver, and tertainments but it was changed for the
;

gold, and sometimes ornamented them with calceus, when the guests were about to!
precious stones. surround the table.
3. The Romans had various coverings The senators wore shoes which camei
for their feet; the chief of which were, up middle of the leg, having a
to the
the calceus and the solea. The calceus golden or silver crescent on the top of thei
somewhat resembled the shoe we wear at foot. The shoes of the women were gene-:
present, and was tied upon the instep with rally white, sometimes red, scarlet, or pur-:
THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. 71

pie, and were adorned with embroidery might be adduced, to prove that the art of
and pearls; but those of the men were making shoes and boots, although uninter-
mostly black on days of public ceremony,
: ruptedly practised from the earliest ages,
however, the magistrates wore red shoes. has received many important improvements
5. Boots were used in very ancient within the last fifty years.
times, and were, primarily, worn as a kind 9. In Europe and America, boots and
of armour, with a view of protecting the shoes are commonly made of leather in :

lower extremities in battle. They were, shoes for females, however, it is not un-
at first, made of leather, afterwards of brass usual to use prunello, which is a kind of
or iron, and were proof against the thrusts twilled, worsted cloth. In all cases, thick
and cuts of warlike weapons. The boot leather is used for the soles.
was called ocrea by the Homans, who, as 10. The business of making boots and
well as the Greeks, used it in the army, shoes carried on very systematically, in
is

and in riding on horseback, and sometimes large establishments. The materials are
in pedestrian journeys. cut out and fitted by the foreman, or by
6. The fashion of boots and shoes, like the person who carries on the business;
every other part of dress, has been subject whilst the pieces are stitched together, and
to a number of changes, both as regards the work finished, by workmen who sit
their form and material. In Europe, about upon the bench.
one thousand years ago, the greatest princes 11. As a matter of convenience, the trade
wore shoes with wooden soles. In the have fixed upon certain sizes, which are
reign of William Rufus, of England, the designated by numbers and, corresponding ;

shoes of the great had long, sharp points, to these, the lasts are formed by the last-
stuffed with tow, and twisted like a ram’s maker : but, to be still more exact, indi-
horn. The clergy preached against this viduals sometimes procure lasts corres-
fashion; but the points continued to in- ponding to their feet, on which they cause
crease in length, until the reign of Rich- their boots and shoes to be made.
ard the Second, when they were tied to 12. The following is a description of the
the knees with chains of silver, or gold. process of making a leather shoe: after
In the year 1463, Parliament interposed, the materials have been cut out according
and prohibited the manufacture or use of to the measure, or size, and the parts of
shoes or boots with pikes exceeding two the uppers have been stitched together,
inches in length. the sole-leather is hammered on the lap-
7. Lasts adapted to each foot, commonly stone, tacked to the last,and trimmed with
sailed rights and lefts were not introduced
, a knife the upper leather is next stretch-
:

into England until about the year 1785 ed on the last with a pair of pincers, fasten-
nor was cramping, or crimping, the front ed to its proper place with tacks, and then
part of boots, practised there for ten years sewed to the bottom of the sole with a
liter that period.These improvements waxed thread a narrow strip of leather,
:

lid not become generally known, or, at called a welt, is also fastened to the sole
;east, were not much used, in the United by similar means, and to this is stitched
States, for many years after their adoption another sole : a heel being added, the shoe
n Great Britain. is finished by trimming and polishing it
8. Many facts, besides the preceding, with appropriate instruments.
; ;:

72 THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER.

13. The edges of fine leather shoes and most usually confine their labours to par-
boots, are trimmed with thin strips of the ticular kinds of work, as few can follow
like material : whilst those of prunello, and every branch with advantage. Some make
other thin shoes for ladies, are bound with shoes and boots for men; others confine
narrow tape. The binding is applied by their labours to those designed for ladies
females with thread, by means of a com- but, by their aid, the master-shoemaker
mon needle. can, and usually does, supply every kind
14. Shoe-thread is commonly spun from at his store.
flax: that from hemp is much stronger, 18. It is no uncommon thing in the
and was formerly preferred but it is now ;
country, for the farmers to purchase lea-
used only for very strong work. The great- ther, and employ the shoemaker to make
er part of the shoe-thread used in the Uni- it up ;
and this is done, in most cases, on
ted States, is spun by machinery, at Leeds, their own premises. The shoemaker em-
in England, from Russian flax. The wax ployed in this way, removes from house to
employed by shoemakers, was formerly house, changing his location whenever he
composed of tar and rosin but it is now;
has completely served a whole family in
most usually made of pitch. his vocation. In such cases, he is said, by
15. The shoemaker, in sewing together the trade, to be whipping the cat. The
different parts of his work, uses threads of set of tools, with which he operates, is
various sizes, which are composed of seve- called his kit.
ral small threads of different lengths: a 19. The shoemaker usually buys his
hog’s bristle is fastened to each end of it, leather from the tanner and the currier
which enables the workman to pass it with and procures his tools, tacks, and various
facility, through the holes made with the other articles of a similar nature, at the
awl. finding stores. In some cases, the shoe-
16. An expeditious way of fastening the maker, with little or no capital, gets his
soles of boots and shoes to the upper lea- materials from the leather-cutter, who
thers, is found in the use of wooden pegs, makes it a business to supply them ready
or brass nails. The old method, however, cut to the proper size and shape. There
is generally preferred, on several accounts are, however, but few leather-cutters in
but chiefly, because the work is more our country ; but, in England, this branch
durable, and because it can be more easily of trade is one of considerable importance,
repaired. and is frequently connected with that of
17. Journeymen working at this trade the leather-dresser.
THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER, 3.

AND THE TRUNK-MAKER.

THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER. his seat more easy. The Greeks, and
1. The invention of the saddle has been many other refined nations of antiquity,
attributed to the Selians, a people of an- sometimes used superb trappings, com-
cient Franconia. Under this impression, posed of cloth, leather, and skins dressed
it has been supposed that the Latins gave with the hair on ;
and, in addition to the
it the name of sella. The period at which gold, silver, and precious stones, with
it was first used, cannot be ascertained : it which these were ornamented, the horses
is however, that the horse had
certain, were often otherwise decked with bells,
been rendered subservient to man, several collars, and devices of various kinds.

centuries before this convenient article was The Romans, in the days of the Re-
thought of. public, deemed it more manly to ride on
2. At first, the rider sat upon the bare the bare back of the animal, than on cover-
back of the animal, and guided him with ings : at a later period, they used a kind
a switch, but afterward with a strap put of square pannel, without stirrups; and
round the nose. In the course of time, about the year 340 of the Christian era,
the rider came to use upon the back of the they began to ride on saddles. It appears
horse the skins of beasts, in order to render that those first employed were very heavy,
10 G
74 THE TRUNK-MAKER.

as the Emperor Theodosius,, in the same are to be applied, and to accommodate the
century, forbade the use of any which fancy of customers.
weighed over sixty pounds. The use of 8. The process of making
bridles and
saddles was established in England by harness for horses, extremely simple.
is
Henry the Seventh, who enjoined on his The leather is first cut out with a knife of
nobility the practice of riding upon them. some description, but usually with one of a
4. The frame of a saddle is called a crescent-like form, or with a blade set in a
tree: it is not made by the saddlers, but gauge, and then stitched together with the
by persons who confine their attention to kind of thread used by shoemakers. The
this branch of business. The trees are awl employed in punching the holes is-
constructed of wood, with a small quantity straight; and needles are most commonly
of iron, and covered with canvas. used, instead of the bristles which point the
5. In making a common saddle, the shoemaker’s threads. The mode of manu-
workman proceeds thus He first extends
: facturing saddle-bags, portmanteaus, and
two straining web from the pom-
strips of valises, is too obvious to need description.
mel to the hinder part of the tree, and
fastens them with tacks the tree is then
:

covered on the upper side with two thick- THE TRUNK-MAKER.


nesses of linen cloth, between which a 1. The manufacture of trunks is equally
quantity of wool is afterwards interposed : simple with that of harness- In com-
a covering of thin leather, usuallv made mon cases, it consists chiefly in lining the
of hog’s-skin, is next tacked on, and the inside of a box with paper, or some kind
flaps added: under the whole are placed of cloth, and covering the outside with a
the pads and saddle-cloth; the former of skin, or with leather, which is fastened to
which is made of thin cotton or linen cloth, the wood by means of tacks. Narrow
and thin leather, stuffed with hair. The strips of leather are fastened upon hair
addition of four straps, two girths, two trunks with brass nails, by way of orna-
stirrup-leathers, and as many stirrups, com- ment, as well as to confine the work.
pletes the whole operation. 2. Instead of a wooden box, frames of i

6. Theroughness, or the little indenta- iron are used for the best kinds of trunks:;
tions in the flaps, are produced by passing in such cases, thick sole-leather is applied
the leather between rollers, in contact with to every side, and the whole is covered^
a rough surface, or by beating it with a with well-dressed calf-skin. In the manu-
mallet, on the face of which has been facture of trunks of this description, bub
fastened a piece of the skin from a species few tacks and brass nails are used, the lea-3
of shark, commonly called the dog-fish. ther being fastened to its place with seam®
7. Saddles are often covered with buck- of waxed thread.
skin, curiously stitched into figures, and 3. How long trunk-making has been a
having the spaces between the seams separate trade, cannot be exactly ascer-i
stuffed with wool this is particularly the
: tained. The trunk-makers in France were
case in side-saddles. The form of saddles, incorporated into a company, in 1596. Inf

and the quality of the materials, together the United States, this branch of business
with the workmanship, are considerably is very commonly united with that of the
varied, to suit the purposes to which they saddler and harness-maker.
THE SOAP-BOILER, AND THE CANDLE-MAKER.

THE SOAP-BOILER. bining some of these substances, with the


1. The business of the soap-boiler con- view of forming soap, probably originated
manufacturing soap, by the combi-
sists in in accident
nation of certain oiiy and alkaline sub- 4. The vegetable and animal fats,
oils
stances. capable of saponification, are very numer-
2. The earliest notice of this useful ous but those most commonly employed
;

article occurs in the works of Pliny, in in the manufacture of the soaps of com-
which it is stated that soap was composed merce, are olive-oil, whale-oil, tallow, lard,
of tallow and ashes; that the mode of palm-oil, and rosin ;
and the alkalies with
combining them was discovered by the which these are most frequently combined,
Gauls but that the German soap was the
; are soda, the ley of ashes, or its residuum
best. potash.
3. For many ages before the invention 5. Soda is sometimes called the mineral
of soap, saponaceous plants, and several alkali because it is found, in some parts of
,

kinds of earth, together with animal mat- the world, in the earth. It was known to
ters and the ley from ashes, were employ- the ancients, at a very early period, under
ed purpose of cleansing the skin,
for the the denomination of natron: it received
and articles of clothing. The idea of com- this appellation from the lakes of Natron,
; : ;

76 THE SOAP-BOILER.

in Egypt, from the waters of which it was potash, forms with muriate of potash,
it
produced by evaporation, during the sum- which dissolves in the water, while the
mer season. soda combines with the tallow and rosin.
6. The soda of commerce is now chiefly Hard soap, therefore, contains no potash
obtained from the salsola, a genus of plants although this alkali is generally employed
which grows on the sea-shore. In Spain, ;
during the early part of the process of
the plant from which soda is obtained is making it,

denominated barilla hence, the substance 10. After the addition of the muriate of
produced from it by incineration has re- soda, the boiling and stirring are continued
ceived the same appellation. The ashes two or three hours, when the fire is with-
of a sea-weed which grows on the coasts drawn, and the contents of the cauldron
of Scotland and Ireland, is called kelp. In are suffered to be at rest. When the soap
Europe, barilla and kelp are more exten- has completely separated from the watery
sively employed in the manufacture of soap part, and extraneous matters, it is laded
than any other alkaline substances; but, in into another cauldron, again diluted with
this country, where wood is so much used strong ley, and heated. The paste having
'for fuel, common ashes are generally pre- been brought to a proper consistence, more
ferred. common salt is added as before, and for the
7. The process of making the ordinary same purposes.
brown or yellow soap, from wood-ashes, 11. The chemical part of the process
is conducted in the following manner : the having been thus completed, the soap is
alkali is first obtained in a state of solution laded into single wooden boxes, or into
in water, by leeching the ashes as described one or more composed of several "distinct
in page 20, and then poured, in a weak frames, which can be removed separately
a copper or iron cauldron, having
state, into from the soap, after it has become solid
a large wooden tub carefully affixed to the enough to stand without such support
top of it. The soap cut into bars, of nearly a uni-
is
8. When the ley has been properly form size, by means of a small brass wire.
Cheated, the tallow, either in a tried state, 12. Manufacturers of soap have con-
or the suet, is gradually added. More ley, trived various methods of adulterating this'
of greater concentration, poured in and is ;
article, or of adding ingredients which
the ingredients are moderately boiled for increase its weight, without adding to its
several hours, while a person, as represent- value. The most common means employ-
ed in the preceding cut, aids their chemical ed for this purpose is water, which may
union by agitating them with a wooden be added, in some eases, in considerable
spatula. quantities, without greatly diminishing the
9. After a quantity of rosin has been consistency of the soap.
added, and properly incorporated with the 13. This fraud maybe detected by let-
other materials, the fire is withdrawn until ting the soap lie for some time exposed to
the next morning, when
again raisedit is the atmosphere: the water will thus be
then, with the view of forming the paste evaporated, and its quantity can be known
into hard soap, a quantity -of muriate of by weighing the soap, after its loss of the
soda (common salt) is added : the muriatic superfluous liquid. To prevent evapora-
acid of this substance, uniting with the tion while the soap remains on hand, it is
THE CANDLE-MAKER. 77

said that some dealers keep it in saturated 17. The mottled appearance of some
solutions of common salt. Another method soaps is caused by dispersing the ley
of adulteration is found in the use of pul- through towards the close of the opera-
it,

verized lime, gypsum, or pipe-clay : these tion ;


or by adding a quantity of sulphate
substances, however, can be easily detected of iron, indigo, or the oxide of manganese.
by means of a solution in alcohol, which Castile soap, now manufactured in the
precipitates them. greatest perfection at Marseilles, in France,
14. The process of manufacturing soft receives its beautifully marbled appearance
soap, differs but little in its details from from the sulphate of iron.
that described in the preceding paragraphs.
The chief difference consists in omitting
the use of salt : com-
soft soap, therefore, is THE CANDLE-MAKER.
posed of a greater proportion of water, and 1. The subject of the candle-maker’s
more alkali than is necessary to saturate labours may be defined to be a wick, co-
the unctuous matters. Soft soap is made vered with tallow, wax, or spermaceti, in
by almost every family in the country, from a cylindrical form, which serves, when
ashes, grease, and oily matters, reserved lighted, for the illumination of objects in
for the purpose. the absence of the sun. The business of
15. The celebrated Marseilles white candle-making is divided into two branch-
soap, is composed of es: the one is confined to the manufac-
Soda 6. turing of tallow candles, and the other to
Olive-oil, 60. making those composed of wax or sperma-
Water, 34. ceti.

Castile soap, of 2. The process of making candles from


Soda, 9.
tallow, as conducted by the tallow-chan-
Oliye-oil, 76.5 dler, needs only a brief description, since it
Water, with a little colouring ) differs but little from the method pursued
matter, \ by families in the country, with which
Fine toilet-soaps are made with oil of most persons are familiar: the difference
almonds, nut-oil, palm-oil, suet, or butter is employment of a few con-
chiefly in the
they are either potash or soda soaps, as veniences, by which the candles are more
they may be prepared in a solid or pasty rapidly multiplied.
state. 3. The first part of the process consists
16. In the manufacture of white soap, in preparing a wick, to serve as a founda-
the tallow is more carefully purified, and tion. The coarse and slightly twisted yarn
no rosin is used : in other particulars, the used for this purpose, is spun in the cotton-
process differs but little from that employ- factories ;
and, being wound into balls, is,
ed in the production of the common kind. in that form, sold to the tallow-chandlers,
Two tons of tallow should yield three tons as well as to individuals who make candles
of white soap. In making the same quan- for their own consumption.
tity of common brown or yellow soap, 4. A sufficient number
of threads is
twelve hundred weight less is required, on combined, to form a wick of a proper size
account of the substitution of that amount and, as they are wound from the halls, they
of yellow rosin. are measured off, and cut to the proper
G 2
78 THE CANDLE-MAKER.

length, by a simple contrivance, which ever, a more complicated apparatus is


consists of a narrow board, a wooden pin, used, by which every part of the process
and the blade of a razor the pin and razor
: is greatly expedited.
are placed perpendicularly to the board, 9. Mould candles are made very differ-
at a distance determined by the length of ently. The moulds consist of a frame of
the proposed wick. The wicks are next wood, in which are arranged several hol-
put upon cylindrical rods, about three feet low cylinders, generally made of pewter:
long; and a great number of these are at the lower extremity of each cylinder, is
arranged on a long frame. a small hole, for the passage of the wick,
5. To obtain the tallow in a proper state which is introduced by means of a hook
for use, it is separated from the membranous on the end of a wire. The cotton is fast-
part of the suet, by boiling the latter in an ened at the other end, and placed in a per-
iron or copper kettle, and then subjecting ,
pendicular situation in the centre of the
the cracklings to the action of a press. : shafts, by means of a wire, which passes
The substance that remains, after the tal- through the loops of the wicks. The
low has been expressed, is called greaves , melted tallow, having been poured on the
which are sometimes applied to fattening top of the wooden frame, descends into
ducks for market: this is especially the each mould and after the candles have
;

case in the city of London. become sufficiently cold, they are extract-
6. The tried tallow is prepared for ap- ed from the cylinders with a bodkin, which
plication to the wicks, by heating it to a isinserted into the loop of the wick. One
proper temperature : it is then poured into person can thus mould two or three hun-
a suitable receptacle, where it is kept in dred pounds in a day.
order either by a moderate fire underneath, 10. Candles are also made of bees-wax
or by the occasional addition of hot tallow. and spermaceti; but the mode of their
7. The broaches, as the sticks with their manufacture differs in no particular from
wicks are called, are taken up, several at that of common mould candles. The wicks
a time, either between the fingers or by for wax-candles are usually made of a
means of a simple instrument denominated peculiar kind of cotton, which grows in
a rake, and dipped into the tallow they : Asiatic Turkey.
are then returned to the frame, and suffered 11. Before the wax is applied to this
to cool, while successive broaches are treat- purpose, the colouring matter is discharged.
ed in the same way. The dipping is re- This is effected by bleaching the wax, in
peated until the eandles have been thick- the following manner: it is first divided
ened to the proper size. by pouring it,
into flakes, or thin laminae,
8. In the preceding plate is represented in a melted through a colander upon
state,
a workman in the act of dipping several a cylindrical wheel, which, at the same
broaches of candles, suspended on a rake, time, is kept revolving, while partly im-
which he holds in his hands. The mode mersed in cold water: the wax, having
of making dipped candles just described, been removed from the water, is placed
ismore generally practised than any other, upon a table or floor covered with some
and in this manner five or six hundred kind of cloth : here it is occasionally sprin-
pounds can be made by one hand, in a kled with water, until the bleaching has
single day. In some establishments, how- been completed. The process occupies
THE CANDLE-MAKER. 79

several weeks, or even months, according The oil of this last pressing is called taut

to the state of the weather, that being best pressed ,


and is the least valuable kind,
which is most favourable to a rapid evapo- since a slight degree of cold causes it to
ration. become thick.The spermaceti obtained
12. Spermaceti is a substance separated from the common sperm-oil, and that from
from sperm-oil, which is obtained from a the head-matter, are melted together, and
species of whale, called physeter macroce- purified by means of potash-ley.
phalus or spermaceti cachalot. This oil
,
16. The sperm-oil, thus freed from the
is obtained both from the head and body of spermaceti, is extensively applied in lamps
the animal, but that procured from the as a means of illumination and, for many ;

former contains twice the quantity of purposes, it is far more convenient than
spermaceti. tallow. In the country, lard is frequently
13. To separate the spermaceti from the employed instead of oil, by the
especially
oil yielded by the body, it is first heated, German population. In some European
then put into casks, and suffered to stand and Asiatic countries, vegetable oils supply
two or three weeks, in order to granulate the place of animal fats, in this application.
the oily part is now filtrated through strain- 17. The origin of the art of making
ers; and the remainder, which is called candles, is not known. It is evident, how-
foots, again heated, and put into casks
is ever, that the business is comparatively
after standing several weeks, these are put modern, since the Greeks and Romans, as
into bags, and submitted to the action of a well as other nations of antiquity, employ-
powerful press. The spermaceti, thus ob- ed torches of pine and fir, and lamps sup-
tained, is melted and moulded into cakes. plied with oil, in the production of artificial
The oil thus separated from the spermaceti light. The words in the scriptures, trans-
is called spring or fall strained, because it is lated candle, imply nothingmore nor less
filtered and expressed only during those than a light produced by some kind of oil
seasons of the year. consumed in a lamp.
14. The from the head of the whale
oil 18. The lamps in ancient times were
is treated like that from the body, in almost suspended by a chain or cord from the
every particular: the difference consists, ceiling, or supported on stands and movea-
principally, in omitting the use of the ble tables, which were called by the Ro-
strainer, and in the employment of stronger mans lampadaria, or candelabra. Many
bags and a more powerful press. The oil specimens of this utensil are preserved in
obtained from the head-matter is called several museums of Europe, and some
pressed, since it is separated by the action have lately been found in the ruins of Her-
of the press only it is also denominated
: culaneum.
winter-strained, because the operation is 19. The Chinese make their candles
performed in the cold weather. from the tallow obtained from the seeds
15. The spermaceti, having been melted and capsules of the tallow-tree. This tree,
and moulded into cakes, is reserved until which is produced in great abundance in
the’ succeeding summer, when it is cut China, is said to be cultivated in various
into thin shavings, by means of a large parts of South Carolina and Georgia. In
shave, similar to the spoke-shave of the appearance, it resembles the Lombardy
wheelwrights, and again pressed as before. poplar.
;

THE COMB-MAKER, AND THE BRUSH-MAKER.

THE COMB-MAKER. 3. Combs employed in fixing the hair,


1. The comb is a well-known instru- are made of tortoise-shell, or of the horns
ment, employed in cleansing, dressing, and of cattle. The genuine tortoise-shell is
confining the hair. made of various
It is taken from the testudo imbricata or haioli’s- ,

materials, but most commonly of tortoise- bill turtle but a kind of shell, inferior in
shell, the horns and hoofs of cattle, ivory, quality, is obtained from the testudo caretta,
bone, and several kinds of hard wood. or loggerhead turtle. These turtles inha-
2. It is impossible to determine the pe- bit the seas of warm and temperate cli-
riod of the world at which it was intro- mates ;
but they are especially numerous
duced, since '
history and tradition, the in the West Indian seas, where shell is a
sources from which we obtain information valuable article of commerce: that from
of this nature, are silent vyith regard to St. Domingo is especially esteemed, for its

its It is evident, however, that


origin. brilliancy of shade and colour.
the comb
an instrument of primary ne-
is 4. The shell of the hawk’s-bill turtle
cessity and hence it must have been in-
; was extensively employed for ornamental
vented in the earliest ages. This opinion purposes by the refined nations of antiquity,
is confirmed by the fact, that the comb although we have no account of its appli-
has been frequently found in use amongst cation to the manufacture of combs. The
savages, when first visited by civilized men. Greeks and Romans decorated with it the
THE COMB-MAKER. 81

doors and pillars of their houses, as well ed with a wooden clamp, by the part which
as their beds and other furniture. The is designed to be left for the back of the

Egyptians dealt largely with the Romans, comb and when twins, or two combs, are
;

in this elegant article. to be formed from one piece, the other end
5. The general length of the hawk’s-bill is bent down, so as to render the upper sur-
turtle is about three feet from the bill to face considerably convex : to this surface
the end of the shell but it has been
;
the twinning saw is applied by the hand
known to measure five feet, and to weigh of the workman, who makes a number of
five or six hundred pounds in the Indian
: incisions which are completed both ways
;

ocean, especially, specimens of prodigious with two different kinds of saws, and the
magnitude are said to have occurred. end of each tooth is cut from the back of
6. The shell employed in the arts grows the opposite comb with an instrument
upon the back and feet of the animal that : called a plugging awl.
on the back, consists of thirteen laminss, 10. The twinning machine was invent-
or plates, which lap over each other, like ed about fifteen years ago, by a Mr. Tho-
tileson the roof of a house. The plates mas, of Philadelphia but it has been suc-
;

vary in thickness from one-eighth to one- cessively improved by several individuals


fourth of an inch, according to the age and since that time. It is, altogether, an inge-
size of the turtle. The quantity of mer- nious and useful contrivance. The cutting
chantable shell obtained from a single sub- part consists of two chisels, which are
ject of the usual size, is about eight pounds, made on the plate alternately, and
to act
which, at the usual price, is worth sixty in a perpendicular direction, each chisel
or seventy dollars. cutting one side of two teeth, and severing
7. The process of making combs from one from the opposite back, at every stroke.
the horns of cattle, difficult to be
is jiot It is impossible, however, to form a clear
understood. The and buts are first
tips conception of the manner in which the
cut off with a saw, and the remaining por- machine operates, except by actual inspec-
tion is also divided longitudinally on one tion. performs the work with great
It
side with the same instrument. The horns rapidity, since from one to two hundred
are then soaked for the space of several dozens of combs can be cut in twelve
days, and afterwards boiled in oil, to ren- hours; whereas, not one-fourth of that
der them pliable they are next spread out
: number can be twinned, in the old method,
and pressed between hot iron plates. This during the same time.
operation clarifies the horn, and produces 11. After the teeth have been rounded
a plate of proper thickness. and in other respects brought to the proper
8. After the plates thus produced have form with suitable instruments, the combs
been cut to the sizes of the proposed are polished by rubbing them
first with the
combs, and when these have been shaved dust of a peculiar kind of brick, then by
to a suitable thickness with instruments applying them to a moving cylinder cover-
adapted to the purpose, the teeth are cut ed with buff leather, charged with rotten-
either with a twinning saw, as represented stone, ashes, or brick-dustand finally, by
;

in the preceding cut, or with a twinning rubbing them with the hand, charged with
machine. rotten-stone and vinegar.
9. In the former case, the plate is fasten- 12. The combs are next coloured, or
IX
: :

82 HE BRUSH-MAKER.

stained ;
and, as the tortoise-shell is by far method, two pieces of horn can also be
the best and most expensive material for joined together.
this kind of comb, the great object of the 17. Both horn and shell combs are often
manufacturer is to produce colours as stamped with figures, and otherwise orna-
nearly resembling those of the real shell mented with carved work. In the latter
as practicable. This is done in considera- case, the ornaments are produced, by re-
ble perfection, in the following manner moving a part of the material with a saw
13. The combs are first dipped in aqua- and graver. The saw employed is not more
fortis, and then covered with a paste made than the twelfth of an inch in width, and
of lime, pearl-ash, and red lead. To pro- being fastened to a frame, is moved up and
duce the requisite variety of shades, both down, with great rapidity, by means of the
taste and judgment are necessary in apply- foot, while the part of the comb to be cut

ing the composition, and in determining away is applied to the teeth. The ope-
the time which it should remain upon the rator is guided in the work by a pattern,

combs. To give the combs a still stronger which has been struck on paper from an
resemblance to shell, they are also im- engraved plate.
mersed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a 18. Combs for dressing and cleansing
dye of nicaragua. the hair, are made of horn, shell, bone,
14. The combs having been covered ivory, and wood ;
but it is unnecessary to
with oil, they are next heated upon iron be particular in describing the manner in
plates, and brought to the desired shape by which every kind of comb is manufactured
bending them upon wooden blocks with a we will only add, the teeth of fine ivory
woollen list. The whole process is finished and bone combs are cut with a buzz, or
by rubbing off the oil with a silk handker- circular saw, which, fastened to a man-
chief. drel, is moved in a lathe.
15. The
general process of making shell
combs differs but little from that which has
been just described, varying only in a few THE BRUSH-MAKEB.
particulars, in compliance with the pecu- There are few manufactured articles
1.
liar nature of the material. in more general use, than brushes. This
16. On account of the great value of has arisen from their great utility, and
shell, the workmen are careful to make the low prices at which they can be pur-
the most of every portion of it: accord- chased. The productions of the brush-
ingly, when a piece falls short of the de- maker’s labour are denominated variously,
sired size, it is enlarged by welding to it according to the purposes to which they
another of smaller dimensions. The union are to be applied.
is effected,by lapping the two pieces upon 2. The operations connected with this
each other, and then pressing them toge- business are very simple, as there is scarce-
ther between two plates of hot iron the : ly a tool employed which is not familiar to
heat of the iron is prevented from injuring every other class of mechanics. The brush-
the shell, by the interposition of a wet maker, however, does not manufacture
linen cloth, and by immersing the whole every part of the brush. He procures his
in hot water. In a similar manner, broken wooden stocks and handles from various
combs are often mended and by the same ; sources, but chiefly from the turner ; and.
:

THE BRUSH-MAKER. 83

bone handles, from the tooth-brush handle- pulling out the longest bristles from the
maker. top, until those which remain in the hand
3. The first part of the process which have been reduced to a certain length,
may be considered as belonging particu- which is determined by a gauge marked
1

larly to the brush-maker, consists in boring with numbers. At each pulling, the hand-
the holes for the reception of the bristles ful isreduced in height near half an inch.
this is done with a bit of a proper size, 7. The stocks and the bristles having
which is kept in motion with a lathe, while been thus prepared, they are next fastened
the wood is brought against it with both together this is effected, either with wire
:

hands. To enable the operator to make or a composition of tar and rosin. The wire
the holes in the right place, and in the is used in all cases in which the fibre is
proper direction, a pattern is applied to the doubled but when the bristles are required
;

hither side of the stock. in their full length, as in sweeping-brushes,


4. The greater part of the bristles used the adhesive substance is employed.
by the brush-makers in the United States, 8. It is superfluous to enter into detail,
are imported from Russia and Germany: to show the manner in which the wire and
large quantities, however, are obtained composition are applied, in fixing the bris-
from Pennsylvania, and some parts of the tles, as any person, with an ordinary de-
Western States. American bristles are gree of observation, can readily compre-
worth from thirty to fifty cents per pound, hend the whole, by examining the different
a price sufficiently high, one would sup- kinds of brushes which are met with in
pose, to induce the farmers to preserve every well-regulated household. The bris-
them, when they butcher their swine: tles, afterhaving been fixed to the stock
were this generally done, a tolerable sup- or handle, are trimmed with the shears or
ply of the shorter kinds of bristles might knife, according as they are required to be
be obtained in our own country. equal or unequal in length.
5. When the bristles come into the 9. The brush is next handed over to the
hands of the brush-maker, the long and finisher, who applies to the back of the
short, and frequently those of different stock a thin veneer of wood, which secures
colours, are mixed together. These are the wire against the 'oxidizing influence
according to colour, and those
first assorted, of the atmosphere, and gives to the brush
ofa whitish hue are afterwards washed with a finished appearance. The stock, together
potash-ley and soap, to free them from ani- with the veneer, is then brought to the
mal fat, and then whitened by bleaching desired shape with suitable instruments,
them with the fumes of brimstone. polished with sand-paper, and covered with
6. The bristles are next combed with a varnish.
row of steel teeth, for the purpose of placing 10. Those brushes which the manufac-
them in a parallel direction, and with a turer designs to be ornamented, are sent
view of depriving them of the short hair in great quantities to the ornamentcr, who
which may be intermixed. The workman, applies to them various figures, in gold or
immediately after combing a handful, as- Dutch leaf, japan or bronze, and sometimes
sorts it into separate parcels of different prints, which have been struck on paper
lengths. This is very readily done, by from engraved plates.
1. A house in which travellers are enter- are said to be superior to those of any
tained denominated a tavern, inn, coffee-
is other country.
house, hotel, or house of public entertain- 3. Travellers, in the early ages of the
ment and an individual who keeps a house
;
world, either carried with them the means
of this description, ig called an inn-keeper of sustenance and protection from the wea-
or tavern-keeper. Of these establishments ther, or relied upon the hospitality of stran-
there are various grades, —from the log gers; but, as the intercourse between dif-
cabin with a single room, to the splendid ferent places, for the purposes of trade,
and commodious edifice with more than a increased, houses of public entertainment
hundred chambers. were established, which at first were chiefly
2. This business is one of great public kept by women.
utility; since, by this means, travellers 4. The people of antiquity, in every age
obtain necessary refreshments and a tem- and nation, whether barbarous or civilized,
porary home, with very little trouble on were, however, remarkable for their hos-
their part and that, in most cases, for a
; pitality. We find this virtue enjoined in
reasonable compensation. This is espe- the Mosaic writings, and scriptures gene-
cially the case in the United States, where rally, in the poems of Homer, as well as
the public houses, taking them together, in other distinguished writings,which have
:

THE TAVERN-KEEPER. 85

descended to our times. The heathen na- build, for the reception of strangers, apart-
tions were rendered more observant of the ments called hospitalia, on the right and
by the belief, that their
rites of hospitality, left of the main building of their residence.

fabulous gods sometimes appeared on earth 8. During the middle ages, also, hospi-
in human shape and the Jews and ancient
;
tality was very commonly practised; and
Christians, by the circumstance that Abra- was not considered one of those
the virtue
ham entertained angels unawares. which might be observed or neglected, at
5. On account of the occasional acts of pleasure : the practice of it was even en-
violence committed both by the guests and joined by statute, in many countries, as
master of the house, it became necessary a positive duty, which could not be neg-
to take some precautions for their mutual lected with impunity. In some cases, the
safety. When, therefore, a stranger ap- moveable goods of the inhospitable person
plied for lodgings, it was customary among were confiscated, and his house burned. If
the Greeks for both to swear by Jupiter an individual had not the means of enter-
that they would do each other no harm. taining his guest, he was permitted to
This ceremony took place while each party steal, in order to obtain the requisite sup-
stood with his foot placed on his own side p!y-
of the threshold; and a -violation of this 9. The nobles of Europe, during this
oath by either party, excited against the period, were generally distinguished for
offender the greatest horror. their cordial entertainment of strangers,
6. The Greeks and Romans, in common and their immediate adherents. Their
with the people of many other nations, extraordinary liberality arose, in part, from
were in the habit of making arrangements the general customs of the age, and partly
with persons at a distance from their from a desire to attach to their interests as
homes, for a mutual accommodation, when great a number of retainers as possible,
either party might be in the vicinity of the with a view to maintain or increase their
other. In these agreements, the contract- political importance Strangers were also
ing parties included their posterity, and de- entertained at the monasteries, which were
livered to each other tokens, which might numerous kingdom of Eu-
in almost every
be afterwards exhibited in proof of ancient rope. Several of these institutions were
ties of hospitality between the families. established in solitary places, with the ex-
They swore fidelity to each other by the press purpose of relieving travellers in
name of Jupiter, who was surnamed the distress.
hospitable, because he was supposed to be arrangements
10. It is evident, that the
the protector of strangers, and the avenger for mutual accommodation, and the hos-
of their wrongs. pitable character of the ancients, were
7. This relation was considered a very unfavourable to the business of keeping
intimate one, especially by the Romans; tavern but the free intercourse between
:

and, in their language, it was called hos- different nations, which arose from the
pitium, or jus Tiospitii hence, the guest Crusades, and the revival of commerce,
and entertainer were both called hostes, contributed greatly to the habit of regu-
a word from whiclfTiost is derived, which larly entertaining strangers for a compen-
is employed to designate both the landlord sation, and led to the general establishment
and the guest. The Roman nobility used to of inns.
H
;

86 THE TAVERN-KEEPER.

11. These inns, however, were not, at public house is frequently the resort of the
first, well supported, for the reason, that people who live in the immediate vicinity,
travellers had been so long accustomed to and is often the means of doing much in-
seek for lodgings in private houses. In jury, by increasing dissipation.
Scotland, inns were established by law, 15. In all cases in which ardent spirits
A. D. 1424; and, to compel travellers to are proposed to be sold, a license must be
resort to them, they were forbidden, under obtained from the public authorities, for
a penalty of forty shillings, to use private which must be paid the sum stipulated by
accommodations, where these public houses law but any person is permitted to lodge
;

were to be found. travellers, and to supply them with every


12. How far legislative enactments have necessary means of cheer and comfort for
been employed for the establishment of a compensation, without the formality of a
inns in other countries, we have not been legal permission :
yet, a license to sell
able to learn, as the authorities to which liquors is called a tavern-license, because
we have referred for information on this most tavern-keepers regard the profits on
point are silent with regard to it: we the sale of ardent spirits as one of their
know, however, that laws have been made chief objects.
in almost every part of Europe, as well as 16. A public house in which no strong
in the United States, with the view of com- drink is sold, is called a temperance tavern
pelling the landlord to preserve proper and such establishments are becoming com-
order, and to accommodate his customers mon but they are not, at present, so well
:

at reasonable charges. supported as those in which the popular


13. In the United States, and in all appetite is more thoroughly complied with.
other commercial countries, this business The time, however, may not be far distant,
has become an employment of great im- when the public sentiment will undergo
portance, both to the individuals who have such a salutary change, that the tavern-
engaged in it, and to the general commu- keepers generally will find it their best
nity. Within the present century, the policy to relinquish the sale of this poison-
amount of travelling has greatly increased, ous article.
and the excellence of the public houses 17. As travellers often apply to the bar
has advanced in the same ratio. Some of for “ something to drink,” merely to remu-
these establishments, in the cities and large nerate the landlord for the use of his fire, .

towns, are among the most extensive and or some little attention, the friends of tem-
splendid edifices of the country; and, in perance would essentially promote their i

every place through which there is much cause, by encouraging the practice of pay-
travelling, they are usually equal, or supe- ing for a glass of water, or some trifle of
rior, to the private dwellings of the neigh- this kind : this would increase the number i

bourhood. of temperance taverns, and, perhaps, be :

14. The business of keeping tavern, the means of preventing many generous ;

however, is not always confined to the pro- people from forming thojc dissipated habits,
per object of entertaining travellers, or which are so often atrabded with ruinous :

*“
persons at some distance from home. A results.
;

4.

1. Hunting and fishing are usually con- sity then compelled them to resort to the
sidered the primary occupations of man; domestication of certain animals, and to
not because they were the employ-
first the cultivation of the soil. But the practice
ments in which he engaged, but because of hunting wild animals is not confined
they are the chief means of human sus- to the savage state: it is an amusement
tenance among savage nations. prompted by a propensity inherent in hu-
2. The great and rapid increase of the man nature.
inferior animals, and, probably, the dimi- The earliest historical notice of this
nished fertility of the soil after the deluge, sport is found in the tenth chapter of Gene-
caused many branches of the family of sis, in which Nimrod is styled, “a mighty
Noah to forsake the arts of civilized life, hunter before the Lord.” So great was his
especially after the dispersion caused by prowess in this absorbing pursuit, that lie
the confusion of tongues. was proverbially celebrated on this account
3. Many of these families, or tribes, even in thetime of Moses. Nimrod is the
continued in this barbarous state for seve- first king of whom we read in history
ral ages, or until their increase of numbers, and by no means improbable, that his
it is

and the diminished quantity of wild game, skill and intrepidity in subduing the wild
rendered a supply of food from the objects beasts of the forest, contributed largely
of the chase extremely precarious. Neces- towards elevating him to the regal station.
88 THE HUNTER.

Although the spoils of the chase are


5. suers.Chasing the fox on horseback, with
of little consequence to men, after they a pack of hounds, is considered an ani-

have united in regular communities, in mating and manly sport, both in Europe
which the arts of civilized life are culti- and North America.
vated; yet the propensity to hunt wild 10 The most prominent victim of the
.

animals continues, and displays itself more hunter, in Africa, is the lion. He is usu-
or less among all classes of men. ally sought in small parties on horseback,
6. The reader of English history will with dogs; but sometimes, when one of
recollect that William the Conqueror, who these formidable animals has been disco-
began his reign in the year 1066, sig- vered, the people of the neighbourhood
nalized his passion for this amusement, by assemble and encircle him in a ring, three
laying waste, and converting into one vast or four miles in circumference the circle :

hunting-ground,the entire county of Hamp- is gradually contracted, until the hunters


no less than
shire, containing, at that time, have approached near to the
sufficiently
twenty-two populous parishes. Severe laws beast, when they dispatch him, usually
were also enacted, prohibiting the destruc- with a musket-ball.
tion of certain kinds of game, except by a 11. In the southern parts of Asia, tiger-
few persons having specified qualifications. hunting is a favourite amusement. Seated
With some modifications, these laws are upon an elephant, trained especially for
still in force in Great Britain. the purpose, the hunter is in comparative
7. In other countries of Europe, also, safety, while he pursues and fires upon the
large tracts have been appropriated by the tiger until his destruction is effected.
kings and nobles to the same object. This 12. The white bear and the grisly bear
tyrannical monopoly is attempted to be jus- are the most formidable animals in North
tified by the unreasonable pretension, that America ;
yet they are industriously hunt-
all wild animals belong, of right, to the ed, both by Indians and white men, on ac-
monarch of the country where they roam. count of the value of their flesh and skins.
8. The quadrupeds most hunted in Eu- Bisons, or, as they are erroneously called,
rope, are the stag, the hare, the fox, the buffaloes, are found in great numbers in
wolf, and the wild boar. These beasts are the vast prairies which occur between the
pursued either on account of their intrinsic Mississippi Rocky Mountains.
and the
value, or for sport, or to rid the country of They are commonly met with in droves,
their depredations : in some instances, all which sometimes amount to several thou-
three of these objects may be united. The sands.
method of capturing or killing the animals 13. When the Indian hunters propose to
is various, according to the character and destroy these animals, they ride into the
objects of the persons engaged in it. midst of a herd, and dispatch them with
9. In Asia, the wolf is sometimes hunted repeated wounds or, they get a drove be-
;

with the eagle ;


but, in Europe, the strong- tween themselves and a precipice, and, by
est greyhounds are employed to run him shouting and yelling, cause the animals to
down this task, however, is one of ex-
: crowd each other off upon the rocks below.
treme difficulty, as he can easily run twen- In this manner, great numbers are disabled
ty miles upon a stretch, and is besides very and taken at once. The hunters, at other
cunning in the means of eluding his pur- [
times, drive the bisons into inclosures, and
THE HUNTER. 89

then shoot them down at their leisure. adapted to the wants of the hunters ;
re-
The hide of this animal is dressed with ceiving, in return, the skins of the musk-
the hair adhering to it and skins in this
;
rat, beaver, otter, martin, bear, deer, lynx,
state are usedby the savages for beds, and fox, &c.
by the white people, in wagons, sleighs, 17. The intercourse with the Indians is

and stages. managed by agents, called clerks, who


14. North America, and the northern receive from the company a salary, rang-
parts of Asia, have been, and, in some ing from three to eight hundred dollars
parts, still are, well stocked with fur-clad per annum. The merchandise
conveyed is

animals ;
and these are the principal ob- to the place of trade, in the autumn, by
jects of pursuit, with those who make the aid of Canadian boatmen and half-
hunting their regular business. Some of Indians. The most considerable portion
these animals were common in every part of the goods are sold to the Indians on a
of North America, when this portion of credit, with the understanding that they
the western continent was first visited by are to make payment in the following
Europeans ;
and a trade in peltries, more spring ;
but, as many neglect this duty, a
or less extensive, has been carried on with high price is affixed to the articles thus
the natives, ever since the first settlement intrusted to savage honesty. The clerk
of the country. furnishes the debtor with a trap having his
15. For the purpose of conducting this own name stamped upon it, to show that
trade with advantage, a company was the hunter has pledged every thing which
formed in England, in 1670, by Prince Ru- may be caught in it.

pert and others, to whom a charter was 18. Each clerk is supplied with four
granted, securing to them the exclusive labourers, and an interpreter the latter
;

privilege of trading with the Indians about attends to the store in the absence of the
Hudson’s Bay. Another company was clerk, orwatches the debtors in the Indian
formed in 1783-4, called the North-West camp, lest they again sell the produce of
Fur Company. Between these companies, their winter’s labours. The peltries, when
there soon arose dissensions and hostilities, obtained, are sent to the general agent of
and many injuries were mutually inflicted the company.
by the adherents of the parties. Both as- 19. The fur tradeis also prosecuted, to
sociations, however, were at length united, some extent, by a class of men in Missouri,
under the title of the Hudson’s Bay Fur who proceed from the city of St, Louis, in
Company. The Indian trade, on the great bodies comprising from fifty to two hun-
lakes, and the Upper Mississippi, has long dred individuals. After having ascended
been in possession of the North American the Missouri river, or some of its branches,
Fur Company, most of the directors of and, perhaps, after having passed the Rocky
which reside in the city of New York. Mountains, they separate, and pursue the
16. The companies just mentioned sup- different animals on their own individual
ply the Indians with coarse blue, red, and account, either alone or in small parties.
fine scarlet cloths, coarse cottons, blankets, The Indians regard these men as intruders
ribands, beads, kettles, fire-arms, hatchets, on their territories; and, when a favour-
knives, ammunition, and other articles able opportunity is presented, they fre-

ha
90 THE HUNTER.

quently surprise and murder the wander- Siberia, which is the centre of the fur trade
ing hunters, and retain possession of their of that country. The skins obtained in
property. Russian America are chiefly procured from
20. In consequence of the unremitted the sea-otter, and several species of seal,
warfare which has, for a long time, been together with those from foxes, of a blue,
carried on against the wild animals of black, and gray colour, which are brought
North America, their number has been from the interior. Parties of Russian
greatly diminished; and, in many parts, hunters have already passed the Rocky
almost every species of the larger quadru- Mountains, and interfered with the trade
peds and the fur-clad animals has been of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The fur
exterminated. Even on the Mississippi, trade of Siberia is chiefly carried on with
and the great lakes, the latter description China.
of animals has been so much reduced in 23. The chief objects of the hunters in
number, that the trade in peltries, in those Siberia, are the black fox, the sable, the
parts, has become of little value. Another ermine, the squirrel, the beaver, and the
half century will, probably, nearly termi- lynx. In the region near the Frozen
nate the trade, in every part of North Ocean, are also caught blue and white
America. foxes. is the place of banishment
Siberia
21. The fur trade was prosecuted with for the Russian empire; and the exiles
considerable success, during the latter part were formerly required to pay to the go-
of the last century, principally by the Eng- vernment an annual tribute of a certain
lish, on the north-west coast of America, number of sable-skins. The conquered
and the adjacent islands. The peltries tribes in Siberia, were also compelled to
obtained by these enterprising traders, pay their taxes in the skins of the fox and
were carried directly to China. The trade sable; but now, those of less value, or
was interrupted for a while by the Span- money, are frequently substituted.
iards, who laid claim to those regions, and 24. Although the skins of beasts were
seized the British traders engaged there, the first means employed to clothe the
together with the property in their pos- human body, yet it does not appear that
session. This affair, however, was after- the Greeks and Romans, and the other
wards amicably adjusted by the Spanish refined nations of antiquity, ever made use
and English governments and the whole
;
of furs for this purpose. The custom of
trade, from California north, and to China, wearing them, originated in those regions
was opened to the latter. where the fur-clad animals were numerous,
22. The_fur trade, in those parts, is now and where the severity of the climate
chiefly in the hands of the Russian Com- required this species of clothing. The use
pany in America, which has a capital of a of furs was introduced into the southern
million of dollars engaged in the business. parts of Europe by the Goths, Vandals,
Most of the persons owning the stock are Huns, and other barbarous nations, which
merchants, residing at Irkutsk, a town of overran the Roman empire.
1. Although permission was given by which might be used by the Israelites as
the Deity, immediately after the flood, to food; but he imposes no restrictions, with
employ for human sustenance “ every mo- regard to the animals which inhabit the
ving thing that liveth,” yet it is not proba- waters. We
learn, however, from the
ble, that fishes were used as food, to any twelfth chapter of Numbers, that the chil-
considerable extent, for several centuries dren of Israel, while journeying to the
afterwards. It is stated by Plutarch, that land of Canaan, “remembered the fish

the Syrians and Greeks, in very ancient which they did eat,” in Egypt.
times, abstained from fish. Menelaus, one 3. This is the earliest notice on record,

of Homer’s heroes, complains, on a certain of the actual use of that class of animals
occasion, that his companions had been re- for food ;
although it is probable, that they
duced by hunger to the necessity of eating had been applied to this purpose, in Egypt,
.fish and there is no mention in Homer,
;
six or seven hundred years before that
that the Grecians, at any time, used this period, or soon after the settlement of this
food at the siege of Troy* although, for the country by the descendants of Ham.
ten years during which that contest was 4. For a long time before the advent of

carried on, their camp was on the sea-shore. Our Saviour, fishing had been a regular
2. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver,
very is business, even in Judea; and from the
explicit in designating the land animals class of men who followed this occupation,
92 THE FISHERMAN.

he chose several of his apostles. At the those which relate to herring, mackerel,
time just mentioned, fish had become a salmon, seal, and whale.
common article of diet, in all parts of the 8. Herring Fishery . —There are seve-
world subject to the Roman power, and ral species of herring; but, of these, four
probably in almost all other countries. kinds only are of much importance, viz.
5. The methods of catching- fish, pur- the common herring, the shad, the hard
sued in ancient times, were similar to head, and the alewife ;
of which, the first

those of the present day for then, as now, is the most valuable, being by far the most
,

they were caught with a hook, with a numerous, and being, also, better adapted
spear, and with a seine or net, according than the others for preservation.
to the character of the animal, and the 9. The winter residence of the common
nature of the fishing station. But the herring is within the arctic circle, whence
great improvements in navigation, made it emigrates, in the spring, to more south-
since the twelfth century, have given mo- ern portions of the globe, for the purpose
dern fishermen the command of the Atlan- of depositing spawn. The first body
its

tic and Pacific Oceans, and, consequently, of these migratory animals, appears on the
a knowledge of many species of fish which coasts both of Europe and America, in
were formerly unknown. April, or about the first of May ; but these
6. According to Linnseus, the great na- are only the precursors of the grand shoals,
about four hundred species of fish
turalist, which arrive in a few weeks afterwards.
have come to our knowledge and he esti- ;
10. Their first approach is indicated by
mates that those which remain unknown the greatnumber of birds of prey, which
are probably still more numerous. Not- followthem in their course but when the :

withstanding this great variety, the chief main body appears, the number is so great
attention of fishermen is confined to a few that they alter the appearance of the ocean
kinds, which are the most easily caught., itself. In this last and principal migration,
and which are the most valuable when the shoals are five or six miles in length,
taken. and three or four in breadth, and before
7. Every place which contains many in- each of these columns the water is driven
habitants, and which is located in the vici- in a kind of ripple: sometimes, the fish

nity of waters well stored with fish, is sink together ten or fifteen minutes, and
supplied with these animals by men who then rise again to the surface, when they
make fishing a business : still, these fish- reflect, in clear weather, the rays of the
eries may be considered local in their be- sun, in a variety of splendid colours.
nefits, and perhaps do not require particu- 11. These proceed as far south as
fish
lar notice in this article. We will only France, on the coasts of Europe, and as
remark, therefore, that, in large cities, fresh far as Georgia, inAmerica, supplying every
fish are sold either in a fish-market, or are bay, creek, and river, which opens into the
hawked about the streets. The wives of Atlantic. Having deposited their spawn,
the fishermen are very often employed in generally in the inland waters, they return
selling the fish caught by their husbands. to their head-quarters in the arctic ocean,
The fisheries which are of the greatest and recruit their emaciated bodies for
consequence, in general commerce, are another migration in the following spring.
THE FISHERMAN. 98

12. In a few weeks, the young ones are an immediate sale cannot be effected, they
hatched by the genial heat of the sun and, ;
are cured with salt, and afterwards smoked,
as they are not found in southern waters in or continued in brine. In the Southern
the winter, it is evident that they proceed States, the herring is generally thought to
northward in the fall, to their paternal be superior to any other fish, for the purpose
haunts under the ice, and thus repair the of salting down; although the shad, and
vast destruction of their race, which had some others, are preferred while fresh.
been caused by men, fowl, and fish, in the 17. The importance of this fishery is

previous season. superior to that of any other; since the


13. These fish are caught in nearly benefits resulting from it are more general-
every from Maine to Georgia, which
river, ly diffused. The ancients, however, do not
has a free communication with the Atlan- appear to have had any knowledge of this
tic; but the most extensive fisheries are valuable fish. It was first brought into no-
on the Hudson and Delaware rivers, and on ticeby the Dutch, who are said to have
those which flow into the Chesapeake bay. commenced the herring fishery on the
14. The instrument employed in catch- coasts of Scotland, in the year 1164, and
ing these fish is called a seine, which is a to have retained almost exclusive posses-
species of net, sometimes in length several sion of it, until the beginning of the present
hundred fathoms, and of a width suiting 1

century.
the depth of the water in which it is to be 18. The shad is a species of herring,
used. Both edges of the net-work are which inhabits the sea near the mouths
fastened each to a rope and, to cause the
;
of rivers, ascending them in the spring, to
seine to spread laterally in the water, pieces deposit spawn. It is caught in all the
its

of lead are fastened to one side, and pieces rivers terminating on our Atlantic coasts,
of cork to the other. as well as in some of the rivers of the
15. In spreading the seine in the water, North of Europe. This fish is captured
one end is retained on land by a number in the same manner, and often at the same
of persons, while the rest of it is strung time, with the common herring. It is
along from a boat, which is rowed in the highly esteemed in a fresh state although ;

direction from the shore. The seine having it is not so good when salted, as the her-

been thus extended, the further end is ring and some other kinds of fish.
brought round, in a sweeping manner, to Mackerel Fishery
19. The common . —
the shore; and the fish that may be in- mackerel is a migratory fish, like the her-
cluded are taken into the boats with a ring, and ranks next to that tribe of fishes
scoop-net, or are hauled out upon the shore. in regard to numbers, and perhaps in gene-
In this way, two or three hundred thou- ral utility. Its place of retirement in the
sands are sometimes taken at a single winter, is not positively known but it is ;

haul. This fish dies immediately after supposed by some, to be far north of the
having been taken from the water: hence arctic circle; and by others, to be in some
the common expression, 45 As dead as a part of the Atlantic farther south. Shoals
herring.” of this fish appear on the coasts both of
16. The herrings are sold, as soon as Europe and America, in the summer sea-
caught, to people who come to the fish , son. Of this fish there are twenty-two
ing stations to procure them ;
or, in case species.
94 THE FISHERMAN*

20. The mode of catching the mackerel, found that some of them made their ap-
is either with a net or with hooks and pearance at the same place three succes-
lines. The latter method succeeds best, sive seasons, bearing with them this dis-
when the boat or vessel is driven forward tinguishing mark.
by a gentle breeze ; and, in this case, a bit 24. In ascending the rivers, these fish
of red cloth, or a painted feather, is usu- usually proceed together in great numbers,
ally employed as a bait. Several hooks mostly swimming in the middle of the
are fastened to a single line, and the fish stream ;
and, being very timid, a sudden
bite so readily, that the fishermen occa- noise, oreven a floating piece of timber,
sionally each hook at a
take one on will sometimes turnthem from their course,
haul. The mackerel are cured in the and send them back to the sea but having ;

usual manner, and packed in barrels, to be advanced a while, they assume a deter-
sold to dealers. mined resolution, overcoming rapids and
21. This fish was well known to the leaping over falls twelve or fifteen feet
ancients, as one of its places of resort, in in perpendicular height.
the summer, was the Mediterranean sea. 25. Salmon are caught chiefly with
It was highly esteemed by the Romans, for seines, and sometimes seven or eight hun-
the reason, that it was the best fish for dred are captured at a single haul; but,
making their sarum., a kind of pickle or from fifty to one hundred is the most usual
sauce much esteemed by this luxurious number, even in a favourable season.
people. They are also taken in weirs, which are
22. Salmon Fishery . —The salmon is a inclosures so constructed that they admit
celebrated fish, belonging to the trout ge- the ingress, but not the regress, of the fish.

nus. It inhabits the seas on the European The salmon fisheries are numerous
26.
coasts, from Spitzbergen to Western inGreat Britain and Ireland, as well as in
France ;
and, on the western shore of the most of the northern countries of Europe.
Atlantic, it is found from Greenland to the In the United States, the most valuable
Hudson It also abounds on both
river. fisheries of this kind are on the rivers in
coasts of the North Pacific Ocean. The Maine, whence the towns and cities farther

length of full-grown salmon, is from four south are principally supplied with these
to six feet ; and their weight, from ten to fish, in a fresh condition. They are pre-
fifteen pounds. served in ice, while on their way to mar-
23. As soon as the ice has left the rivers, ket. In the cured state, the salmon is

the salmon begin to ascend them, for the highly esteemed, although it is not easily
purpose of depositing their spawn. It has digested.
been ascertained, that these fish retain a 27. Cod Fishery . —There are several
remarkable attachment to the river which species of cod-fish, or gadus ;
but the most
gave them birth and, having once depo-
;
important and interesting of the class,

sited their spawn, they ever afterwards is the common cod. These fish are found
choose the same spot for their annual in great abundance on the south and west
deposits. This latter fact has been estab- coasts of Iceland, on the coasts of Norway,
lished by a curious Frenchman, who, fasten- off the Orkney and Western Isles, and in
ing a ring to the posterior fin of several the Baltic sea. Farther south, they gra-
salmon, and then setting them at liberty, dually diminish in numbers ;
and entirely
THE FISHERMAN. 95

disappear, some distance from the Straits to another part of the vessel, and again
of Gibraltar. salted in the same manner. The fisher-
28. But the great rendezvous of cod-fish men from New-England, however, give
ison the coasts of Labrador, the banks of them but one salting while on the fishing
Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Nova station ;
but, as soon as a cargo has been
Scotia. They are invited to these situa- obtained, it is carried home, where con-
tions by the abundance of small fish, worms, veniences have been prepared for curing
and other marine animals of the crusta- the fish, to greater advantage. By pursu-
oeous and testaceous kinds, on. which they ing this plan, two or three trips are made
feed. The fishermen resort, in the great- during the season. Some of the fish are
est numbers, to the banks, which stretch injured before they are taken from the ves-
along the eastern coasts of Newfoundland sel; and these form an inferior quality,
about four hundred and fifty miles. The called Jamaica fish, because such are
water on these banks varies from twenty generally sold in that island, for the use
to fiftyfathoms in depth. of the slaves.
29. By negociations with Great Britain, 32. The fish which are caught on the
the French, Dutch, Spanish, and Ameri- coasts of Labrador, at the entrance of Hud-
cans, have acquired the right to catch and son’s Bay, in the Straits of Belleisle, and
cure fish, both on the Grand Banks and on fishing stations of similar advantages,
several other places on the coasts of the are cured on the shore. They are first
English possessions in North America. The slightly salted, and then dried in the sun,
number of vessels employed on the seve- either on the rocks, or on scaffolds erected
ral fishing stations, during each successive for the purpose. In these coast fisheries,
season, amounts to six or seven thousand, the operations commence in June, and con-
each measuring from forty to one hundred tinue until some time in August. The cod
and twenty tons, and carrying eight or ten are caught in large seines, as well as with
men. hook and line.
30. The fishing on the Grand Banks Beal Fishery.—There are several
33.
commences in April, and continues until species of the seal but the kind which is
;

about the first of August. Here, the fish most numerous, and most important in a
are caught exclusively with hooks, which commercial view, is the common seal. It
are usually baited with a small fish called isfound on the sea-coasts throughout the
the capelin, as well as with herring, clams, world, but in the greatest numbers in very
and the gills of the cod itself but this fish
: cold climates, where it furnishes the rude
is not very particular in its choice of bait, inhabitants with nearly all their necessa-
biting greedily at almost any kind which riesand luxuries.
may be presented. An expert fisherman 34. The animal is valuable to the civili-
will frequently catch from one to three zed world, on account of its skin and oil.
hundred cod in a single day. The oil is pure, and is adapted to all the
31. As soon as the fish have been caught, purposes to which that from the whale is
their heads are cut off, and their entrails applied. In the spring of the year, the
taken out they are then salted away in
: seals are very fat ;
and, at that time, even
bulk, in the hold and, after having lain
; small ones will yield four or five gallons of
three or four days to drain, they are taken oil. The leather manufactured from the
:

96 THE FISHERMAN.

skins, is employed in trunk-making, sad- as soon as convenient, are separated from


dlery, and in making boots and shoes. the blubber, and the latter is put into casks.
35. Since the whale fishery has declined There are other methods of capturing the
in productiveness in the northern seas, seal; but it is, perhaps, not necessary to
sealing has arisen in importance ;
and ac- enter into further details.
cordingly, vessels are now frequently fitted 39. Whale Fishery . —There are five
out for this purpose, both in Europe and species of the whale, of which the Balcena
America; whereas, a few years since, it Physalis, or razor-back, is the largest
was regarded only as a part of the objects When grown, it is supposed to be
full
of a whaling voyage. about one hundred feet in length, and
36. Our countrymen of New-England thirty or thirty-five feet in circumference.
have particularly distinguished themselves It is so powerful an animal, that it is ex-
in this branch of business and the part of
;
tremely difficult to capture it ;
and, when
the globe which they have found to be the captured, it yields but little oil and whale-
most favourable to their objects, has been bone. The species to which whalers direct
the islands in the Antarctic ocean. A their attention, is denominated the Myste-
sealing voyage to that quarter often occu- cetus, or the right whale.
pies three years, during which time the 40. The mystecetus is found, in the
hunters are exposed to great hardships, greatest numbers, in the Greenland seas,
being often left in small detachments on about the island of Spitzbergen, in Davis’
desolate islands, for the purpose of pursu- Straits, inHudson’s and Baffin’s Bays, and
ing the animals to greater advantage. in the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean.
37. The best time for sealing in the Arc- It is also found in the Antarctic Ocean,
tic ocean, is in March and April, when the and along the coasts of Africa and South
seals are often met with in droves of seve- America, and occasionally on the coasts of
ral thousands on the ice, which is either the United States.
fixed, or floating in large pieces. When 41. Each vessel engaged In this fishery,
the sealers meet with one of these droves, is generally fitted out by several individu-

they attack the animals with clubs, and als, who receive, of the return cargo of oil
stun them by a single blow on the nose. and whale-bone, in proportion to the amount
After all that can be reached, have been which they have contributed to the com-
disabled in this way, the skin and blubber mon stock, after the men have received
are taken off together. their proportion of it. Should the voyage
38. This operation is called flenching, prove altogether unsuccessful, which sel-
and sometimes a horrible business since
is ; dom happens, the owners lose the amount
some of the seals, being merely stunned, of the outfit, and the captain and hands
occasionally recover, and, in their denuded their time.
state, often make battle, and even leap into 42. The whalers commence operations
the water, and swim off! The skins, with in the northern latitudes, in the month of
the blubber attached to them, are packed May ;
but the whales are most plentiful in
away in the hold ;
and, in case the vessel June, when they are met with between
is to return home soon, they are suffered the latitudes 75° and 80°, in almost every
to remain there, until she arrive in port variety of situation ;
sometimes in the open
but, when this is not expected, the skins, seas, at others in the loose ice, or at the
THE FISHERMAN. 9?

edges of the fields and fioes, which are and sometimes nearly an hour. Tne har-
near the main, impervious body of ice. poon has, near its point, two barbs or with-
43. On the fishing station, the boats are ers, which cause it to remain fast in the
kept always ready for instant service, being- integuments under the skin and the rope ;

suspended from davits or cranes by the attached to it, is coiled in the bow of the
sides of the ship, and being furnished with boat, in such a way that it runs out without
a lance and a harpoon, to the latter of interruption. When more line is wanted,
which is attached about one hundred and it is made known to the other boats by the
twenty fathoms of strong but flexible rope. elevation of an oar. Should the rope prove
When the weather and situation are fa- too short for the great descent of the whale,
vourable, the crow's-nest ,
which is a station it becomes necessary from the
to sever it

at the mast-head, is occupied by some per- drawn under water:


boat, lest the latter be
son with a telescope. for this emergency, the harpooner stands
44. The moment a wdiale is discovered, ready with a knife.
notice given to the watch below, who
is 47. When whale reappears, the
the
instantly man one or two boats, and row assisting boats make
for the place with
with swiftness to the place. Sometimes, a their greatest speed, and, if possible, each
boat iskept manned and afloat near the harpooner plunges his weapon into the
ship, that no time may be lost in making back of the creature. On convenient oc-
ready ;
or, two or three are sent out on the casions, he is also plied with lances, which
look-out having every thing ready for the
,
vitals. At length, over-
are thrust into his
attack. come with wounds, and exhausted by the
The whale being very timid and
45. loss ol blood, his approaching dissolution is
cautious, the men endeavour to approach indicated by a discharge of blood from his
him unperceived, and strike him with the blow-holes, and sometimes by a convulsive
harpoon, before he aware of their pre-
is struggle, in which his tail, raised, whirled,
sence. Sometimes, however, he perceives and jerked in the air, resounds to the dis-
their approach, and dives into the water, tance of several miles. The whale having
to avoid them; but, being compelled to been thus conquered, and deprived of life,
come again to the surface to breathe, or, the captors express their joy with loud
as it is termed, to blow, they make another huzzas, and communicate the information
effort toharpoon him. In this way, the to the ship by striking their flag.
whalers often pursue him for a considera- 48. A position near a large field of solid
ble time, and frequently without final suc- ice is very advantageous, because a whale
cess. The animal, when unmolested, re- diving under it is obliged to return again,
mains about two minutes on the surface, to blow and this circumstance gives op-
;

during which time he blows eight or nine portunity to make upon him several attacks.
times,and then descends for five or ten Close fields of drift ice present great diffi-
minutes, and often, while feeding, for fif- culties, since the boats cannot always pass
teen or twenty. through them, with sufficient celerity in :

46. When the whale has been struck, that case, the men sometimes travel over
he generally dives towards the bottom of the ice, leaping from one piece to another,
the sea, either perpendicularly or obliquely, and carrying with them lances and har-
where he remains about thirty minutes, poons, with which they pierce the animal
13
:

98 THE FISHERMAN.

as often as possible. If they succeed in filter, or strainer, in retaining the little


52.
thus killing him, they drag him back under animals, while the water passes off at the
the ice, with the fast line. corners of the mouth.
49. The whale, having been towed to Before the whalers leave the fishing
the ship, and secured alongside, is raised station, they cut the blubber into small
a little by means of powerful blocks, or pieces, and put it into close casks. Some-
tackle. The
harpooners, with spurs fast- times, however, when the ship has been
ened bottom of their feet, to prevent
to the very successful, there is a deficiency of
them from slipping, descend upon the huge casks: in that case, it is slightly salted,
body, and, with spades and knives adapted and packed away in the hold. But as the
to this particular purpose, cut the blubber ship must necessarily pass through a warm-
into oblong pieces,which are peeled off, er climate, on her voyage homeward, the
and hoisted upon deck with the speck- blubber, while packed in this manner, is
tackle. These long strips are then cut into liable to melt and be wasted, unless the
chunks, which are immediately packed weather should prove uncommonly cool.
away in the hold. After the animal has - 53. When the vessel has arrived in port,

been thus successfully flenched, and the the blubber is found to be melted. To
whale-bone taken out, the carcase is dis- separate the oil from the fritters, or fenks,
missed to the sharks, bears, and birds of as the integuments and other impurities
prey. are called, the contents of the casks are
50. The blubber is somewhat similar, poured into copper boilers, and heated:
in consistence, to the fat which surrounds the heat causes a part of the latter to sink
the body of the hog, although not quite to the bottom, and the former is drawn off
so solid. In young whales, its colour is into coolers, where other extraneous mat-
yellowish white ;
and, in old ones, yellow ters settle. The pure or fine oil is then
or red. Its thickness varies in different drawn off, for sale. An inferior quality of
parts, and in different individuals, from oil, called brown oil, is obtained from the
eight to twenty inches.. The weight of dregs of the blubber.
a whale sixty feet in length, is about seven- 54. The spermaceti cachalot, or Physe-
ty tons, of which the blubber weighs about ter is an animal belonging
Macrocephalus,
thirty tons. to the norwal genus, although it is gene-
51. The whale-bone is situated in the rally denominated the spermaceti whale.
mouth. About three hundred laminae, or It is found in the greatest abundance in

blades, grow parallel to each other on either the Pacific Ocean, where it is sought by
side of the upper jaw, being about half an American, and other whalers, for the sake
inch thick, and ten or twelve inches wide, of the oil and spermaceti. This animal is
where they are united by the gum. As gregarious, and is often met with in herds
the whale grows old, they increase in containing more than two hundred indi-
length, and approach from each side to viduals.
the roof of the mouth. The whale, while 55. Whenever anumber of the cacha-
feeding,swims with his mouth wide open, lot are seen, several boats, manned eachi
which admits a great quantity of water with six men, provided with harpoons and'
containing insects, or small fish, on which lances, proceed in pursuit and, if possible,
;

he subsists. The whale-bone acts as a each boat strikes or fastens to a distinct:


THE FISHERMAN. 99

animal, which, in most cases, is overcome Greenland seas, soon became scarce about
without much difficulty. Being towed to that island.
the ship,it is deprived of its blubber, and 59. The whale fishery was revived, as
the matter contained in the head, which above stated, about the beginning of the
consists of spermaceti combined with a seventeenth century and, with the Dutch,
;

small proportion of oil. The oil is reduced it was in the most flourishing condition in

from the blubber, soon after it has been 1680, when it employed about two hundred
taken on board, in “ try works,” with which and sixty ships, and fourteen thousand
every ship engaged in this fishery is pro- men. Tire wars at the end of the eigh-
vided. teenth, and the beginning of the nineteenth
56. About three tons of oil are commonly centuries, extending their baleful influence
obtained from a large cachalot of this spe- to almost every part of the ocean, annihi-
cies, and from one to two tons from a small lated this branch of business, among the
one, besides the head-matter. The man- Dutch ;
and, in 1828, only a single whale-
ner in which these two products are treat- ship sailed from Holland.
ed, when brought into port, has been de- 60. The English whale fishery was, at
scribed in the article on candle-making. first, carried on by companies enjoying
57. The Biscayans were the first people exclusive privileges ;
but the pursuit w^as
who prosecuted the whale fishery, as a attended with little success. In 1732,
commercial pursuit In the twelfth, thir- Parliament decreed a bounty of twenty
teenth, and fourteenth centuries, they car- on every whaler measur-
shillings per ton,
ried on this business to a considerable ing more than two hundred tons ; and, al-
extent; hut the -whales taken by them though this bounty was increased in 1749
were not so large as those which have to forty shillings, yet theEnglish whale
since been captured in the polar seas. At fishery has never been very flourishing.
length, the -whales ceased to visit the Bay 61. The whale fishery has been carried
of Biscay, and the fishery in that quarter on with greater success from the United
was of course terminated, States, than from any other country. It
58. The voyages of the English and was begun by the colonists, on their own
Dutch to the Northern Ocean, in search shores, at a very early period ;
but the
of a passage to India, led to the discovery whales having abandoned the coasts of
of the principal haunts of the whale, and North America, these hardy navigators
induced individuals in those nations to fit pursued them into the northern and south-
out vesselsto pursue these animals in the ern oceans.
Northern latitudes, the harpooners and 62. The number of American vessels
part of the crews being Biscayans. The now employed in pursuit of the spermaceti
whales were found in the greatest abun- cachalot, and the mystecetus, amounts to
dance, about the island of Spitzbergen, and about four hundred, employing ten thou-
were, at first, so easily captured, that extra sand men. The inhabitants of the island
vessels were sent out in ballast, to assist of Nantucket, and of the town of New-
In bringing home the oil and whalebone Bedford, are more extensively engaged in
but the whales, retiring to the centre of these fisheries than the people of any other
the ocean, and to the other side, to the parts of the United States.
1. The earliest notice we have of the added a mast of acanthus, and a sail of
construction of a building to float on water, papyrus; but, being prejudiced against
is that which relates to Noah’s Ark. This the sea, because it swallowed up their
was the largest vessel that has ever been sacred river, which they wnre accustomed
built, and the circumstance proves that the to worship as a god, they never attempted
arts, at that early period, had been brought to construct vessels adapted to marine
tc considerable perfection :
yet, as several navigation.
centuries had elapsed, after the flood, before 3. The Phoenicians, a nation nearly as
the descendants of Noah had much occasion ancient as the Egyptian, being situated
for floating vessels, the art of constructing directly on the sea, without the advantages
them seems to have been measurably lost. of a noble river, were compelled to provide
2.Early records, which perhaps are means for sailingon a wider expanse of
worthy of credit, state that the Egyptians water. It is said, however, that they first
first traversed the river Nile upon rafts, traversed the Mediterranean, and even
then in the canoe and that, to these suc-
;
visited distant islands, with no better means
ceeded the boat, built with joist, fastened of conveyance than a raft of timber. This
together with wooden pins, and rendered is rendered somewhat probable, from the

water-tight by interposing the leaves of fact, that the Peruvians, even at the pre-

the papyrus. To this boat was, at length, sent time, venture upon the Pacific Ocean
THE SHIPWRIGHT. 101

on their balza, a raft made from a spongy 7. The general size of vessels in the
tree of that name. best days of antiquity, was not greater
4. The vessels first constructed by the than that of our sloops and schooners but ;

Phoenicians, were used for commercial there are instances on record, which prove
purposes: they were flat-bottomed, broad, that they occasionally equalled in capacity
and of a small draught; and the Car- the largest of modern times. In the early
thaginians and Greeks likewise adopted ages, they were very small, and, for seve-
this general shape. The ships of war, in ral centuries, 'Were drawn upon the shore
early were generally mere row-
times, at the termination of every voyage. Strand-
boats, in which the combatants rushed ing, however, became impracticable, after
upon each other, and decided the combat the increase in size, and the addition of the
by valour and physical strength. keel. The anchor and cable were there-
5. By successive
improvements, the fore invented, to confine the ship at a suit-
ships of antiquity were, at length, brought able distance from the shore. At first, the
to combine good proportion with consider- anchor was nothing more than a large
able beauty. The prows were sometimes stone afterwards, it was wood and stone
:

ornamented with the sculptured figures of combined and finally, iron was the sole
;

the heathen deities, and otherwise adorned material.


with paint and gilding while the sterns,
;
8. The invasion of the Roman empire
which were usually in the form of a shield, by the northern barbarians, caused the
were elaborately wrought in carved work. operations of war to be almost exclusively
The approved length of a ship of war, was conducted on the land : this, together with
six or eight times its breadth; and that the destruction of commerce during the
for mercantile purposes, four times the general desolation of those ruthless incur-
breadth: hence, the distinction of long sions, and the barbarism of the conquerors,
ships, and round ships. occasioned a retrogression, and, in some
6. Both the long and round ships had a parts of Europe, nearly the total destruc-
single mast, which could be taken down tion of the art of building ships.
or elevated at pleasure. These vessels 9. The active trade which arose in the
were, however, propelled with oars on Mediterranean, during the middle ages,
occasions that required it ; and the former, and the naval enterprises connected with
in their improved state, were properly gal- the Crusades, occasioned a revival of the
leys with one, two, or three banks of oars, art of constructing ships; yet, it did not
which extended from one end of the vessel advance beyond the condition in which
to the other. The rowers were all placed the Carthaginians had left it, until about
under the deck and, in time of battle, the
; the middle of the fourteenth century. At
combatants contended above, being in part this era, the inconsiderable galleys of for*
defended from the missiles of opposing mer times began to be superseded by larger
foes by shields, and additionally by screens vessels, in which,however, oars were not
and towers covered with raw hides. The entirely disused.
bow of each vessel was armed with a 10. The
great change in the general
brazen or iron beak, with which the con- construction of vessels, arose from the dis-
tending parties often stove in the sides of covery of the polarity of the magnet, and
each other’s vessels. the application of astronomy to nautical
12
102 THE SHIPWRIGHT.

pursuits ;
for, by these means, the mariner oak, pine, chestnut, locust, and cedar.
was released from his dependence on a The trees of mature growth are chosen,
sight of the land, in guiding his vessel on and girdled in the beginning of winter, at
its course. Larger ships were therefore which time they contain but little sap:
constructed, capable of withstanding the when sufficiently dry and hardened, the
power of more violent storms and loftier trees are felled ;
and, after the timber has
waves. been roughly hewn, it is carefully stored
11. To the Italians, Catalans, and Por- in some dry, airy place, not much exposed
tuguese, was ship-building most consider- to wind or sun,
ably indebted, in the early days of its 15. In collecting ship-timber, the great-
revival. The Spaniards followed up their est found in procuring the
difficulty is

discovery of the New World with a rapid crooked sticks, which form the sides or
improvement both in the form and size of ribs of the skeleton of a vessel. In coun-
their ships some of which even rated at
;
tries where ship-timber has become an
two thousand tons burden. In more mo- object of careful cultivation, this difficulty
dern times, it is said, that the Spaniards is anticipated by bending the young trees
and French are entitled to the credit of to the desired form, and confining them
nearly all the improvements which have there, until they have permanently re-
been made in the theory of the art the ; ceived the proper inclination. The timber
English having never contributed essen- is brought to market in its rough state, and
tially to advance it, although the greatest sold by the foot.
naval power of this or any other time. 16. The timber having been selected,
12. In the United States, very great the workmen proceed to fashion the va-
improvements have been made in the con- rious parts of the proposed vessel, with
struction of vessels, since the commence- appropriate tools, being guided in their
ment of the present century. Our build- operations by patterns, which have been
ers, however, are less guided by scientific made after the exact form of the various
rules than by experience and a practised parts of the model. Much care is taken
eye yet, it is generally conceded, that
;
to avoid cutting the wood contrary to the
our ships of war and first-rate merchant- grain, that its strength may not be impaired.
men, are superior, in swiftness and beauty, 17. After all the parts of the frame have
to those of any other country. been made ready, they are put together.
13. In Europe, the first thing done The several blocks of timber on which the
towards building a vessel, is to exhibit it vessel is raised, are called the stocks ; and
in three distinct views, by as many sepa- to these pieces, the foundation, called the

rate drawings; United States,


but, in the keel, istemporarily fastened, in an inclined
the builder commences by framing a com- position. The keel is inserted into the
plete wooden model of the proposed con- stern-post at one end, and into the stem at
struction, —the thing itself in miniature. the other. The floor-timbers are next
From this practice of our naval architects, fixed in the keel, every other one being
have arisen the superior beauty and excel- there firmly bolted and riveted. Each of
lence of our vessels. these timbers is a branch and part of the
14. The timber generally used in the body of a tree; and, when composing a
construction of American vessels, is live- part of a vessel, they hear the same rela-
THE SHIPWRIGHT. 103

tion to it as the ribs to the human body timber, erected cne on each side of the
with equal propriety, the keel has been few feet from it,
keel, at a distance of a
compared to the vertebral column, or back- and extending from the stem into the
bone. water. Upon this double platform, which
18. The next step is to apply and fasten is called the ways is erected another set
,

the planks, which serve not only to exclude of timbers, and the space between these
the water, but to bind all the parts firmly and the vessel is filled all along with
and harmoniously together. Simple as this wedges. The whole of this superstructure
part of the operation may seem to be, it is is called the cradle, and the extremities of

the most difficult to be effected, and re- it are fastened to the keel, at the bow and

quires a preconcerted plan as much as any stern, with chains and ropes. ?

other part of the fabric. When it is ne- 22. Every thing having been thus pre-
cessary to bend a plank at the bow or stern, pared, the wedges are simultaneously
heated by steam, and then forced into
it is driven on both sides : by
means, the
this
place with screws and levers. The planks vessel is raised from the stocks, and made
are fastened with iron or copper bolts. to rest entirely on the cradle. After the
19. The planking having been finished, shores have been all removed, the cradle,
and several particulars attended to, which with its weighty burden, begins to move
cannot be well understood from description, and, in a moment, the vessel is launched
the vessel is ready for the work of the upon its destined element.
caulker ,
who carefully stops all the seams 23. Among the ancients, a launch was
with oakum, and smears them with pitch. ever an occasion of great festivity. The
After the scraper has cleared away the mariners were crowned with wreaths, and
superfluous pitch, water is pumped into the ship was bedecked with streamers and
the hold, to ascertain if there be any leak. garlands. Safely afloat, she was purified
20. The bottom of the vessel is next with a lighted torch, an egg, and brim-
sheathed, either with sheets of copper or- stone; and solemnly consecrated to the
pine boards, to protect it from the worms god whose image she bore. In our less
the latter materials are employed when poetic times, there is no lack of feasting
the planks have been fastened with iron and merriment, although the ceremony of
since the copper would cause the bolt- consecration is different ;
the oldest sailor
heads to corrode, if placed against them. on board merely breaking a bottle of wine
In either case, sheets of paper, soaked in or rum over the figure-head, —still, per-
hot pitch, are interposed between the chance, the image of father Neptune, or
planks and the sheathing. Apollo.
21. The vessel is now ready to be re- 24. The now brought to the
vessel,
moved from the stocks to the water. This wharf, is to be equipped. The mode of
removal is called launching, which, in doing this, is varied according as it may be
many cases, requires much skill in the a ship, brig, hermaphrodite brig, schooner,
preparation, and successive management. or sloop. The masts are first erected, and
If there isno permanent inclined plane in these are supplied with the necessary ap-
the slip, on which the vessel may glide paratus of spars, rigging, and sails. The
into the water, a temporary one is pre- latter are furnished by the sail-maker, who
pared, consisting of two platforms of solid is sometimes denominated the ship's tailor.
THE MARINER.
1. The business of the mariner consists we are indebted to the exercise of this art,
in navigating ships, and other vessels, from for those improvements in our condition,
one port to another. This is an employ- which arise from the exchange of the
ment that requires much decisive resolu- superfluities of one country for those of
tion and Horace
;
has well said, that “ his another and, above all, for the interchange
;

breast must have been bound with oak and of sentiments, which renders human know-
triple brass, who first committed his frail ledge coextensive with the world.
bark to the tempestuous sea.” There is 3. Ship-building is so intimately con-
certainly nothing which speaks louder in nected with the art of navigation, that the
praise of human ingenuity, than that art historical part of the former subject is
by which man is able to forsake the land, equally applicable to the latter it is, there-
:

contend successfully with winds and waves, fore, unnecessary to be particular on this
and reach, with unerring certainty, his point. We shall merely supply some omis-
destined port in some distant part of the sions in the preceding article.
world. 4. The sailors of antiquity confined their
2. Nor are the skill and intrepidity ex- navigation chiefly to the rivers, lakes, and
hibited in this arduous employment, more inland seas; seldom venturing out of sight
worthy of our admiration, than the won- of land, unless, from their knowledge of
derful advantages resulting from it; for, the coasts ahead, they were certain to
THE MARINER. 105

meet with it again in a short time. When 7. Having escaped the multiplied dan-
they thus ventured from the land, or were gers of the sea, the sailors, on their return,
driven from it by tempests, the stars and fulfilled the vows which they had made
planets were their only guides. before their departure, or in seasons of
5. The qualifications of a skilful pilot peril; offering thanks to Neptune, and
or master, even for the Mediterranean seas, some other of their
sacrifices to Jupiter, or
in those days, required more study, and gods, to whose protection they may have
more practical information, than are ne- committed themselves. Those who had
cessary to render a mariner a complete suffered shipwreck, felt themselves under
general navigator, in the present improved greater obligations of gratitude; and, in
state of the science of navigation ; for then addition to the usual sacrifices, they com-
he must needs be acquainted, not only with monly offered the garment in which they
the general uB. nagement of the ship, but had been saved, together with a pictorial
also with all the ports, land-marks, rocks, representation of the disaster. If the in-
quicksands, and other dangers, which lay dividual escaped only with life, his clothing
in the track of his course. Besides this, having been totally lost, his hair was shorn
he was required to be familiar with the from the head, and consecrated to the
course of the winds, and the indications tutelar deity.
that preceded them; together with the 8. There is much that is beautiful in
movements of the heavenly bodies, and the these simple acts of piety; and similar
influence which they were supposed to customs, with regard to shipwrecked mari-
exert on the weather nor was the ability
; ners, are still in existence in the Catholic
to read the various omens which were countries of the Mediterranean; but the
gathered from the sighing of the wind in worship of the heathen deities having been
the trees, the murmurs of the waters and discontinued, a favourite saint, or perchance
their dash upon the shore, the flight of the true God, is substituted for them.
birds, and the gambol of fishes, a qualifica- Although such acts of piety may not avail
tion to be dispensed with. to avert impending danger, yet their natu-
6. A
voyage, in ancient times, was a ral tendency doubtless is to inspire courage
momentous undertaking, and was usually to meet it, when it may arise.
preceded by sacrifices to those gods who 9. The Carthaginians, for several cen-
were supposed to preside over the winds were more extensively engaged in
turies,
and the waves. All omens were carefully commerce, than any other people of an-
regarded and a very small matter, such
; tiquity; and, as they carried on their
as the perching of swallows on the ship, lucrative trade with other nations, and
or an accidental sneeze to the left, was their own colonies, by means of ships, they
sufficient to delay departure. When, un« exceeded all others in the art of navigation.
! der proper auspices, a vessel or fleet had Not content with exploring every nook
:
set sail,and had advanced some distance, and corner of the Mediterranean, they
it was customary to release a number of passed the Pillars of Hercules, as the pro-
I doves, which had been brought from heme montories of the Straits of Gibraltar were
the safe arrival of these birds, at the houses then called, and visited the Atlantic coasts
of the voyagers, was considered an aus- of Europe, as far north as the Scilly
picious omen of the return of the fleet. Islands, then denominated the Cassorides,
14
;: —

106 THE MARINER.

It is asserted by Pliny, that Hanno even sails alone were relied upon, as means of
circumnavigated Africa. propulsion.
10. The destruction of Carthage by the 14. Navigation, in the early days of its
Romans, in the year before Christ 146, revival, was indebted to the Portuguese
interfered with improvements in the art of for many valuable improvements. To them,
navigation and the invasion of the north-
: also, is the world under obligation for many

ern barbarians, several centuries after- splendid discoveries; among which was
wards, extinguished nearly all the know- that of a passage by sea to India. This
ledge which had been previously acquired long-desired discovery was made in 1497,
nor was it again revived, and brought to by Yasco de Gama, who had been sent out
the state in which it existed in the flourish- for the purpose by Emanuel, king of Por-
ing era of antiquity, until about the middle tugal.
of the fourteenth century. 15. Five years before Yasco de Gama
11. After the period just mentioned, im- had found his way to India, by the way of
provements in this art followed each other the Cape of Good Hope, Columbus made
in close succession. The chief cause of his discovery of the New World. This
this rapid advance, was the discovery of great man had conceived or adopted the
the polarity of the magnet,' and the conse- idea, that the form of our earth was spheri-
quent invention of the mariner’s compass. cal; —contrary to the generally received
The power of the loadstone to attract iron, opinion, that it was an extended plane ;

was early known to the Greeks and Chi- and learning that India stretched to an
nese ;
but its property of pointing in a unknown distance eastward, he supposed
particular direction, when suspended and that, by sailing in an opposite direction,
left to move freely, was not suspected until the navigator would meet with its eastern
about the year 1200 of our era. extremity.
12. At first, mariners were accustomed 16. Pursuing he applied suc-
this idea,
to place the magnetic needle on a floating cessively to the governments of several
straw, whenever they needed its guidance states and kingdoms, for patronage to ena-
but, in 1302, one Flavio Giaio, an obscure ble him to test its correctness ;
and having,
kingdom of Naples, placed
individual of the at length, succeeded in obtaining three
it on a permanent pivot, and added a cir- small vessels, with the necessary equip-
cular card still, it was nearly half a cen-
: ments, from Ferdinand and Isabella, sove-
tury after this, before navigators properly reigns of Arragon and Castile, he proceed-
appreciated, and implicitly relied on, this ed on his proposed voyage, which resulted
new guide. The compass did not reach American continent
in the discovery of the
its present improved state, until the middle 17. These two great discoveries gave
of the sixteenth century. another powerful impulse to navigation;
13. As soon as the reputation of this and inventions and improvements multi-
instrument had become well established, plied in rapid succession. The learned
navigation assumed a bolder character; and ingenious, who at different times have
and the capacity of vessels having been turned their attention to the subject of na-
enlarged to meet this adventurous spirit, vigation, have supplied the mariner with
oars were laid aside as inapplicable, and various means, by which he can direct hjg
THE MARINER. 107

course on the deep with accuracy and where it by the wake


will not be disturbed
certainty. of the ship; and the cord, being wound
18. The instruments now employed in upon a reel, passes from it as fast as the
navigation, are the mariner’s compass, the vessel moves in the water. The number
azimuth compass, the quadrant, the sex- of knots, which pass off every half minute,
tant, the chronometer, the half minute- indicates the number of miles which the
glass, the log, and the sounding-line. In ship sails per hour
hence, in nautical lan-
:

addition to these, the general navigator guage, knots and miles are synonymous
needs accurate maps and charts, lists of terms. The sounding-line is a small cord,
the latitude and longitude of every part of with several pounds of lead of a conical
the world, the time of high water at every figure attached to it and is employed in
;

port, and a book of navigation, containing trying the depth of the water, and the
tables, to aid him in performing various quality of the bottom.
calculations with facility; and, with a 21. Navigation is either common or pro-
view to calculate the longitudeby obser- per. The former is usually called coast-
vation, he should be furnished with the ing, as the vessel is either on the same or
Nautical Almanac, containing the places neighbouring coast,, and is seldom far from
and declinations of the fixed stars and land, or out of sounding. The latter is
planets, and especially the distances of the applied to long voyages upon the main
moon from the sun and other heavenly ocean, when considerable skill in mathe-
bodies. matics and astronomy, together with an
19. The mariner’s compass, as has been aptness in the use of instruments for celes-
before observed, is employed to indicate tial observations, are required in the cap-
the various points of the horizon ;
but the tain or master.
magnetic needle varying more or less from 22. The application of steam to the pur-
the exact northern and southern direction, poses of navigation, is one of the greatest

the azimuth compass is used, to show the advantages that science has bestowed upon
degree of that variation. The quadrant this art. In point of economy, however,
and sextant are employed to ascertain the steam-boats have not yet been able to com-
altitude and relative position of the heavenly pete extensively with vessels propelled by
bodies, that the mariner may determine the sails, except in the conveyance of passen-

latitude and longitude in which his vessel gers ;


and even in this case, their applica-
may be. The chronometer is nothing tion has hitherto been chiefly confined to
more than a watch, designed to measure rivers, lakes, bays, and arms of the sea
time with great accuracy. This instru- although the practicability of navigating
ment is used to determine the longitude. the ocean by steam, has been proved by
20. The log is used for ascertaining the actual experiment.
velocity of the ship on the water. It con- 23. The
chief obstacle to the employ-
sists of a quadrangular piece of wood, eight ment of steam, in long voyages, arises
or nine inches long, to which is attached from the generating a suffi-
difficulty of
a small cord, having knots in it, at proper cient quantity of this agent, with the fuel
distances from each other. In the appli- which could be carried without overbur-
cation, the log is thrown upon the water, thening the vessel but a remedy for this
;
; ;

108 THE MARINER.


inconvenience will probably be found, in gaged in the national service. This noble
improvements in the construction of steam- and politic institution is supported partly
generators. by public bounty, and in part by private
24. The power of confined steam acting donations, and a tax of sixpence per month,
by its expansive force, was discovered by deducted from the wages of all the seamen
the celebrated Marquis of Worcester, about of the nation. Marine Hospitals, for the
the middle of the seventeenth century temporary accommodation of seamen, suf-
but the first working steam-engine was fering from disease, have been established
constructed 1705, by Thomas New-
in in several cities of the continent of Europe,
comer, a blacksmith of Dartmouth, Devon- as well as of the United States.
shire, England. About the year 1769, 28. Mariners have ever been a distinct
James Watt, a native of Glasgow, added class of men, and in their general charac-
a great number of improvements, of his ters very similar in every age of the world.
own invention. Their superstitious regard of the many
25. Steam navigation was first suggest- signs of good and bad luck, is nearly the
ed in England, in 1736, by Jonathan Hulls. same now that it was two or three thou-
It was first tried in practice in France, in sand years ago. In ancient times, they
1782, by the Marquis de Jouffroy, and had their lucky and unlucky days and ;

nearly at the same time by James Rumsey, now, very few sailors are willing to leave
of Virginia, and John Fitch, of Philadel- port on Friday, lest the circumstance bring
phia ;
but it was
rendered completely
first upon them some disaster, before the con-
successful at New- York, in 1807, by Robert clusion of the proposed voyage.
Fulton. 29. Superstitions of this nature, how-
26. The sailors employed by the captain, ever, are not confined to the navigators of
to aid him in navigating his ship, are called the deep. Even in this country, where the
a crew and the individuals composing it inhabitants enjoy superior intellectual ad-
are responsible to the captain, the captain vantages, and boast a high degree of intel-
to the owners, and the owners to the mer- ligence, thousands of persons who have
chants, for alldamages arising from negli- never been on board of a ship, are still
gence, or bad management. under the influence of such heathen no-
27. In England, ample provisions are notwithstanding their pretended be-
tions,
made at Greenwich Hospital, or by pen- lief in Christianity, which, in all cases,
sions, for seamen disabled by age or other- when properly understood, would prevent
wise. These benefits, however, are ex- the forebodings of evil, or expectations of
tended only to those who have been en- good, from unimportant prognostics.
1. The word merchant, in its most ex- chant; a wholesale dealer in wines, is
tended application, signifies, a person who called a wine-merchant a West India,
;

deals in merchandise. This definition, East India, or Turkey merchant, exports


with some exceptions, agrees very well goods to, and imports goods from, those
with general usage in this country; al- respective countries.
though, in England, the term is principally 3. The
business of merchants, in foreign
restricted to those dealers who export and countries, is usually transacted by agents,
import goods on their own account, either called factors, or commission-merchants,
in their own or in chartered vessels. In to w hom goods
7
are consigned to be sold,
the United States, dealers of this class and by whom other articles of merchandise
are denominated importing and exporting are purchased, and returned according to
merchants ;
or simply, importers and ex- order. Sometimes an agent, called a
super-
porters. cargo, accompanies the vessel; or the
2. Such merchants, both here and in captain may
act in this capacity. Goods,
Europe, are distinguished from each other howmver, are often obtained by order, with-
by the bind of goods in which they traffic, or out the intervention of an agency of any
by the foreign country in which they have kind.
their chief correspondence thus, one who
:
4. Almost every
sort of merchandise
deals in tobacco is called a tobacco-mer- -
brought from a foreign country, is subject
no THE MERCHANT.

to the imposition of duties by the govern- that they often substitute for cash agricul-
ment of the country in which it is received. tural and other productions, which the
These duties are paid at the Custom-House merchant, at length, turns into ready
to persons appointed by the constituted au- money.
thorities to collect them. As soon as a 8. Barter, or the exchange of commodi-
vessel has entered the harbour from abroad, ties, prevails to a great extent, in country
visited by a custom-house officer, called
it is places, in almost every part of the United
a Tide-Waiter, whose business it is to see States. In such exchanges, the currency
that no part of the cargo be removed, until of the country is made the standard of
measures have been taken to secure the reference : example, a merchant re-
for
customs. ceiving from a customer twenty bushels
5. Goods brought into the country by of wheat, estimated atone dollar per
importers, are frequently sold, in succes- bushel, gives in return twenty dollars’
sion, to merchants of different
several worth of goods, at his marked prices or, ;

grades, before they come to the hands of in other words, he gives credit for the
the consumers. Cloths or stuffs, of differ- wheat, and charges the goods. On the
ent kinds, for instance, may be first sold same merchants of the first class
principle,
by the bale one merchant, who, in turn,
to often exchange the productions of their
may dispose of them by the package to own country for those of another.
another, and this last may retail them in 9. Merchants, or store-keepers, as they
small quantities to a greater number of are indifferently called in some places,
customers. whose location is distant from the sea-
Dealers in a small way, in cities and
6. board, visit the city in which they deal
large towns, are frequently denominated once or twice a year, for the purpose of
shop-keepers but those who do an exten-
;
laying in their stock of goods; but, in
sive retail business, are usually called order to keep up their assortment, they
merchants or grocers, according as they sometimes order small lots in the interim.
deal in dry goods or groceries. In cities, Retailers more conveniently situated, pur-
the extensive demand for goods enables chase a smaller amount of goods at a time,
retailers to confine their attention to par- and replenish their stores more frequently.
ticular classes of articles; such as gro- 10. Commerce, on the principles of bar-
ceries,hardware, crockery, a few kinds of ter, or a simple exchange of one com-
dry goods, or some articles of domestic modity for another, must have been prac-
manufacture: but in other places, where tised in the early days of Adam himself,
trade is more the merchant is
limited, although we have no positive record of the
obliged to keep a more general assortment. fact; for itcannot be imagined that the
7. The general retail merchant is com- arts, which are stated in the scripture to
pelled to transact business with a great have flourished long before the flood, could
number of wholesale dealers, to whom he have existed without commercial transac-
pays cash in hand, or agrees to pay it at tions. The period at which the precious
some future period ;
say, in four, six, nine, metals began to be employed as a standard
or twelve months. The people in his of value, or as a medium of commercial
vicinity, in turn, purchase his goods on intercourse, is not known. They were
similar conditions, —
with this difference, used for this purpose in the time of Abra-
;

THE MERCHANT. in
ham, and probably many centuries before limits to a very small territory, and com-
his day. pelled them to colonize a great number of
11. The earliest hint respecting the ex- their inhabitants.The colonies which they
istence of trade between different nations, formed in the various countries bordering
is to be found in the book of Genesis; upon the Mediterranean, and on the islands,
where the transaction regarding the sale enlarged the boundaries of civilization, and
of Joseph to the Ishmaelites or Midianites, greatly extended their trade.
is mentioned. These merchants, it appears, 15. The Phoenicians continued their
were travelling in a caravan to Egypt, colonial system for many centuries after
then the most cultivated and refined part the period just mentioned, and even ex-
of the world their camels were loaded
: tended it to the Atlantic coasts of Europe
with balm, myrrh, and spices. The first but the most distinguished of all their colo-
of these articles was the production of nies was the one which founded the city
Gilead; the second, of Arabia; and the of Carthage, on the northern coast of
last was probably from India, as in that Africa, about the year 869 before Christ.
country the finer spices are produced. If Elissa, or, as she is otherwise called, Dido,
this were commerce, in its
really the case, the reputed leader of this colony, makes
widest sense, was carried on much earlier a conspicuous figure in one of the books
than is generally supposed. of Virgil’s JSneid.
12. The fertility of Egypt, and its cen- 16. Carthage, adopting the same system
tral position, made an emporium of
it which had so long been pursued by the
commerce ;
and there it flourished, in an great cities of Phoenicia, arose, in a few
eminent degree, long before it was cul- centuries, to wealth and splendour: but
tivated in Europe and in Western Asia. changing, at length, her mercantile for a
For several ages, however, the Egyptians, military character, she ruled her depend-
on account of their superstitious prejudices ent colonies with a rod of despotism. This
against the sea, carried on no maritime produced a spirit of resistance on the part
commerce. of her distant subjects, who applied to
13. The Phoenicians were the first peo- Rome for aid to resist her tyranny. The
ple w ho used the Mediterranean sea, as a
T
consequence of this application was, the
highway for the transportation of mer- three “ Punic wr ars,” so renowned in his-
chandise. Tyre and Sidon were their tory, and which terminated in the destruc-
chief cities and the latter was called a
; tion of Carthage, in the year 146 before
great and the former a strong city, even
, the Christian era. During the first Punic
in the time of Joshua, fifteen hundred war, Carthage contained seven hundred
years before the advent of Christ. These thousand inhabitants; at its destruction,
people, in their original association as a scarcely five thousand were found within
nation, possessed but a small territory ;
and, its walls.
being surrounded by many powerful na- 17. The period of the greatest pros»
tions, they never attempted its enlarge- perity of Tyre, may be placed 588 years
ment on the land side. before Christ, at which time the remark-
14. The settlement of the Israelites in able prophecies of Ezekiel concerning it
the “Promised Land,” circumscribed their were delivered. Soon after this, it was
212 THE MERCHANT.

greatly injured by Nebuchadnezzar; and than commercial purposes. The city


for
was by Alexander the
finally destroyed of Corinth, however, had become wealthy
Great, about the year 332 before Christ. by the attention of its inhabitants to manu-
18. A new channel was opened to com- factures and trade; but it was destroyed
merce by the monarch just mentioned, he by the same barbarian people who, about
Raving founded a city in Egypt, to which this time, annihilated Carthage. Both of
Re gave the name of Alexandria. His these cities were afterwards favoured by
object seems to have been, to render this Julius Caesar; but they never regained
city the centre of the commercial world anything like their former importance.
and its commanding position, at the mouth 22. Rome having, at length, obtained
of the Nile, was well calculated to make the complete dominion of the Mediter-
it so, since it was easy of access from the ranean Sea, and the countries bordering
west by the Mediterranean, from the east upon it, as well as of many others more
by the Red Sea, and from the central coun- distant,and less easy of access, became
tries of Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. the great mart for the sale of merchandise
19. The plans of Alexander were car- of every description, from all parts of the
ried on with vigour by Ptolemy, who re- known world. For the various commodi-
ceived Egypt as his portion of the Mace- tiesbrought to the city, the Romans paid
donian empire, after the death of his master; gold and silver, as they had nothing else
and, by his liberality, he induced great to- export in return. The money which
numbers of people to settle in the new they had exacted as tribute, or which they
metropolis, for the purposes of trade. Far had obtained by plunder, was thus returned
south, on the Red Sea, he also founded a to the nations from which It had been taken.
city, which he called Berenice, and which 23. The subjected provinces continued to
he designed as a depot for the precious pour their choicest productions into Rome,
commodities brought into his kingdom from so long as she retained the control of the
India. From this city, goods were trans- empire in this way contributing to ener-
;

ported on camels across the country, to a vate,by the many luxuries they afforded,
port on the Nile; and thence, they were the power by which they had been sub-
taken down the river to Alexandria. dued. The eternal city as she is sometimes
,

20. Ptolemy also kept large fleets, both called, in the days of her extensive do-
on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, minion contained about three millions of
for the protection of commerce, and the inhabitants; and, although this immense
defence of his dominions yet, the Egyp-;
population was chiefly supplied by importa-
tians, even under the Ptolemies, never tions, the Romans never esteemed the cha-

attempted a direct trade to India. They, racter of a merchant ;—they despised the
as the Phoenicians and their own progeni- peaceful pursuits of industry, whilst they
tors had done for ages, depended upon the regarded it honourable to attack without
Arabian merchants for the productions of provocation, and plunder without remorse,
that country. the weaker nations of the earth.
21. TheGreeks, before their subjuga- 24. In the year 328 of the Christian era,
tion to the Roman power, had paid much Byzantium was made the seat of govern-
attention to nautical affairs but this had ;
ment of the Roman empire by Constantine,
been chiefly for warlike dominion, rather who, with a view of perpetuating his own
THE MERCHANT. 113

name, called his new capital Constantino- their hands ;


and they continued to enjoy
ple. However necessary this removal it, until they, in turn, were subdued by
may have been, to keep in subjugation the the Turks.
eastern provinces, it was fatal to the se- 28. So great was the prejudice of the
curity of the western division. The rivalry Christians against the followers of Moham-
between the two produced frequent
cities med, that, for a long time, it was consider-
contests for dominion and these, together
;
ed heretical for the former to trade with
with the general corruption and effeminacy the latter but the Saracens having a vast
;

of the people themselves, rendered it im- extent of territory, and having control of
possible to resist the repeated and fierce the Mediterranean and Red Seas, as well
invasions of the barbarous people from the as of the Persian Gulf, carried on an ex-
northern parts of Europe. tensive trade among themselves.
25. These invasions commenced in the 29. The first European power which
latter part of the fourth century ;
and, in rose to commercial eminence, after the
less than two hundred years, a great por- destruction of the Western Empire, was
tion of the inhabitants was destroyed, and the republic of Venice. This important
the whole Western Empire was completely city owed its origin to some fugitives, who
subverted. The conquerors were too bar- fled for their lives to a number of small
barous to encourage or protect commerce islands in the Adriatic Sea, during the
and, like the arts of peace and civilization invasion of Italy by the Huns, under At-
generally, it sunk, with few exceptions, tila,in the year 452.
amid the general ruin. 30. The houses by the refu-
first built
26. The empire of Constantinople, or, gees, were constructed of mud and sea-
as usually called, the Eastern empire,
it is grass; and, so insignificant were they in
continued in existence several centuries their appearance, that a writer of that pe-
after theWestern Empire had been over- riod compares them to a collection of the
run and commerce continued to flow, for
; nests of water-fowls. The number of these
a considerable time, through some of its islands,on which so splendid a city was
former channels to the capital. At length, afterwards built, was, according to some,
the Indian trade, which had so lone been seventy-two; but according to others,
carried on chiefly through Egypt by the ninety, or even one hundred and fifty. For
Red Sea, was changed to a more northern a considerable time, the distinction of rich
route, through Persia. and poor was not known; for all lived
27. Soon commencement
after the of upon the same fish-diet, and in "houses of
the pretended mission of Mohammed, or similar form and materials.
Mahomet, in 609 of the Christian era, the 31. In less than a century, the inha-
power of the Arabians, since called Sara- bitants of these islandshad established a
cens, began to rise. The followers of the regular government and, in the year 732,
;

Prophet, impelled by religious zeal, and we find them venturing beyond the Adri-
allured by plunder, in less than 150 years atic into the Mediterranean, even as far
extended their dominion almost to the bor- as Constantinople, trading in silks, purple
ders of China on the one side, and to the draperies, and Indian commodities. In 813,
Mediterranean and Atlantic on the other. the French commenced trading to Alexan-
The trade of the East, of course, fell into dria, and, in a few years, the Venetians
15
114 THE MERCHANT.

followed their example, in despite of the 35. Representatives from the different
ecclesiastical prohibitions against inter- cities met triennially at Lubeck,where
course with the followers of Mohammed. their common treasury and archives were
In the tenth century, Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, kept. By this assembly, which was called
and Florence, began to rival Venice in a regulation of com-
diet, rules for the
trade. mercial intercourse were made, and other
32. The crusades, which, for two cen- business transacted, which related to the
turies from the year 1095, engaged so general welfare of the confederation.
much of the attention of the Christian 36. In the fourteenth century, the league,
nations of Europe, greatly promoted the in all parts of Europe, attained a high
interests of the commercial cities of Italy degree of and deve-
political importance,
as the armies in these expeditions were loped that commercial policy which it had
dependent on them for provisions, and for originated, and which has since been adopt-
the means of crossing the sea, which lay ed by all civilized nations. The objects of
between them and the Holy Land. They the allied cities were now declared to be,
also gave a new and powerful impulse to to protect their commerce against pillage
commerce in general, by giving the people, to guard and extend their foreign trade,
in the unrefined parts of Europe, a know- and, as far as possible, to monopolize it to ;

ledge of the elegances and luxuries of the maintain and extend the privileges obtain-
East. ed from the princes of different nations;
33. In the thirteenth century, commerce and to make rules or laws for the regula-
and manufactures began to command con- tion of trade, as well as to establish the
siderable attention in Germany, and the necessary tribunals for their due execution.
adjacent states but as the seas and rivers
; The decisions of their courts were respect-
were infested with pirates, and the roads ed by the civil authorities of the countries
with banditti, it became necessary for those to which their trade extended.
engaged in commerce to adopt measures 37. The treasury was chiefly supplied
to protect their commodities, while on the by duties on merchandise and the great;

way from one place to another. The citi- wealth thus acquired enabled the allied
zens of Hamburg and Lubeck first united cities to obtain commercial privileges from
for this purpose; and the advantages of needy princes, for pecuniary accommoda-
such a union of strength becoming appa- tions. The league, in defending its com-
rent, many other cities soon entered into merce, even carried on wars against king-
the confederation. doms and, at length, by its wealth and
;

34. This association was denominated naval power, became mistress of the north-
the Hanse, or league, and the cities thus ern seas, and rendered the different cities
united were called Hanse Towns. Most of the confederation in a great measure
of the commercial towns in the northern independent of the sovereigns of the coun-
parts of the continent of Europe, at length, tries in which they were situated.

became parties to the Hanseatic league. 38. The conduct of the Hanse Towns,
The number of these cities varied, at dif- at length, excited the jealousies of those
ferent periods; but in the days of the sovereigns who had, for a long time, fa-
greatest prosperity of the association, it voured their union; and the princes of
amounted to eighty-five. Europe generally, becoming acquainted
THE MERCHANT. 115

with the value of commerce, both as means prise had been destroyed, by the vast
of enriching their people and of filling quantities of the precious metals obtained
their own coffers,combined against the from their American possessions.
association. In 1518, the governments of 43. In 1579, the people of Holland, with
several states commanded all their cities those of six neighbouring provinces, being
to withdraw from the league, which soon then subject to Spain, united, under the
after voluntarily excluded some others. Prince of Orange, for the purpose of re-
After this the Hanse gradually sunk in gaining their liberties. This produced a
importance, and finally ceased to exist in sanguinary war, which continued for thirty
1630. years, duringwhich time the Dutch wrest-
39. The trade to the East Indies con- ed from the Spaniards most of their Portu-
tinued to be carried on through Persia and guese possessions in India and, in addition
;

Egypt, subject to the extortions of the to this, formed many other settlements in
Saracens, and the still severer exactions various places from the river Tigris even
of the merchants of the Italian cities, until to Japan. Batavia, on the Island of Java,
the route to those countries, by the Cape was made the grand emporium of trade,
of Good Hope, was discovered. and the seat of the government of their
40. The use of this new pathway of East India possessions.
commerce, combined with the discovery 44. The prosperity of the United Pro-
of America, caused an entire change, both vinces increased with great rapidity ;
and,
in the political and commercial state of as they were but little interfered with by
Europe. A strong desire of visiting the other nations in their eastern dominions,
remote parts of the world thus laid open they enjoyed, for half a century or more,
to the people of Europe, immediately arose, almost the whole of the trade of the East.
not only among the Portuguese and Span- Beside they shared largely with the
this,
iards, but also among other nations. Colo- rest of the world in almost every other
nies were soon planted in the East and in branch of trade. After the year 1660, other
the West; and the whole world may be nations, by great exertions, succeeded in
said tohave been inspired with new energy. obtaining considerable shares of the com-
41. The Portuguese, being considerably merce of the East: yet the Dutch still
in advance of the other Atlantic nations in retain valuable possessions there.
the art of navigation, soon gained the en- 45. The
chief articles exported from
tire control of the East India trade, and Britain, in ancient times, were tin, lead,
were thus raised to great eminence, pros- copper, iron, wool, and cattle which for
;

perity, and power. Their dominions be- they received in return, gold, and silver,
came extensive in Africa and Asia, and manufactured articles but the commerce
:

their navy superior to any that had been of the British Islands was inconsiderable,
seen for several ages before. when compared with that of many king-
42. In 1580, or eighty-three years after doms on the continent, until the beginning
Vasco de Gama found his way, by the Cape, of the eighteenth century.
was subdued by Philip
to Calicut, Portugal When Elizabeth ascended the throne
46.
II. King of Spain. The Spaniards, how- of England, in 1558, the circumstances of
ever, were not enriched by the conquest, the nation required an extensive navy for
since their commercial energy and enter- its protection; and the great attention
116 THE MERCHANT.

which the queen paid to this means of the twelfth century Bank of Genoa,
;
the
defence, gave animation to all maritime in 1345 Bank of Amsterdam, in 1607
;
the
concerns. Under her patronage, several the Bank of Hamburg, in 1619 the Bank ;

companies for trading in foreign countries of Rotterdam, in 1635. These were all
were formed, which, at that time, and for banks of mere deposit and transfer.
a long period afterwards, were very bene- 50. Lending houses may be traced to a
ficial to trade in general. In her reign, very ancient origin. They were, at first,

also, the colonial system of England had supported by humane persons, with a view
its which contributed eventually,
origin, of lending money to the poor, on pledges,
more than any thing else, to the commer- without interest. Augustus Caesar appro-
cial prosperity of that nation. Since the priated a part of the confiscated effects of
reign of this wise and judicious princess, criminals to this purpose; and Tiberias,
the commerce and manufactures of Great also, advanced a large capita], to be lent

Britain have been, with a few interruptions, for three years, without interest, to those
steadily advancing ;
and, in these two par- who could give security in lands equal to
ticulars, she surpasses every other nation. twice the value of the sum borrowed.
47. The United States possess superior 51. In the early ages of Christianity,
local advantages for trade, and embrace a free gifts were collected and preserved by
population unsurpassed for enterprise and ecclesiastics, partly to defray the expenses
energy.- Since the Revolution, the re- of divine service, and partly to relieve the
sources of our country have been rapidly poor of the church; and the funds thus
developing. Our exports and imports are provided came, at length, to be called
already next in amount to those of Great Bri- monies pietates, —mountains of piety. This
tain and Franceand the extensive improve-
; appellation was afterwards applied to the
ments which have been made by the differ- loaning houses, established in modern Italy
ent states, to facilitate internal intercourse, in imitation of those of antiquity.
are increasing them with great rapidity. 52. In course of time, the loaning houses
48. The banking system is very inti- were permitted by the Roman Pontiff* to
mately interwoven with commercial affairs charge a moderate interest on a part of
in general. Banks are of three kinds, viz. their capital, and, finally, upon the whole
of discount of deposit and of circulation.
, ,
of it still, they retained, for a long period,
;

The term bank ,


in its original application, the original denomination of monies pie-
signified a place of common deposit for tatis. The receiving of interest on loans
money, and where, in commercial transac- was declared lawful by the Pope, about
tions, individuals could have the amount, the middle of the fifteenth century. Soon
or any part of the amount, of their deposits after this period, all the cities of Italy has-
transferred to each other’s accounts. tened to establish these institutions; and
49. The term bank is derived from the their example was, at length, followed in
Italian word banco, which signified a kind other parts of Europe.
of bench, or table, on which the Jews were 53. But long before the Pope had granted
accustomed to place the money that they this privilege, individuals were in the habit
proposed to lend in the markets of the of loaning money at an exorbitant usury.
principal towns. The first bank was es- These were principally Jews and mer-
tablished in Venice, about the middle of chants from Lombardy hence, all persons
;
THE MERCHANT. 117

who dealt in money, vidual customers loan money on notes of


in those countries, ;

:came to be called Lombard merchants. hand, acceptances, and drafts issue notes ;

'The prohibitions of the church against of circulation and purchase and sell bills ;

receiving interest were eluded, when ne- of exchange. They are usually authorized,
cessary, by causing it to be paid in ad- by their charters, to loan three times the
vance, by way of present or premium. amount, and to issue bank notes to twice
54. In the twelfth century, many of the the amount, of the capital stock paid in.
dealers in money were expelled from Eng- Few banking companies, however, exer-
land, France, and the Netherlands, for cise these privileges to the full extent, lest
usurious practices and, in order to regain
;
the bank be embarrassed by too great a
possession of their effects, which they had, demand for specie. As soon as a bank
in their haste, left in the hands of confi- ceases to pay specie for its notes, it is said
dential friends, they adopted the method to be broken, and its operations must cease.
of writing concise orders or drafts : hence 58. The Bank of North America was
originated bills of exchange, so convenient the first institution of this kind, established
in commercial transactions. in theUnited States. It was incorporated
55. The Bank of England was establish- by Congress, in 1781, at the suggestion of
ed in the year 1694. Hitherto, the banks Robert Morris. In 1791, after the union of
of deposit, and loaning houses, were en- the states had been effected under the pre-
tirely distinct; but, in this institution, sent constitution, the first Bank of the
these two branches of pecuniary opera- United States was incorporated, with a
tions were united. It seems, also, that capital of ten millions of dollars. Most of
this was the first bank that issued notes, to the states soon followed this example ; and,
serve as a medium of circulation, and to before the beginning of the present cen-
supply, in part, the place of gold and silver. tury, the whole banking capital amounted
56. In the United States, banking insti- to near thirty millions of dollars.
tutions are very numerous. They are all 59. The charter of the first Bank of the
established by companies, incorporated by United States expired, by its own limita-
the legislatures of the different states, or tion, in 1811 and a new one, with a capi-
;

by the congress of the United States. tal of thirty-five millions of dollars, was
The act which grants the privileges of established in 1816. The number of banks
banking, also fixes the amount of the capi- now in successful operation, in this coun-
tal stock, and divides it into equal shares. try, including that of the United States,
The holders of the stock choose the officers with its various branches, is about 625;
to transact the business of the corporation. and the sum of the whole bankmg capital,
57. Our banks receive deposits from indi- is not far from $220,000,000,
THE AUCTIONEER.
1. The Auctioneer is one who disposes In the state of New-York, the num-
3.
of property at public sale, to the highest ber of auctioneers for the cities is limited
bidder. The sale of property in this man- by law; and they are appointed by the
ner, is regulated, in some particulars, by Governor, with the advice and consent of
legislative enactments, which have for the Senate. They pay to the state a duty
their object the prevention of fraud, or of one per cent, on all foreign goods or
the imposition of duties. merchandise. The laws and usages re-
2. In Pennsylvania, the present law pro- garding sales at auction, in most of the
vides for three classes of auctioneers, each United States, are similar, in their general
of which is required to pay to the state a principles, to those of Pennsylvania and
specified a license. The first class
sum for New-York.
pays two thousand dollars per annum the ; 4. A great amount of merchandise, both
second, one thousand and the third, two
;
foreign and domestic, in our principal cities,
hundred and, besides this, one and a half
;
is sold by auction; and the price which
per cent, on the amount of all their sales staple commodities there command is gene-
is required to be paid into the treasury of rally considered a tolerable criterion of
the state. To each class are granted pri- their value at the time.It very frequently
vileges corresponding to the cost of the happens, however, that articles which are
license. not in steady demand, are sold at a great
THE AUCTIONEER. 119

; sacrifice. Auctioneers seldom import goods, 9. This mode of sale is employed in the
nor is it usual for them to own the property disposition of property taken by process of
1

which they sell. law, for the payment of debts, in every


5. In all cases, before an auction is held, part of the world, where the influence of
due notice is given to the public. This is European law has extended. It is used in
usually done by the circulation of a printed preference to any other, because it is the
hand-bill, by a crier, or by an advertise- most ready way of sale, and is moreover
ment in a newspaper or all three of these
;
the most likely method to secure to the
modes may be employed, to give publicity debtor something like the value of his pro-
to one and the same sale. perty.
6. Persons desirous of becoming pur- 10. Executors and administrators often
chasers at the proposed auction, assemble employ this convenient method of sale, in
at the time appointed and, after the auc- ;
settling the estates of deceased persons;
tioneer has stated the terms of sale, as and they, as well as sheriffs and consta-
regards the payment of whatever may be by virtue of their office,
bles, ex-officio, or
purchased, he offers the property to the have a lawful right to act in the capacity
persons present, who make their respective of auctioneer, in performing their respective
bids ;
he, in the meantime, crying the sum duties and no tax is required by the state,
;

proposed : when no further advance is ex- in such cases.


pected, he knocks down the article to the 11. The sale by auction was in use
last bidder. among the Romans, even in the early days
7. A mode of sale was formerly, and in of their city. It was first employed in the
some cases is still, practised, in various disposition of spoils taken in war ;
hence
parts of Europe, called sale by inch of can- a spear was adopted as a signal of a public
dle. The things for sale are offered in the sale ; and this continued to be the auction-
ordinary manner, as has been described in eer’s emblem, even- after this mode of sale
the preceding paragraph, and, at the same was extended to property in general. The
time, a wax-candle, an inch in length, is red flag and spear, or rather the handle of
lighted. The
purchasers bid upon each that instrument, both emblematical of blood
other, until the candle has been all con- and war, are still employed for the same
sumed ; and the last bidder, when the light purpose.
goes out, is entitled to the articles or goods 12. Several attempts have been made
in question. in the United States, to suppress sales of
8. Auctioneers, in large cities, hold their merchandise at auction but these endea-
;

sales at regular periods ;


sometimes, every vours were unsuccessful, since experience
day or evening. On extensive sales of had proved this mode of effecting exchanges
merchandise, credits of two, three, four, to be prompt and convenient; and since
six, or nine months, are commonly given. some of the states derived considerable
In such cases, the auctioneer gives his own revenue from the duties. So long as con-
obligations for the goods, and receives in flicting interests remain as they are, this
return those of the purchasers. mode of sale will be likely to continue.
1. The Lord Jesus Christ, our Saviour, tury, they were known and embraced,
during his visit of mercy to the world, more or less, in every province of the
chose from among his disciples twelve Roman empire.
men, to be his especial agents in establish- 3. The apostles, however, were not the
ing his church. These men, in our trans- only agents engaged in spreading and
lation of the New Testament, are deno- maintaining the doctrines of Christianity;
minated apostles. The grand commission for, in every church, persons were found

which they received was, “ Go ye into all capable of taking the supervision of the
the world, and preach my gospel to every rest, and of exercising the office of the
creature.” ministry. These were ordained, either by
2. The apostles commenced their noble the apostles themselves, or by persons au-
enterprise on that memorable day of Pen- thorized by them perform the ceremony.
to

tecost, which next occurred after the as- 4. After the church had passed through
cension of their master ; and, in the city a great variety of persecutions, during a
of his inveterate enemies, soon succeeded period of nearly three centuries the Chris-
in establishing a church of several thou- tians became superior in numbers to the
sand members. The doctrines of Chris- pagans in the Roman empire. In the
tianity soon spread to other cities and coun- early part of the fourth century, a free
tries; and, before the close of that cen- toleration, in religious matters, was de-
;

THE CLERGYMAN 121

dared by Constantine the Great, who took ern, or Greek Church ; and that part which
the church under his especial protection. yielded obedience to the Pope, was deno-
5. The Christians of the first and second minated the Western, or Latin Church.
centuries usually worshipped God in pri- Many attempts have been since made to
vate houses, or in the open air, in retired reunite these two branches of the church ;

places, chiefly on account of the persecu- but these endeavours have hitherto proved
tions to which they were often subjected. unsuccessful.
It was not until the third century, that 9. The conquest of the Roman Empire,
they ventured to give greater publicity to so often mentioned in the preceding pages,
their service, by building churches for was particularly injurious to the church,
general accommodation. When the Cross especially that part of it subject to the
had obtained the ascendency, in the subse- Roman Pontiff; since it nearly extinguish-
quent age, many of the heathen temples ed the arts and sciences, and since the bar-
were appropriated to Christian purposes, barous conquerors were received into the
and many splendid churches were erected, church, before they had attained the proper
especially by Constantine and his suc- moral qualifications. From these causes,
cessors. chiefly, arose the
conduct of the church,
6. In the middle ages, a great number in the middle ag'es, which has been so
of edifices were erected for the perform- much censured by all enlightened men,
ance of divine worship, which, in loftiness and which has been often unjustly at-
and grandeur, had never been surpassed tributed to Christianity herself, rather than
and the greater part of these remain to the to the ignorance and barbarism of the
present day. Some of the most famous times.
churches are, St. Peter’s, at Rome
Notre ; year 1517, while Leo X. oc-
10. In the
Dame, at Paris
St. Stephen’s, at Vienna
; cupied the papal chair, Martin Luther, of
the church of Isaac, at St. Petersburg the ; Saxony, commenced his well-known oppo-
minsters at Strasburg and Cologne; and position to many practices and doctrines in
St. Paul’s, in London. the church, which he conceived to be de-
7. Up to the time of the great change partures from the spirit of primitive Chris-
in favour of Christianity, just mentioned, tianity. He was soon joined in his opposi-
the whole church had often acted together tionby Philip Melancthon, Ulric Zuingle,
in matters of common interest, .through the and finally by John Calvin, as well as by
medium of general councils ;
and this prac- many other distinguished divines of that
tice continued for several centuries after- century, in various parts of Europe.
wards. But the variance and dissensions 11. These men, with their followers and
between the Pope of Rome and the Pa- abettors, for reasons too obvious to need
triarch of Constantinople, combined with explanation, received or assumed the ap-
some other causes, produced, about the pellation of Reformers; and, on account
close of the ninth century, a total separation of a solemn protest which they entered
of the two great divisions of the church. against a certain decree which had been
8. At the time of this
division, the whole issued against them, they also became dis-
Christian world had become subject to tinguished by the name of Protestants.
these two prelates. The part of the church The term is now applied to all sects,
latter
ruled by the Patriarch, was called the East- of whatever denomination, in the western
16 L
122 THE CLERGYMAN.
division of the church, that do not acknow- high-priest; the presbyters, the priests;
ledge the authority of the Roman See. and the deacons, the Levites.
The Protestant division of the church
12. 16. On the other hand, the advocates of
is called by the Roman Catholics, the West- the Presbyterian form of government, as-
ern Schism, to distinguishfrom that of it sert, that in the first century of the church,
the Greek church, which is termed the bishop and presbyter were the same order
Eastern Schism. The Protestants are di- of ministers, and that the former was
vided into a great number of sects, or par- nothing more than a presbyter, who pre-
ties; and, although they differ from each sided in Christian assemblies, when met to
other in many of their religious sentiments, consult on church affairs.
they agree in their steady opposition to the 17. The deacons in the churches that
Roman Catholics. have renounced episcopacy, are not classed
13. The ostensible object of the founders among the clergy, but are chosen from
of all the churches differing from the among the private members, to manage
Romish communion, has been, to bring the temporalities of the congregation, or
back Christianity to the state in which it church, to which they belong ;
to assist the
existed on its first establishment; and to minister, on some occasions, in religious
prove their positions in doctrine and church assemblies ;
or to take the lead in religious
government, they appeal to the scriptures, worship, in his absence. In this form of
and sometimes to the Christian writers of government, therefore, there is but one
the first four or five centuries. The advo- order of clergymen and this ;
is denomi-
cates of the “ mother church,” on the con- nated presbyter, priest, or elder.
trary, contend that, being infallible, she 18. The literary and religious qualifica-
can never have departed from primitive tions required of candidates for orders have
principles, on any point essential to salva- varied in different ages of the church, ac-
tion. cording to the existing state of literature
14. As to the government of the several and religion ;
and the requirements in
churches, it is, in most cases, either Epis- these two particulars are now different, in

copal or Presbyterian. In the former case, the several denominations. Nearly all,

three orders of clergymen are recognized however, require the profession in the can-
viz. bishops, presbyters,and deacons and didate, that he believes he is moved by the

these three orders are supposed, by the Holy Ghost to take upon him the office of
advocates of episcopacy, to have been the ministry. Some churches require a
ordained by the apostles. This opinion is collegiate education, with two or three
supported by the circumstance, that these years of the study of divinity ;
but others,
'orders are mentioned in the scriptures; only such as is usually obtained in common
and also by the fact, gathered from Chris- schools, combined with a tolerable capacity
tian writers, that they were uniformly for public speaking.

established early in the second century. 19. The clergy in the Roman Catholic
15. It is supposed, that these three orders church, is of two kinds ;
the one regular,
of ministers were instituted in the Chris- comprehending all the religious of both
tian church, in imitation of the Jewish sexes, who have taken upon themselves
priesthood : the bishop representing the monastic vows the other secular, com-
THE CLERGYMAN. 123

prehending all the ecclesiastics who do not concerned. In most cases, the institutions
assume these obligations. The latter, how- of religion are supported by voluntary con-
ever, in common with the former, take a tributions or'subscriptions.
vow of perpetual celibacy. 23. The salary received by ministers ot
20. It is the especial duty of clergymen, the gospel, in the United States, is exceed-
to preach the gospel ;
to administer the ingly various in the different denomina-
ordinances; and to enforce the discipline tions, and in the same denomination from
of that branch of the church to which they different congregations. In some instances,
belong. They are also expected to ad- they receive nothing for their services in ;

minister consolation to persons in distress others, a liberal compensation.


of mind, arising from the complicated evils 24. It is but justice to this profession to
of this life ;
to unite persons by the bonds remark, that, taking the ability of its mem-
of matrimony ;
and finally, in attending on bers into account, there no employment
is
the burial of the dead, to perform the last less productive of wealth
and this is so
;

ceremony due from man man. to evidently the case,, that some denomina-
21. Ministers of the gospel occupy an tions distribute, annually, a considerable
elevated stand in all Christian communi- amount among the widows and orphans of
ties, both on account of the high tone of those who have devoted their lives to the
moral feeling which they generally pos- ministry.
sess, and on account of the interest which 25. The meagre support which the mi-
the people at large feel in the subject of nistry usually receives, arises, in part, from
religion. The work of the ministry is em- the opinion too commonly entertained, that
phatically a work of benevolence ;
and no this profession ought to be one of benevo-
man can perform
with satisfaction to
it lence exclusively, and that ministers should,
himself, or with acceptance to the people therefore, be contented with a bare subsist-
of his charge, if destitute of love to God ence, and look for their regard in the con-
and man. sciousness of doing their duty, and in the
22. In most of the kingdoms of Europe, prospect of future felicity. This is a very
some one of the several denominations is convenient way of paying for the services
supported by legal enactments ;
but in the of faithful servants, and of relieving the
United States, every branch of the church consciences of those whose duty it is to
enjoys equal favour, so far as legislation is give them a liberal support.
1. Attorney at law, and lawyer, are by which they are governed in their ac-
synonymous terms, both being applicable tion. The constitution of the United
to those individuals who transact business States is the supreme law of the land.
of a legal nature for others, who, in this 3. Municipal law embraces those rules
relation, are called clients. Before a per- of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme
son permitted to practise law in our
is power of the state, or of the nation and ;

courts, he is required to pass through a is composed of statute and common law.

regular course of study, and afterwards Statute law is the express will of the
undergo an examination before persons legislative part of thegovernment, render-
learned in the law. ed authentic by certain forms and solemni-
2, This profession has its foundation in ties, prescribed by the constitution.

the numerous and complicated laws which 4. Common law is a system of rules and

have been adopted by men, to govern their usages, which have been applied in par-
intercourse with each other. These laws, ticular cases of litigation. It originated

as they exist in our country, may be divided in the dictates of natural justice, and cul-
into constitutional and municipal. Con- tivated reason; and is found more particu-
stitutionallaw is that by which the govern- larly in the reports of the decisions of the

ments of the United States, and of the dif- courts of justice. The common law is

ferent states, have been established, and employed, in most cases, to aid in the
,

ATTORNEY AT LAW. 125

construction and definite application of to be arrested ;


and, if the offence is small,
statute law, or positive enactments of the to fix the penalty ;
but if the offence is too
legislature. The common law of England great to be brought within their jurisdic-
has been adopted by every state in the tion, they commit the offenders to prison,
Union, except Louisiana. to be reserved for trial before the proper
5. The constitution of the United States, tribunal.
and of the several states, provides for three 9. In many of the states, the common
departments of the respective governments, magistrates of the county, or a select num-
viz. the legislative, the executive, and the ber of them, form a court, called county
judicial. It is the chief province of the sessions,which has a comprehensive juris-
first toenact laws, and of the second and diction in matters of police, and in regu-
third to see that they are duly executed. lating the affairs of the county; such as
6. The judicial power of the United building court-houses, assessing county
States is vested in one supreme court and taxes, opening roads, and licensing taverns.
two The supreme court
inferior courts. 10. In Virginia, the county sessions is
is now composed of seven justices, who an important court: its jurisdiction extends
commence their session in the Capitol, at to many
criminal cases, and to those of a
Washington, on the second Monday in nature involving the amount of $300.
civil
January. The two inferior courts are the Although a great amount of business passes
district and circuit courts; in the first of through these courts, the justices discharge
these presides a single judge ;
in the se- all their duties without compensation. In
cond, one of the justices of the supreme most of the states, the common magis-
court, and the district judge. trates, in their individual or collective
7. The judiciary of the United States capacity, have jurisdiction over civil cases,
takes cognisance of all cases which arise varying in their greatest amount from thir-
under the constitution, laws, and treaties, teen to one hundred dollars; a right of
of the United States, and likewise of those appeal being reserved to a higher court.
cases arising under the law of nations. It 11. No definite qualifications are re-
also embraces all cases of admiralty and quired, by law or usage, for practising in
maritime jurisdiction, as well as those con- the magistrates’ courts : accordingly, there
troversies to which the government of are many persons who plead causes here,
the United States is a party ;
the contro- who do not properly belong to the profes-
versies between two states; between a sion of law these are called pettifoggers
;

state and citizens of another state be- ; and the practice itself, by whomsoever per-
tween citizens of different states and be- ; formed, is called pettifogging. Lawyers
tween a state or citizens thereof, and foreign of inferior abilities and acquirements are,
states, citizens, or subjects. also, frequently termed pettifoggers.
8. The judicial systems of all the states 12. In all the states, a class of county
correspond, in many respects, with each courts is established, denominated courts
other. In all, the office of justice of the of common pleas, county courts, district
peace is similar. To these magistrates, or circuit courts, which have original ju-
the general police of the counties is chiefly risdiction of civil actions at law, or indict-
committed, as they have authority to cause ments for crimes. Over these are estab-
criminals, and other disturbers of the peace. lished the superior or supreme courts, or
L2
126 ATTORNEY AT LAW.

courts of error and appeal ;


to which ap- the jury, to enable them to make a correct
peals are admitted from the inferior courts. decision, the advocates of the parties pre-
13. Civil cases are frequently decided sent their views with regard to them ;
but
on principles of equity and ;
in some states, if these happen to be wrong, the judge, in
courts of chancery are established for this his charge to the jury, rectifies the mis-
purpose : but in most of tl\e states, there take or misrepresentation. The case having
are no decisions of this kind, or the same been decided, each party is bound to submit
courts act as courts of law and equity, .-as to the decision, or appeal, if permitted by
is the case with the courts of the United law, to a higher tribunal.
States. Causes to be determined on legal prin-
18.
There are several other courts that
14. ciples only, are brought before the judge
might be mentioned but enough has been
;
or judges for adjudication. In such cases,
said of these institutions, to give an idea of the advocates present the statute supposed
the extensive range of the profession of the to be applicable, and then reports of similar

law. It may be well to remark here, that cases, which may have been formerly de-
few lawyers aspire to the privilege of prac- cided in the same or similar courts. These
tising in the supreme courts since, to be ;
reports constitute the common law of the
successful there, it would require not only case, and are supposed, in most instances,
great abilities, but more extensive reading to furnish a correct interpretation of the
than the profession generally are willing meaning of the statute.
to encounter. 19. Besides the management of causes
15. When a client has stated his case in public courts, the lawyer has a great
in detail to his attorney, it is the province mass of business of a private nature such ;

of the latter to decide upon the course as drawing wills, indentures, deeds, and
most proper to be pursued, in regard to it. mortgages. He is consulted in a great
If the client is the plaintiff, and litigation variety of cases of a legal nature, when
isdetermined upon, the attorney decides litigation not immediately concerned,
is

upon the court in which the case should and especially in regard to the validity of
be brought forward, and also upon the titles to real estate and the many imposi-
;

manner in which it should be conducted. tions to which the community is liable


16. The having been brought, say
suit from defective titles, render the information
into the county court, it is tried according which he is able to afford on this subject
to law. If it involve facts or damages, it extremely valuable.
is canvassed before a jury of twelve men, 20. In the preceding account of this
who are bound by oath or affirmation to profession, it is easy to perceive that it is
bring in their verdict according to the evi- one of great utility and responsibility. It
dence presented by both parties. It is the is to the attorney, that the oppressed re-
business of the lawyers, each for his own pair for redress against the oppressor ;
and
client, to sum up the evidence which may to him, the orphan and friendless look, to
have been adduced, and to present the aid them in obtaining or maintaining their
whole in a light as favourable to his own rights. To this profession, also, as much
side of the question as possible. as to any other, the American people may
17. When the case involves points cf confidently look for the maintenance of
law which must needs be understood by ! correct political principles.
1. Among the various avocations of men, hands to the gods, they loaded her with
that of the physician deserves to be placed presents, and sent her to Prometheus.
in the foremost rank. The profession is 3. This prince, however, suspecting a
founded in the multiplicity of diseases to trick, would have nothing to do with her

which humanity is liable, and in the medi- but Epimetheus was so captivated with
cal qualities of certain substances, which her charms, that he took her to be his wife.
have been found to supply a remedy. The curiosity of Epimetheus, too, led him
2. It is implied, though not expressly de- to look into the fatal box, which he had no

clared, in the scriptures, that the diseases sooner opened, than there issued from it
and other calamities pertaining to our the complicated miseries and diseases,
earthly condition, originated in the fall of which have since afflicted the family of
man from his pristine innocence ;
and the man. He instantly shut the box but all ;

Grecian fable of Pandora’s box appears to had flown, save Hope, which had not time
have originated in a similar tradition. It to escape; and this is consequently the

seems that Jupiter, being angry at Pro- only blessing that permanently remains
metheus, ordered Yulcan to make a woman with wretched mortals.
endowed with every possible perfection. 4. Since the introduction of moral evil

This workman having finished his task, into the world, it cannot be supposed that
and presented the workmanship of his |
1
man has ever enioved
v -
the blessing
O of

/
128 THE PHYSICIAN.

uninterrupted health ;
and, as it is an in- 9. But medicine did not assume the dig-
stinct of our nature to seek for means of nity of a distinct science, until the days
relieving pain, we may safely infer that of Hippocrates, who reckons himself the
medicinal remedies were applied, in the seventeenth from Esculapius in a lineal
earliest ages of the human race. descent. This great man, who flourished
5. Among some of the ancient nations, about 400 years before the Christian era,
the origin of diseases was attributed to the is universally esteemed the “Father of
malignant influence of supernatural agents. Medicine.” After his death, the science
This notion produced a corresponding ab- was cultivated by the philosophers of
surdity, in the means of obtaining relief Greece; to whom, however, it owes but
accordingly, idolatrous priests, astrologers, few improvements.
and magicians, were resorted to and they, ;
After the dismemberment of the
10.
in turn, employed religious ceremonies, Macedonian empire, learning retreated
astrological calculations, and cabalistic in- from contending factions to Egypt, -where
cantations. itwas liberally fostered by the Ptolemies.
6. The healing art was cultivated at a Under their patronage, a medical school at
very early period in Egypt; but it was Alexandria became eminent, and the heal-
crippled in its infancy by ordinances, en- ing art flourished beyond all former exam-
joining, without discrimination, the reme- ple. To the disciples of this school, is the
dies for every disease, and the precise time world indebted for the first correct descrip-
and mode of their application. The prac- tion of the human structure. Their know-
tice was confined to the priests, who con- ledge on this subject was obtained from
nected with it the grossest superstitions. the dissection of the bodies of criminals,
7. We are informed by the most ancient which had been assigned to them by the
historians, that the Chaldeans and Baby- government.
lonians exposed their sick in places of 11. The Greeks in
acquisitions of the
public resort, and on the highways; and medical science at length became the in-
that strangers and others were required, heritance of the Homans but Rome had ;

by law, to give some advice in each case existed 535 years before a professional
of disease. Amid the variety of sugges- physician was known in the city. This
tionswhich must necessarily have been inattention to the subject of medicine
given under such circumstances, it was arose, chiefly, from an opinion common to
expected that some would prove efficacious. the semi-barbarous nations of those times,
This custom was well calculated to en- that maladies were to be cured by the in-
large the boundaries of medical knowledge. terposition of superior beings. The sick,
8. The first records of medicine were therefore, applied to their idolatrous priests,
kept in the temples by the
dedicated who offered sacrifices to the gods in their
Greeks to Esculapius, who, on account of behalf, and practised over the body of the
his skill in medicine, was honoured as the patient a variety of magical ceremonies.
god of health. The name or description 12. Sacrifices were especially offered-

of the disease, and the method of cure, to the gods in cases of pestilence and, on ;

were engraved on durable tablets, which one occasion of temple was


this kind, a
were suspended where they could be rea- erected to Apollo, who was regarded as the
dily seen by visiters. god of physic and, on another, Esculapius,
;
; ;

THE PHYSICIAN. 129

under the form of a serpent, was conducted in all branches of medicine, and wrote more
from Epidaurus, in Greece, and introduced, copiously on the subject generally, than any
with great pomp, upon an islet in the Tiber, other person amongst the ancients. For
which was thenceforth devoted to his par- 1300 years, his opinions were received as
ticular service. oracular, wherever medicine was culti-
13. Archagathus, a Greek, was the first vated.
who practised physic, as an art, at Rome 17. After the destruction of the Western
and he was soon followed by many more of Empire by the barbarous nations, the sci-
his professional brethren. These pioneers ence of medicine was cultivated only in
of medicine, however, were violently op- the Greek empire, and chiefly at Alexan-
posed by Cato the Censor, who publicly dria, until it began to arrest the attention
charged them with a conspiracy to poison of the Arabians, in the seventh century.
the citizens. But the patients under their The works of several Greek philosophers
care generally recovering, he began to and physicians were translated into Ara-
regard them as impious sorcerers, who bic, under the patronage of the caliphs

counteracted the course of nature, and several of whom were zealous promoters
restored men to life by means of unholy of learning.
charms. 18. In the eighth century, the caliph
14. Cato having succeeded in producing Almansur established, at Bagdad, a hospi-
a general conviction, that the practice of tal for the sick, and an academy ;
in the
these physicians was calculated to ener- latter of which, among other branches of
vate the constitutions, and corrupt the man- knowledge, was taught the medical art.
ners of the people, restrictions were laid But it was in Spain, that Arabian learning

upon the profession, and practitioners were rose to the highest point, and produced the
even forbidden to settle at Rome. But most successful results. The university
after the people had become more vicious of Cordova became the most celebrated in
and luxurious, diseases became more fre- the world, and continued to maintain its
quent and obstinate, and physicians more reputation for a long series of years. Ara-
necessary.
18.
The restrictions were, there- bian medicine reached its greatest emi-
fore, at length removed. nence, in the eleventh century.
15. Among the Roman writers on medi- 19. In the tenth century, this science
cine, Celsus was the first who
worthy of
is began to be taught in the schools of other
consideration. He has been denominated parts of Europe but its professors derived
;

the Roman Hippocrates, because he imi- their knowledge of the subject from the
tated the close observation and practice Arabian school, or from Arabic translations
of that physician. His work, as well as of the ancient authors; and this continued
that of his great prototype, is read with to be the case until the conquest of Con-
advantage, even at the present day. He stantinople by the Turks, in 1453. At this
flourished at, or near, the time of our Sa- time, many erudite Greeks fled into Italy,
viour. and carried with them the ancient writings.
In the second century of the Christian 20. Before the general revival of this
era,Galen, a Greek physician from Perga- science in Europe, the cure of diseases
mus, and a disciple of the Alexandrian was chiefly confided, in the western na-
school, settled in Rome. He was learned tions of Europe, to the priests and monks,
17
130 THE PHYSICIAN.

who, however, generally relied more upon of visionary theories than physicians of
religious ceremonials, and the influence of former times. Besides, many of the sub-
sacred relics, than upon the application of jects of former controversy having been
medical remedies. The superstitions of now fewer
satisfactorily settled, there are
those barbarous times, respecting the means causes of division and excitement among
of curing diseases, have not yet entirely the medical profession.
disappeared, even from the most enlighten- 24. Medical science comprises several
ed nations of Christendom. branches, of which the following are the
- 21. The science of chemistry began to principal ;
Anatomy, Surgery, Materia
viz.
attract much attention about the beginning Medica, Chemistry, the Theory and Prac-
of the sixteenth century and the many
; tice of Physic. On these
subjects, lectures
powerful medical agents which it supplied, are given in several colleges and univer-
at length produced a great change in the sities inEurope, and in the United States.
theory and practice of medicine. Many In this country, an attendance on two re-
valuable medicines of the vegetable kind, gular courses of lectures entitles the stu-
were also obtained from America. The dent to the degree of Doctor of Medicine,
discovery of the circulation of the blood provided he can sustain with sufficient
by William Harvey, in 1620, imparted a ability, an examination before the profes-
new impulse to medicine; but, like che- sors, or, as they are usually termed, the
mistry, it gave rise to* many absurd and medical faculty.
hurtful theories. 25. The degree of- M. D. conferred by
22. Researches in different branches of a college or university, is a passport to
medicine were continued with ardour in practice, in every state of the Union and, ;

the seventeenth century, in various parts in some states, none are permitted to attend
of Europe and numerous discoveries of
; the sick, professionally, without having first
importance were made, especially in anato- obtained a diploma conferring such degree.
my. Many theories regarding the origin In other states, however, no legal restric-
of diseases, and their treatment, were pro- tions are imposed on the practitioners of
posed, advocated, and controverted ;
but the healing art or, they are licensed by a
;

all these were overthrown by Stahl, Boer- board of physicians, constituted by law for
haave, and Hoffman, three eminent theo- the purpose.
rists, in the early part of the eighteenth 26. The practice of this profession is
century. generally attended with great labour, and,
23. These distinguished men were fol- in many cases, with much perplexity.
lowed by others of equal celebrity, in the Diseases are often stubborn, or incurable,
same century, who, in part at least, ex- and effectually baffle the most skilful prac-
ploded the doctrines of their predecessors. titioner. In most cases, however, diseases
The present century, above all other pe- are under the control of medical skill and ;

riods, is remarkable for men eminent in the high satisfaction which a benevolent
this profession; and, although all do not physician feels, in relieving the sufferings
exactly agree in opinion, yet, guided in of his fellow-creatures, may serve as a
their conclusions by a careful observation recompense for the many adverse circum-
pf facts7 they are Jes.s unde? the influence stances which attend the profession.
1. This globe, and every thing apper- 3. The word chemistry is supposed to

taining to composed of substances,


it, is be of Egyptian origin, and, in its primary
which exist either in a compound or sim- application, was the same with our phrase
ple state. It is the object of the scientific natural philosophy. Its meaning was af-
'chemist to investigate the properties of terwards restricted to the art of working
these substances, and to show their action those metals which were most esteemed.
upon each other. By this science, there- In the third century, it came to be applied
fore, compound bodies are reduced to the to the pretended art of* transmuting baser
simple elements of which they are com- metals into gold. -The science, in the lat-
posed, or new combinations formed. was eagerly culti-
ter sense of the word,
2. According to the preceding defini- vated by the Greeks; and from them it
tions, Chemistry comprehends an immense passed to the Arabians, who introduced it
variety of objects. It is scarcely possible into Europe under the name of alchymy.
to name a thing or phenomenon in the na- 4. The professors of the art were dig-
tural world, to which it does not directly nified with the appellation of alchymistic
sor indirectly apply; even thegrowth of philosophers, and the leading doctrine of
(vegetables, and the preparation and diges- the sect was, that all metals are composed
tion of our food, depend upon chemical of the same simple substances ;
and that,
’principles. consequently, base metals were capable of
132 THE CHEMIST.

being changed into gold hence, the chief


: and the universal remedy, were, at length,
object of their researches was the dis- abandoned, as fruitless and visionary yet ;

covery of an agent, by which this great the numerous experiments which had been
change was to be effected. The substance instituted on these accounts, were attended
supposed to possess this wonderful property with the incidental advantage of a con-
was called “ the philosopher’s stone ;” the siderable dexterity in the performance of
touch of which was to change every kind chemical operations, together with the dis-
of metal into gold. covery of many new substances, and val-
5. The greatest rage for alchymy pre- uable facts, which, without these strong
vailed between the tenth and sixteenth incentives, would have remained, at least,
centuries. The writers on this subject much longer in obscurity.
who appeared during that period, are very 9. Although none of the medicines pro-

numerous; most of whom are unintelli- duced in the chemical laboratory answered
gible, except to those initiated into the the chimerical expectations of the chemists,
art ;
many of them, however, display great in curing all diseases, and in rendering
acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance the perishable body of man immortal, yet
with natural objects. They all boast that they proved sufficiently valuable in the
they are in possession of the philosopher’s healing art, to command the attention of
stone, and profess the ability of communi- the profession all over Europe. The adop-
cating a knowledge of making it to others. tion of chemical medicines, however, was,
Their writings and confident profes-
6. at first, everywhere opposed, either as
sions gained almost implicit credit,and unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in
many unwary persons were thus exposed efficacy to those which had been used for
to the tricks of impostors, who offered to so many centuries.
communicate their secret for a pecuniary 10. These prejudices having given way
reward. Having obtained the sum pro- to the light of experience, chemical, medi-
posed, they either absconded, or wearied cines came, at length, to occupy a con-
out their patrons with tedious and ex- spicuous place in the Materia Medica;
pensive processes. and their value within the present century
7. Chemists, for a long time, had sup- has become still more manifest. One of
posed it possible to discover, by their art, the most useful branches of Chemistry,
a medicine which should not only cure but therefore, is to make the various prepara-
prevent all and prolong life to
diseases, tions used in the medical art.
an indefinite period, even to immortality. 11. The most efficient agent in the
This notion gradually becoming prevalent, introduction of chemical medicines, was
the word chemistry acquired a more exten- Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular in-
sive application, and embraced not only dividual was born near Zurich, in Switzer-
the art of making gold, but also that of land. Having studied chemistry under
preparing “the universal medicine.” Some two masters, he commenced a rambling
of these visionary men asserted, that the life, in pursuit of chemical and medical
philosopher’s stone was this wonderful knowledge ;
and, having visited Italy,
panacea. France, and Germany, where he met with
8. Few readers need be informed, that many whimsical adventures, which con-
the researches for the philosopher’s stone, tributed greatly to advance his reputation,
THE CHEMIST. 133

he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair circumstance, his great reputation de-
of chemistry, in the University of Basle. pended.
12. One of the first acts of this arrogant 15. We have been thus particular in.

professor was to burn, with the utmost noticing this individual, because he was
solemnity, while seated in his chair, the the first who gave public lectures on che-
works of Galen and Avicenna, declaring mistry in Europe, and because he gave the
to his audience, that if God would not first great impulse in favour of chemical

impart the secrets of physic, it was not medicines. He also carried his specula-
only allowable, but even justifiable, to tions concerning the philosopher’s stone,
consult the Devil. He also treated his and the universal remedy, to the greatest
contemporaries with the same insolence, height of absurdity and, by exemplifying
;

telling them, in a preface to one of his their inutility and fallacy in his own person,
books, that “the very down on his bald he contributed more than any one else to
pate had more knowledge than all their their disrepute and subsequent banishment
writers, —the
buckle of his shoes more from the science.
learning than Galen and Avicenna, and — 16. Researches for the philosopher’s
his beard more experience than all their stone, and the universal remedy, having
universities.” been, at length, relinquished, the chemical
13. It could not be expected that a man facts which had been collected became, in
with such a temper could long retain his the general estimation, a heap of rubbish
situation and, accordingly, he was driven
; of little value. At this time, there arose
from it, in 1528, by a quarrel with those an individual thoroughly acquainted with
who had conferred the appointment. From these facts, and capable of perceiving the
this time he rambled about the country, important purposes to which they might be
chiefly in Germany, leading a life of ex- applied.
treme intemperance, in the lowest com- 17. The name of this individual was
pany. Nevertheless, he still maintained John Joachim Becher. He published a
his reputation as a physician, by the ex- work in 1669, entitled “ Physica Subter-
traordinary cures occasionally effected by ranica,” by which he gave a new direction
his powerful remedies, although his failures to chemistry, by applying it to analyzing
were equally conspicuous. and ascertaining the constituent parts of
14. But the most signal failure of his material bodies; and his system is the
remedies occurred in his own person for, ; foundation of the science, as it now exists,
after having boasted for many years of 18. George Earnest Stahl, a medical
possessing an elixir which would prolong professor in the University of Halle, adopt-
an indefinite period, he died, in 1541,
life to ed the theory of Becher, and, after his
at Saltzburg, with a bottle of his immortal death, edited the work just mentioned;
catholicon in his pocket. The medicines but he so simplified and improved it, that
on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were he made it entirely his own and, accord-
;

opium, antimony, and various preparations ingly, has always been distinguished by
it
of mercury. He has the merit of applying the appellation of the Stahlian theory.
ithe last, especially, to cases in
which they The principal work of Stahl, on this sub-
had not been before used; and upon this ject, was published in 1729; and, since
134 THE CHEMIST.

that time, chemistry has been cultivated phlogiston . To distinguish, therefore, the
with ardour in Germany, and in other new theory from the one which it super-
countries in the north of Europe. seded, it was called the pneumatic or anti-
19. In France, chemistry became a phlogistic system.
fashionable study, about the middle of The 22. In 1787, a new technical nomencla-
eighteenth century it had, however, been
: ture was devised, by the aid of which all
cultivated there by a few individuals, long the chemical facts are easily retained in
before that period. Men of eminence now the memory. Twelve or fifteen terms
appeared in all parts of the kingdom, and have been found sufficient for the founda-
discoveries in the science were made in tion of a methodical language and, by ;

rapid succession. Some was


attention changing the terminations of these radi-
also paid to it in Italy and Spain. cals, or by prefixing certain words or syl-

20. In Great Britain, this subject attract- lables, the changes that take place in
ed but little attention, except from a few bodies are clearly expressed. This valua-
individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become ble innovation originated with Lavoisier
professor of the science, in the University and three other French chemists.
of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate 23. The present century has been par-
investigator of natural phenomena suc- ticularly distinguished by numerous and
ceeded in enkindling an enthusiasm for important discoveries in chemical science
chemical investigations among the stu- but our limits do not permit us to enter
dents and the subsequent experiments of
;
into further details we will merely state,
:

Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, that, among the many eminent men who
and Lavoisier, which resulted in the dis- have devoted their attention to this com-
covery of the constituent parts of air and prehensive science, Sir Humphry Davy,
water, diffused the same ardour through of Great Britain, seems to be entitled to
every part of the kingdom. the greatest consideration.
21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French 24. Chemistry is so extensive in its

chemist, having proved the Stahlian theory application, that we will not attempt to
to be incorrect, founded another on the describe any of the operations of the la-
chemical affinities and combinations of boratory. We, therefore, conclude this

oxygen with the various substances in article by recommending this science to


nature. This system has been generally general attention ;
assuring the uninitiated,
adopted, since it explains a great number that it is beset with fewer difficulties than
of phenomena more satisfactorily than any they are apt to suppose, and that every
other ever proposed. The great chemical effort in the course will be attended with
agent, in the Stahlian system, was sup- interesting facts and phenomena, which
posed to be an inflammable substance, will abundantly reward the labour of in-

which was denominated by the theorist vestigation.


1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer sometimes operative, or manufacturing
In drugs, which, in commerce, embrace chemists.
not only articles used or recommended by 3. Medicinals, when they come into the
the medical profession, but also spices, dye- warehouse of the druggist, are usually in
stuffs, and paints. The commodities of his a crude state and many, or most, of them
;

trade are obtained from almost every quar- must necessarily undergo a variety of
ter of the globe-; but especially from the changes, of a chemical or mechanical na-
'Countries bordering upon the Mediterra- ture, before they can be applied in prac-
nean sea, and from the East Indies and tice. The art by which these changes are
Spanish America. efiected is called Pharmacy, or Pharma-
2. The chemist looks to the druggist for ceutics; and the books which treat of
most of the materials employed in his pharmaceutical operations are denominated
laboratory and from him the apothecary,
; Pharmacopoeias, or Dispensatories.
physician, and "country merchant, obtain 4. The operations of Pharmacy, which
their chief supply of medicines. There depend upon chemical principles, are con-
are, however, but few persons, in the Uni- ducted chiefly by the operative chemist ;
ted States, who confine themselves exclu- but those which consist merely in mechani-
sively to this branch of business for most ; cal reduction, or in mixing together differ-
of the druggists are also apothecaries, and ent ingredients, to form compounds, belong
136 THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY.

properly to the vocation of the apothe- The apothecaries’ halls, in France, are
cary. also under the supervision of the medical
5. The apothecary sells medicines in faculty.
small quantities, as they may be demanded 9. In the United States, there is no
forimmediate appropriation by individuals censorship of this kind established by the
or in families. Many of the standing com- public authorities ; yet the physicians are
pound preparations which have been au- careful to recommend apothecaries in whom
thorized by the Pharmacopoeias, and which they have confidence, to prepare their pre-
are in regular demand, he keeps already scriptions. The professors in our medical
prepared; but a great proportion of his schools are, also, particular in naming to
business consists in compounding and put- their students those druggists whom they
ting up the prescriptions of the physician, consider men of honour and omit, at least,
;

as they are needed by the patient. to name those who have been detected in
6. In country places, where there are selling adulterated medicines.
generally no apothecary-shops, the physi- 10. We
have, also, an incorporated col-
cians compound and prepare their own lege of pharmacy both in New-York and
where these
prescriptions; but in cities, Philadelphia, and in each of these, chemical
establishments are numerous, the medical and pharmaceutical lectures are delivered
profession prefer to rid themselves of this by regular professors. These institutions,
trouble. In most cases, however, they although of recent origin, have exerted an
keep by them a few remedies, which can important influence in reforming and pre-
be applied in cases of emergency. venting abuses in the preparation of medi-
7. In Great Britain, the apothecary is cines and public opinion, especially in the
;

permitted to attend sick persons, and ad- cities, is beginning to render it important
minister medicines, either according to his for students in pharmacy to obtain a de-
own judgment, or in conformity with the gree from one of these colleges. Under
directions of the physician. He is, there- the auspices of the institution at Philadel-
fore,a physician of an inferior order ; and, phia, is published a quarterly journal, de-
as his fees are more moderate than those voted to pharmaceutical science.
of the regular profession, his practice’ is 11. A
Pharmacopoeia for the United
extensive among persons who, from neces- States was formed
at Washington, in 1820,
sity or inclination, are induced to study by a delegation of physicians from the prin-
economy. cipal medical societies of the Union. A
8. The apothecaries in England, Scot- revision of this work is expected to be
land, and Ireland, are obliged to make up made every ten years. Dispensatories, as
their standing medicines according to the they exist in this country, are founded
formulas- of the Dispensatories, adopted in upon the Pharmaecepias, and may be pro-
their respective countries and their shops
; perly considered commentaries upon them,
are subject to the visitation of censors, since the former contain the whole of the
who have authority to destroy those medi- latter, together with more minute descrip-
cines which they may consider unfit for tions of the sensible and real properties of
rase, — so that unwholesome or inefficient the medicines, as well as their history and
remedies be not imposed upon the sick. exact mode of preparation.
1. The human family is subject to a must submit with the same philosophy
variety of diseases in the teeth, which with which we meet other misfortunes.
generally cause the final destruction or 8. To enable readers who have never
loss of these important instruments, unless examined this subject, to comprehend its
judicious remedies be applied in proper general nature, we will give a slight
season. These remedies are administered sketch of some of the irregularities and
by the dentist. diseases to which the teeth are liable ;
and
2. There are few persons, in proportion as we proceed, speak of the remedies ap-
to the great mass of the people, who seem plied by the dentist.
to be aware of the utility of dentistry 4. Two sets of teeth regularly appear,
taking the United States together, not
for, at different periods of life ;

one in infancy,
more than one person in a hundred ever and the other at a later period. The first
resorts to the professors of this art, with set consists of twenty, and the second of
the view of obtaining a remedy for any thirty-two teeth; the former are called
dental disease with which he may be af- infant and the latter adult and all these,
,

flicted. The common sentiment seems to at the age of six or seven, are upon the
be, that diseases of the teeth, and their jaws at the same time.
final loss, at different periods of life, are 5. At the age just mentioned, the infant
inevitable inconveniences, to which we teeth begin to give way to those which lie

18
188 THE DENTIST.

deeper in the sockets, and which are de- stance exceeding in density any other in
signed to supersede the former. As the the body. It covers the crown of the
new teeth advance, the roots of the first teeth, and is thickest in those parts which
are absorbed ;
and, after having been thus are most exposed to forcible contact in
deprived of their support, they are easily mastication; but in no place is it more
removed, —sometimes, by a slight pressure than the twelfth of an inch in thickness.
of the tongue. 10. The most common disease of the
0. In a majority of cases, the whole teeth is caries , or decay, and almost every
process is carried on by nature with the part of them is liable to be affected by it;
utmost regularity but as she is
;
not uni- but especially the sides of those in front,
formly successful in this operation, there and the crowns of those on other parts of
is no other period at which the teeth of the jaws.
children require so much attention and 11. The disease begins its attack either
care. Sometimes the second set rise in the on the enamel or on the bony portion, and
socket without causing the absorption of gradually extends itself over the tooth,
the roots of the first. In such cases, the until it reaches the nerves which supply
former approach in an improper direction its natural cavity. These having become
and, unless the latter be removed in season, exposed to the sudden changes of tempera-
deformity will be the consequence. ture, and to the contact of extraneous sub-
7. When, however, these precautions stances in mastication, pain and inflamma-
have been neglected, and the teeth stand tion are produced, and the extraction of
In an irregular manner, they can be re- the tooth very commonly becomes the only
duced to symmetry by the dentist, without means of relief.
occasioning much pain. When the front 12. All persons are more or less subject
teeth are too much crowded by reason of to this disease, but some much more than
the restricted dimensions of the jaw, the others and caries of a peculiar character
;

small teeth, situated next behind the eye has been so often traced through whole
or canine teeth, are extracted, one on each families, from one generation to another,
side, to give room to the rest. that it is considered hereditary, as much as
8. From the ages of six to fifteen years, any other disease which the system is
to
the teeth of children should be examined, liable. In many cases, caries seems to be
at least once in six months, by a dentist, the effect of some serious disease which
who, if skilful, can seldom fail of rendering affected the constitution, while the teeth
these ornaments of the human countenance were in the early stages of formation.
regular, healthy, and beautiful. It is cus- - 18. Although the teeth of some indi-
tomary in England and France, for the viduals possess but little durability ;
and
proprietors of seminaries of learning to when caries attacks them, they go on ra-
employ the dentist to visit their establish- pidly to decay, in spite of all the aid which
ments regularly, for the purpose of per- science and skill can afford ;
yet, there are
forming such operations, and of adminis- comparatively but few instances in which
tering such remedies, as their pupils may seasonable and judicious treatment will
require. not arrest the progress of the disease.
9. The teeth are composed of very hard 14. When the teeth are but slightly
bone, and enamel. The latter is a sub- affected with caries, especially on th©
THE DENTIST. 139

sides, a care may be accomplished by the than gold itself. The durability of these
removal of the decayed portion. This is metals, however, can never be depended
effected, by the most approved dentists, upon, and they ought not to be employed
chiefly with small cutting instruments. when the tooth is capable of resisting the
Formerly, the file and the saw were em- mechanical force required to fill it properly
ployed for this purpose, and, by their in- with gold.
discriminate and injudicious use, many 18. The metal is prepared for the use
teeth were ruined, and the art of dentistry of the dentist by the gold-beater, in the
itself brought into disrepute. manner described in the article which
15. Notwithstanding the injuries which treatsupon the business of the latter.
have been inflicted by the improper appli- The leaves, however, are not beaten so
cation of the saw and file, in some instances thin as those designed for the common
they are indispensable ;
and, in the hands purposes of the arts. The portion to be
of the scientific operator, they need not be applied is cut from the leaf, and, after
feared. They are especially useful in pre- having been twisted a little, is forced into
paring the way for the employment of other the cavity. The metal is rendered per-
instruments ;
for, in some cases, the affect- fectly solid by means of instruments adapt-
ed part can with difficulty be reached by ed to the purpose.
any other means. But filing the teeth for 19. This operation, properly performed
the purpose of improving their appearance, under favourable circumstances, generally
or for rendering the sidesmore accessible renders the tooth as serviceable, to the end
to the tooth-pick and brush, seems to be of life, as if it had never been diseased.
reprobated by the most intelligent part of The hopes of the patient, however, are
the profession. sometimes disappointed, by the unskilful-
16. When the caries has penetrated far ness of the operator, or by the general
into the tooth, and, in its removal, a cavity unhealthiness of the mouth arising from ;

of suitable form and dimensions can be tartar, other decayed teeth, or want of care
produced, it is filled with some substance, in keeping them free from the lodgment
with the view of protecting the bone from of particles of food.
the action of extraneous agents. The 20. It is common practice
a to have
dentist is careful to remove every particle teeth extracted when they are affected
of the decayed portion, and to render the with pain ;
but this operation is not always
cavity perfectly dry, by repeated applica- necessary. In many cases, the nerve can
tions of lint or raw cotton, before he at- be paralyzed, and the tooth plugged. By
tempts to fill it. these means, teeth which, under the ordi-
17. Gold is the only substance which nary treatment, would be prematurely
possesses sufficient solidity to withstand the sacrificed, are often retained, for years, in
ordinary friction of mastication, and, at the a serviceable state.
same time, to be capable of resisting the 21. The next most destructive affection
chemical action of the substances which to which the teeth are liable, is the ac-
may come in contact with it: yet, lead cumulation of tartar. This is an earthy
and tin are frequently employed and ; substance, deposited from the saliva, and
many have been made to believe, that they is more or less abundant in different indi-

answer as good, if not a better purpose, viduals. This deposit is extremely trou-
140 THE DENTIST.

blesome, and generally does much injury generally requisite than the daily use of
to the mouth, even before those who suffer a stiff, elastic brush, and the occasional
from it are aware of the mischief. application ofsome approved dentifrice or
22. The tartar on the teeth of some in- astringent wash. Sometimes it may be
dividuals, is of a black or greenish colour, necessary to scarify, or to apply leeches to
and very hard ;
on those of others, brown the gums.
or yellow, and not so firm. When it is 26. The operations of dentistry, men-
first deposited, it is soft, and can be easily tioned in the preceding part of this article,
removed with a tooth-brush but, if suffer- ;
are those which relate to the preservation
ed to remain, it soon becomes indurated, of the teeth ;
and, if performed in a proper
and gradually increases in thickness about manner, and under favourable circum-
the neck of the teeth. The gums become stances, they will, in most instances, prove
irritated and inflamed the sockets are
: successful. But, as few persons resort to
next absorbed, and the teeth, being left the dentist until the near approach of de-
without their natural support, either fall formity, or until they are impelled by pain
out, or become so loose that they can be to seek relief, a great proportion of dental
easily removed. operations consists in inserting artificial
23. From this cause, old people lose teeth, and in extracting those which are
their teeth, when, in many cases, they are past recovery.
perfectly sound ;
but comparatively very 27. When a tooth has gone so far to
few are aware of the origin of this depri- decay, that it cannot be cured by stopping,
vation, or suppose that these valuable in- it should not be suffered to remain in the

struments can be retained in old age. The mouth, lest it infect the rest. Front teeth,
loss is attributed to the deleterious effects however, when the roots remain sound,
of calomel, or it is imagined to be an evil and firmly based in the sockets, ought not
inseparable from advanced age. to be extracted, as upon the latter artificial
24. The affection of the gums, arising teeth can be placed with great advantage.
from causes just mentioned, is frequently In such cases, the removal of the crown
called scurvy, and, like caries, produces only is necessary.
fetor of the breath ;
but when these two The
instruments commonly employ-
28.
diseases are combined, as is frequently the ed in extracting teeth, are the key or turn-
case, they render extremely offensive.
it key, the forceps, the hook, and the graver
Besides, the effluvia arising from these or punch. These are supposed to be suf-
diseased parts gives rise to many maladies ficient to perform all the operations of this
which terminate a remedy be
fatally, if kind which occur in practice; and, al-
not applied sufficiently early to save the though many attempts have been made to
patient. invent others which might answer a better
25. The obvious remedy for diseases purpose, yet those we have mentioned, in
arising from tartar, is the removal of their their improved state, are likely to continue
cause. This is effected by the dentist, in general use.
with small sharp cutting instruments of a seems to be a common opinion,
29. It
suitable form. To prevent the tartar from that any one can pull teeth who has a turn-
accumulating again, and to restore the key, and sufficient physical strength to use
gums to a healthy state, nothing more is it
;
accordingly, blacksmiths, barbers, and
THE DENTIST. 141

medical students, are the chief operators teeth must have been practised at a period
in this line of dental surgery The many . of antiquity to which the records of medi-
fatal accidents which must inevitably be cine do not reach. The operation is re-
the consequence, such as breaking the commended by Hippocrates, who describes
tooth or jaw-bone, are considered matters many of the diseases to which the teeth
of course. These, however, seldom happen are liable. He also mentions the practice
with skilful dentists; and it is to be re- of fixing the teeth by means of gold wire,
gretted, that the latter are not always em- and gives several formulas for making
ployed, where unskilfulness may produce dentrifices.
such serious consequences. 34. Celsus, a Roman writer on medi-
30. In the cut, at the head of this article, cine, who flourished about the beginning
is represented a dentist, about to extract of the Christian era, seems to have been
a tooth for a lady, who may be supposed to the first author who described the method
be in a state of alarm at the sight of the of extracting teeth, and the first who no-
instruments; but he, having thrown his tices the removal of tartar by means of
right hand, which holds them, behind him, cutting instruments, as well as filling ca-
shows the other containing nothing, with rious teeth with lead and other substances,
the view of allaying her fears. The man- with the view of preventing further decay.
ner in which teeth are extracted, needs Soon after this period, false' teeth, of bone
no description, since it is an every-day and ivory, were introduced. Actius, a
operation in all parts of the world. writer of the fourth century, is the first

31. One of the chief sources of income who mentions the operation of filing the
to this profession, is the insertion of arti- teeth.
ficial teeth ;
for, although few are willing 35. The
return of barbarism to Europe,
to expend much to prevent the loss of their nearly extinguished the knowledge of den-
teeth, many will incur great expense in tistry. As a branch of surgery, however,
supplying the deficiencies, after they have it was revived by the Arabian writer,
occurred. So perfectly and neatly is this Albucasis, in the tenth century ;
but, for.

operation performed, by some dentists, that many hundred years after this period, it

it is difficult to distinguish between teeth received but little attention from men of
which are natural, and those which are science, the operations of surgery being
artificial. confined chiefly to the barbers.
32. The materials for artificial teeth 36. The modern work on the dis-
first

were formerly found chiefly in the teeth eases of the teeth was published at Lyons,
and tusks of the hippopotamus, and in the in 1581. This was followed by many other
teeth ofsome domestic animals ; but within publications on the same subject, in the
a few years, a mineral composition, called succeeding century. In the year 1700, it
porcelain, has come into great repute, began to be required in France, that all
since it is very beautiful, and is entirely persons who intended to practise dentistry
proof against the most powerful acids. in that country, should undergo an exam-
33. Surgical operations upon the teeth ination, to test their qualifications. From
were performed in ancient Greece and this period is dated, by some, the estab-
Rome, many of which were similar to those lishment of the dental art as a distinct
of the present day. The extraction of branch of medical practice.
1. Education, in antiquity, was entirely who aspired to higher degrees of know-
a matter of domestic concern. In countries ledge, resorted to the instructions of the
where priestly or royal despotism prevail- philosophers and sophists. This system
ed, schools for the benefit of the sons of was commenced as early as 500 years be-
the great, and for the priests, were estab- fore the advent of Christ
lished. Moses, the Jewfish lawgiver, was 3. Two hundred years after this period,

educated in a priestly school in Egypt, and the Romans began to have primary schools
Cyrus at a seminary belonging to the Per- for boys, in the cities and, from the time
;

sian court. In Palestine, the scriptures of Julius Csesar, who conferred on teach-
w ere
r
taught in the schools of the prophets ers the rights of citizenship, they possess-
and, at later periods, in the synagogues, ed the higher institutions of the gramma-
and in the schools of the Rabbles, reading, rians and the rhetoricians. In the former
committing to memory, and hearing ex- of these, were taught, scientifically, the
planations of, the sacred boohs, constituted Latin and Greek languages; and in the
the chief exercises, !
latter, young men of talent were prepared,
2. In the Grecian cities, boys and girls by exercises in declamation, for speaking
were taught reading, writing, and arith- in public.
metic, in private schools; and, after hav- 4. Children, among the Greeks and Ro-
ing completed the primary course, those •
mans, w ere accompanied
r
to school by

THE TEACHER. 148

Slaves, who, from the performance of this pcedia of Marcianus Capella, of Africa,
duty, were called pedagogues ; but, after This compendium was published at Rome,
slaves and freedmen had made acquire- A. I), 470 and, although a meagre pro-
;

ments in literature and science, they were duction, it maintained its reputation in the
frequently employed as tutors hence the : schools of Europe more than 1000 years.
term, at length, came to imply a teacher 8. The imperial schools, established by
of children, and it is still used in reference Antonius Pius, declined, and finally be-
to thisemployment, although we usually came extinct in the confusion that follow-
connect with it the idea of pedantry. ed the irruption of the barbarians; but
5. Until the time of Vespasian, who their places were supplied by the paro-
commenced his reign in the year 70 of the chialand cathedral schools just mentioned.
Christian era, the schools were sustained These, however, were surpassed, in the
entirely by private enterprise. That em- sixth century, by the conventual schools,
peror instituted public professorships of which were originally designed to prepare
grammar and rhetoric with fixed salaries, persons for the monastic life, but which
for the purpose of educating young men soon began to be resorted to by laymen.
for the public service and, in A. D. 150,
; 9. These schools were connected with
Antonius Pius founded imperial schools in the convents belonging to the order of St.
the larger cities of the Roman Empire. Benedict, and served as the chief glim-
The most celebrated place for the cultiva- mering lights during the darkest period
tion of science, in the ancient world, was between ancient and modern civilization
Athens; and to this city, students from all in Europe. They flourished in Ireland,
parts of Europe resorted, even as late as England, France, and Germany, from the
the ninth century. sixth to the eleventh century. The teach-
6. Christianity, by degrees, gave a new ers of these seminaries were called scho-
turn to education; and, in the East, it lastici and from them the scholastic philo-
,

came gradually under the influence of the sophy derived its origin and name.
clergy. Schools were instituted in the 10. In the year 789, Charlemagne, king
cities and villages for catechumens, and, in of the Franks, issued a decree for the im-
some places, those of a higher grade, for provement of the schools of his empire,
the education of clergymen. Of the lat- and for increasing their number. Not
ter kind, that in Alexandria was the most only every bishop’s see and every convent,
flourishing, from the second to the fourth but every parish, was to have it^ school
century. the two former for the education of cler-
7 From the
. fifth century, these higher gymen and public officers, and the latter
institutions began to decline, and others, for the lower classes of people. This
called cathedral or episcopal schools, seem monarch instituted an academy of learned
to have taken their place. In these, be- men, to whom he himself resorted for in-
sides theology, were taught the seven libe- struction, and whom he employed to edu-
ral arts —grammar, logic, rhetoric, arith- cate his children, and a select number of
metic, geometry, astronomy, and music; the sons of the nobility and distinguished
of which the three first were called the persons.
trivium, and the four last the quadrivium. 11 . The encouragement which these
The text-book employed was the Encyclo- schools had received from government was
144 THE TEACHER.

soon discontinued after the death of this 15. The division of the students into
monarch, and his school establishment de- four nations was an essential feature in
clined like that of Alfred the Great, which the early universities. It arose from the
was commenced in the ninth century, on circumstance that the pupils coming from
a scale of equal liberality. The designs different countries, spoke different lan-
of the English monarch were frustrated guages. Those whose language was the
by the invasion of the Danes. same, or similar, would naturally associate
12. In the mean time, the Jewish rab- together, and attend the instructions of the
bies had schools in Syria and in Northern same This division into nations
teachers.
Africa, as well as in Europe, which con- is supposed to have grown up at Paris,
tributed to the preservation of ancient previously to the formal union of the seve-
learning. Arabian schools were also esta- ral schools under one rector.
lished, in the ninth century, by the follow- 16. The first teachers, from whose ex-
ers of Mohamed, in their Eastern and Afri- ertions the universities originated, com-
can caliphates, and in their Moorish domi- menced their public instructions with-
nions in Spain. Through these institutions out permission from established authority.
the mathematical and medical sciences Subsequently, the state and university
were again revived in Europe. were careful to prevent all persons from
13. The cathedral and conventual schools giving lectures, who were not well quali-
continued, for a long time, the principal fied for the employment. Examinations
Europe and
institutions for education in ;
were therefore instituted to determine the
from them proceeded many eminent men. capabilities of students. Those who were
By degrees the light of science began to found competent, received a formal per-
shine more brightly teachers of eminence
;
mission to teach, accompanied with cer-
appeared in different places, who collected tain symbols in the spirit of the age.
around them a great number of scholars 17. The first academical degree was
and a new kind of schools arose, the heads that of baccalaureus ; the second, licentia-
of which assumed the name of rectores. tus and the third magister: the last of
14. In Paris, several of these teachers these entitled the student to all the privi-
gave instructions in various branches, but leges of his former teachers, and constitu-
chiefly in rhetoric, philosophy, and theolo- ted him one of the facultas artiurn the —
gy. The schools thus collected under dif- faculty of the seven liberal arts , since
ferent masters, were, in 1206, united under called the philosophical faculty. The other
one rector and, on this account, the whole
;
faculties were those of theology, law, and
mass of teachers and scholars was denomi- medicine. The first of these was institu-
nated universitas Universities, in other
. ted at Paris in 1259, and the two last in
parts of Europe, arose in a similar man- 1260. The deans from
faculties elected
ner, and some of them about the same among their number, who, with the pro-
time. Those of Oxford and Cambridge, curators, or heads of the four nations of
according to some writers, were establish- students, represented the university.
ed about the year 1200 and the two first
; These representatives possessed the power
of these institutions in Germany were of conferring degrees in the different de-
founded at Prague and Vienna, the former partments of literature and science.
in 1348, and the latter in 1365. 18. Among the public institutions of the
THE TEACHER. 145

early universities were the colleges, ( col- was exceedingly defective, since the intel-
legia,,) buildings in which students, espe- ligent investigation of the subjects studied
cially those who were poor, might live was little encouraged, and since the me-
together, under superintendants, without mory of the pupils was brought into requi-
paying for their lodging. In some cases, sition to the almost entire exclusion of the

they received their board, and frequently other faculties of the mind.
other allowances, gratis. These institu- 22. In the lower parish schools, the
tions were commenced at Paris; but here, children were not permitted to learn to
as well as in other places, they did not write, the monks being desirous of con-
continue the asylums of the necessitous fining to the clergy the practice of this
only. In France and England, the build- art, which was very lucrative before the
ings of universities are composed chiefly invention of printing. The art was called
of these colleges, in which the students ars clericalis; and, for a long time, the
reside, and in which the business of in- privilege of establishing writing schools
struction is mainly carried on. for the children of citizens, was a. matter
19. The teachers in the universities of negotiation between the magistrates
were at first paid for their services by the and the clergy.
students. At a later period, the magis- 23. But the citizens becoming, at length,
trates of the town or city where the insti- more independent, the magistrates them-
tution was located, made presents to emi- selves began to superintend the education
nent scholars, to induce them to remain. of youth. Trivial schools were establish-
This practice finally led to the payment ed, in which the trivium, reading, and
of regular salaries. From and after the writing, were taught; but for these, as
fourteenth century, universities were not well as for the cathedral and parish schools,
left to grow up of themselves as formerly, which had been neglected for some time
but were expressly established by public by the higher clergy, itinerant monks and
by the popes.
authorities, or students were employed as teachers.
20. The inactivity and luxury of the 24. The elder pupils of the highest class
clergy, had led to the neglect of the old frequently wandered from one school to
seminaries of learning. The universities another, under the pretence of pursuing
were therefore necessary, not only to re- their studies, sometimes taking with them
vive the taste for science and literature, younger scholars, whom they compelled to
but also to form a new body of teachers. beg or steal, in order to supply their wants.
These institutions, however, at length be- As late as the sixteenth century, Luther
came subject to undue clerical influence, complains that these vacantivi (or idlers)
since the monks obtained admission into were the persons chiefly employed as
them as teachers, and then laboured to in- schoolmasters in Germany.
crease the importance of their several or- 25. A pious fraternity, called Jerony-
ders, as well as the power of the Roman mites, consisting of ciergymen and laymen,
pontiff. who and occupied them-
lived together,
21. The monks, also, connected with selves partly in mechanic arts, and partly
their convents popular schools, and under- in the instruction of youth, exerted con-
took the education of the children in the siderable influence on education in gene-
cities. But their method of instruction ral. They first established themselves in
19
;

146 THE TEACHER.

Italy,and afterwards in the Netherlands, vance this important interest. Under the
on the Rhine, and in Northern Germany. late emperor, professorships were consti-
26. Much was done during the last half tuted in the universities and cathedral
of the fourteenth century, and in the one seminaries for the instruction of teachers
hundred years that followed, to encourage and gymnasia, common and Sunday schools,
the study of the ancient classics. The were established in almost every part of
attention of literary men was turned to the kingdom.
these interesting remains of antiquity by 30. The
general organization of schools
the arrival of many learned Greeks, who in France, in the eighteenth century, was
had fled from Turkish oppression, and who similar to that of most other Catholic coun-
had brought with them the ancient wri- tries. The government did nothing for
tings. the education of the people at large; and
27. These treasures of former civiliza- the church, which possessed a large pro-
tion were unfolded to the modern world by portion of the property of the nation, left
the art of printing, which was invented in the people in total ignorance ;
whence may
1441; and the reformation, which com- have arisen much of the atrocity which
menced in 1517, also aided the advance- marked the early part of the revolution.
ment of education. The corporations of 31. During the popular reign, the edu-
the German cities, in which the reformed cation of youth was declared to be under
religion was received, founded seminaries, the care of the state, and many schools,
called gymnasia, and lyceums, with per- called polytechnic, were established. Na-
manent professorships. A vast amount of poleon, also, afterwards instituted several
property, belonging to the convents and military schools, and contemplated the in-
the church, was confiscated by the govern- troduction of a system of general educa-
ments, and appropriated chiefly to the pro- tion. With he instituted an
this view,
motion of education. imperial university, which was to have
28. The schools in the countries which the supreme direction of instruction in
adhered to the Roman Catholic religion, Franqe but his designs were but partial-
;

however, continued in nearly the same ly carried into effect.


state, until the Jesuit schools arose, to- 32. When the Bourbons were again re-
wards the end of the sixteenth century. stored to the throne of France, they, with
These, on account of the ability with the clergy, laboured to restore the old or-
which they were conducted, soon gained der of things; and, to keep the common
the ascendency, and for a long time main- people from becoming dangerous, the Lan-
tained their reputation but they at length
; casterian schools, established in 1816, were
degenerated, and finally became extinct, abolished. This condition of things has
on the suppression of the order of Jesuits not been since materially changed; and
in 1773. it is stated, upon satisfactory grounds, that
29. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, have for at least one third of the population are
a long time been inactive in relation to unable to read.
education, it being left entirely to the 33. In England and Ireland, although
clergy, and the efforts of the people in the middling and higher classes are com-
their individual capacity. Much has been paratively well educated, no system of
done in Austria, within fifty years, to ad- general instruction has ever been estab-
THE TEACHER. 147

lished for the benefit of the common peo- every state where the influence of the peo^
ple. Much, however, has been accom- pie from that section of country is pre-
plished by charity and Sunday schools; the dominant, public schools have been organ-
former of which were commenced in 1698, ized by legal provisions, and a fund has
and the latter in 1812. Besides these there been provided, by which at least a part of
are numerous charitable foundations on the expense of supporting them is paid.
which many persons of limited means have 38. In all the states in which these pri-
been educated at the higher institutions. mary institutions are established by legis-
34. In Scotland, more liberal provisions lative enactments, they are kept in opera-
have been made for general education. tion, in country places, between six and
The system was commenced in the reign nine months of the year. A master is em-
of William and Mary, when, by an act of ployed in the winter, and a mistress in
Parliament, every parish was required to the summer the former receives for his
:

maintain a school. The people have so far services from ten to fifteen dollars per
improved their privileges, that nearly all month, and the from seventy-five
latter,
of the inhabitants of that part of Great cents to two dollars per week, together
Britain can read and write. with boarding. The teachers, however,
35. The government of Russia, during during their engagement are compelled to
the last and present century, has directed reside in the different families of the dis-
some attention to the promotion of educa- trict, their stay at each place being deter-
tion. According to the decrees of the em- mined, with scrupulous exactness, by the
peror Alexander, schools of different grades number of children sent to the school.
were be established throughout the em-
to 39. From the low salaries received for
pire but these decrees have been yet only
;
these important services, and the short pe-
partially executed. riods for which engagements are made, it
36. In no part of the world has the edu- is evident, that teaching a district school
cation cf all classes oi people been so much cannot be pursued as a regular employ-
attended to as in the United States. This ment. These schools are. therefore sup-
has arisen chiefly from the circumstance, plied by persons who, during the rest of
that a remarkable proportion of the colo- the year, follow some other business or ;

nists were persons of education. This was by students, who rely, in part or entirely,
particularly the case with those of New on their own exertions to defray the ex-
England, where the instruction of youth, penses of their academical, collegiate, or
from the very beginning of the settle- professional education.
ments, was made a matter of public con- 40. These schools are, no doubt, insti-
cern. tutions of great value; but in the states
37. The principle of making public pro- where they have been established, they
vision for this purpose, thus early adopted, are evidently much overrated. They fail
has never been deserted on the contrary,
;
in fully accomplishing the ends for which
it has become so deeply interwoven with they have been instituted, through the ex-
the social condition of the people of New treme tenacity with which the people ad-
England, that there are few families in here to ancient and defective methods of
that part of the Union, which are not instruction, the frequent change of teach-
within reach of a public school: and, in ers, and the small compensation allowed
148 THE TEACHER.

for the services of competent instruct- by the funds of the state in which they
ors. are located, some by the union of a few
and populous towns or
41. In the cities spirited individuals, or by private be-
villages, the public schools are kept up quests.
during the whole of the year, and the sys- 45. The course of instruction pursued
tem of instruction is generally better than in these seminaries of learning varies con-
that pursued in the country. In New- siderably from each other. In some of
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and in some them it is confined chiefly to the common
other cities, the Lancasterian plan of mu- branches of education ;
in others, the course
tual instruction, with some modifications, is pretty extensive, embracing natural and
is preferred, principally on account of its moral philosophy, chemistry, belles let-
cheapness. tres, and a sound course of mathematics,

42. Select-schoolsand private acade- together with Latin, Greek, and some of
mies are, also, very numerous. These are the modern languages. One great object
located chiefly in the cities and populous in these institutions is to prepare students
towns, and are supported entirely by fees for college. The teacher who has charge
for tuition received from the parents or of an academy is called the principal,
guardians of the pupils. These institutions while the teacher who may aid him in his
do not differ essentially from those of a labours is denominated the assistant or
private nature in similar situations in other usher.
parts of the United States, where com- 46. The highest of learning
institutions
mon schools are not established by law. among us are the colleges and universi-
43. In the Southern states, wealthy fa- ties. Between these, however, there seems
milies often employ private tutors. Some- to be but little difference, since the course
times two, three, or more families, and of studies are nearly or quite the same in
even a whole neighbourhood, unite for the both, and since the charters obtained from,
purpose of forming a school and to induce
;
the legislatures grant to both similar pow-
a teacher to commence or continue his la- ers of conferring honorary degrees. The
bours among them, an adequate amount is whole number of these establishments in
made up beforehand by subscription. South the United States is about sixty.
of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Ohio 47. The principal teachers in the colleges
river, such engagements are commonly are denominated professors, who confine
made for a year, as, in that section of the their labours to communicating instruc-
Union, the opinion prevails that a teacher tions in particular branches of literature

can do but little towards improving his pu- or science. These are aided by assistants

pils ina much shorter time. called The latter are


tutors. generally
44. The literary institutions which are young men who devote two or three
next above the common schools, and which years to this employment, before entering
are established by legislative authority, upon the practice of a profession. The
are the academies, of which there are be- number of professors and tutors in the

tween five and six hundred in the United several colleges varies according to their
States. Some of these have been founded | amount of funds and number of students.
3.

THE MUSICIAN, AND THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER.

THE MUSICIAN. and singer were united in the same indi-


1. The word Music, in its modern appli- vidual, and the voice was frequently ac-
cation, has reference to the science which companied by musical instruments. The
treats of the combination of sounds. It is oldest song which has descended to our

founded upon the law of our nature, that times, and which is stated to have been
every leading passion has its peculiar tone exhibited in this manner, was that sung
or note of expression understood by all hu- by Miriam, the sister of Moses, on the oc-
man beings. Music, therefore, may be casion of the passage of the Red Sea by
supposed to have been practised in the the children of Israel.
earliest ages ; although it must have been The Hebrews employed music in
a long time before it arose to the import- their celebration of religious worship,
ance of a science. which consisted, in part, in chanting sol-
2. According to the Mosaic records, emn psalms with instrumental accompani-
Jubal, one of the descendants of Cain, ments. It was also used by them on the
played upon musical instruments, many occasion of entertainments, as well as in
hundred years before the flood. In the the family circle. It reached its greatest
early period of the nations of antiquity, perfection amongst the Jews, in the days
and in fact among semi-barbarous peo-
all of David and Solomon. It is supposed
ple of later periods, tl?£ character of poet that the priests of Egypt were versed in
150 THE MUSICIAN.

music, before the settlement of the family used in war and on the stage from the
of Jacob in that country but how far the;
Greeks. At an early period of their his-
were indebted to them for a
Israelites tory, was a great impediment to the
it

knowledge of this pleasing art, is altoge- progress of the art, that it was practised
ther uncertain. only by slaves,
4. Music was held in very high estima- 8. The Roman orators pitched their
tion among the Greeks, who attributed to voice,and regulated the different intona-
it incredible eifects. They even assure tions through their speech, by the sound of
us that it is the chief amusement of the instruments; and on the stage, the song,
gods, and the principal employment of the as well as part of the play itself, was ac-
blessed in heaven. Many of their laws, companied with Wind-instruments
flutes.
and the information relative to the gods of various kinds, comprised under the gen-
and heroes, as well as exhortations to vir- eral name of tibia, and sometimes the
tue, were written in verse, and sung pub- cythera and harp, accompanied the chorus.
licly in chorus to the sound of instruments. In all these applications of music, the
5. It was the opinion of the philosophers Romans had been preceded by the Greeks.
of Greece, that music was necessary to 9. The Hebrews employed accents to

mould the character of a nation to virtue ;


express musical tones, but most other na-
and Plato asserts, that the music of his tions of antiquity used letters of the al-
countrymen could not be altered, without phabet for this purpose ;
and as they had
affecting the constitution of the state itself. not yet conceived the idea of the octave
But in his time and afterwards, complaints or parallel lines, to express a variety of
were made of the degeneracy in this art, tones in a similarmanner by the aid of a
and a deterioration of national manners key, they required a number of notes that
through its influence. The degeneracy must have been exceedingly perplexing.
probably consisted in its application to 10. The Greeks are said to have had
the expression of the tender passions ;
it about one thousand notes, half of which
having been previously applied, in most were for vocal, and the other half for in-
eases, to awaken patriotic and religious strumental music. All these were ex-
feeling. pressed by placing the letters of their alpha-
6. The invention of music and of musi- them, in different positions.
bet, or parts of
cal instruments, as in the cases of most of Accents were also used, partly by them-
the arts and sciences among the Greeks, selves, and in connexion with the letters.
was attributed by the poets to some of the 11. The lines of a poem, set to music,
gods, or else to individuals of their own were placed under the letters expressing
nation. It appears, however, from their the tones. The letters for the instrument-
traditions, that they received this art, or al part were placed first, and under them
at least great improvements in its execu- those for the voice.The notes of the
tion, from Phoenicia or Asia Minor. It be- Greeks and Romans were not required to
gan to be cultivated scientifically in Greece indicate the time in which they were to
about 600 years before the advent of Christ. be pronounced, since in general the sylla-
1. The Romans seem to have derived bles of their language had a natural and
the music which they employed in reli- distinct quantity
* In the cases in which
gious services from the Etruscans, but that there was a liability to mistake, the sylla*
; ;

THE MUSICIAN. 151

bles were marked with A, if long, and 16. Many of the Grecian and Roman
with B, if short melodies were also set to words adapted to
12. The Romans expressed the fifteen Christian worship. In regard to the man-
chief tones of the Greeks with the fifteen ner of singing, in the early days of the
first letters of the Latin alphabet; and church, it was sometimes in solo, some-
these were reduced to seven, by Pope times in alternate strains, and at other
Gregory I., towards the end of the sixth times in chorus in which the whole as-
century; so that the first seven capital sembly joined, repeating what had been
letters were used for the first octave, the before sung or read. In the fourth cen-
small letters for the higher octave, and the tury, with the view of securing the proper
same letters doubled, for the highest octave. execution of this part of divine worship,
Parallel lines were soon after invented, on precentors were instituted, who were con-
which the letters were written. sidered regular officers of the church.
13. Musical sounds were expressed in 17. Pope Gregory L, surnamed the Great,
this manner until the year 1024, when, distinguished himself by establishing a new
according to some authors, Guido Aretine, singing-school, which became a model for
a monk of Arezzo, invented points and many others, western division of the
in the
rhombuses. He also introduced the use church. In consequence of these schools,
of five parallel lines, upon and between the singing became more artificial; and
which his notes were written. The seven this, together with the circumstance that
letters which had formerly been used as thehymns were in Latin, which had be-
notes, now became clifs. come obsolete, at length excluded the peo-
14. Still, however, the means of deter- ple from any participation in this part of
mining the duration of sound belonging to the public worship.
each note, without consulting the quantity 18. Gregory also made a selection of
of the syllables in the verses to be sung, the existing songs of the church, and intro-
were yet to be provided. This desidera- duced a chant, which, through his influ-
tum was supplied by one Franco, a German ence, and that of his successors, was at
of. Cologne, who lived towards the end of length extended throughout Europe. It
the eleventh century. Some, however, received the appellation of the Gregorian
attribute this improvement to John de chant from his name. It was also called
Murs. The division of one note into others the choral song, because it was sung by a
of less value was invented, in the sixteenth choir. This chant is said to be the found-
century, by Jean Mouton, chapel-master to ation of our present church-music.
King Francis I. of France. 19. Music, in distinct parts, was not
15. The knowledge of music, as a sci- known until after the introduction of the
ence, was preserved in Europe, after the improved method of writing music, in-
overthrow of the western empire, through vented, as before stated, by Guido Aretine
the influence of the church. The apostles, and Franco. The development of harmony,
and Hebrew converts generally, had been in four parts, was assisted by the choral
accustomed to the sacred music of the but it was more particularly advanced by
Jews and, on this account, it was easy to
;
musical instruments, and especially by the
continue the use of the same psalms and organ. In the fifteenth century, music be-
hymns in the Christian church. gan again to be treated scientifically.
152 THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER.

20. The reformation produced great either at the public expense, or by the
changes in the character of sacred music. liberality of individuals.
Before that event took place, this part of
religious worship was confined to a few
fixed forms of texts, as in the mass, and this THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER.
is still the case in the Roman Catholic 1. This artist unites in his business
church; but the Protestants allow great some of the operations of the cabinet-ma-
variety both in the poetry and music. ker, turner, and brazier. He, also, is de-
Luther’s agency in the production of these pendent upon the wire-drawer, and the
changes was very considerable. During tanner and currier, for some of his mate-
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, rials. So great, however, is the number
church music became continually more of musical instruments, and so different
and always more corrupted, by
brilliant, their nature and construction, that the
the intermixture of profane music. business of making them is divided into
21. In the sixteenth and seventeenth several branches all of which are never
;

centuries, there grew up, at the courts of pursued, or carried on, by one person.
the European monarchs, the free chamber But, without reference to the several
style, from which arose that which was divisions of this business, we will pro-
afterwards used in the theatre. The ceed to mention or describe the principal
opera, which originated with three young instruments which are now in most com-
noblemen at Florence in 1594, has contri- mon use.
buted especially to the splendour and va- 2. The organ is the largest of all musi-
riety of modern vocal music the advance- ; cal instruments, and, in its improved state,
ment of which is claimed particularly by so complex that a mere description of it
the Italians, as that of the instrumental cannot be well understood. Nevertheless,
kind claimed by the Germans and French.
is we will endeavour to give the reader some
22. The composition of music, and its idea of the general principles on which it

execution, either vocally or instrumental ly, is constructed.


as well as the business of imparting a 3. The most essential and prominent
knowledge of it to others, are embraced in parts of this machine are the wind-chest ,

the employment of the musician although ; the pipes, and the bellows . The former of
it seldom that all these branches are
is these is an oblong box, made perfectly air-
practised by one and the same individual. tight, and placed in a horizontal position.
Music is one of the fine arts, and, during The top of this chest is perforated with
the' middle ages, was one of the branches several rows of holes of different sizes, and
of what was then considered a learned edu- into these are inserted the pipes. Those
cation. for the higher notes are of a cylindrical
23. Since the scientific revival of music, form, and are made of a mixture of metals,
the art has had so many distinguished pro- chiefly of tin and lead ;
but those designed
fessors that we will not attempt even to for the expression of the lowest tones of
give a list of their names. Their number the base are made of wood, in a square
was increased, and the art greatly per- form. The dimensions of these pipes are
fected, by the singing-schools, called con- regulated by a diapason or scale.
servatories, established especially in Italy, 4. There are as many of these rows of
THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER. 153

pipes, which are called stops, as there are cannot now be ascertained. By some, it

kinds of tones in the organ ;


and to every is said that Pope Yitelianus caused them
row or stop is a plug, attached to a slide, to be used in Rome in the seventh century.
Which is denominated a register, and which Others are of opinion, that they were not
is designed to regulate the admission of introduced until three hundred years later.
wind into the pipes. The pipes are also But, be this as it may, the church organ
furnished with valves, which can be opened was not in common use until the fourteenth
at pleasure,by means of keys similar to century ;
and now it is very different in
those of the piano-forte. Some organs its construction from that of early times.
have few, others have many stops; and, It has received many additions and im-
in order to regulate the force of sound, provements since the beginning of the
most church organs have two or three fifteenth century.
rows of keys, whereby a greater or less 8. The hand or barrel organ consists of
number of pipes may be filled, and the a movable cylinder, on which, by means
powers of the instrument may be controlled of wares, pins, and staples, are marked the
in what is called the small organ, or let tunes which it is intended to perform.
loose, so as to become the full organ. These pins and by the revolution
staples,
5. The fingering of an organ is precisely of the barrel, act upon the keys within,
similar to that of the piano-forte, so far as and give admission to the wind from the
relates to the position of the keys but, on ;
bellows to the pipes. The hand organ is so
account of the great number of holding contrived that the revolution of the barrel
notes in organ music, and the manner in gives motion to the bellows.
which the sound is produced, the fingers There are several instruments be-
9.
are more kept down; whence it is con- longing to the class of horns, all of which
sidered injurious for performers on the are made of brass or silver. Those of the
piano-forte to practise on the organ, lest latter kind of metal are by far the softest
that lightness of touch, so necessary for in tone, but brass is the material most
the former instrument, be affected. It is commonly employed. The chief instru-
hardly necessary to remark, that during ments belonging to this class are the
the performance on the organ, the wind- trumpet, the French horn, the bugle, the
chest is filled by means of the bellows. Kent bugle, the trombone, and the bass-
6. The structure of the organ is lofty, horn. The serpent seems to be the con-
elegant, and majestic; and its solemnity, necting link between the trumpet and the
grandeur, and volume of tone, have obtain- flute.
ed for it a pre-eminence over every other 10. The instruments classed with the
instrument for the sacred purposes to which flute, are the common flutes of various
it has been applied. The largest organ keys, German flutes, and several kinds of
known is in St. Peter’s church, at Rome. flageolets. Nearly allied to these are the
It has one hundred stops. clarionet, the hautboy, and bassoon. The
7. The church organ was probably sug- breath is applied to the flageolet through
gested by the water organ of the Greeks, an ivory tube at the end ;
and in the three
which was invented five or six hundred last named instruments, a thin reed, capa-
years before our era. At what period or- ble of a free vibration, is a part of the
gans began to be employed in churches, mouth-piece.
154 THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER.

11. Of the instruments which produce 14. The


instruments of percussion are
musical sounds by the vibration of strings, the military drum, base-drum, kettle-drum,
there are a great number, of which the tabour, tamborine, and the triangle. The
following are the principal :
—the lyre, the kettle-drum has received its name from its
harp, the guitar, the lute, the dulcimer, conformation. It has but one head, and is
the harpsichord, the spinnet, the piano- used in orchestres, and by the cavalry of
forte, the violin, the violincello, and the modern armies, especially in Europe. The
base-viol. The strings of the three last tabour has two heads, about three inches
are agitated with a bow; but those of apart,and is beaten with one stick. The
this class first mentioned, are vibrated by tambourine has one head, drawn over a
the thumb and fingers, by some little in- hoop, to which are attached small bells and
strument held in the hand, or by little bits of tin, to make a jingling sound. The
hammers, moved by keys, as in the piano- time is beaten on the head with the hand.
forte. 15. The bag-pipe is a wind instrument
12. The
piano-forte is said to be the of high antiquity among the northern na-
invention of Christian Gottleib Schroder, tions of Europe, but it has been so long a
of Hohenstein, in Saxony, born in Dresden favourite with the natives of Scotland,
about the year 1717. Before the introduc- that it may be considered their national
tion of this instrument, the clavichord, instrument. It consists of a leather bag
harpsichord, and spinnet, supplied its place. and three pipes. The first of the latter
On all of these instruments complete har- is that by which the droning noise is pro-
mony can be produced by a single per- duced, the second emits wind from the
former, and the most difficult series of bottom of the bag, and the third is that on
tones can be executed with rapidity, by which the music is made.
means of a simple mechanism. 16. During the performance on the bag-
13. The pianoforte has been gradually pipes, the bag is placed under the arm,
improved, uiltii it -has btNJylne one of the and worked like a bellows, while the notes
most elegant instruments in the whole are modulated as in a flute or hautboy, by
compass of musical practice. In firmness stopping and opening the holes, eight in
and strength of tone, the English piano- number, with the ends of the finger and
fortes formerly surpassed all others ;
but, thumb. In some instances, the bag is fill-
within a few years, they have been equal- ed by means of the breath blown into it
led, and in some respects excelled, by through a pipe. In Rome, at the time of
those of American workmanship. The Advent, the peasants of the mountains
manufacture of this instrument constitutes express their veneration for the Virgin by
the most extensive branch of musical in- playing on this instrument before her im-
strument-making. age.
4.

THE SCULPTOR.
Sculpture is one of the fine arts. In
1. said to be in alto relievo, or high relief \

its most extended sense, it includes not when but a small proportion of it is buried
only modelling figures in clay, wax, and in the back-ground in mezzo relievo, or
;

plaster of paris, and carving them in wood, middle relief, when one half of it is above
stone, and marble, but also casting them the surface and in basso relievo, or low
;

in bronze, lead, or iron, as well as en- relief, when but little elevated, like figures
chasing and engraving. upon coin. Bas-reliefs are usually applied
2. The productions of this art are known as ornaments to buildings and pediments
under various denominations, but the prin- to statues.
cipal are statues busts and bas-reliefs. The subjects of sculpture, with a
, , few
The first of these are entire representa- exceptions, are the same as those of paint-
tions of men or animals in full relief the ;
ing ; and the course of study essential to
second are upper parts of statues and the ;
proficiency in either, is very similar. They
last are figures more or less elevated from both require much taste and practice, and
the body or ground on which they are a thorough knowledge of the human form
formed. and other objects frequently represented.
3. The different degrees of elevation in The young artist begins with imitating
reliefs, are
expressed by various terms the most perfect models of Grecian art;
borrowed from the Italian. figure is A and, after having become well acquainted
156 THE SCULPTOR.

with their beauties, he proceeds to .the Plaster of Paris is the most usual material
imitation of nature. employed for this purpose.

5. When any considerable work in stone 9. When the subject is a bas-relief, or


or marble be done, the sculptor forms
is to any other one-sided figure of a similar
a model of clay or wax to guide him kind, the mould can be withdrawn with-
in the execution. The soft material is out injury, in a single piece ;
but if it is a
formed to the proposed form with the statue, or any other figure of like form, it
hands and small instruments of ivory. The is necessary to divide the mould into sev-
model is by far the most difficult part of eral pieces, in order to a safe removal.
the work, and it is here the genius of the These pieces again united constitute a
artist is to be displayed. The process of perfect mould. While moulds are being
copying the model in stone or in any other formed on the face of a living person, he
substance, is an operation merely mechan- breathes through tubes inserted into the
ical, and can often be done by another per- nostrils.
son as well as by the scientific sculptor from such a mould,
10. In taking casts
himself. the internal surface is oiled to prevent ad-
6. The model having been prepared, the hesion, and then plaster mixed with water
block of marble or Stone is marked at cer- is poured into it through a small orifice.
tain points corresponding to its chief ele- The mould is afterwards turned in every
vations and concavities. The material is may cover every
direction, that the plaster
then wrought to the rough outline of the part of the surface and when a sufficiency
;

figure, by means of strong steel points, of it has been distributed to produce the
drills, and other perforating tools and the ; requisite strength, and the plaster has ac-
asperities are afterwards removed with quired the proper solidity, the several
chisels, together with rasps and files of pieces are removed from the cast, which,
different shapes. When
a high polish is of course, is an exact resemblance of the
required, it is produced by friction with subject on which the mould was formed.
pumice-stone, tripoli, and straw ashes. 11. Superfluous portions of the material,
Marble and stone are carved in a
7. produced by the seams in the mould, are
similar manner; but the latter, being soft- removed with suitable instruments, and
er, can be wrought with less difficulty. applications of fresh plaster are made,
The defects which may be met with in the where necessary to repair blemishes. The
stone are repaired with a composition of cast is finished by dipping it in a varnish
plaster of Paris and the same stone, pul- made of soap, white wax, and water, and
verized and mixed with water. afterwards rubbing it with soft linen. The
8. Casts in plaster of Paris and bronze polish produced in this manner approaches
are taken from models, statues, busts, bas- that of marble.
reliefs, and living persons. To do this, it 12. The durability of plaster casts, ex-
isnecessary to form a mould from the sub- posed to the weather, is greatly increased
ject to be copied. This is done by spread- by saturating them with linseed oil com-
ing over it some soft substance, which can bined with wax or rosin. They are made
be readily forced into all the cavities, and toresemble bronze by the application of a
which will harden by drying or cooling. soap composed of linseed oil and soda, and
THE SCULPTOR. 1 57

coloured with the sulphate of copper and that catastrophe. The first images were
iron. probably made for the purpose of perpetu-
13. Moulds formed of a warm
are, also, ating the memory of the dead but, in pro- ;

solution of glue, which hardens upon cool- cess of time, they became objects of adora-
ing, and such are called elastic moulds. tion. As the Chaldeans were unquestion-
This material is sometimes preferred on ably the first idolaters, so are they supposed
account of its more easy separation from to have been the first who made progress
irregular surfaces. For small and delicate in sculpture.
impressions in bas-relief, melted sulphur 17. The first notice of this art in the
is sometimes employed also, a strong so-
;
Mosaic writings, is found in the passage
lution of isinglass in proof spirits. All relative to the teraphim, or idols, which
three of the substances last mentioned Rachael, the wife of Jacob, carried clan-
yield sharper impressions than plaster of destinely, from her father’s house and :

Paris. the first persons mentioned in the bible, as


14. Statues designed to occupy situa- artists, Aholiab and Bezaleel, who
are
tions in which they may be exposed to the formed the cherubim which covered the
weather and mechanical violence, are often mercy-seat, together with some other fur-
made of bronze, cast in moulds. The ex- niture of the tabernacle, and the sculptured
ternal portions of the mould are made on ornaments of the garments of the high-
the pattern, out of plaster, brick dust, and priest.
water. The mould is then covered on the 18. From the same authority, we learn
inside with a coating of clay as thick as that the nations expelled from Canaan,' by
the bronze intended to be, and the sev-
is the Jewish people, were not ignorant of
eral pieces are afterwards put together, or sculpture and painting for Moses repeat-
;

closed. The internal cavity is next filled edly commands the latter to destroy the
with a composition like that on the other pictures and molten images which might
side of the clay. be discovered in their progress through the
15. When this has been done, the sev- land. The Israelites crossed the river Jor-
eral pieces forming the outside of the dan about 1500 years before the commence-
mould are separated, and the clay care- ment of our era.
fully removed. These having been again 19. From this time to the end of the
united, and the core or internal portion Jewish polity, we often meet in the scrip-
of the mould secured in its true posi- tures with indications of the fine arts but ;

tion, the whole is bound with iron hoops, the splendour of Solomon’s temple, clearly
and thoroughly dried. The melted bronze points out the days of that prince as the
is poured into the cavity formed by the re- period in which they had attained their
moval of the clay, through an aperture greatest perfection in Judea.
made for the purpose. The cast is after- 20. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and
wards rendered smooth by mechanical Phoenicians, became considerably skilful
means. in sculpture, at a very early period, as we
16. It is conjectured with much reason, learn from early history, and some existing
that sculpture was one of the arts prac- remains. The same remark is also appli-
tised before the deluge, and that it was cable to the inhabitants of Hindostan.
transmitted to posterity by the survivors of But writers have been more particular in
158 THE SCULPTOR.
noticing the style of design
1

among the in the island of iEgina, at Corinth, at Si-


Egyptians, because the progress of the cvon, and in Etruria, in Italy : but it -seems
arts among that people is more easily that no good representations of the human
traced, and because supposed to elu-
it is form were effected until near the time of
cidate that of most other ancient nations. Phidias, who was born 444 years before
21. The chief objects of sculpture, Christ.
among the Egyptians, were pillars, and 25. This most distinguished of all the
other architectural ornaments, idols, the votaries of sculpture, flourished at or near
human figure, animals, and hieroglyphics, the same time with the dramatic poets,
engraved in a kind of bas-relief on public JEschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles; the
edifices and the forms of animals. Most philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Anaxa-
of the great works of this nation are sup- goras ;
and the statesmen and command-
posed to have been executed during and ers, Pericles, Miltiades, Themistocles, Ci-
after the reign of Sesostris, who lived in mon, and Xenophon. This was the most.

the days of Rehoboam, king of Israel, refined period of Grecian history, and of
or about 1000 years before the Christian all others, the most favourable in its moral
era. and political circumstances, for the de-
22.But of all the nations of antiquity, velopement of genius.
the Greeks were the most distinguished 26. Phidias was the author of the ideal
for sculpture. They derived the first ru- style, which, in the fine arts, may be de-
diments of the art from the Phoenicians, fined, the union of the perfections of any
or Egyptians, although they assert that class of figures. Among the distinguished
they themselves were its inventors. Its productions of this artist, the colossal sta-
existence, in a rude state, among that peo- tues of Minerva and Jupiter Olympius,
ple, preceded that of letters, or scientific made of gold and ivory, have excited the
architecture. greatest astonishment. The former, exe-
23. Dsedalus, who lived about 100 years cuted for the Parthenon of Athens, was
after Moses, was the first sculptor among twenty-six cubits in height and the latter, ;

the Greeks, of any notoriety. The statues for a splendidtemple at Elis, was about
made before his time,were stiff, formal the same height, although seated upon a
figures, having the arms attached to the throne.
body, and the legs united, like the mum- 27. The favourite disciples of Phidias,
my-shaped productions of Egyptian art. were Alcamenes, of Attica, and Agoracri-
He separated the legs of his statues, and tus, of Paros and at the same time with
;

placed them, and the upper extremities, in them, flourished Polycletus, of Argos, Mi-
a natural position. He also was the first ron, of Bceotia, and Pythagoras, of Rhe-
sculptor who made the eyes of his statues glum. The beautiful style soon succeeded
open. On account of these improvements, to the ideal ;
the authors of which, were
the Greeks said, that his divine genius Praxiteles and Scopas, who brought the
made statues walk, and see, and speak. art to the highest perfection, — since, in
24. The and imitators of Das-
disciples their productions, they united beauty and
dalus were called his sons, and artists, grace. After the days of these two artists,

generally, Dcedalides. Soon after this sculpture began to decline; although it

period, schools of design were established continued to be practised with consider-


THE SCULPTOR. 159

able success, for some centuries after this ever, was not altogether lost, but was oc-
period. casionally practised, although in a very
28. The great superiority of the Greeks rude manner, in several kingdoms of Eu-
in the art of sculpture, is ascribed to vari- rope. In the eleventh century, after the
ous causes; among which- are classed, terrors of the northern invasions had pass-
their innate love of beauty, and their own ed away, and the governments had become
elegance of form, combined with the fre- more established, the arts of design began
quent opportunities of studying the human a regular course of improvement, which
figure, in places where youth were in the has been denominated their revival.
habit of performing athletic exercises, in 32. This improvement was promoted
a state of nudity. To these may be added, by means of the frequent intercourse which
the practice of awarding to citizens a sta- had sprung up between the commercial
tue of their own persons, for eminent ser- cities of Italy and the Greek empire. In
vices to the state, and for excelling in ex- 1016, the Pisans founded their great
ercises at the public games, church, called the Dome of Pisa ;
and, in
29. The fine arts were nearly extin- its employed many no-
construction, they
guished in Greece, by the conquest of the ble pillars and other fragments of Grecian
Romans who, with ruthless rapacity,
;
edifices. They also engaged upon the
seized upon, and transferred to their me- work several Grecian sculptors and paint-
tropolis and villas, the superb works of ers, who exerted in their service the little

taste with which the country abounded. skill which had come down from antiquity.
By these means, however, a taste for the 33. The specimens of ancient art thus
arts was produced among the Romans, who introduced at Pisa, and the works of these
encouraged with great liberality the Greek artists, at length incited several Italians
artists who resorted in great numbers to to emulation; among whom was Nicolo
their city. Pisano, who became the restorer of true
30. The arts at length declined at taste in the arts, in the thirteenth century.
Rome, and finallybecame nearly extinct At had diffused
this period, the crusades
in that city soon after Byzantium was such a zeal for the Christian religion, that
made the capitol of the Roman Empire, magnificent churches were built in every
in 329 of the Christian era. The new part of Italy, in the designing of which,
Capitolwas enriched by the most valuable and in their decoration with sculpture,
statuary of the old metropolis, and by a Pisano and his scholars were universally
farther pillage of Greece. Artists were employed.
also encouraged with a magnificence simi- John Pisano, the son of Nicholo, was
34.
lar to that of former times and many new
;
also an architectand sculptor of eminence,
subjects in painting and sculpture, in illus- and by him was built, for king Charles, a
tration of the Christian scriptures, were castle, and several churches, at Naples.
executed as embellishments for the sacred He also executed several pieces of sculp-
buildings of the city. ture, and superintended the construction
31 . The art of sculpture necessarily de- of some edifices in Tuscany. This sculp-
clined during the time of the unsettled tor, who died in 1320, had seyeral pupils,

state of Europe, which followed the con- of whom Agostino and Agnolo Sanesl were
quests by the barbarous nations. It, how- the best sculptors of the time.
;

160 THE SCULPTOR.

35. In 1350, an academy of design was public edifices. He died in 1564, at an


formed at Florence by the union of several advanced age.
sculptors, painters, and architects. This 39. Sculpture, having been brought to
institution was called after St. Luke, whom as high a state of perfection as it was ever
tradition makes a painter by profession. likely to be carried, began to decline in
The society was afterwards munificently Italy, as it had done before, under similar
patronized by the Medici, a noble *and circumstances, in ancient times; but as
wealthy family of that city. barbarism did not again occur to over-
36. From this school, there soon pro- whelm it, it did not entirely disappear. It
ceeded a great number of skilful artists, continued to be practised, although in a
among whom were the sculptors Lorenzo very inferior degree, until it was again
Ghiberti, Donatello, and Brunileschi and ;
revived by Antonio Canova, near the close
after these, others perhaps more dis-
still of the eighteenth century.
tinguished, until it produced Michael An- 40. The French nation, from its vicinity
gelo Buonarotti, who, as a universal ge- and intercourse with Italy, obtained from
nius in the arts of design, has excelled that country the means of improvement in
every other artist, whether ancient or mo- every branch of the fine According-
arts.
dern. ly, native artists of considerable merit oc-

37. This 'great man was born in Flo- casionally appeared. The kings of France,
rence, in 1474. His father, having dis- also, oftenemployed Italian architects and
covered his talent for designing, made him sculptors on their great public works. In
a pupil of Dominic Ghirlandaio, who in- the reign of Francis I., Leonardo da Vinci,
structed him in the first principles of the and two other artists from Italy, establish-
art of drawing. He studied statuary un- ed a school of fine arts similar to that of
der Bartoldo ;
and, in his sixteenth year, St. Luke, at Florence and the genius of
;

copied the head of a satyr in marble, to the people, added to national munificence,
the admiration of all connoisseurs. On have kept a respectable school of sculpture
account of his great promise, he was libe- to the present time.
rally patronized by Lorenzo de Medicis, 41. Considerable ability in sculpture has
who, besides allowing him a pension, gave likewise been exhibited by the native
him a lodging in the palace, and a place artists of Spain, Germany, Holland, Eng-
at his table. After the death of this prince, land, and some other countries of Europe
he enjoyed the same favours from his son, but whatever skill has been displayed in
Pietro de Medicis. any of these countries has been derived,
38. His reputation as an artist having in an indirect manner at least, from Italy.
been established at Florence, he was call- In the United States, the fine arts have
ed to Rome by Julius II. From this time, been cultivated with considerable spirit.
he remained chiefly in the service of the An academy for this purpose has been es-
popes, for whom he executed many inimi- New- York and Philadel-
tablished both in
table works, both of sculpture and paint- phia,and a picture gallery has been con-
ing. tie was also an architect of the first nected with the Athenaeum in Boston, in
order and, as such, was employed on St.
; which the annual exhibition of paintings
Peter’s church, as well as on several other is respectable.
1. Painting is the art of representing 3, Composition regards the general dis-
visible objects, by means of lines and co- tribution and groupingof figures, the choice
lours, on a plane surface, so as to produce of attitudes, the disposal of draperies, the
the appearance of relief. It is justly rank- situation of the scene itself, as well as the
ed among the highest of that class of arts arrangement and connexion of the various
denominated fine, or liberal and its ten-
; parts of the scenery. Invention and com-
dencies and powers being similar to those position are employed particularly in the
of poetry, it is considered an employment first rough sketch of a picture.
worthy of men of the most exalted rank. 4. Design refers to the expression of a
2. The theory and practice of this in- proposed picture in simple contour, or out-
genious and delightful art, are divided by lines. It is applied in making the first
its professors into five distinct branches, rough sketch of the picture, whether in
invention , composition, design, chiaro- miniature or in its full size, as well as in
scuro, and colouring. Invention relates the more accurate expression of the form
to the choice of subjects to be introduced of the figures, in its final finish. The
into a picture. It is this which gives the artist, in making his design, is guided in
highest character to the artist, as it affords drawing his by the rules of perspec-
lines
the greatest opportunity to display the tive, according to which he is able to fore-
powers of his mind. 1 shorten objects, and thereby diminish the
21
O 2
162 THE PAINTER.

space which they occupy, without giving analogous to them all and, in their use,
:

them the appearance of diminished mag- he is careful to apply them in such a man-
nitude. ner that the true colours remain distinct
5. Perspective has been defined the art from the lights and shades necessary to
of delineating the outlines of objects on produce the objects in relief. Artificial
any given would appear
surface, as they colours are divided into warm and cold .

to the eye, if that surface were transpa- The former are those in which red and
rent, and the objects themselves were seen yellow predominate the latter are blue,
;

through it, from a fixed position. For ex- gray, and others allied to them.
ample when we look through a window
: 9. Before colouring substances can be
at a mass of buildings, and observe that applied in painting, they must be reduced
part of the glass to which each object, line, to extreme fineness, and be mixed with
or point appears opposite, we find that their some tenacious fluid, to cause them to ad-
apparent position very different from
is here to the surface on which they are to
their real. A delineation of these objects be spread. The fluid employed for this
on the glass, as they appear, would be purpose, and the mode of applying the co-
termed a representation in perspective. lours, have given rise to the different kinds
6. Correct perspective is the foundation of painting ;
of which the following are
of scientific paintingand, next in impor- ;
the principal crayon, water-colour, dis-
:

tance to a proper distribution of


this, is temper, fresco, and oil-painting.
light and shade. This branch of the art 10. The most
simple mode of applying
is called chiaro-obscuro, or, when abridged, colours by means of erayons. They are
is

chiaro-scuro. The term is Italian in its made of black lead, a species of chalk, or
origin, and its literal meaning is clear and of a mixture of colouring matter with gum,
obscure. To the skilful management of size, or clay.For painting in water-colours,
light shade, we are indebted for
and the substances employed in communicat-
the strength and liveliness of pictures, ing the tints are combined with gum, and
and their relief, or the elevation which formed into cakes or lozenges. When
certain parts appear to assume above the about to be used, they are dissolved in
plane upon which the objects are repre- water, on glass or a glazed surface. The
sented. application in painting, is made by means
7. By the aid of perspective and chiaro- of a camel’s-hair pencil.
scuro, very good representations in one co- Painting in distemper is used for
11.
lour are attained. Drawings in India-ink’ the execution of works on a large scale,
and crayons, as well as pictures taken such as- stage scenery, and the walls of
from engraved plates and wood cuts, are apartments. The colouring substances are
specimens of such productions. But a mixed with water, rendered tenacious by
nearer approach to the appearance of na- size or solutions of glue.Skimmed milk,
ture, is made by employment of colours
the increased in tenacity by a small quantity
analogous to those which are found to ex- of thyme linseed or poppy oil often serves
:

ist in the objects to be represented. as a vehicle for the colours, in this kind of
8. To produce various hues in painting, painting.
the artist employs colouring substances^ 12. Paintings in fresco are executed on
which, either alone or by mixture, are walls of plaster. The colouring matter
THE PAINTER. 163

mixed with water, being applied to the ar e~historical, architectural, landscape,


plaster while the latter is in a fresh state, marine, portrait, still life, grotesque, bo-
sinks and incorporates itself with it, so
in, tanical, and animal. The subordinate di-
as to become very durable. During the visions of these branches are very numer-
execution of the work, the plaster is ap- ous.
plied to the wall in successive portions, no 16. The propensity to imitation, so
more being added at a time, than can be deeply rooted in the human mind, is the
conveniently painted before it becomes foundation of the arts of design and there ;

dry. Works of this kind must be exe- can scarcely be indicated a lengthened pe-
cuted with great rapidity ;
and, on this riod in the history of man, in which it was
account, patterns, called cartoons are pre- entirely inactive. It may have
been first
viously drawn on large paper, to guide the accidentally exhibited in tracing the form
artist in his operations. of some object in the sand or resem- ;

13. Oil painting derives itsname from blances in sticks and stones, may have
the mixture of the colours in oil. The originally suggested the idea of imitations
oils used for this purpose are extracted by means of lines and colours.
from vegetables and, on account of the
; 17. Although painting and sculpture
rapidity with which they dry, are denomi- may be supposed to have existed, at least
nated drying oils. For most purposes, this in a rude state, at a very early period,
mode of painting is decidedly superior to and even before the deluge, yet the reign
all others. It admits of a higher finish, as of Semiramis, queen of Assyria, 2000
it allows the artist to retouch his works years before Christ, is the earliest to
with greater precision. The colours also which authentic history extends. Diodo-
blend together more agreeably, and pro- rus Siculus relates, that the queen, having
duce a more delicate effect. Oil paintings thrown a bridge across the Euphrates, at
are executed either on canvas, wood, or Babylon, erected a castle at each end of
copper. it, and inclosed them with walls of consi-

14. Paintings are imitated with sur- derable height, with towers upon them.
prising elegance, by cementing together The which they were construct-
bricks of
coloured pieces of glass, and marble, as ed, were painted before they underwent
well as those of wood. Representations the fire, and were so put together, that
by these means, are called Mosaics, or single figures, and even groups of them,
Mosaic paintings. The cause of their were represented in colours.
having received this appellation cannot 18. This author supposes also, that the
be ascertained. Some, without much rea- arts had attained nearly an eq al degree
son, attribute the origin and name of this of cultivation about the same time in
branch of the art to Moses. Others sup- Egypt ;
sculpture, as best serving idola-
pose that works of this kind have been trous purposes, being in both countries
thus denominated, because they were first much in advance of the sister art of paint-
employed in grottoes dedicated to the ing. But, in neither country was painting
Muses. or sculpture brought to a great degree of
15. Drawings and paintings are divided perfection.
into classes, according to the nature of the 19. In Egypt, independent selection of
objects represented the principal of which objects, and variety of
; exhibition, never
— ;

164 THE PAINTER.

appear to have been much regarded. monochrom, or picture in a single colour.


When a specific form of character had 4. The polychrom, or picture of many
been once adopted, so it remained, and colours.
was repeated, unchanged, for ages. Little 24. Although the names of the Grecian
action and no expression were given to artists were carefully preserved, the time
figures. The chief employment of the in which they lived was not distinctly
Egyptian artists, seems
have been the to marked until the 16th
Olympiad, or 719
painting of the chests of mummies, and years before the commencement of our
the ornaments on barges, and earthen- era. At this time, Candaules, king of Ly-
ware. dia, purchased a picture called the Battle of

20. Painting, in the early days of its the Magnetes, for which he paid its weight
existence,was employed chiefly in the ex- in gold, although painted on boards. The
hibitionand preservation of historical facts name 6f the fortunate artist was Bular-
and, wherever it remained faithful to these chus.
objects, it was obliged to sacrifice the beau- 25. Notwithstanding the fame of this
tiful to the significant. Only in those coun- picture, Aglaophon and Polygnotus, of
trieswhere alphabetical writing existed, Thasos, who flourished 300 years after
could painting elevate itself to a fine art. this period, were the first eminent paint-
21. The Pelasgi, who expelled or sub- ers. Polygnotus is said to have been the
dued the and
earlier inhabitants of Greece, first who gave a pleasing air to the drape-
colonized that country, probably brought ries and head-dresses of females, and to
with them the rudiments of this art and ;
have opened the mouth so far as to exhibit
it at length grew up with its sister arts. the beauty of the teeth.
In some of the stages of its progress, this 26. Still, painting is considered to have
intelligent people, no doubt, received use- been in an inferior state, until the appear-
ful hints from other countries, and espe- ance of Timanthes, Parrhasius, and Zeux-
cially from Egypt yet they finally sur-
;
is, who flourished about
375 years before
passed all the nations of antiquity in this Christ. These again were surpassed by
branch of art. their successors, Protogenes, Pamphilus,
22. The Greeks, with singular care, Melanthius, Antiphilus, Theon, Euphranor,
have preserved the names of their artists Apelles, and Aristides, who carried the art
from the earliest periods of their practice. to the greatest perfection to which it at-
Ardens, of Corinth, Teleplianes and Crato, tained in ancient times.
of Sycion, and some others, are noticed as 27. Of the preceding list of artists, Apel-
such, when painting had advanced no far- les was the most famous, especially as a
ther than the mere circumscription of portrait painter.- He was the intimate
shadows by single lines. friend of Alexander the Great, who would
23. The different kinds of painting, as never permit any other person to paint his
marked by the successive stages of the likeness. His most celebrated painting,
art among the Greeks, are as follows: was this prince holding the lightning with
1. The skiagram ,
or drawing in simple which the picture is chiefly illuminated.
outlines, as in the circumscriptions of sha- By a happy application of perspective and
dows. 2. The monogram, including both chiaro-scuro, the hand with the lightning
the outlines and others within them. 3. The seemed to project from the picture.
THE PAINTER. 165

28. From the time of these great mas- with great munificence, the Greeks who
ters, painting gradually declined, although resorted to their city for employment.
the art continued to be practised by a suc- 32. But, both sculpture and painting,
cession of eminent men, who contended as well as architecture, declined with Ro-
against the blighting influence of the lux- man civilization. they continued to
Still,
ury and the internal broils of their coun- exist, especially in the Byzantine or East-
trymen. But soon after Greece became ern Empire, although in a very inferior
subject to the Roman power, the practice state. The under consideration was
art
of the fine arts nearly ceased in that coun- preserved chiefly by its application to the
try. purposes of Christianity. It was revived
29. Before the foundation of Rome, the in Italy, in the beginning of the twelfth
arts were cultivated, to some extent, in century, by means of several Grecian art-
Etruria and Calabria ;
but the first Roman ists, who had been employed to ornament
painter mentioned in history, was Fabius, the churches, and other edifices at Pisa,
a noble patrician, who painted, in the year Venice, and Florence.
of the city 450, the temple of the goddess 33. The works of Apollonius, one of
Salus, and thereby obtained for himself these Greeks, excited in Giovanni Cima-
and family the surname of Pictor. Yet bue a spirit of emulation ;
and, having been
the citizens do not seem to have profited initiated into the practice of the art, he
by this example for no other painter ap-
; executed a picture of the Virgin Mary, as
peared among them until 150 years after large as life, for a church dedicated to her,
that period. At this time, Pacuvius, the at Florence. This production excited en-
poet, amused himself, in the decline of thusiastic delight in his fellow-citizens,
life, with painting the temple of Hercules. who carried it in procession, with the
30. They were thus inattentive to the sound of trumpets, to its place of destina-
cultivation of this, as well as of the other- tion, and celebrated the day as a public
fine arts, because they considered warfare, feast.
and the arts which tended directly to sup- 34. Encouraged by this applause, Cimabue
port this interest, as alone worthy of the pursued the art with ardour; and, although
attention of a citizen of their republic considered a prodigy in his time, his utmost
and painting, even after the time of Pecu- efforts produce tolerable speci-
failed to
vius, was considered effeminate and dis- mens of the art. He, however, far ex-
graceful. Rome, therefore, can not be celled his immediate predecessors and, ;

said, at any time, to have produced a sin- by introducing more correct proportions,
gle artist who could approach the excel- by giving more life and expression to his
lencies of those of its refined neighbours; figures, and by some other improvements,
the Greeks. he became the founder of the art as it ex-
31.They, however, having ornamented ists in modern times. Fie was born at
their metropolisand villas with specimens Florence, in 1240, and died at the age of
of the arts plundered from the cities of sixty.
Greece and Sicily, .began at length to ap- 35. The favourite
pupil of Cimabue,
preciate their excellencies and finally,
; was Giotto, whom he raised from a shep-
under the first emperors, they encouraged, herd to be a painter and by him the art
;
166 THE PAINTER.

was still more relieved from the Greek tion and being endowed with uncommon
;

imperfections. He abandoned the use of genius, all the arts and sciences did not
labels as means of distinguishing the dif- seem to afford a field sufficient for the ex-
ferent figures of a picture, and aimed at, ertion of his talents. He grasped at all,
and attained to, real expression. He mark- and succeeded far better than his prede-
ed out to the Italians the course in which cessors in everything he undertook; but
the art should be pursued, as Polygnotus he wasted much of his time in experi-
had done Greeks near 1800 years
to the ments. Had he confined his great powers
before ;
although, like him, he failed in to the art of painting, he would probably
fully exemplifying his principles. have never been exceeded.
36. His abilities procured him the pa- 40. About the year 1410, oil came to be
tronage of Pope Boniface VIII., who em- used as a vehicle for paints. It seems to
ployed him at Rome. From this time, have been first applied to this purpose in
the art of painting became attached to Flanders, by John Van Eyck, of Brussels
the papal dignity, and few succeeding or it was, at least, first used by him suc-
pontiffs have neglected its use. The skill cessfully. The first hint of its utility in
and celebrity of this ingenious artist ex- this application is thought, with reason, to
cited great emulation, and the arts having have been obtained from itsuse as a var-
obtained an earnest of profit and honour, nish to pictures painted in water-colours.
no longer wanted skilful professors or illus- 41. The art of painting was introduced
trious patrons. into Flanders about the time of Giotto, by
37. In 1350, fourteen years after the several Flemings, who had been to Italy
death of Giotto, his disciple, Jacopo Cas- for the express purpose of learning it. It
sentino, and nine other artists, founded the was also diffused in practice, about the
Academy of St. Luke, at Florence. This same time, in Germany and a particular ;

was a grand epoch of the arts ;


as from style of the art grew up in each of these
this institution arose a large display of countries. But it was in Italy alone that
the art may be said to have flourished in
talent, increasing in splendour until, within
150 years, it gave to the world, Masaccio, a high state of cultivation and even there, ;

Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo Buo- the principal productions originated from
narotti, and Raphael, besides others of artists of the Florentine school.
great ability. 42. The art of painting was perfected,
38. The advanced but little after the
art perhaps, as far as human ability can carry
time of Giotto, until the appearance of it, in the first half of the sixteenth centu-
Masaccio. Under the hand of this great ry, by Michael Angelo Buonarotti, Ra-
master, painting is said to have been great- phael, Titian, and Correggio ;
although it

ly improved and it was to him that the


; cannot be said that all its excellencies
artists who succeeded were indebted for a were united in the productions of any one
more sure and full direction of the course of these distinguished professorssuch a :

in which they ought to proceed. He was union has never yet been displayed, nor
born in 1402, and died in 1443. can it hardly be expected.
39. Leonardo da Vinci, who was born 43. The art was essentially aided in its
about two years after the death of Masac- progressive stages of advancement by the
cio, brought the art to still greater perfec- liberal patronage of the family of the Me-
;

THE PAINTER. 167

dici at Florence, and by the pontiffs at nence afterwards appeared ;


but the art
Rome. Angelo and Raphael were both became nearly extinct in the following age.
employed at Rome by Julius II. and Leo 47. The proximity of France to Italy,
X., as well as by others who succeeded and the employment of Leonardo da Vinci
them in the papal chair, in ornamenting and other eminent artists of Italy by
the palaces and sacred buildings. Their Francis I., together with the establishment
productions have never been exceeded in of a school of fine arts, as stated in the
any country, and they still remain the ob- preceding article, might have been ex-
jects of careful study by artists of this pected to lay the foundation of exalted
profession. taste in this kingdom. Nevertheless, the
44. Titian was also liberally patronized only French painters whose names have
at Rome, as well as in other parts of Italy, come down with any pretensions to
to us
and inSpain and Germany, chiefly as a excellence for one hundred and fifty years,
portrait and landscape painter. The un- were Jean Cousin, Jaques Blanchard, Ni-
rivalled productions of these great masters, cholas Poussin, and Charles Le Brun. The
however, were fatal to the art in Italy, last, although inferior to Poussin, is at the

since their superior excellence extinguish- head of the French school of painting.
ed emulation, by destroying the prospect 48. The successors of Le Brun were
of equal or superior success. not wanting in ability, yet, with a few ex-
45. The flourishing state of the art in ceptions, they failed in reaching an envia-
Italy, for so long a period, might be ex- ble eminence in the art, on account of
pected to have produced a taste for its cul- their servile imitation of the false taste of
tivation in other parts of Europe but this ; their popular model. The fantastic style
was the case only to a limited extent. No of Le Brun became unpopular in France
other countries have yet been particularly some time previous to the revolution in
distinguished for artists in this branch of that country and another, of an opposite
;

the fine arts, except Flanders and Holland character, and by artists of other nations
and these were chiefly indebted for the thought to be equally distant from true
distinction to Peter Paul Rubens, of Ant- taste, has been since adopted.
werp, who was born at Cologne, in 1577, 49. Very little is known of the state of
and to Paul Van Rhyn Rembrandt, who the fine arts in England until the time of
was born in 1606, in his father’s mill, near Henry VIII., who encouraged the abilities
Leyden. Some of the scholars of these of Hans Holbein, an eminent painter from
masters were eminent painters. Anthony Switzerland. But painting and sculpture,
Vandyck, a pupil of the former, in particu- and particularly the former, having become
lar, is said to have never yet been equalled intimately interwoven with the religion of
as a portrait-painter. the church of Rome, they fell into disre-
46. Very little is known of the art in pute in England after the change of opinion
Spain, until about the year 1500, although on this subject in that country. They,
it is supposed to have been cultivated with however, began to revive in the eighteenth
some success before that time. The ex- century, and England and English Ameri-
amples which were left there by Titian ca have since produced some eminent paint-
produced a favourable impression, and se- ers, among whom are Hogarth, Reynolds,
veral native artists of considerable emi- Opie, West, Copley, Trumbull, and Peale.
Engraving is the art of cutting let- art from the Chinese, through the Veni-
ters or figures in wood, metals, or stone. tians, who traded in that part of the world

It was practised in very ancient times, earlier than any other Europeans.
and in different countries, for the purposes 2. This opinion is somewhat probable,

of ornament and monumental inscription ;


from the circumstance that the tools em-
but the idea of taking impressions on pa- ployed by the early engravers in Europe,
per, or on any other substance, from en- are similar to those used in China and ;

graved surfaces, is comparatively modern. also, like the Chinese, they engraved on
the side of the grain. However this may
be, it is certain that the art was practised
THE WOOD ENGRAVER. in various parts of Europe in the four-
1. The Chinese are said to have been teenth century. The earliest subjects ex-
the first who engraved figures and letters ecuted, were figures of saints, rudely en-
on wood, for the purpose of printing. The graved in outline. The prints taken from
precise time at which they commenced them were gaily coloured, and sold to the
the practice, is totally unknown; but a common people as original paintings. The
book printed by them in the tenth century principal persons engaged in this traffic
is now extant. It is thought by some an- were monks, to whom the art was con-
tiquarians, that the Europeans derived the fined for a considerable time.
THE ENGRAVER. 169

3. At length, larger subjects, with inscrip- by the distinguished William Bewick, of


tions in imitation of manuscript, were ex- Newcastle, England. It is still practised,
ecuted. The success of these prints gave especially in England and the United
rise to a more extensive application of the States, in a manner which reflects credit
art. Scriptural subjects, of many figures, on the ingenuity of the age.
with texts of scripture, were engraved, 6. The earlier artists operated on vari-
and impressions were taken from them on ous kinds of wood, such as the apple, pear,
one side of the paper, two sheets being and beech ; but these, being too soft, are
pasted together to form a leaf. Entire now used only for calico-printing and other
sets were bound up together and thus ; common purposes. The box-wood, on ac-
were formed the first printed books, which, count of its superior texture, is used for
being produced entirely from wood cuts, every subject that can be termed a work
are known by the name of block-books. of art. That from Turkey is the best.
These hooks made their appearance about 7. The engravers, in the infancy of the
the year 1420. art, prepared the wood as the common
4. One of the earliest of these produc- block-cutters now do. The tree was cut
tions is denominated “ The Apocalypse of the way of the grain, in planks, and of
St. John another “ ThePoor Man’s Bible.” course they engraved on the side of the
But one of the latest and most celebrated, grain, asupon a board. This mode of pre-
is called “ The Mirror of Salvation,” pub- paration enabled them to execute larger
lished in 1440. Part of the text was print- subjects. The engravers now prefer the
ed from solid blocks, and part from movea- end of the grain, and therefore cut the log
ble wooden types. From this fact, it is transversely.
easy to discover the origin of printing. 8. The end on which the engraver is to
After this, most, if not all, of the books, exert his skill, is planed and scraped, to
were printed from movable types but as ;
render the surface smooth, and the block
they were embellished with wood cuts, having been cut to the proper size, the
the demand for such engravings was very drawing made upon it in India-ink, or
is
much increased, although they were, at with a lead-pencil. The block is now
first, by no means elegant. ready being cut by the artist, who, in
for
5. Near the close of the fifteenth cen- the performance of the operation, holds it
tury, the art began to assume a higher with one hand, on a cushion made of
character, principally by the talents of sand and leather, while, with the other he
Michael Wolgermuth and William Pluy- cuts away the superfluous wood. The
denwurf. Albert Durer made still greater part intended to make the impression in
improvements and, in 1498, published his
; printing, is left standing.
celebrated Apocalypse of St. John, printed 9. Wood engravings, well executed,
from folio blocks. Other celebrated en- are scarcely inferior to those of copper or
gravers succeeded him in the sixteenth steel, and for many purposes they are pre-
century, which may be considered the era ferred. They are especially convenient,
when wood engraving was at its highest in that they can be inserted into a page
point of elevation. After this, the art de- of types, where illustrations or embellish-
clined, and was considered of little im- ments may be required, and be printed
portance, until it was revived in 1775, without separate expense. They will also
22 P
170 THE ENGRAVER.

bear a great number of impressions, —-gen- 4. Of engraving on copper, the follow-


erally 100,000. In this respect, they are ing are the principal varieties or styles :

decidedly superior to metallic plates. 1. Line engraving 2. Stippling 3. Etch-


; ;

They can likewise be multiplied indefi- ing 4. Mezzotinto


; 5. Aquatinta. For
;

nitely, by the process of stereotyping. the purpose of conveying some idea of


these different branches, we will describe
them under distinct heads.
THE COPPERPLATE ENGRAVER. 5. Line engraving. The first thing
1. The engravers on metallic surfaces done, in this species of engraving, is to
are termed copperplate engravers, not be- transfer to the plate an exact copy of the
cause copper is the only metal on which outlines of the design to be executed. In
they exert their skill, but because it is the accomplishing this, the plate is moderate-
one on which they usually operate. The ly heated, and covered with a thin coating
plates are prepared for the artists by the of white wax. A piece of transparent
coppersmith, by rubbing them with brick- paper is then laid over the design to be
dust and charcoal, after having cut them copied, and traced in outline with a black-
of a proper size from sheets of copper. lead pencil. The outline thus sketched
2. The instruments employed by this is turned down upon the coating of white
artist are few and simple: the principal wax, and the whole is subjected to the ac-
ones are, the graver the dry-point, the
,
tion of a rolling-press, or is kept for a
scraper, and the burnisher. The graver while under heavy weights. By the ap-
is a small bar of steel, of a square or plication of this pressure, the lines are
lozenge form, and, with the short handle transferred from the paper to the wax on
into which it is inserted, about five inches the plate in a reversed position, which is
in length. One of the angles of the bar necessary to make the impression of the
isalways on the under side of the instru- finished plate resemble the original.
ment, and the point is formed by bevelling 6. The pencil marks on the wax having
the end from the upper side, or angle. been lightly traced on the copper with the
The square form is used for broad strokes, dry-point, and the wax having been melted
and the lozenge for fine ones. a perfect outline is found on the plate.
off]

3. The dry-point, or needle, is a steel Small subordinate parts of the design are
wire with a long cylindrical handle, or it transferred to the plate in the same man-
is sometimes of sufficient length and size ner, except that the transparent paper is

to be used without a handle. The scraper brought in forcible contact with the wax-
has nearly the form of a triangular pyra- ed surface by means of the burnisher.
mid and the cutting part, which has three
;
7. At this stage of the process, the artist

edges, is two or three inches long. The commences the use of the graver. While
burnisher has a form nearly conical and, ;
operating with this instrument, he holds
without the handle, is about three inches the handle in the palm of his hand, and
long. The last two instruments are fre- pushes the point forward with a firm and
quently made of the same piece of steel, one steady motion, until a line is produced by
being forged at each end. In such case, the removal of a portion of the metal. By
the middle part of the steel is the handle a succession of such strokes, judiciously ap-
by which they are held. plied, the work is completed. The burrs, or
,

THE ENGRAVER. 171

little elevations of the copper, left by the cal action immediately takes place in all
graver on each side of the lines, are re- the lines or points where the copper has
moved by means of the scraper and bur- been denuded by the needle. After the
nisher. Mistakes or blemishes are erased first biting has been continued long enough,

from the plate, either with the burnisher, in the judgment of the operator, the acid
or by friction with charcoal. is poured off, and the plate examined.

8. Stippling. The second mode of en- 11. The light shades, if found sufficient-
graving is This resem-
called stippling. ly deep, arethen covered with varnish, to
bles the last method in its process, except protect them from further corrosion. The
that the effect is produced by means of biting is then continued for the second
minute punctures or excavations, instead shades, in the same manner, and after-
of lines. These are made either with the wards, for the third and succeeding shades,
dry-point or graver. When produced by until the piece shall have been finished.
the former instrument, they are of a cir- The plate having been cleaned, and care-
cular form when by the latter, they are
; fully examined by the aid of a proof im-
rhomboidal or triangular. This style of pression, the deficiencies which may be
work is always more slow, and consequent- discovered are supplied with the graver.
ly more expensive, than engraving in lines. 12. Mezzotinto. In the production of
It has, however, some advantages in the this kind of engraving, the whole surface
softness and delicacy of its lights and of the plate is first roughened, or covered
shades, and the prints struck from it ap- with minute prominences and excavations
proach more nearly to paintings'. too small to be obvious to the naked eye
;

9. Etching. This mode, of engraving so that an impression taken from it, in this
isby far more easy than any other, being state,would present a uniform velvety
performed chiefly by chemical corrosion. black appearance. This roughness is pro-
In fact, any person who can draw, may duced mechanically by means of a small
etch coarse designs tolerably well, after toothed instrument, called a cradle
having learned the theory of the opera- 13. When the plate has been thus pre-
tion. To perform it, the plate is first co- pared, the rest of the process is compara-
vered with a thin coating of some resin- tively easy. It consists in pressing down
ous substance, upon which the 'acid em- or rubbing out the roughness of certain
ployed can have no action. The design, parts of the plate, with the burnisher and
and all the lines it requires, are next traced scraper. Where strong lights are required,
on the plate with steel points, called etch- the plate is restored to a smooth surface ;
ing needles which are instruments simi-
, for a medium light, it is moderately bur-
lar to the dry-point. nished, or partially erased and, for the
;

10. The second part of the process is deepest shades, the ground is left entire,
the corrosion, or, as it is technically call- and sometimes etched, and corroded with
ed, biting in. This is effected by pouring nitric acid. The productions of mezzo-
upon the design a quantity of diluted ni- tinto plates approach more nearly to oil
tric acid, after having surrounded the edges paintings than any other. This kind of
of the plate with a wall of soft wax, to engraving was invented by Prince Rupert,
prevent the escape of the fluid. A chemi- in 1649.
172 THE ENGRAVER.

14. Aqua-tinta. There are several me- and requires much attention on the part
thods by which this kind of engraving can of the artist. It was invented by a French-
be executed we, however, will describe
;
man, named Leprinee, who, for a time, kept
the one which seems to be the most sim- the process a secret, and sold his impres-
ple and obvious. The outline of the pic- sions for original drawings.
ture having been etched or engraved in 18. Steel engraving. The process of
the usual manner, the surface of the cop- engraving on steel plates differs but little
per is sprinkled equally with minute par- in its details from that on copper plates
ticles of rosin. This dust is fixed to the and the chief advantage derived from this
surface by heating the plate until the rosin method, arises from the hardness or tough-
has melted. ness of the material, which renders it ca-
15. The ground having been thus laid, pable of yielding a greater number of im-
the parts of the plates not intended to be pressions.
occupied by the design arg stopped out by 19. This mode of engraving was first
means of thick varnish. The plate is now practised in England, by the calico-print-
surrounded with a wall of wax, as for ers ;
but steel was first employed for bank-'
etching, and diluted nitric acid is poured notes, and for common designs, by Jacob
upon it. A chemical action immediately Perkins, of Newburyport, Massachusetts
takes place, by which the surface exposed and by him, with Asa Spen-
in conjunction
between the resinous particles is minutely cer, of New- London, and Gideon Fairman,
excavated. of Philadelphia, the use of steel in this
16. The lighter shades are stopped out application was generally introduced, not
at an early stage of the process, and the only in the United States, but also in Great
biting in continued for the darker ones.
is Britain, some time before the year 1820.
After the plate is judged to be sufficiently 20. The plates are prepared for the
corroded, it is cleansed, and an impression engraver from sheets of steel about one-
taken on paper. The process is then finish- sixth of an inch in thickness. A plate
ed by burnishing the shades, to give them cut from a sheet of this kind is first soft-
greater softness, and, when necessary, by ened by heating it with charcoal, and suf-
the application of the graver. fering it to cool gradually in the atmo-
17. This mode of engraving is well sphere. It is next planished or hammered
,

adapted to light subjects, sketches, land- on a peculiar kind of anvil, to make it


scapes, &e. ;
but, owing to the fineness of perfectly level, and afterwards ground on
the ground, the plates wear out rapidly, and one side upon a grindstone. The opera-
seldom yield, when of ordinary strength, tion is completed by polishing it with
more than six hundred impressions. The Seotch stone and charcoal. When the
prints taken from such plates bear a strong engraving has been completed, the plate
resemblance to paintings in Indian ink, or is not again hardened before impressions

drawings in black-lead pencil. Aqua-tinta are taken from it, as -was the case when
is the most precarious kind of engraving. steel was first substituted for copper.
4.

1. The copperplate printer takes im- engraved plate, found, on its removal, an
pressions on paper from engraved plates exact impression of the engraving, mark-
by means of a rolling press. This machine, ed with black, taken out of the strokes.
together with some of the operations in This suggested to him the idea of taking
its application, are well exhibited in the an impression in ink on paper, by the aid
above picture. of a roller. It is hardly necessary to state,
2. The period at which the practice of that the experiment succeeded. Copper-
printing from engraved plates commenced plate printing was not used in England
cannot be ascertained with any degree of until about 150 years after its firstem-
certainty. The Dutch, the Germans, and ployment at Florence, when it was intro-
the Italians, contend for the honour of in- duced from Antwerp, by Speed.
troducing it but the weight of testimony
; The ink used in this kind of printing
seems be in favour of the claims of the
to is made of a carbonaceous substance, calk
Italian sculptor and goldsmith, Tommaso ed Frankfort black, and linseed or nut oil,
: Finiguera, who flourished at Florence, Oil is used, instead of water, that the ink
i about the middle of the fifteenth century. may not dry during the process and it is ;

3. It is stated that this artist, accident- boiled till it has become thick and viscid,
ally spilling some melted brimstone on an that it may not spread on the paper. The

P2
174 THE COPPERPLATE-PRINTER.

materials are incorporated, and prepared engravings will admit' of four or five thou-
with the stone and muller, as painters pre- sand, and, after having been retouched, a
pare their colours. considerable number more.
5. In taking impressions from an en- 8. Plates of steel will yield near ten
graved plate, it is first placed on an iron times as many good impressions as those
frame over a heated stove, or over a char- of copper, and this too without being hard-
coal fire in a furnace, and while in this ened. Besides, an engraving on steel may
position, the ink is spread over it with a be transferred to a softened steel cylinder,
roller covered with coarse cloth, or with a in such a manner that the lines may
ball or rubber made of the same material, stand in relief; and this cylinder, after
and faced with buckskin. The heat ren- having been hardened, may be brought
ders the ink so thin that it can penetrate in forcible contact with another plate, and
the minute excavations of the engraving. thus the design may be multiplied at plea-
The plate having been thus sufficiently sure,
charged, is wiped first with a rag, then 9. The bank-note engravers have now
with the hand, until the ink has been re- a great variety of designs and figures on
moved from every portion of it, except steel rollers, which they can easily transfer
from the lines of the engraving. to new This practice, as applied to
plates.
6. The plate is next placed on the plat- plates for bank-notes, originated with Ja-
form of the press, with its face upwards, cob Perkins. It is supposed that he must
and the paper, which has been previously have been led to it by an English engraver
dampened, is laid upon it. A turn of the in his employ, who may have explained to
cylinders, by means of the arms of the him the manner in which the British calico-
cross, carries the plate under a strong pres- printers produced engravings on copper
sure, by which portions of the paper are cylinders. This is not altogether impro-
forced into all the cavities of the engrav- bable, since the principle in both cases is
ing. The ink, or part of it, leaves the plate, substantially the same.
and adheres to the paper, giving an exact consequence of the increased de-
10. In
representation of the whole work of the mand for maps and pictorial embellish-
artist. The roller by which the pressure ments in books, as well as for single prints
is applied is covered with several thick- as ornaments for rooms, engraving and
nesses of broad-cloth. copperplate-printing have become employ-
7. The number of good impressions ments of considerable importance; and
yielded by engraved copperplates, depends these arts must doubtless continue to flou-
upon various circumstances, but chiefly on rish to an indefinite extent, in a country
the fineness and depth of the work and ;
where the taste for the fine arts is rapidly
these qualities depend mainly upon the improving, and where wealth affords the >

style in which it has been executed. Line means of liberal patronage.


THE LITHOGRAPHER.
1. The word lithography is derived from quality although some that answer the

;

two Greek words lithos, a stone, and purpose tolerably well, have been taken
grapho, to write ;
and the art to which the from quarries in France and England.
term is applied has reference to the exe- 3. In preparing the stones for use, they

cution of letters, figures, and drawings, on are first ground to a level surface, by rub-
stone, and taking from them fac-simile im- bing two of them face to face, sand and
pressions. The art is founded on the pro- water being interposed. Then, if they
perty which stone possesses, of imbibing are designed for ink drawings, they are
fluids by capillary attraction, and on the polished with pumice-stone but,, if for
;

chemical repulsion which oil and water chalk drawings, with fine sand, which
have for each other. produces a grained surface adapted to
2. Every kind of calcareous stone is holding the chalk,
capable of being used for lithography. 4. When stones of proper size and tex-
Those, however, which are of a compact, ture cannot be conveniently obtained, slabs
fine, and equal grain, are best adapted to are sometimes constructed of lime and sand,
the purpose. The quarries of Solenhofen, and united with the caseous part of milk.
near Pappenheim, in Bavaria, furnished the The first part of the process which may be
first plates, and none have yet been found considered as belonging peculiarly to the
in any other place, to equal them in art, consists in making the drawing on the
176 THE LITHOGRAPHER.

stone. This is done either in ink, with i the ink adheres to no part of it, except
steel pens and camel’s hair pencils, or with i to that which is covered with the draw-
crayons made of lithographic chalk. The • ing.
process of drawing on stone differs but little ; 9. The number of impresions which
from that on paper, with similar means. may be taken from chalk drawings, varies
5. For lithographic ink, a great number •
according to their fineness. fine draw- A
of receipts have been given but the most ;
; ing will give fifteen hundred ; a coarse one,
approved composition consists of equal twice that number. Ink drawings and
parts of wax, tallow, shell-lac, and com- writings give considerably more than cop-
mon soap, with a small proportion of lamp- perplates the finest yielding six or eight
;

black. Lithographic chalk is usually com- thousand, and strong lines and writings
posed of the same materials, combined in t many more.
different proportions. from engravings can be
10. Impressions
6. When the drawing has been finish- multiplied indefinitely, with very little trou-
ed, the lithographic printer prepares it for •
ble, in the following manner. A print is
giving impressions, by using upon its sur- taken in the usual way from the engraved
face a weak solution of acid and other in- plate, and immediately laid with its face
gredients, which corrode the surface of upon water. When sufficiently wet, it is
the stone, except where it is defended carefully applied to the face of a stone, and
from its action by the grease of the chalk pressed down upon it by the application of
or ink. As soon as the stone has been suf- a roller, until the ink is transferred to the
ficiently eaten away, the solution is re- stone. Impressions are then taken in the
moved by the application of spirits of manner before described.
turpentine and water. 11. The invention of lithography is as-

7. The ink employed in this kind of cribed to Aloys Senifelder, the son of a
printing, is similar in its composition to performer at the theatre of Munich. Hav-
other kinds of printing ink. It is applied ipg become an author, and being too poor
to the drawing by means of a small wood- to publish his works in the usual way, he
en cylinder covered with leather. The tried many plans, with copperplates and
paper, which has been suitably dampened, compositions, in order to be his own print-
is laid upon the stone, and after it has er. Aon stone, which had been ac-
trial

been covered, by turning down upon it a cidentally suggested, succeeded. His first
thick piece of leather stretched upon an essays to print for publication, were some
iron frame, a crank is turned which brings pieces of music, executed in 1796.
the stone successively under the press. 12. The first productions of the art were
8. An impression of the drawing having rude, and of little promise ;
but, since 1806,
been thus communicated to the paper, the its progress has been so rapid, that it now
sheet is removed, and the process is re- gives employment to a great number of
peated, until the proposed number of prints artists; and works are produced, which
have been taken. Before each application rival the finest engravings, and even sur-
of the ink, the whole face of the stone is pass them in the expression of certain sub-
moderately wet with water, by means of jects. The earliest date of the art in the
a sponge and although the roller passes
;
United States, is 1826, when a press was es-
over the whole surface of the stone, yet J
1
tablished at Boston, by William Pendletotu
a

THE AUTHOR.
1. The word author, in a general sense, ever,which occupy common ground, on
is used to express the originator or efficient which individuals of various professions
cause of a thing ;
but in the restricted often write.
sense in which it is applied in this article, 3. Authorship founded upon the in-
is

it signifies the first writer of a book, or a vention of letters, and the art of combining
writer in general. The indispensable them into words. In the earliest ages of
qualifications to make a writer are — the world, the increase of knowledge was
an accurate
talent for literary composition, opposed by many formidable obstacles.
knowledge of language, and an acquaint- Tradition was the first means of transmit-
ance with the subject to be treated. ting information to posterityand this, de-
;

2. Very few persons are educated with pending upon the memory and will of in-
the view to their becoming authors. They dividuals, was exceedingly precarious.
generally write on subjects pertaining to 4. The chief adventitious aids in the
the profession or business in which they perpetuation of the memory of facts by
have been practically engaged a clergy- : tradition, were the erection of monuments,
man writes on divinity, a physician on me- the periodical celebration of days or years,
dicine, a lawyer on jurisprudence, a teach- the use of poetry, and finally symbolical
er on education, and a mechanic on his drawings and hieroglyphical sketches.
particular trade. There are subjects, how- Nevertheless, history must have remained
23
178 •
THE AUTHOR.
uncertain and fabulous, and science in a introduction of the art of printing, which
state of perpetual infancy, had it not been has contributed greatly towards perma-
for the invention of written characters. nency in this respect.
5. The credit of the invention of letters 9. The mode of arranging the letters
was claimed by the Egyptians, Phreni- in writing has, also, varied considerably.
cians, and Jews, as well as by some other Some nations have written in perpendicu-
nations: but as their origin preceded all lar lines, as the Chinese and ancient Egyp-
authentic history not inspired, and as the tians ;
others from right to left, as the
book of inspiration is silent in regard to it, Jews ;
and others again alternately from
no satisfactory conclusion can be formed left to right, as was the method at one
on this point. Some antiquarians are of period among the Greeks. The mode of
opinion, that the strongest claims are pre- writing from left to right now generally
sented by the Phoenicians. practised, is preferable to any other, since
6. The Pentateuch embraces the earli- it leaves uncovered that portion of the
est specimen of phonetic or alphabetic page upon which writing has been made.
writing now extant, and this was written In ancient times, literary produc-
10.
about 1500 years before Christ. Many tionswere considered public property;
persons suppose, that, as the Deity him- and consequently, as soon as a work was
self inscribed the ten commandments on assumed the right
published, transcribers
the two tables of stone, he taught Moses to multiply copies at pleasure, without
the use of letters and on this supposition
; making the authors the least remunera-
is founded the claim of the Jewish nation tion.They, however, were sometimes re-
8.
to the honour of the first human applica- warded with great liberality, by princes or
tion of them, wealthy patrons. This literary piracy con-
.
7. If we may believe Pliny, sixteen tinued, until a long time after the introduc-
Characters of the alphabet were introduced tion of the art of printing.
into Greece by Cadmus, the Phoenician, in 11. In almost every kingdom of Europe,
the days of Moses four more were add-
; ancT in the United States, the exclusive
ed by Palamedes during the Trojan war, right of authors to publish their own pro-
and four afterwards, by Simonides. Alpha- ductions, is now secured tothem by law,
betical writing evidently sprung from suc- at least for a specified number of years.
cessive improvements in the hieroglyphi- The first legislative proceeding on this
cal system, since a great part of the latter subject in England, took place in 1662,
has been lately discovered to be syllabic when the publication of any book was pro-
or alphabetic. hibited,except through the permission of
A number of very an-
considerable the lord chamberlain. The title of the
cient alphabets still exist on the monu- book, and the name of the proprietor, were,
mental remains of some of the first post- also, required to be entered in the record
diluvian cities, and several of later date, of the stationers’ company.
in manuscripts which have descended to This and some subsequent acts
12.
our times. The letters employed in dif- having been repealed in 1691, literary
ferent languages have ever been subject property was left to the protection of the
to great changes in their conformation. common law, by which the amount of
This was especially the case before the damages which could be proved to have
THE AUTHOR. o 179

actually occurred in case of infringement, was secured to them during their lives, and
could be recovered, and no more. New to their heirs for ten years after their de-
applications were, therefore, made to par- cease. The decree of 1810 extended the
liament ;
and, in 1709, a statute was pass- right of the heirs to twenty years. In
ed, by which the property of copyright Russia, the period of copyright is the same
was guarded for fourteen years, with se- as in France, and the property is not liable
vere penalties. This privilege was con- for the payment of the author’s debts.
nected with the condition, that a copy of 18. In some of the German States, the
the work be deposited in nine public libra- right is given for the life-time of the au-
ries specified in the act. thor ;
in others, it is made perpetual, like
13. In 1774, the parliament decided any other property but then the work
;

that at the end of fourteen years the copy- may be printed with impunity in any of
right might be renewed, in case the author the other states in which a right has not
were still living. The law continued on been secured. In Germany and Italy, es-
this footing until 1814, when the contin- pecially, authors are very poorly remune-
gency with regard to the last fourteen rated; and in Spain, the book trade has
years was removed, and, if the author still been so much oppressed by a merciless
survived, the privilege of publication was censorship, that authors are compelled to
extended to the close of his life. publish their works on their own account.
14. In the United States, the jurisdic- 17. From the preceding statement it
tion of this subject is vested by the con- appears, that few legislators have been
stitution in the federal government and, ;
willing to place the productions of intel-
in 1790, a law was passed by Congress, lectual labour on the same honourable foot-
securing to the authors of books, charts, ing with other kinds of property. No rea-
maps, engravings, &c., being citizens of son, however, can be assigned for the dis-
the United States or resident therein, pri- tinction, except the unjust and piratical
vileges like those granted in England in usage of two or three thousand years.
1774. In 1831, the law was altered, and 18. Authors seldom publish their own
again made to conform to that of England works. They generally find it expedient,
in regard to the period of the privileges. and, in fact, necessary, to intrust this part
The English and American law differ in of the business to booksellers and publish-
no essential provision, except that in the ers, from whom they usually receive a
former, no distinction is made between specified amount for the entire copyright,
citizens and foreigners. or a certain sum
each and every copy
for
15. In France, the first statute regard- which may be sold during the term of
ing literary property was passed in 1793, years which may be agreed upon.
when the right of authors to their works
3.

1. From what has been said in a pre- lem, in Holland, and Strasburg and Mentz,
ceding article, it is manifest that the art in Germany ;
and, at the present time, it

of printing arose from the practice of en- is difficult to determine satisfactorily the
graving on wood. Letters were cut on merits of their respective claims. The
wood were
as inscriptions to pictures, and obscurity on this point has arisen from the
printed at the same time with them, by desire of the first printers to conceal the
means of a hand-roller. The impressions process of the art, that their productions
were taken on one side of the paper and,
;
might pass for manuscripts, and that they
in order to hide the nakedness of the blank might enjoy the full benefit of their inven-
side,two leaves were pasted together. tion.
These leaves were put up in pamphlet The
advocates of the claims of Har-
form, and are now known under the de- lem state, that Laurentius Coster applied
nomination of block-books, because they wooden types, and some say, even metal
were printed from wooden blocks. types, as early as 1428, and that several
2. Although the art of typographical persons were employed by him in the busi-
printing can be clearly traced to wood en- when his mate-
ness up to the year 1440,
graving, yet so much uncertainty rests rials were him by one of his
stolen from
upon its history, that the honour of its in- workmen or servants, named John, while
vention is claimed by three cities—-Har- the family were engaged in celebrating
THE PRINTER. 181

the festival of Christmas eve. The thief published in Latin, about the year 1450.
is said to have fled first to Amsterdam, Before this great achievement of the art
then to Cologne, and finally to have settled had been effected, Geinsfleisch appears to
in Mentz, where, within a twelvemonth, have retired from the concern, some say
he published two small works, by means on account of blindness.
of the types which Laurentius Coster had 8. The partnership before mentioned
used. was dissolved in 1450, and Faust and Gut-
4. These claims in favour of Harlem, temburg
9.
entered into a new arrangement,
however, were not set forth until 120 years the former supplying money, the latter
after the death of Coster and the whole
;
personal services, for their mutual benefit;
story, as then statedby Hadriamus Junius, but various difficulties having arisen, this
was founded altogether upon traditionary partnership was also dissolved in 1455,
testimony. Perhaps wood engravings, with after a law-suit between them, which was
inscriptions, may have been executed decided against Guttemburg.
there; if so, the account may have origin- -
Faust, having obtained possession of
ated from that circumstance. the printing materials, entered into part-
5. The statements which seem to be nership with Peter Shceffer, who had been
the most worthy of credit, bestow the for a long time a servant or workman in
honour of this invention on a citizen of the printing establishment. In 1457, they
Mentz. Here, it appears that John Geins- published an edition of the Psalter, which
fleisch, or Guttemburg, senior, published was then considered uncommonly elegant.
two small works for schools, in 1442, on This book was, in a great measure, the
wooden types but, not having the funds
;
work of Guttemburg, since, during the
necessary to carry on the business, he ap- four years in which it was in the press,
plied to John Faust, a rich goldsmith, who he was for two years and a half the chief
became a partner in 1443, and advanced operator in the printing-office.
the requisite means. Soon afterwards, 10. Guttemburg, by the pecuniary aid
J. Meidenbachius and some others were of Conrad Humery and others, established
admitted as partners. another press in Mentz, and, in 1460, pub-
6. In the following year, John Guttem- lished the “ Catholicon Joannis Januen-
burg, the brother of Geinsfleisch, made an sis.” It was a very handsome work, but
addition to the firm. For several years not equal in beauty to the Psalter of Faust
before this union, or from 1436, Guttem- and Shadier. The latter was the first
burg had been attempting to perfect the printed book known to have a genuine
art at Strasburg ;
but it is said that he had date. From this time, it has been the prac-
never been able to produce a clean printed tice for printers to claim their own pro-
sheet. The brothers may or may not have ductions, by prefixing to them their names.
pursued their experiments without receiv- 11. Notwithstanding the great advance-
ing any hints from each other, before then- ment which had been made in the art of
union at Mentz. printing, the invention cannot, by any
7. Soon after the formation of this part- means, be considered complete, until about
nership, the two brothers commenced cut- the year 1458, when Peter Shoeffer con-
ting metal types for the purpose of print-
, trived a method of casting types in a ma-
ing an edition of the Bible; which was trix or mould. The first book executed
Q
182 THE PRINTER.
with cast metal types was called “ Duran- of Doctor John Faust, a dealer in the black
di Rationale Divinorum Officiorum ,” pub- art, who lived in Germany in the begin-
lished in 1459. Only the smaller letters, ning of the sixteenth century.
however, were of this description, all the 15. Faust andShmffer continued their
larger characters which occur being cut printing operations together, at least until
types. These continued to be used, more 1466, about which time it is conjectured
or less, as late as the year 1490. that the former died of the plague at Paris.
12. In 1462, Faust carried to Paris a Geinsfleisch, or, as heis sometimes called,
number of Latin Bibles, which he and Guttemburg, senior, died in 1462 and his ;

Shceffer had printed, and disposed of many brother Guttemburg, junior, in 1468, after
of them as manuscripts. At first, he sold having enjoyed for three years the privi-
them at five or six hundred crowns, the leges of nobility, which, together with a
sums usually obtained by the scribes. He pension, had been conferred upon him by
afterwards lowered the price to sixty. Archbishop Adolphus, in consideration of
This created universal astonishment; but his great services to mankind.
when he produced them, according to the 16. More copies of the earliest printed
demand, and when he had reduced the books were impressed on vellum than on
price to thirty, all Paris became agitated. paper ; but the method was soon reversed,
13. The uniformity of the copies in- and paper was used for a principal part of
creased the wonder of the Parisians, and the edition, while a few only were printed
information was given to the police
finally on vellum, as curiosities, and to be orna-
against him as a magician. He was ac- mented by the illuminators, whose inge-
cordingly arrested, and a great number of nious art, though in vogue before and at
his Bibleswere seized. The red ink with that time, did not long survive the rapid
which they were embellished, was sup- improvements in printing.
posed to be his blood. It was seriously 17. Weare informed that the Mentz
adjudged that the prisoner was joined in printers observed the utmost secrecy in
league with the devil ;
and had he not dis- their operations and, that the art might
;

closed the secret of his art, he would pro- not be divulged by the persons whom they
bably have shared the fate of those whom employed, they administered to them an
the magistrates of those superstitious times oath of fidelity. This appears to have
condemned for wutchcraft. been strictly adhered to, until the year
14. It may be well to inform the reader, 1462, when the city was taken and plun-
that, although the story of Faust’s arrest, dered by Archbishop Adolphus. Amid
as above detailed, is related as a fact by the consternation which had arisen from
several authors, yet by others it is thought this event, the workmen spread themselves
to be unworthy of credit. It is also gene- in different directions; and, considering
rally supposed that the celebrated romance their oath no longer obligatory, they soon
of “ Doctor Faustus and the devil” origin- divulged the secret, which was rapidly
ated in the malice of the monks towards diffused throughout Europe.
Faust, whose employment of printing de- 18. Some ideamay be formed of the
prived them of their gain as copiers. It celerity with which a knowledge of print-
seems more probable, howmver, that it ing was extended, from the fact that the
arose from the astonishing performances artwas received in two hundred and three
THE PRINTER. 183

places prior to the year 1500. It was 1801, there were, in the whole United
brought England in 1471, by William
to States, 203 ; 358 at the present
in 1810, ;

Caxton, a mercer of the city of London, time, there are about 1200 and the num- ,

who had spent many years in Germany ber is annually increasing.


and Holland. The place of the first loca- 23. The first periodical paper of France
tion of his press was Westminster Abbey. originated with Renaudot, a physician in
The first press in North America was es- Paris, who, for a long time, had been in
tablished at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the habit of collecting news, which he
1639. communicated verbally to his patients, with
newspapers had their origin
19. Printed the view to their amusement. But, in
in Germany. They first appeared in Augs- 1631, he commenced the publication of a
burg and Vienna, in 1524. They were weekly the “Gazette de
sheet, called
originally without date or place of impres- France,” which was continued with very
sion, nor were they published at regular little interruption until 1827. There are
periods. The first German paper with now, probably, in Franee, about
400 period-
numbered sheets was printed in 1612 and ;
ical publications, most of which have been
from this time must be dated periodical established since the commencement of
publications in that part of Europe. the revolution of 1792.
20. In England, the first newspaper ap- 24. Periodicals devoted to different 6 b-
peared during the reign of Elizabeth. It jects have been established in every other
originated in a desire to communicate in- kingdom of Europe 5 but, in many cases,
formation in regard to the expected inva- they are trammelled by a strict censorship
sion by the Spanish armada, and was enti- of the respective governments. This is
tled the “English Mercury,” which, by especially the case with those devoted to
authority, was printed at London by Chris- politics or religion. But
Europe, with all
topher Barker, her highness’s printer, in its 190,000,000 of inhabitants, does not

1588. support as many regular publications as


21. These, however, were extraordina- the United States, with its 13,000,000.
ry gazettes, not regularly published. Pe- 25. The workmen employed in a print-
riodicals seem
have been first extensive-
to ing-office are of two kinds
compositors, :

ly used by the English, during the civil who arrange the types according to the
wars in the time of the Commonwealth. copy delivered to them; and pressmen,
The number of newspapers in Great Britain who apply ink on the types, and take off
and Ireland amounted, in 1829, to 325, and impressions.In many cases, and especial-
the sums paid to the government for stamps ly where the business is carried on upon a
and duties on advertisements, amounted to small scale, the workmen often practise
about £678,000 sterling. both branches.
22. No newspaper appeared in the Bri- 26. Before the types are applied to use,
tish colonies of America until 1704, when they are placed in the cells or compart-
the “News Letter” was issued at Boston. ments of a wooden receptacle called a
The first paper published in Philadelphia, case, each speeies of letter, character, or
was issued in 1719 ;
the
New-York,
first in space, by itself The letters which are
in 1733. in 1775, there were 37 and in ;
required most frequently are lodged in the
;

184 THE PRINTER.

largest compartments, which are located 31. The pressman having dampened his
nearest to the place where the compositor paper with water, and put every part of
stands while arranging the types. his press in order, takes impressions in the
27. The compositor is furnished with a following manner —
he places the sheet
:

composing-stick, which is commonly an upon the tympan, and confines it there by


iron instrument, surrounded on three sides turning down upon it the frisket he then
with, ledges a little less than half an inch brings them both, together with the pa-
in height, one of which is moveable, so per, upon the form, which has been pre-
that it may be adjusted to any length of viously inked. He next turns a crank
line. The compositor, in the performance with his left hand, and thereby places the
of his work, selects the letters from their form directly under the platen, which is
several compartments, and arranges them immediately brought in a perpendicular
in an inverted order from that in which direction upon the types, by means of a
they are to appear in the printed page. lever pulled with his right hand.
28. At the end of each word is placed 32. After the impression has been thus
a quadrat, to produce a space between communicated, the form is returned to its
that and the one which follows. The former position, and the printed sheet is
quadrats are of various widths, and being removed. The operation as just described
considerably shorter than types, they yield is repeated for each side of every sheet of

no impression in printing. A thin brass the edition. In the cut at the head of this
rule is placed in the stick, on which each article, the pressman is represented as in
successive line of types is arranged. When the act of turning down the frisket upon
the composing-stick has been filled, it is the tympan. The business of the boy be-
emptied into the galley, which is a flat hind the press is to apply the ink to the
board, partly surrounded with a rim. types, by means of the rollers before him.
29. On this galley, the lines are accu- 33. Within the present century, great
mulated in long columns, which are after- improvements have been made in the print-
wards divided into pages, and tied together ing business generally, and especially in
with a string, to prevent the types from fall- the presses, and in the means of applying
ing asunder, or into pi, as the printers the ink. In the old Ramage press, the
term it. A sufficient number of pages hav- power was derived from a screw which
ing been completed to constitute a form, was moved by a lever; but in those by
or, in other words, to fill one side of a sheet several late inventors, from an accumula-
of printing-paper, they are arranged on an tion of levers.
imposing-stone, and strongly locked up, or 34. In 1814, printing*by machinery was
wedged together, in an iron chase. commenced in London, and rollers became
30. The first impression taken from the necessary for inking the forms. These
types is called the proof. This is careful- were made of molasses, glue, and tar, in
ly read overby the author or proof-reader, proportions to suit the temperature of the
or both, and the errors and corrections weather. From these originated compo-
plainly marked in the margin. These sition balls in the following year, and in
corrections having been made by the com- 1819, hand rollers. Formerly the ink was
positor, the form is again locked up, and applied by means of pelt balls stuffed with
delivered to the pressman. wool.
3.

1. Thetypes cast by the type-founder With this instrument a matrix is formed,


are oblong square pieces of metal, each by driving it into a piece of copper of suit-
having on one end of it a letter or charac- able size. A
punch and matrix are re-
ter in relief. The metal of which these quired for every character used in printing.
important instruments are composed is A metallic mould for the body of the type
commonly an alloy consisting essentially is also made ;
and, that the workman may
of lead and antimony, in the proportion of handle it without burning his hands, it is
about five parts of the former to one of the surrounded with a portion of wood. The
latter. This alloy melts at a low temper- mould composed of two parts, which can
is

ature, and receives and retains with accu- be closed and separated with the greatest
racy the shape of the mould. Several facility.
hundred pounds of type-metal are prepared The type-metal is prepared for im-
at a time, and cast into bars filled with mediate use by melting it, as fast as it may
notches, that they may be easily broken be needed, in a small crucible, over a coal
into pieces, when about to be applied to fire. The
caster having placed the ma-
use. bottom of the mould, commences
trix in the
2. In making types, the letter or charac- the operation of casting by pouring the
ter is first formed, by means of gravers and metal into the mould with a small ladle.
other tools, on the end of a steel punch, This he performs with his right hand, '

24
Q2
186 THE TYPE-FOUNDER,

while with the other he throws up the master type-founder usually supplies the
mould with a sudden jerk then with both ; printer with all the materials of his art,
hands he opens and throws out the type.
it embracing not only types, leads, brass
All these movements are performed with rules, and ordinary ornaments, but also
such rapidity, that an expert hand can cast cases, composing-stick, galleys, printing-
about fifty types of a common size in a presses, and other articles too numerous to
minute. Some machines have been lately be mentioned.
introduced, which operate with still great- 7. The inventor of the art of casting
er rapidity. types was Peter Shceffer, first servant or
4. Each type, when thrown from the workman employed by Guttemburg and
- mould, has attached to it a superfluous Faust. He privately cut a matrix for each
portion of metal, called a jet ,
which is letter of the alphabet, and cast a quantity
afterwards broken off by hand. The jets of the types. Having shown the products
are again cast into the pot or crucible, and of his ingenuity to Faust, the latter was
the types are carried to another room, so much delighted with the contrivance,
where the two broad sides are rubbed on that he made him a partner in the print-
a grindstone. They are next arranged on ing business, and gave him his only daugh-
flat sticks about three feet long, and de- ter, Christina, in marriage.
livered to the dresser who scrapes the two
,
8. The character first employed was a
sides not before made smooth on the grind- rude old gothic, mixed with secretary, de-
stone, cuts a grove on the end opposite signed on purpose to imitate the hand-
the letter, and rejects from the row the writing of those times, and the first used
types which may be defective. in England were of this kind. To these
5. The whole process is completed by succeeded what is termed old English ,

setting up the types in a printer’s com- or black letter which is still occasionally
,

posing-stick, and tying them up with pack- applied to some purposes; but Roman let-
thread. Much of the work in the type ter is now the national character not only
foundry is performed by boys and females. of England, but of France, Spain, Portu-
In the preceding cut are represented a gal, and Italy. In Germany, and in the
man casting types at a furnace, and a boy States surrounding the Baltic, letters are
breaking off the jets; also two females used which owe their foundation to the
rubbing types on a large grindstone. The gothic, although works are occasionally
fumes arising from melted lead in the cast- Roman.
printed for the learned in
ing-room are considered deleterious to 9. The Roman letter owes its origin to

health. ?_ the nation whence it derives its name;


6. Various sizes of the same kind of although the faces of the present and an-
letter are extensively used, of which the cient Roman letters differ materially, on
following are most employed in printing account of the improvements which they

books Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, have undergone at various times. For
Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, the invention of the Italic character, we
Pearl, and Diamond. A full assortment are indebted to Aldus Manutius, who set
of any particular size is called a fount , up a printing-office in Venice in 1496,
which may consist of any amount, from where he also introduced Roman types of
five pounds to five hundred, or more. The 11 a neater cut.

1. The word stereotype is derived from minutes, the plaster becomes hard enough
two Greek works stereos, solid, and tupos, to be removed.
a type. It is applied to pages of types in 3. The mould, thus formed, having been
a single piece, which have been cast in baked in an oven, is placed in an iron pan
moulds formed on common printing types of an oblong shape, and sunk into a kettle
or wood cuts. They are composed of lead of the melted composition above mention-
and antimony, in the proportion of about ed, which is admitted at the four corners
six parts of the former to one of the latter. of the cover to the cavities of the mould
Sometimes a little tin is added. beneath. The pan is then raised from the
2. The types are set up by compositors, kettle,and placed over water. When the
as usual in printing, and imposed or locked metal has become cool, the contents of the
up, one or several pages together, in an pan are removed, and the plaster is broken
iron chase of a suitable size. Having been and washed from the plate.
sent to the casting-room, the types are 4. As fast as the pages are cast, they
slightly oiled, and surrounded with a frame Here they
are sent to the finishing-room,.
of brass or type-metal. They are then are planed on the back with a ma-
first
covered with a thin mixture of finely pul- chine, for the purpose of making them
verized plaster, and water. In about ten level and of an equal thickness. The let-
188 THE STEREOTYPER.
ters are then examined, and, when defi- Accordingly, the compositors, while
8.
cient, are rendered perfect by little steel correcting one error in the proof, made
instruments called picks. Corrections and intentionally several more and the
; press-
alterations are made by cutting out original men battered the letter, while printing the
lines, and inserting common printing types, books. By these dishonest and malicious
or lines stereotyped for the purpose. The proceedings, the useful enterprise of Mr.
types are cut off close to the back with Ged was defeated. He, however, after-
pincers, and fastened to the place with wards printed, in an accurate manner, two
solder. The plates, when they are fin- or three works. The first of these was a
ished, are about one-sixth of an inch in Sallust, the pages of which were set up
thickness. by his son, James Ged, who was but an
5. When all the pages of a work have apprentice to the printing-business. This
been completed, they are packed in boxes, part of the work was performed in the
which are marked with certain letters of night, when the workmen were absent
the alphabet, to indicate the form or pages from the office.

which they contain. While the pages are 9. After the death of Mr. Ged, no atten-
being applied in printing, they are fasten- tion was paid to the art, and a knowledge
ed to blocks of solid wood, which, with the of was lost at the decease of his son,
it

plates, are intended to be the same in which took place about the year 1771 but ;

height with common types. it was a third time invented by Alexander

6. The first stereotype plates were cast Tilloch, Esq., who, in conjunction with
by J. Van der Mey, a Dutchman, who re- Mr. Foulis, printer to the University of
sided at Leyden about the year 1700. A Glasgow, made many experiments, until
quarto and and two or three
folio Bible, plates were produced yielding impressions
small works, were printed from pages of which could not be distinguished from those
his casting; but at his death, the art ap- of the types from which they had been
pears to have been lost, although the plates cast. But owing to circumstances uncon-
of these two Bibles are still extant, the nected with the real utility of the art, the
former at Leyden, and the latter at Am- business was not prosecuted to a great ex-
sterdam. tent.
7. In 1725, William Ged, of Edinburgh, 10. About the year 1804, the art was
without knowing what had been done in again revived by the late Earl Stanhope,
Holland by Van der Mey, began to make assisted by Mr. A. Wilson, a printer, w ho T

stereotype plates. But being unable to turned his whole attention that way. In
prosecute the business alone for want of their efforts to complete the invention,
funds, he united in partnership with three they were assisted by Messrs. Tilloch and
others. One of the partners being a type- Foulis and although they succeeded, after
;

founder, supposing that success in the many experiments, they were strenuously
enterprise would injure his business, em- opposed in their efforts to introduce the
ployed men to compose and print the pro. practice, the printers supposing, perhaps
posed works in a manner that he thought with some reason, that it would prove in-
most likely to spoil them. jurious to their business.
;

THE PAPER-MAKER, AND THE BOOKBINDER.


THE PAPER-MAKER. the eastern nations still write with bam-

1. The materials on which writing was boos and canes. The Chinese inscribe
executed, in the early days of the art, were their characters with small brushes similar

the leaves and bark of trees and plants, to camel’s hair pencils. We have no cer-
stones, bricks, sheets of lead, copper, and tain evidence of the application of quills

brass, as well as plates of ivory, wooden to this purpose until the seventh century.
tablets, and cotton and linen cloth. 4. As the literature of antiquity ad-
2. The instruments with which writing vanced, a material adapted to works of
was were adapted to the sub-
practised magnitude became necessary, and this was
stance on which it was to be formed. The found both in the skins of animals, and in
stylus, which the Romans employed in the celebrated plant papyrus, of Egypt
writing on metallic tablets covered with but the time when they were first applied

wax, was made of iron, acute at one end, to this purpose cannot be determined,
for forming the letters, and flat or round although it is probable that the former has
at the other, for erasing what may have the preference as regards priority.
been erroneously written. 5. The
papyrus was an aquatic plant,
3. For writing with ink, the calamus, a which grew upon the banks of the Nile.
kind of reed, sharpened at the point, and In the manufacture of paper from this reed,
split like our pens, was used. Some of it was divested of its outer covering, and
190 THE PAPER-MAKER.

the internal layers or laminae were sepa- ingly, in the eighth century, it began to
rated with the point of a needle or knife. be superseded by cotton paper, although it
These layers were spread parallel to each continued in use in some parts of Europe
other on a table, in sufficient numbers to until three hundred years after the period
form a sheet ; a second layer was then laid last mentioned.
with the strips crossing those of the first 9. The manufacture of cotton paper was
at right angles: and the whole having introduced into Spain in the eleventh cen-
been moistened with water, was subjected tury by the Arabians, who became ac-
to between metallic surfaces.
pressure quainted with Bucharia as early as
it in
The pressure, aided by a glutinous sub- A. D. 704. About the year 1300, it was
stance in the plant, caused the several commenced in Italy, France, and Germa-
pieces to become one uniform sheet. ny and in some of the paper-mills of these
;

6. Parchment was manufactured from countries, paper was first made from cot-
the skins of sheep and goats. In the pre- ton rags. Proper linen paper is thought
paration, thesewere first steeped in water to have originated in Germany, about the
impregnated with lime, and afterwards year 1318.
stretched upon frames, and reduced by 10. The first paper-mill in England was
scraping with sharp instruments. They erected by a German, named Spillman, in
were finished by the application of chalk, 1588; but no paper, except the coarse
and by rubbing them with pumice-stone. brown sorts, was made in that country until
The skins of very young calves, dressed about the year 1690 the finer kinds, both
:

in a similar manner, was called vellum. for writing and printing, were, before that
Parchment and vellum are still used for time, imported from the continent. But
deeds and other important documents. the paper of English manufacture will now
7. When Attalus, about 200 years be- compare with that of any other country.
fore Christ, was about to found a library The French also make very fine paper.
at Pergamus, which should rival that of 11. In the United States, this manufac-
Alexandria, one of the Ptolemies, then ture has rapidly increased in amount with-
king of Egypt, jealous of his success, pro- in a few years. According to an estimate
hibited the exportation of papyrus; but made in 1829, it appears that the whole
the spirited inhabitants of Pergamus man- annual product of the mills is worth be-
ufactured parchment as a substitute, and tween five and seven millions of dollars,
formed their library principally of manu- and that the rags collected in this country
scripts on this material. From this fact, amount to about two millions. The num-
it name of Pergamena among
received the ber of hands employed in the business is
the Romans, who gave it also the appella- ten or eleven thousand, of whom about
tion of Membrana. one-half are females.
8. The greatest quantity of paper was 12. Nature has supplied us with a great
manufactured at Alexandria, and the com- variety of substances from which paper
merce in this article greatly increased the may be fabricated, as flax, hemp, cotton,
wealth of that city. In the fifth century, straw, grass, and the bark of several kinds
paper was rendered very dear by taxation of trees ;
but the fibres of the three first
and this probably was an inducement for productions, in the form of rags, are the
an effort to produce a substitute, Accord- most usual materials. Most of these are
THE PAPER-MAKER. 191

primarily purchased from the people at the machine, through which it passes at
large, by retail booksellers, country mer- one point of its revolution.
chants, and pedlars, who in turn dispose The maceration occupies from ten
16.
of them to persons called rag-merchants, to twenty hours, according as the material
or directly to the paper-makers. When is more or less rigid and, during part of
;

the rags come from the original collectors, this time, water is permitted to run in at
all kinds are mixed together, but they are one side of the tub, and out at the other,
assorted according to their colour and the to render the pulp perfectly clean. To-
nature of their original fibre, either by the wards the close of this process, the pulp,
rag-merchants, or by the paper-makers if necessary, is bleached by means of
themselves. chloride of lime, and oil of vitriol. It is
13. In our attempts to afford the reader also sometimes coloured by adding a quan-
an idea of this manufacture in general, tity of dye stuff. The bleaching and co-
letter-paper has been selected, as affording louring are effected without interrupting
the best means of illustration; since for the action of the machine. The rags hav-
this kind of paper, the best stock is em- ing been thus reduced, the pulp, together
ployed, and the greatest skill is exerted in with a suitable quantity of water, is let
every stage of the process. out into a reservoir, from which it is drawn
14. The process of the manufacture is off into a vat, as fast as it may be needed
commenced by cutting the rags into small for the production of paper.
by the aid of a sharp instrument,
pieces, 17. With this vat is connected the pa-
commonly a piece of a scythe, which is per-making machine ;
and the part of the
placed in a position nearly perpendicular latter which first comes in contact with
before the operator. In the reduction of the material is a hollow cylinder, surround-
very coarse rags, such as sail-cloth, a cut- ed with a fine web of wire-cloth. This
ting machine is also employed. Then, cylinder being immersed in the contents
with the view of sifting out the loose par- of the vat more than one-half of its diam-
ticles of dirt, the rags are deposited in a eter, the water passes off with a uniform
large octagonal sieve made of coarse wire, rapidity, and the fibrous particles which
and placed in a close box in a horizontal had been suspended in it, settle with re-
position. The sieve is moved by machine- markable uniformity on the outside of the
ry, like the bolt of a flour-mill. brazen web. As the cylinder revolves, a
15. The second stage of the process continued sheet is produced, which is taken

consists chiefly in the reduction of the rags up by an endless web of woollen cloth, and
to a pulp. This is effected by the action carried round another cylinder of equal
of a cutting machine, the essential parts diameter, and then between two more', by
of which are two sets of blunt knives, the which it is partially pressed.
one stationary, and the other revolving. 18. From between these rollers, the pa-
The machine is placed in a large elliptical per passes out, in a continued sheet, upon
tub, in which the rags are also deposited, a large cylindrical reel, called the lay-boy
with a suitable quantity of water. The and when a certain quantity of it, which
liquid and fibrous contents of the tub are is determined by a gauge, has been accu-

kept moving in a circle by the action of mulated, the lay-boy is removed to a low
192 THE PAPER-MAKER.

table. The paper is then cut, with a day. It is hardly necessary to remark,
toothless handsaw, into sheets twice the that paper is of various qualities, from the
size of letter-paper. This part of the opera- finest bank-note paper, down to the coarsest
tion is very quickly performed, as a work- kinds employed in wrapping up merchan-
man can cut up and pile in heaps, to be dise ;
and that, for every quality, suitable
pressed, twenty reams in half that number materials are chosen : the process of the
of minutes, and attend to the machine at manufacture is varied, of course, to suit
the same time. the materials. None but writing and
been successive-
19. After the paper has drawing paper requires to be sized.
ly pressed and handled by separating the 22. Until after the beginning of the pre-
sheets, two or three times, it is hung up sent century, paper was made exclusively
on small poles in an airy room, to be dried by hand and this
,
method is still continued
and having been again pressed, it is sized in a majority of the mills in the United

by holding a quantity of the sheets at a States, although it is rapidly going out of


time in a thin solution of glue and alum, use. It differs from that just described
the former of which is prepared in the pa- chiefly in the manner of collecting the
per-mill for the purpose, from shreds and pulp to form the paper, this being effected
parings of raw hides. The paper is freed by means of a mould, a frame of wood with
from superfluous portions of the size, by a fine wire bottom, of the size of the pro-
submitting it to the action of a press. It posed sheet. In the use of this instru-
isagain dried as before, and again press- ment, a quantity of the pulp is taken up,
ed; after which, the several sheets are and while the vatman or dipper, holds ,

examined, and freed from lumps and other it in a horizontal position, and gives it a
extraneous substances. gentle shaking, the water runs out through
20. They are then severed in half with the interstices of the wire, and leaves the
a cutting machine, and afterwards calen- fibrous particles upon the mould in the
dered, by passing the sheets successively form of a sheet. The sheets thus produced
between rollers or they are pressed be-
;
are pressed between felts, and afterwards

tween smooth pasteboards. In the latter treated as if they had been formed by
case, hot metallic plates are sometimes in- means of a machine.
terposed between every few quires of the 23. The first idea of forming paper in
sheets. The paper, when treated in this a continued sheet originated in France;
way, is called hot-pressed. It is next but a machine for this purpose is said to
counted off into half-quires, put up into have been first made completely success-
reams, pressed, trimmed, and finally en- ful'in England, by Henry and Sealy Four-
veloped in two thick sheets of paper, which drinier. Many machines made after their
completes the whole process of the manu- model, as well as those of a different con-
facture. struction, are in use in the United States
21. The manufacture of paper, as just to some of which is attached an apparatus i

described,seems to be a tedious process for drying and pressing the paper before :

yet with two machines and a suitable num- it is wound upon the lay-boy. Very few ,

ber of hands, say sixty or eighty, three machines, however, yield paper equal in :

hundred reams of letter-paper can be pro- firmness and tenacity to that produced by i

duced from the raw material in a single hand.


THE BOOKBINDER. 193

THE BOOKBINDER. latter method has been introduced within


1. Bookbinding is the art of arranging a few- years. This operation certainly in-
the pages of a book in proper order, and creases the intrinsic value of the book;
confining them there by means of thread, but it is not employed in every case, since
glue, paste, pasteboard, and leather. it is attended with some additional ex-
2. This art is probably as ancient as pense, and since it diminishes the thick-
tfiat whatever may
of writing books ;
for, ness of the book, and consequently its value
have been the substance on which the in the estimation of the public at large.
work was executed, some method of unit- 6. The having been properly
sheets,
ing the parts was absolutely necessary. pressed, are next sewed together upon lit-
The earliest method with which we are tle cords, which, in this application, are
acquainted, is that of gluing the sheets called bands. During the operation, these
together, and rolling them upon small cy- are stretched in a perpendicular direction,
linders. This mode is still practised in at suitable distances from each other, as
some countries. It is also everywhere used exhibited in the foregoing cut. The fold-
by the Jews, so far as relates to one copy ed sheets are usually notched on the back
of their law deposited in each of their by means of a saw, and at these points
synagogues. they are brought in juxta-position with the
3. The name Egyptian is applied to this bands. After the pages of several volumes
kind of binding, and this would seem to have been accumulated, the bands are
indicate the place of its origin. Each severed between each book. The folding',
volume had two rollers, so that the con- gathering, and sewing, are usually per-
tinued sheet could be wound from one to formed by females.
the other at pleasure. The square, or pre- 7. At this stage of the process, the books
sent form of binding, is also of great an- are received by the men or boys, who
tiquity, as it is have been in-
supposed to generally take on one hundred at a time.
vented at Pergamus, about 200 years be- The workman first spreads some glue on
fore Christ, by king Attalus, who, with his the back of each book with a brush. He
son Eumenes, established the famous libra- then places them, one after the other, be-
ry in that city. tween boards of solid wood, and beats them
4. The first process of binding books on the back with a hammer. By this
consists in folding the sheets according to means the back is rounded, and a groove
the paging. This is done by the aid of an formed on each side for the admission of
ivory knife called & folder, and the opera- one edge of the pasteboards.
tor is guided in the correct performance 8. These having been applied, and par-
of the work by certain letters called sig- tially fastened by means of the bands,
natures, placed at the bottom of the page, which had been left long for the purpose,
at regular intervals through the book. the books are pressed, and the leaves of
5. Piles of the folded sheets are then which they are composed are trimmed
placed on a long table in the order of their with an instrument called a plough The .

signatures, and gathered, one from each pasteboards are also cut to the proper size
pile, for every book. They are next beaten by the same means, or with a huge pair
on a between
stone, or passed steel rollers, of shears. In the preceding picture, a
to render them smooth and solid. The workman is represented at work with the
25 R
194 THE BOOKBINDER.

plough. The edges are next sprinkled per place with instruments called stamps
with some kind of colouring matter, or and rolls, which have on them figures in
covered with gold leaf. A strip of paper relief. The portion of the leaf not im-
is then glued on the back, and a head-band pressed with the figures on the tools, is

put upon each end. easily removed with a silk rag. The
9. The book is now ready to be cover- books are finished by applying to the co-
ed. This is either done with calf,, sheep, vers the white of an egg, and rubbing
or goat skin, or some kind of paper or them with a heated steel polisher.
cloth .;
hut whatever the material may be, 14. The process of binding books, as
it is cut into pieces to suit the size of the just described, is varied, of course, in some
book ;
and, having been smeared on one of
particulars, to suit the different kinds
side with paste, it is drawn over the out- binding and A
book stitched to-
finish.
sides of the pasteboards, and doubled in gether like a common almanac is called a
upon the inside. pamphlet. Those which are covered on
10. The covers, if calf or sheep skin, the back and sides with leather, are said
are next sprinkled or marbled. The first to b efull-bound and those which have
operation performed by dipping the brush
is their backs covered with leather, and the
in a kind of dye, made for the purpose, and sides with paper, half-bound.
beating it with one hand over a stick held 15. The different sizes of books are ex-
in the other ;
the second is performed in pressed by terms indicative of the number
the same manner, with the difference that of pages printed on one side of a sheet of
they are sprinkled first with water, and paper: thus, when two pages are printed
then with the colouring matter. on one side, the book is termed a folio;
11. After a small piece of morocco has four pages, a quarto ;
eight pages, an oc-
been pasted on the back, on which the tavo; twelve pages, a duodecimo; eighteen
title is to be printed in gold leaf, and one pages, an octodecimo. All of these terms,
of the waste leaves has been pasted down except the first, are abridged by prefixing
on the inside of each of the covers, the a figure or figures to the last syllable:
books are pressed for the last time. They thus, 4to. for quarto, 8vo. for octavo, 12mo.
are then glazed by applying the white of for duodecimo, &c.
an egg with a sponge. 16. The
manufacture of account-books,
12. The books are now ready for the and other blank or stationary work, con-
reception of the ornaments, which consist stitutes an extensive branch of the book-
chiefly of letters and other figures in gold binder’s business. It is not necessary,
leaf. In executing this part of the pro- however, to be particular in noticing it, as
cess, the workman cuts the gold into suit- the general process is similar to that of
able strips or squares, on a cushion. common bookbinding. Those binders who
13. These are
upon the books by
laid devotemuch attention to this branch of
means of a piece of raw cotton, and after- the trade, have a machine by which paper
wards impressed with types moderately is ruled to suit any method of keeping
heated over a charcoal fire ;
or the strips books, or any other pattern which may be
of gold are taken up, and laid upon the pro- desired.
3.

1. The book trade has arisen from small for thecommission of sin. From this cause,
beginnings to its present magnitude and and from an ignorance of the true mean-
importance. Before the invention of ty- ing of the author, much of their copying
pography, it was
carried on by the aid of was inaccurately performed, so that great
transcribers and the booksellers of Greece,
;
pains have been since required in the cor-
Rome, and Alexandria, during the flourish- rection of the manuscripts of those times.
ing state of their literature, kept a large This mode of multiplying copies of
number of manuscript copyists in constant books was exceedingly slow, and, withal,
employ. Among the Romans, the trans- so very expensive, that learning was con-
cribers or copyists were chiefly slaves, who fined almost exclusively to people of rank,
were very valuable to their owners, on and the lower orders were only rescued
account of their capacity for this employ- from total ignorance by the reflected light
ment. of their superiors. For a long time, during
2. In the middle ages, when learning the reign of comparative barbarism in
was chiefly confined to the precincts of Europe, books were so scarce, that a pre-
monastic institutions, the monks employed sent of a single copy to a religious house
much of their time in copying the ancient was thought to be so valuable a gift, that
classics and other works ;
and this labour it entitled the donor to the prayers of the
was often imposed upon them as a penance j
community, which were considered effica-
196 THE BOOKSELLER.

cious in procuring for him eternal salva- Every German publisher has also an agent
tion. there, who receives his publications, and
4. After the establishment of the uni- sends them, according as they are ordered,
versities of Paris and Bologna, there were to any part of Germany.
dealers in books, called stationarii, who 8. In no other part of the world, has
loaned single manuscripts at high prices such a connexion of booksellers been
and, in the former place, no person, after formed, although almost every kingdom
the year 1432, could deal in books in any of Europe has some city or cities in which
way, without permission from the univer- this branch of trade is chiefly concentra-
sity,by which officers were appointed to ted ;
as London, in
England Edinburgh, ;

examine the manuscripts, and fix the price in and Amsterdam, Utrecht,
Scotland ;

for which they might be sold or hired out. Leyden, and Haerlem, in the Nether-
5. For a long time after the invention lands. In Spain and Portugal, the price
of printing, the printers sold their nwn of every book is regulated by the govern-
publications and in doing this, especially
;
ment.
at some distance from their establishments, 9. A
very convenient method of effect-
they were aided by those who had former- ing the sale and exchange of books among
ly been employed as copyists. Some of booksellers, has been adopted in the Unit-
these travelling agents at length became ed States; and this is by auction. A sale
stationary, and procured the publication of of this kind is held in Boston once, and in
works on their own account. New-York and Philadelphia twice, every
6. The first bookseller who purchased year; and none are invited to attend it
manuscripts from the authors, and caused but the trade; hence such sales are de-
them to be printed without owning a press nominated trade sales.
was John Otto, of Nuremburg.
himself, 10. The sale is usually conducted by
He commenced this mode of doing busi- an auctioneer who has been selected by
ness in 1516. In 1545, there were, for a committee of the trade in the city in
the first time, two such booksellers in which it is to be held. In order to obtain
Leipsic. The great mart for the sale of a sufficient amount of stock for the pur-
was Frankfort on the Maine,
their books pose, theagent issues proposals, in which
where were held three extensive fairs he informs publishers and others concern-
every year. Leipsic, however, soon be- ed in this branch of business, of his in-
came, and still continues, the centre of the tention, and solicits invoices of books, to
German book trade. be sold at the time specified. A catalogue
7. The first Leipsic catalogue of books of all the books thus sent for sale, is
appeared as early as the year 1600; but printed and distributed among the book-
the fairs at that place did not become im- sellers.
portant, as regards the book trade, until 11. The booksellers having- assembled,
1667, when it was attended by nineteen the books which may have been accumu-
foreign booksellers. The booksellers of lated from different parts of the Union are
Germany, as well as some from distant offered in convenient lots, and struck
off
countries, meet at the semi-annual fairs to the highest bidder. Each purchaser
held in that city, to dispose of books, and holds in his hand the printed catalogue,
to settle their accounts with each other. on the broad margin of which he marks,
THE BOOKSELLER. 197

if he see fit, the prices at which the of knowledge than the sale of books by
books have been sold and the record thus
;
stationary booksellers. In fact, they are
kept affords a tolerable means of determ- among the most prominent causes of the
ining their value, for a considerable time
1

vast trade in books, which is now carried


afterwards. on, especially in the United States.
12. A sale of this kind occupies from 15. Nevertheless, publishers, who do
two to four days; and, at the close of it, not employ agents to vend their books,
a settlement takes place, in which the generally consider them interlopers upon
parties are governed by the terms pre- their business ;
and the people themselves
viously published. The payments are who owe a great share of their intellec-
made in cash or by notes at four or six tual cultivation to this useful class of men,
months, according to the amount which are generally averse to afford them the
the purchaser may have bought out of necessary patronage, because they require
one invoice. The conductors of the sale a small advance on the city prices to pay
are allowed between four and five per travelling expences.
cent, commission for their services. 16. A considerableamount of books is
13. A vast number of books is also sold, also sold by merchants who reside at some
every year, at auction, to miscellaneous distance from the cities and large towns.
collections of people, not only in the They, however, seldom venture to pur-
cities and considerable towns, but like- chase those which have not been well
wise in the villages throughout the coun- known and approved in their neighbour-
try. By many booksellers, this method of hood ;
and, in a majority of cases, regard
sale is thought to be injurious to the them as mere subjects of merchandise,
trade, since it has reduced the prices of without taking into consideration the ef-
books, and interfered with the regular fects most likely to be produced by these
method of doing business. These disad- silent, but powerful agents, when circula-
vantages, however, have been far overbal- ted among their customers.
anced by the increased number of readers 17. Some booksellers in Europe confine
which has been thus created. their trade chiefly to particular depart-
14. The circulation of books is like- ments; such as law, theology, and medi-
wise promoted by means of travelling cine. Others deal in toy-books, and books
agents, who them at once, or
either sell of education, or in rare and scarce books.
them with the
obtain subscriptions for This is the case, to a limited extent, in
view to their future delivery, These the United States, although our booksell-
methods have been employed more or less ers commonly keep an assortment of mis-
from the very commencement of the cellaneous publications, as well as various
printing business; and they have probably articles in the stationary line such as—
contributed more to the general extension paper, quills, inkstands, and blank work.

R2
THE ARCHITECT.
1. Architecture, in the general sense ed by the fact stated in holy writ, that the
of the word, is the planning and erecting descendants of Noah, not more than one
buildings of all kinds, whether of a pub- hundred years after the great catastrophe
lic or private nature; and it embraces just mentioned, attempted to build a city
within its operations a variety of employ- and a tower with bricks burned in
lofty
ments, at the head of which must be the This project could never have
fire.
placed the Architect. Architecture is of been thought of, had they not been influ-
several kinds, such as civil, naval, milita- enced by the knowledge of former centu-
ry, and aquatic; but it is the first only ries.
that we propose to notice in the present 3. The
confusion of the language of
article. the people caused their dispersion into
2. The construction of buildings as different parts of the earth ;
and, in their
means of shelter from the weather, ap- several locations, they adopted that meth-
pears to have been among the earliest in- od of constructing their dwellings, which
ventions ;
and, from the skill exhibited in the climate required, and the materials at
the construction of the ark, we have rea- hand admitted ; but, whatever the primi-
son to believe that architecture had been tive structure may have been, it was con-
brought to considerable perfection before tinued, in its general features, from age
the deluge. This opinion is also support- to age, by the more refined and opulent
THE ARCHITECT. 199

inhabitants hence the different styles of


;
tar or cement. Walls are also made of
building, which have been continued, wood, by first erecting a frame of timber
with various modifications, to the present and then covering it with boards but :

day. these are more perishable materials,


4. The essential elementary parts of a which require to be defended from the
building are those which contribute to its decomposing influence of the atmosphere,
support, inclosure, and covering; and of by paint, or some other substance.
these the most important are the founda- 8. The a beam extending in a
lintel is
tion, the column, the wall, the lintel, the right from one column or wall to
line
arch, the vault, the dome, and the roof. another over a vacant space. The floor
Ornamental and refined architecture is is a lateral continuation or connexion of
one of the fine arts nevertheless, every
;
beams, by means of a covering of planks.
part of an edifice must appear to have The strength of the lintel, and, in fact,
utility for its object, and show the purpose every other elementary part of a building
for which it has been designed. used as a support, can be mathematically
5. The foundation is usually a stone determined by the skilful architect.
wall, on which the superstructure of the 9. The arch answers the same purpose
building rests. The most solid basis on as the lintel, although it far exceeds it in
which it is placed is rock, or gravel which strength. It is composed of several
has never been disturbed ;
next to these pieces of
wedge-like form, and the
a
are clay and sand. In loose or muddy joints formed by the contact of thin sur-
situations, it always unsafe to build,
is faces point to a common centre. While
unless a solid basis can be artificially pro- the arch being constructed, the mate-
is
duced. This is often done by means of rials are supported by a centring of the
timber placed in a horizontal position, or shape of its internal surface. The upper
by driving wooden piles perpendicularly stone of an arch is called the key-stone.
into the earth ;
on a foundation of the The supports of an arch are called abut-
latter description, the greater part of the ments and a continuation of arches, an
city of Amsterdam has' been built. arcade.
6. The column, or pillar, is the sim- 10. The vault
the lateral continua-
is

plest member of a building, although it is tion of an arch, and bears the same rela-
not essential to all. It is not employed tion to it that a wall does to a column.
for thepurpose of inclosure, but as a sup- The construction of a simple vault is the
port to some part of the superstructure, same with that of an arch, and it distributes
and the principal force which it has to its pressure equally along the walls or
resist is that of perpendicular pressure. abutments. A
complex or groined vault is
The column is more frequently employed made by the intersection of two of the
in public than in private buildings. common kind. The groined vault is much
7. The wall may be considered the la- used in Gothic architecture.
teral continuation of the column, answer- 11. The dome, or cupola , is a hemisphe-
ing the purposes both of support and in- concave covering to a building or
rical or
closure. constructed of various ma-
It is a part of it. When built of stone it is
terials, but chiefly of brick, stone, and a very strong kind of structure, even
marble, with a suitable proportion of mor- more so than the arch, since the tendency
;

200 THE ARCHITECT.

of the parts to fall is counteracted by


those above and below, as well as by those
on each side. During' the erection of the
cupola, no centring is required, as in the
case of the arch.
12. The roof is the most common and
cheap covering to buildings. It is some-
times flat, but most commonly oblique, in
shape. A roof consisting of two oblique
sides meeting at the top, is denominated a
'pent roof that with four oblique sides, a
;

hipped roof and that with two sides,


;

having each two inclinations of different


obliquities, a curb or mansard roof. In
modern times, roofs are constructed of
wood, or of wood covered with some in-
combustible material, such as tiles, slate,
15.
and sheets of lead, tin, or copper. The
elementary parts of buildings, as just
described, are more or less applicable in
almost every kind of architecture,
13. The architecture of different coun-
tries has been characterized by peculiari-
ties of form and construction, which,
among ancient nations, were so distinct, The Egyptian style . —The first in-
that their edifices may be identified at habitants of Egypt lived in mounds, cav-
the present day even in a state of ruin erns, and houses of mud ; and from these
and, although nearly all the buildings of primitive structures, the Egyptians, at a
antiquity are in a dilapidated state, many later period, derived their style of archi-
of them have been restored, in drawings tecture. The walls of their buildings were
and models, by the aid of the fragments very thick, and sloping on the outside the ;

which remain. roof was flat, and composed of blocks of


14. The different styles of building stone, extending from one wall or pillar to
which have been recognized by the archi- another and the columns were short and
;

tect of modern times, are, the Egyptian, large, being sometimes ten or twelve feet
the Chinese, the Grecian, the Roman, the in diameter. Pyramids of prodigious mag-
Greco-Gothic, the Saracenic, and the Go- nitude, and obelisks composed of a single
thic. In all these, the pillar, with its ac- stone, sometimes often exceeding seventy
companiments, makes a distinguished fig- feet in height, are structures peculiarly
ure. The following picture has therefore Egyptian. The architecture of the Hin-
been introduced by way of explanation. doos seems to have been derived from
The columns are of the Corinthian order primitive structures of a similar charac-
of architecture. ter.
THE ARCHITECT. 201

Greeks, in perfecting their system of ar-


chitecture, were probably aided by Egyp-
tian examples, although they finally sur-
passed all other nations in this important
art.

16.
18. Orders of architecture. By the
architectural orders are understood certain
modes of proportioning and decorating the
An Egyptian Temple. column and entablature. They were in
The Chinese use during the best days of Greece and
style. The ancient
Tartars, and other wandering tribes of Rome, for a period of six or seven centu-
Asia, appear to have lived in tents; and ries. The Greeks had three orders, call-
the Chinese buildings, even at the present ed the Doric the Ionic and the Corinth-
, ,

day, bear a strong resemblance to these ian. These were adopted and modified
original habitations, since their roofs are
by the Romans, who also added two others,
called the Tuscan and the Composite.
concave on the upper side, as if made of
canvas instead of wood. Their porticoes 19. Doric order. The Doric is the
resemble the awnings spread out on our oldest and most massive order of the
shop-windows in the summer. The Chi- Greeks. The column, in the examples at
nese build chiefly of wood, although they Athens, is about six of
diameters in
its

sometimes use brick and stone. height: in those of an earlier date, it is


but four or five. The temple here adduced
to illustrate this order was built by Cimon,
son of Miltiades, about the year 450 be-
fore Christ. It is said to be in a state of
17. better preservation than any other of the
ancient Greek edifices at Athens. It will
be seen that the shafts are fluted that is, ,

cut in semicircular channels, in a longitu-


dinal direction. The United States’. Bank,
at Philadelphia, is a noble specimen of
this order.

The Grecian style. This style of


building had its origin in the wooden hut
or cabin, the frame of which primarily The Temple of Theseus.
consisted of perpendicular posts, transverse
beams, and rafters. This structure was 20 Ionic order. This order is lighter than
at length imitated in stone, and by degrees the Doric, its column being eight or nine
it was so modified and decorated in certain diameters in height. Its shaft has twen-
parts, as to give rise to the several distinc- ty-four or more flutings, separated from
tions called orders of architecture. The each other by square edges and its capi-
;

26
202 THE ARCHITECT.

tal consists, in part, of two double scrolls, of pillars. Sometimes they had a colon-
called volutes, usually occupying opposite nade at one end only, and sometimes at
sides. These volutes are supposed to both ends. Their form was generally ob-
have been copied from ringlets of hair, long, and as the cells were intended as
or from the horns of the god Jupiter Am- places of resort for the priests rather than
mon. The following example of this order for assemblies of the people, they were
consists of three temples, each of which but imperfectly lighted. Windows were
was dedicated to a different individual, seldom employed and light was admitted
;

viz.Erectheus, Minerva Polias, and the at the door at one end, or through an open-
nymph Pandrosus. ing in the roof.

24. Grecian architecture is supposed to


have been at its greatest perfection in the
days of Pericles and Phidias, when sculp-
ture is admitted to have attained its high-
est excellence. It was distinguished, in
general, by simplicity of structure, few-
The Erectheum at Athens. ness of parts, absence of arches, and low-
21. Corinthian order. The Corinthian ness of pediments and roofs.
is the lightest and most decorated of all 25. Roman style. The Romans adopt-
the Grecian orders. Its column is usually ed the three Grecian orders, with some
ten diameters in height, and its shaft is modifications and also added two others,
;

fluted like that of the Ionic. Its capital called the Tuscan and Composite. The
is shaped like an inverted bell, and was former of these they borrowed from the
covered on the outside with two rows of nation whose name it bears, and the latter
the leaves of the plant acanthus, above they formed by uniting the embellishments
which are eight pairs of small volutes. It of the Doric and the Corinthian. The
is said that this beautiful capital was sug- favourite order in Rome and its colonies
gested to the sculptor Callimachus by was the Corinthian. Examples of single
the growth of an acanthus about a basket, pillars of these orders may be seen at the
which had been accidentally left in a gar- end of this article.
den. 26. The temples Romans gene-
of the
22. The Greeks sometimes departed so rally bore a strong resemblance to those
far from the strict use of their orders, as of the Greeks, although they often differed
to employ the statues of slaves, heroes, from the specimens of that nation in seve-
and gods, in the place of columns. A ral particulars. The stylobate of the lat-
specimen of this practice is exhibited in ter was usually a succession of platforms,
the cut illustrative of the Ionic order. which likewise served the purposes of
It belongs to the temple dedicated to steps, by which the building was approach-
Pandrosus. ed on all sides. Among the Romans, it
23. The most remarkable buildings of was usually an elevated structure, like a
the Greeks were their temples. The body continued pedestal on three sides, and ac-
of these edifices consisted of a walled cell, cessible in front by means of steps. The
usually surrounded by one or more rows dome was also very commonly employed
THE ARCHITECT 203

rather than the pent roof. The following The


29.Minaret is a tall slender tower, pecu-

is an example of a temple at Rome. Turkish architecture.


liar to

Gothic style. The Goths, who over-


ran a great part of the Western Empire,
were not the inventors of the style of ar-
chitecture which bears their name. The
term was first applied with the view to
stigmatize the edifices of the middle ages
which, the purity of
in the construction of
the antique models had not been regarded.
The term was at first very extensive in
its application; but it is now confined
chiefly to the style of building used in the
construction of cathedrals, churches, ab-
beys, and similar edifices, which was in-
troduced into various parts of Europe six
Temple of Antonies and Faustina.
or eight centuries ago.
27. Greco- Gothic style. After the dis-
memberment of the Roman Empire, the
practice of erecting new buildings from
the fragments of old ones became preva-
lent. This gave
rise to an irregular style
of building,which continued in use during
the dark ages. It consisted of Greek and
Roman details combined under new forms,
and piled up into structures wholly unlike
the original buildings from which the ma-
terials had been taken. Hence the appel-
lations Greco- Gothic and Romanesque 30. The Gothic style is peculiarly and
have been applied to it. The effect of strongly marked. Its principles seem to
this style of building was very imposing, have originated in the imitation of groves
especially when columns and arches were and bowers, under which the Druid priests
piled upon each other to a great height. had been accustomed to perform their sa-
28. Saracenic style. This appellation cred rites. Its characteristics are, its
has been given to the style of building pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires,
practised by the Moors and Saracens in its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vault-
Spain, Egypt, and Turkey. It is distin- ed roofs, and a general predominance of
guished, among other things, by an ellip- the perpendicular over the horizontal.
tical form of the arch. A similar pecu- 31. The ecclesiastical edifices of this
liarity exists in the domes of the oriental style of building are commonly in form of
mosques, which are sometimes large seg- a cross, having a tower, lantern, or spire,
ments of a sphere, appearing as if inflated erected at the point of intersection. The
and at other times, they are concavo-con- part of the cross situated towards the west
vex on the Several of these domes
outside. is called the nave; the eastern part, the
are commonly placed upon one building. choir; and the transverse portion, the
204 THE ARCHITECT.

transept. A glance at the following dia- a wall, if straight, is called a parapet


; if
gram will enable the reader to understand indented, a battlement.
the form of the ground-work more fully. 33. Gothic pillars or columns are usual-
ly clustered, appearing as if a number
E-i
were bound together. They are confined
A*
W chiefly to the inside of buildings,and are
32. Nave Choir generally employed in sustaining the vaults
»
« which support the roof. The parts which
Eh are thrown out of a perpendicular to assist
in forming these vaults, have received the
Any high building erected above a appellation of pendentives. The Gothic
roof is called a steeple, which, however, is style of building is more imposing than the
distinguished by different appellations, ac- Grecian but architects of the present day
;

cording to form if it be square topped,


its : find it difficult to accomplish what was
it is a tower if long and acute, a spire achieved by the builders of the middle ages.
or if short and light, a lantern. Towers 34. In the erection of edifices at the
of great height in proportion to their diam-. present day, the Grecian and Gothic styles
eter are denominated turrets. The walls are chiefly employed, to the exclusion of
of Gothic churches are supported on the the others, especially in Europe and Ame-
outside by lateral projections, called but- rica. Modern dwelling-houses have ne-
tresses, which extend from the bottom to cessarily a style of their own, so far as
the top, at the corners and between the windows, and chimneys
relates to stories,
windows. On the top of these are slen- and no more of the styles of former ages
der pyramidal structures or spires, called can be applied to them, than what relates
pinnacles. The summit or upper edge of to the unessential and decorative parts.

Doric. Ionic. Corinthian. Composite. Tuscan.


-

THE CARPENTER. 4.

1. It is the business of the carpenter to been employed but it most commonly


;

cut out and frame large pieces of timber, happens, that the master-carpenter acts in
and then to join them together, or fit them this capacity. This is especially the case
to brick or stone walls, to constitute them in the erection of common dwellings, and,
the outlines or skeleton of buildings or in fact, of other edifices where nothing-
parts of buildings. very splendid is to be attempted. It is to
2. The more minute
joiner executes the be regretted, however, that the profes-
parts of the wood-work of edifices, com- sional architect has not been oftener em-
prehending, among other things, the ployed ;
for, hadbeen the case, a purer
this
floors, window-frames, sashes, doors, man- taste in building would have generally
tles, &c. Carpentry and joinery, how- prevailed.
ever, are so nearly allied to each other, Contracts for the erection of build-
that they are commonly practised by the ings are often made with the carpenter,
same individuals ;
and, in this article, as master-builder or architect. In such
they will be treated together. cases, it is employ persons
his business to
Carpentry and joinery, as well as all
3. capable of executing every kind of work
jther trades connected with building, are required on the proposed edifice, from the
subservient to the architect, when an in- bricklayer and stone-mason to the painter
lividual of this particular profession has and glazier. It not unfrequently happens,
S
206 THE CARPENTER

however, that the person himself, who grows in the greatest abundance in the
proposes to erect a building, chooses to Northern, and the latter in the Southern,
employ the workmen in the different states.
branches. Vast quantities of timber are annu-
9.
5. The constituent parts of buildings ally cut into boards in saw-mills, and
having been explained in the article on floated down the rivers from the interior
architecture, it is unnecessary to enter during the time of high water in the
here into minute details on this point nor ;
spring and fall, and sometimes at other
would a particular description of the va- seasons of the year. The boards, or
rious operations of the carpenter and join- planks, as they are frequently denomina-
er be useful to the general reader ; since, ted, are placed in the water, one tier above
in every place, means are at hand by another, and fastened together with wood-
which a general view of this business en pins. Several of such rafts are con-
may be obtained by actual inspection. nected by means of withes to form one
6. The carpenter and joiner are guided, and, at each end of this, are placed one or
in the performance of theirwork, by well two huge oars, with which it may be
defined rules, drawn
chiefly from the sci- guided down the stream. Upon these
ence of Geometry, and which they have rafts, shingles and lathes are also brought
learned from imitation and practice, as to market.
well as, in many eases, from the valuable 10. Logs and scantling to be employed
works which have been published on these in the frames of buildings are also con-
branches of the art of building. veyed down the rivers in the same man-
7. The principal tools with which they \
ner. The business connected with the
operate are the axe, the adz, the saw, the production of shingles, laths, boards or
auger, the gauge, the square, the com- planks, and staves, is called lumbering;
passes, the hammer, the mallet, the crow, and it is carried on, more or less exten-
the rule, the level, the maul, and the sively, in the regions near the sources of
plane ;
and of many of these there are all the large rivers in the United States
several kinds. and in the British possessions in North
8. The timber most employed in build- America.
ing in the United States consists princi- ;
11. The trade in lumber has also given
pally of pine, oak, beech, black walnut, men, called lum-
rise to another class of
cypress, larch, white cedar, and hemlock ber merchants; these purchase the lum-
but of these pine is in the greatest use. ber from the original proprietors, who
Oak and beech are much used in con- bring if down the rivers, and, in their
structing frames, in which great strength turn, sell it to builders and others* The
is required. Of the pine, there are seve- lumbering business employs a large capi-
ral species, of which the white and yellow tal,and a numerous class of our citi-
are the most valuable ;
the former of these zens.
|
3.

THE STONE-MASON, THE BRICKMAKER, &c.

THE MASON. their sensible qualities, or by the name of


1. The art of Masonry includes the the place or country whence they are ob-
sawing and cutting of stones into the va- tained as variegated, Italian, Egyptian
;

rious shapes required in the multiplied or S tockbridge marble, and Quincy stone.
purposes of building, and in placing them The Stone-cutter. —
Stone-cutters
in a proper manner in the walls and other procure their materials from the quarry-
parts of edifices. It is divided into two men whose ,
business it is to get out the
branches, one of which consists in bring- stones from the quarries, in which they lie
ing the stones to the desired form and in beds consisting either of strata piled
polish and the other, in laying them in
; upon each other, or of solid masses. Stones
mortar or cement. of any desirable dimensions are detached
2. The rocks most used in building in from the great mass of rock, by first drill-
the United States, are marble, granite, ing holes at suitable points, and then driv-
greenstone, scienite, soapstone, limestone, ing into them wedges with a sledge.
gypsum, and slate. These are found in a These blocks are usually removed from
great many localities, not only on this con- the quarries, and placed on vehicles of
tinent, but on the other side of the Atlan- transportation, by means of huge cranes,
tic. Of these stones, there are many vari- with which is connected suitable ma-
eties, which are frequently designated by chinery.
208 THE STONE-MASON.

4. The blocks of stone, received in work, the operator is guided by patterns,


their rough state by the stone-cutter, are formed from the well-defined rules of the
divided, if required, into pieces of smaller science of building. Very few stone-cut-
size,by means of a toothless saw, aided by ters attempt the execution of work so
the attrition of sand and water. The very difficult.

other rough sides of the blocks are re- 8. From the manufacture of mantel-
duced form by means of steel
to the proper pieces and monuments for the dead, the
Ants and chisels driven with a mallet. stone-cutter derives a great proportion
A kind of hammer with a point or chisel- of his profits. This will be manifest even
like edge, is also used to effect the same to the superficial observer who may visit
object, especially in the softer kinds of a few of the many stone-cutters’ yards, to
stone. be found in any of our large cities. In
For some purposes, the stones are
5. some of these, blocks of marble are cut
required to be polished. This is especially into slabs by the aid of steam-power.
the case with those employed in the orna- 9. In districts of country, also, where
mental parts of buildings. In the execu- valuable stone is abundant, water is ex-
tion of this part of the work, the surface tensively employed for the same purpose.
is rubbed successively with sand, free- This is especially the case in Berkshire
stone, pumice-stone, Scotch stone, crocus, county, Massachusetts, where marble of a
and putty. When the face is a plane, the good quality is abundant. A great pro-
sand is applied by means of another stone, portion of the marble slabs used by the
which is moved backwards and forwards stone-cutter are obtained from such mills.
upon it. In this way, two surfaces are Some other operations of this business are
affected at the same time. also sometimes performed by the aid of
6. The different kinds of stone are used machinery.
not in a pulverized state, but in masses of
convenient size; and the part applied to
TI-IE STONE-MASON.
the surface to be polished is first brought
to a form corresponding to it. The putty In Philadelphia, and in many other
1.

cities not only in this country but also in


isan oxyde of tin, in form of powder.
Crocus is the peroxyde of iron. The Europe, the stone-cutters set their own
building-stone capable of receiving the work and this practice has led to the
highest polish is marble and it is on this habit of applying the term stone-mason to
;

material that the stone-cutter, and the both stone-cutters and those who lay stone

architectural carver or sculptor, exert in mortar and cement. In New-York,


but some of the other
their utmost skill however, as well as in some of the cities
;

stones which have been mentioned, pos- farther east, these two employments are
sess the same quality to a considerable kept more distinct. The stone-cutters in
extent. Philadelphia are sometimes denominated
7. Carving architectural ornaments, marble-masons.
such as pillars with their capitals, is a re- 2. But in every city, there are persons

fined branch of this business or rather it ;


called stone-masons, whose business con-
may be considered a branch of sculpture sists exclusively in constructing the walls
itself. In the execution of this kind of and some other parts of buildings with
THE STONE-MASON. 209

stone ;
and their operations are considera- 6. The mortar, used in laying bricks
bly enlarged in those places where there and common stone, has a greater propor-
are no marble-masons. In many cases, tion of sand, which is generally of an in-
the bricklayer is also so far a stone-mason, ferior quality. Besides, the materials are
as to lay the foundation-walls of the build- incorporated with less care. Lime for the
ings which he may erect. This is espe- purposes of building is procured chiefly by
cially the case in the country, where the calcining limestone in a kiln, with wood,
divisions of labour are not so minute as in coal, or some other combustible substance.
cities. It may be well to remark, also, It is also obtained by burning chalk, mar-
that the bricklayers, in some places, per- ble, and marine shells. Water poured
form the services of the marble-mason. upon newly-burnt or quick lime, causes it
3. The marble-mason, in joining togeth- to swell, and fall to pieces into a fine pow-
er several pieces in a monument, employs der. In this state it is said to be slacked.
a kind of cement composed of about six 7. Masonry is often required in situar
parts of lime, one of pure sand, a little plas- tions under water, especially in the con-
ter, and as much water as may be neces- struction of bridges and locks of canals.
sary to form it to the proper consistency. Common mortar resists the action of the
No more of this cement is used than is water very well, when it has become per-
required to hold the blocks or parts to- fectly dry; yet, if it is immersed before it
gether; as one great object of the artist has had time to harden, it dissolves, and
is to hide the joints as much as possible. crumbles away.
The substance thus interposed becomes as 8. The ancient Romans, who practised
hard as the marble itself. building in the water to a great extent,
4. The cement employed in laying mar- discovered a material, which, when incor-
ble, in common or large edifices, is some- porated with lime, either with or without
what different from that just described, as sand, possessed the property of hardening
it consists of about three fourths of lime in a few minutes even under water. This
and one of sand. The latter substance is was a kind of earth found at Puteoli, to
obtained, in an unmixed state, on the bays which was given the name of pulvis pu~
in every part of the world hence it has ; teolanus and which is the same now
,

received the appellation of bay sand. called puzzolana .


When it cannot be conveniently had
5. 9. A substance denominated tarras, ter-
in a pure state, particles of the same kind ras, or found near Andernach, in
tras,
can be separated in sufficient quantities the vicinity of the Rhine, possesses the
from their admixture with other substan- same quality with puzzolana. It is this
ces. This is effected by sifting the com- material which has been principally em-
pound through a sieve, into a small stream ployed by the Dutch, whose aquatic struc-
of water, which carries off the lighter tures are superior to those of any other
particles that are unfit for use, whilst nation in Europe. Various other- substan-
the sand, by its superior specific gravity, ces, such as baited clay and calcined green
sinks to the bottom. The part which may stone, reduced to powder, afford a tolerable
be too coarse, remains in the sieve. This, material for water cements.
however, except the rubbish, can be used 10. In the construction of- buildings
in the coarser kinds of masonry. with marble and ether easily stones, the
27
210 THE BRICKMAKER.
walls are not composed of these materials but little if anything new to be achieved
in their entire thickness ;
but, for the sake in modern times.
of cheapness, they are formed on the inside
with bricks, commonly of a poor quality, THE BRICKMAKER.
so that in reality they can be considered 1. Brick a sort of artificial stone
is

only brick walls faced with stone. These made principally of argillaceous earths
two kinds of materials have no other con- formed in moulds, dried in the sun, and
nexion than what is produced by the mor- burned with fire.
tar which may have been interposed, and 2. The earliest historical notice of
the occasional use of clamps of iron. bricks is found in the book of Genesis,
Such walls are said to be liable to become where it is stated that the posterity of
Convex outwardly from the difference in Noah undertook to build a city and a
the shrinking of the cement employed in loftytower of this material. Whether the
laying the two walls. bricks were really exposed to the action
11. The principal tools employed in cut- of fire, as the passage referred to seems to
ting and laying stone are the saw, various imply, or only dried in the sun, is an un-
kinds of steel points, chisels, and hammers, settled point. But Herodotus,, who visited
the mallet, the square, the compasses, the the spot many centuries afterwards, states
level, the plumb-rule, the trowel, and the that the bricks in the tower of Babylon
hod to which may be added, the spade
;
were baked in furnaces.
and the hoe. The last three instruments, 3. It is evident, however, that the earli-
however, are handled almost exclusively est bricks were commonly hardened in
by labourers. the sun; and, to give them the requisite
12. Besides these, contrivances are re- degree of tenacity, chopped straw was
quired to raise heavy materials to the va- mixed with the clay. The manufacture
rious positions which they are to occupy. of such bricks was one of the tasks im-
These consist, for the most part, of one or posed upon the Israelites, during their ser-
two shafts commonly the mast of an old ves- vitude with the Egyptians.
sel, fo which are attached tackle extend- 4. The extreme dryness and heat of the
ing in various directions, and also those by climate in some of the eastern countries,
which the blocks are to be raised. The rendered the application of fire dispensa-
rope belonging to the hoisting tackle is ble ;
and there are structures of unburnt
pulled by a machine worked with a crank. bricks still remaining, which were built

13. Masonry is one of the primitive arts, two or three thousand years ago. Bricks
and was carried to great perfection in an- both sun-dried and burned, were used by
cient times. The pyramids of Egypt are the Greeks and the Romans.
supposed to have stood about three thou- 5. The walls of Babylon, some of the
sand years, and they will probably remain ancient structures of Egypt and Persia,
for centuries to come, monuments as well the walls of Athens, the rotunda of the
of the folly, as power and industry
of the Pantheon, the temple of Peace, and the
of man. The temples and other magnifi- Thermae, or baths, at Rome, were all
cent structures of Greece and Rome, ex- built of brick. The most common bricks
hibit wonderful skill in masonry, and leave among the Romans were seventeen inches
THE BRICKMAKER. 211

long and eleven broad a size, certainly, ;


9. The day’s work of a gang, when the
far preferable, as regards appearance, to weather is favourable, is to make and pile
those of modern manufacture. in the hack a tale of bricks, which consists
6. In the United States, a great propor- of 2332, or an even 2000. The former
tion of the edifices, particularly in the ci- number is called a long tale, and the lat-
ties and towns, are constructed of bricks ter,- a short tale. Considerable skill and
which are usually manufactured in the much care are required in burning the
vicinity of the place where they are to be bricks in a proper manner ;
too much fire

used. The common clay, of which they would cause them to vitrify, and too little
are made, consists of a mixture of argilla- would leave them soft, and unfit for atmo-
ceous earth and sand with a little oxyde spheric exposure.
of iron, which causes them to turn red in 10. In many places, the clay is mixed
burning. The material for bricks is dug or prepared for the moulder by driving
up, and thrown into a large heap, late in round upon it a yoke of oxen, or by means
the fall or in the winter, and exposed to of a simple machine, consisting of a beam,
the influence of the frost until spring. into which has been driven a great num-
7. The operation of making bricks is ber of spokes. One end of this beam is
conducted very systematically and, al- ;
confined in a central position, while the
though every part of the work seems to other is moved round
a sweep by ani-
in
be very simple, it requires considerable mal power.
dexterity to perform it properly and to the 11. Machines have also been invented
best advantage. The workmen in the by the aid of which the clay may be both
yards about Philadelphia are divided into mixed and moulded; but these have been
gangs consisting of three men and a boy. very little used. A machine, however, is
The first is called the temp ever, who tem- often employed in pressing bricks which
pers the material with water and mixes it have been formed in the usual manner.
with a spade; the second is called the The pressing is done after the bricks have
wheeler ,
who conveys
it on a barrow to a become partially dry. Such bricks are
table, where formed in moulds by the
it is employed in facing the walls of the better
moulder and carried thence to the floor
, kinds of structures.
by the boy, who is denominated the off- 12. Tiles . —Tiles are plates used for
hearer. covering They resemble bricks in
roofs.
8. The bricks are suffered to remain on their composition and mode of manufac-
the floor a day or two, or until they have ture, and are shaped in such a manner
become dry enough be handled with
to that when placed upon a building, the
safety. They are then removed and piled edge of one tile receives that next to it,
into a hack, under cover, in such a man- so that water cannot percolate between
ner that the air may circulate freely be- them. Tiles, both of burnt clay and mar-
tween them. It is the business of the ble, were used by the ancients and the ;

whole gang to remove the bricks from the former continue to be employed in vari-
floor, and also to place them in the kiln to ous parts of Europe. Flat tiles are used
be burned. In both cases, each one has his for floors in many countries, and especially
due proportion of labour to be performed. in Italy.
212 THE BRICKLAYER.

ence, are its superior beauty, and a con-


THE BRICKLAYER.
siderable saving in the most expensive
1. The particular business of the brick- kind of bricks. Greater security might
layer is to lay bricks in mortar or some be attained by the use of larger bricks,
other cement, so as to form one solid body say sixteen inches in length, and wide
but he frequently constructs the founda- and thick in proportion. Besides, an edi-
tions of buildings in rough stones, and, in fice constructed of well-made bricks of this
some cities, he sets hewn stone in the su- size would be but little inferior in appear-
perstructure. In the country, plastering ance to marble itself.

is likewise connected with this business. Most of the instruments used by the
5.
2. Bricklaying consists in placing one bricklayer are also employed by the stone-
brick upon another in mortar, chiefly in mason; and they have, therefore, been
the construction of walls, chimneys, and already mentioned. The particular me-
ovens. In connecting these materials, thod of laying bricks, in their various ap-
especially in walls,two methods are em- can be learned by actual in-
plications,
ployed, one of which is called the English spection in almost every village, city, or
bond, and the other the Flemish bond. neighbourhood, in our country a more :

In the former method, the bricks are most particular description of the bricklayer’s
commonly of one quality, and are laid operations is therefore unnecessary.
crosswise and lengthwise in alternate rows. 6. Before closing this subject, however,
The which are laid across the wall
bricks it may be well to state that the chimney
are called headers, and those which are appears to be an invention comparatively
laid in the other direction are called modern since the first certain notice we
;

stretchers. The brick-work of the Ro- have of it is found in an inscription at

mans was of this kind, and so are the par- Venice, in which it is stated that, in 1347,
tition-walls of many modern brick edifices. a greatmany chimneys were thrown down
3. The bricks employed in the walls by an earthquake. It is conjectured that
constructed according to the Flemish me- this valuableimprovement originated in
thod, are of two, and frequently of three, inasmuch as it was here that chim-
Italy,
qualities. Those placed in the front, or ney-sweeping was first followed as a busi-
on the external surface, are manufactured ness.
with greater care, and, in some cases, are 7. Before the introduction of the chim-
formed in a larger mould. A wall put up ney, It was customary to make the fire in
on this principle may be said to consist of a hole or pit in the centre or some other
two thin walls composed of stretchers, part of the floor, under an opening formed
with occasional headers, to unite them to- in the roof, which, in unfavourable wea-
gether. The space between them, when ther, could be closed by a moveable cover-
the wall is thick, is filled in with the ing. Among the Romans, the hearth or
inferior bricks. fire-place was located in the atrium or
4. The inclosing walls of all brick edi- hall, and around it the lares, or household
fices are erected on this plan, although gods, were placed. To avoid being infest-
they are thought to be more insecure than ed with smoke, they burned dry wood
those constructed on the old English me- anointed with the lees of oil. In warming
thod. The reasons alleged for the prefer- other apartments of the house, they used
THE PLASTERER. 213
portable furnaces, in which were placed 3. The mortar applied directly to the
is

embers and burning coals. solid wall, or to thin strips of wood called
8. It is said by Seneca, who flourished which have been fastened with small
laths,
about the middle of the first century of the and other parts of the
nails to the joists,
Christian era, that in his time, a particu- frame of the building. The tools with
lar kind of pipes was invented, and affix- which the plasterer applies the mortar are
ed to the walls of buildings, through which trowels of different sizes and shapes, and
heat from a subterranean furnace was the hawk. The latter instrument is a
made to circulate. By this means, the board about a foot square, with a short
rooms were heated more equally. In the handle projecting at right angles from the
southern parts of Italy and Spain, there bottom.
are still very few chimneys. The same 4. In all well-finished rooms, cornices
may be said of many other countries, where are run at the junction of the wall and
the climate is pleasant or very warm. ceiling. The materials of these cornices
9. Hollinshead, who wrote during the are lime, water, and plaster. The lime
reign of Queen Elizabeth, thus describes and water are first incorporated, and the
the rudeness of the preceding generation piaster is added with an additional quanti-
in the arts of life :
“ There were very few ty of water, as it may be needed for imme»
chimneys even in capital towns: the fire diate application. The composition is ap-
was and the smoke issued
laid to the wall, plied in a semifluid state, but the plaster
out at the roof, or door, or window. The causes it to set, or to become solid imme-
houses were wattled, and plastered over diately. In the mean time, the workman
with clay and all the furniture and utensils
; applies to it, in a progressive manner, the

were of wood. The people slept on straw edge of a solid piece of wood, in which
pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow.” an exact profile of the proposed cornice
has been cut.
5. Ornaments of irregular shape are
THE PLASTERER. cast in moulds of wax or plaster of Paris,
1. In modern practice, plastering occurs and these are formed on models of the
in many departments of architecture. It proposed figures in clay. Such ornaments
is more particularly applied to the ceilings were formerly the productions of manual
and interior walls of buildings, and also in operations performed by ingenious men
rough-casting on their exterior. called ornamental plasterers. The casts
In plastering the interior parts of
2. are all made of the purest plaster; and,
buildings, three coatings of mortar are after having been polished, they are fast-
commonly applied in succession. The ened to the proper place with the same
mortar for the first coat is composed of substance saturated with water.
about twelve parts of sand, six of lime, 6. The branch of this business called
and three of hair, with a sufficient quan- rough-casting, consists in applying mortar
tity of water to bring it to the proper con- to the exterior walls of houses. The mode
sistence ;
that for the second coat contains in which the workis performed varies but

a less proportion of lime and hair; and littlefrom that adopted in plastering the
that for the third coat is composed exclu- walls of apartments. It, however, requires
sively of lime and water. only two coats of the cement ; and when
214 THE SLATER.

these have been applied, the surface is ments of the larger kinds. These are de-
marked off in imitation of masonry. It signated by names known to the trade,
is likewise sometimes coloured, that it and to those practically conversant with
may resemble marble or some other stone. the art of building.
7. The cement is commonly made of 4. The slates, when brought to market,
gharp sand and lime but sometimes a kind
;
especially those from Wales, require ad-
of argillaceous stone, calcined in kilns and ditional dressing to them for use. The
fit

afterwards reduced to powder by mechani- manner of applying them to roofs differs


cal means, makes a part of the composi- but little from that employed in putting
tion. The qualities of this material were on shingles, as they are lapped over each
first discovered by a Mr. Parker, who ob- other in the same way, and confined to their
tained letters patent for this application place by means of nails of a similar kind.
of it, in England, in
1796 hence ;
it has The nails, however, have a broader head,
been called Parkers cement. and are somewhat larger, varying in size
to suit the dimensions of the slate. The
holes in the slate for the nails are made
THE SLATER. with a steel point attached to the slater’s
1. Slate stone is valuable for the pro- hammer, or to his knife, technically called
perty of splitting in one direction, so as to a saix.
afford fragments of a sufficient size and 5. Slates are preferable to shingles on
thinness to answer several purposes, but account of their durability, and, in a ma-
especially for covering houses and for jority of situations, for their fire-proof qual-
writing slates. The best slates are those ity. They, however, are objectionable on
which are even and compact, and which account of their weight and expensiveness,
absorb the least water. and are therefore beginning to be superse-
2. The slates used in the United States ded in this country by sheets of zinc, and
are obtained either from our own quarries, by those of iron coated with tin. Copper
of which there are several, or from those and lead are also used for roofs, but the
of Wales, in the county of Caernarvon- metals just mentioned are beginning to
shire. The stone is quarried in masses, exclude them altogether.
which are afterwards split into pieces of 6. A serious objection to metal roofs has
suitable thinness. These are trimmed to been their liability to crack, caused by the
an oblong figure by means of a knife and a contraction and expansion of the material,
steel edge, which act upon the slate much in consequence of variations in the temper-
in the manner of a large pair of shears. ature of the weather ;
but a particular me-
3. As it is impossible to dress all the thod of putting the sheets together has
slates to the same size without much waste been lately devised, which appears to ob-
of material, those engaged in their manu- viate the difficulty. Tiles are not used in
facture have introduced several sizes, the this country, although in Europe they are
smallest of which are made of the frag- very common.
THE PAINTER, AND THE GLAZIER.

THE HOUSE AND SIGN PAINTER. di scienna, lampblack, verdegris, linseed-


oil, spirits of turpentine, and gold-leaf.
1. The painting which is the subject 3. White lead and litharge are manu-
lof this article, relates to forming’ letters, factured in great quantities at chemical
and sometimes ornamental and significant works, sometimes established for the ex-
figures, on signs, as well as to the appli- press purpose of making these and some
cation of paints to houses and other struc- other preparations of lead. The substances
tures, for the purpose of improving their of which we are now speaking, are pro-
appearance, and of preserving them from duced in the following manner the lead, :

the influence of the atmosphere and other in form of a continued sheet, about three
destructive agents. feet long, six inches wide, and one line in
2. The
substances capable of being em- thickness, is wound spirally up in such a
ployed by the house and sign painter, com- manner that the coils may stand about
prise a great variety of articles, derived half an inch apart.
from the mineral, vegetable, and animal 4. The metal in this form is placed ver-
kingdoms; but he ordinarily confines his tically in earthen vessels, at the bottom
selection to but few among which are of which some strong vinegar.
:
is These
white lead, litharge, Spanish brown, yel- vessels, being placed in sand, horse manure,
low ochre, chrome yellow, red ochre, terra or tan, are exposed to a gentle heat, which
216 THE PAINTER.

causes the gradual evaporation of the distilling with water the resinous juice or
vinegar. The vapour thus produced, as- sap of several species of the pine. The
sisted by the oxygen which is present, residuum, after distillation, is the turpen-
converts the exposed surface into a carbo- tine of commerce. Spirits of turpentine
nate of lead, the substance known as white is mixed with paints, to cause them to dry
lead, or ceruse. with rapidity. Like oil, it improves with
5. The corrosion of one of these sheets age, and it is sold in the same manner by
occupies from three to six weeks, during the common wine measure,
which time it is repeatedly uncoiled and 10. White lead, and several other prin-
'scraped. Litharge, or flake white, is no- cipal paints, arepurchased in their crude
thing more than the densest and thickest condition, and reduced to a state of minute
scales produced in the manner just de- division in paint-mills. They are after-
scribed. It can be obtained in a pure state wards mixed with boiled oil, and put up
from the dealers in paints, whereas the in kegs of different sizes for sale. Many
white lead of commerce is most common- articles, however, are pulverized, and sold
ly adulterated with chalk. in a dry state. The preparation of paints
6. Spanish brown, yellow ochre, and is commonly a distinct business, and very
terra di sienna, are earths impregnated few painters seem to be acquainted with
with iron in different degrees of oxydation. the mode in which it is performed.
Red ochre is yellow ochre burned. Chrome 11. In mixing colours for house and sign
yellow is extensively manufactured in Bal- painting, white lead forms the basis of all
timore, from the chromate of iron, found the ingredients. This the colour preparer,
near that city. In chemical phraseology, or the painter himself, modifies and changes
the manufactured article is the chromate by the addition of colouring materials, un-
of lead, since the chrome is separated tinged with the proposed hue. The
til it is

from the iron by the aid of a solution of pigments derived from vegetable bodies
the nitrate or acetate of lead. produce, when first applied to surfaces, a
Linseed-oil is obtained from flax-
7. brilliant effect ;
but they cannot long re-
seed, by pressure. It is afterwards filter- sist the combined influence of air and
ed, and then suffered to remain at rest, to light; while the mineral colours, in the
precipitate and clarify. This oil improves same exposure, remain unchanged.
in quality by keeping as it becomes, in a
;
12. Painters, in the execution of their
few years, as transparent as water. In this work, commonly lay on three coats of
state, it is employed in the finest painting. paint. In communicating a white, the
8. Before the oil is used, it is common- two first coats are composed of white lead
ly boiled with a small quantity of litharge and oil; and in the last, spirits of turpen-
and red lead, to cause it to dry rapidly, tine is substituted for the oil, for the inside
after the paint has been applied. During work. For the outside of buildings, espe-
the boiling, the scum is removed as fast cially in warm and dry climates, this liquid
as it rises, and this is mixed with inferior is inapplicable, since it causes the paint to
paints of a dark colour. Linseed-oil, thus crack and flake off. It is, however, fre-
prepared, is vended by dealers in paints, quently used, when the painter is compell-
under the name of boiled oil. ed to do his work at too low a rate, or when
9. Spirits of turpentine is produced by j
he is regardless of his reputation.
THE GILDER. 229

away, and the remaining portion is laid 3. Before the application of the metal,
upon the surface of the wood. The out- a tedious process must be performed, by
lines are next drawn on the wood, by way of preparation. The surface to be
moving the pencil around those on the pa- gilded is successively covered with from
per. The design having been thus trans- five to seven coats of glutinous size, made
ferred, the superfluous portions of the wood by boiling scraps of parchment in water,
are cut away, with carving tools of which ;
with the addition of a little whiting. The
there is a considerable variety, both of size average thickness of the coat thus pro-
and form. The tools are driven with a duced, is about one-sixteenth of an inch.
mallet or with the palm of the hand, but 4. The surface is next rubbed with free-
in most cases with the latter. stone and pumice stone, of a shape cor-
6. A capacity for designing, and a know- responding with the pattern of the frame,
ledge of drawing and modelling, are par- while a small quantity of water is occa-
ticularly necessary, to make a finished car- sionally applied, to increase their effects.
ver. Without these qualifications, at least After the sizing is rendered still
this,

in some degree, one may be a mechanic, smoother, by friction with sand paper.
but not an artist. The subject most diffi- This surface is then covered with three
cult of execution is the human figure, and coats of burnished gold size, which is
in producing it with accuracy, the same composed of English pipe clay, venison
qualifications in the artist are required, suet, and French bole, or red chalk, mixed
and the same general process is pursued, in a suitable quantity of weak parchment
as in producing it in marble. size. The completed by
preparation is

rubbing the surface with worn sand paper,


by washing it in water with a sponge, and
THE GILDER. by rubbing it with a piece of cloth.
1. Carving and gilding are, in most 5. The leaf is laid on with a broad, but
cases, ostensibly united as one business, thin brush, called a tip. Before the gold
although in fact they are branches of man- is applied, however, the surface is well
ufacture totally distinct. The gilder, there- wet with alcohol and water. When dry,
fore, who writes over his door, “ Carver the parts designed to be bright, are bur-
and Gilder,” seldom has any practical nished with a polished agate or flint. In
knowledge of carving. For every thing the best kind of work, a second coat of
in this line of work, he is dependent on the leaf is required. In gilding irregular
the carver, who commonly pursues his surfaces, such as the ornaments at the cor-
business in a private way. ners of the frames, a size made of linseed
2. The operation of gilding, as per- oil, white lead, yellow ochre, and japan, is ^
formed by those whose business is now laid on a few hours before the application
under consideration, is executed chiefly of the leaf. This is called gilding in oil.

on wood. It is employed most frequently 6. The ornaments on the frames are


for picture and looking-glass frames, and cast in moulds, and are made of a compo-
for upholstery fixtures. It is a mechanical sition of glue, whiting, rosin, turpentine,
process, and consists in applying gold leaf and Burgundy pitch. The moulds are
to surfaces, in such a manner as to ad- taken from patterns, originally executed
here with tenacity. by the carver.
1. The cooper manufactures casks, tubs, in thedays of our Saviour and to such he
;

pails, and various other articles for domes- alluded,when speaking of putting new
tic use, as well as vessels for containing wine into old bottles. Earthern vessels,
all kinds of liquids and merchandise of a of various dimensions, were also in exten-
dry nature. He also applies hoops to boxes sive use at thesame time. The custom
which are to be transported, with their of keeping wine in such vessels is still
valuable contents, to a distance from the common in the southern parts of Europe.
cities. Pliny gives to the Piedmontese the merit
2. The productions of this art being of of introducing casks. In his time, they
prime necessity, the trade must have been were daubed with pitch.
exercised at a very early period. Roman 4. Cedar and oak are the woods chiefly

writers on rural economy speak of the ex- employed as materials in this business ;

istence of its productions more" than two and the persons who carry it on, as well
thousand years ago nevertheless they are
;
as journeymen, confine their attention to
unknown in some countries, and there
still the production of wares from one er the
the inhabitants keep or carry liquids in other of these woods : hence the division
skins daubed over with pitch. of the workmen into cedar coopers and
3. Bottles of this kind were used, more oak coopers.
or less, in all parts of the Roman empire, 5. It is not always the case, however,
;

THE COOPER. 231

that every cooper executes all kinds of gauge. The several pieces to compose
work belonging to either one of these di- the bottom are brought to the proper form
visions of the trade ; but this is not because and smoothness with a straight drawing-
there is any peculiar difficulty attending knife and having been slightly fastened
;

any part of the business, but because some together by wooden pins, the whole, as one
particular kind of coopering is required piece, is inserted in its proper place by
in preference to others : for example, in driving it down from the top on the inside.
some places flour barrels are the casks The whole process is finished by driving
most needed ;
in others, those for sugar, on the hoops, and making the holes in the
tobacco, pearl-ash, or some kind of spirits. handles.
6. In illustrating the general operations 9. The cedar employed in this business
of this business, we will describe the pro- is a considerable tree, which grows in va-
cess of making a tub. The timber is first rious parts of the world, but especially in
cut to the proper length with the kind of the United States, where it occupies large
saw used in the cities for cutting fire- wood. tracts cedar or cypress sioamps.
called
It is next split into pieces with a frow, the The wood is soft, smooth, and of an aroma-
curvature of which corresponds, at least tic smell. It is likewise much used for

with some degree of exactness, to that of shingles. The Dismal Swamp, lying in
the proposed vessel. The several pieces Virginia and North Carolina, contains an
are then shaved on the edges with a abundance of this kind of timber.
straight drawing-knife on the inside with
,
10. The operations in oak vary from
one of a concave form, and on the outside those in cedar so far as to conform to the
with one of corresponding convexity. nature of the material, and the form of the
7. After this, they are jointed on a long- vessels manufactured. In bringing the
plane, which is placed with its face up- staves to the proper form, the workman is

wards, in an inclined position. The work- guided altogether by the eye and, if they;

man is guided in giving the proper angle must be bent, they require to be heated.
to the surface cut with the plane by a The fire for this purpose is made of shav-
wooden gauge of peculiar form. The ings and chips in a small furnace of sheet
staves,having been thus prepared, are set iron, called a crusset. The hoops, both
up in a truss hoop and after this has been for cedar and oak wares, are made of thin
driven down, one or two others which are strips of iron, or of small oak, hickory,
to remain are put on. The outside is then ash, or cedar saplings.
made smooth with a convex drawing-knife, 11. The coopers in England derive a
and the inside with a smoothing-plane, the great deal of their employment from the
edge of which is circular, to correspond West India trade. Barrels, puncheons,
with the form of the surface. The inside and hogsheads, are carried out of the coun-
of small wooden vessels is generally made try filled with dry goods, and are returned
smooth with a crooked drawing-knife. filled with rum and sugar. In the United
8. The staves are now sawn off to a States, much work of this kind is done for
uniform length at the bottom, and a groove the same market ; but then the staves and
is cut for the insertion of the bottom. The heads are only fitted and marked here, to
latter operation is performed by means of be afterwards put together in the West
a cutting instrument fixed in a kind of Indies.
4.

1. The artisan who makes the wood - riages made in this country are the cart,
work of common wheel carriages, or the wagon, gig, and coach; and of each of
wheels of coaches, is denominated a wheel- these there are various sorts, differing in
wright; but under this head we propose strength and mode of construction, to suit
to include whatever we may say on the the particular purposes to which they are
construction and finishing of wheel car- to be applied. The business of making
riages in general. these vehicles is divided into a number
2. It must be evident, even to a super- of branches but, as the manufacture of
;

ficial observer, that this business, in its the coach embraces a greater variety of
different branches, occupies a large space operations than any other species of car-
in our domestic industry; since almost riage, we have selected it as affording the
every farmer in the country owns a vehi- best means of explaining the operations of
cle of some sort, and since the streets of the whole business.
our busy cities and towns exhibit, during In large establishments for making
a great part of the day, scenes of bustle coaches and other vehicles of the best
occasioned, in a great measure, by the workmanship, the operators confine their
passing and repassing of carriages of dif- attention to the execution of particular
ferent kinds. parts of the work : for example, one man
3. The principal kinds of wheel car- makes the wheels, another the carriage
THE POTTER. 237

of from cracking while undergoing the


it White and cream-coloured wares are
9.
fire. When the materials have been mix- made of clays which contain so little oxyde
ed, and partially incorporated with water, of iron that it does not turn red in burning,
the mass is thrown into a tub, fixed in the but, on the contrary, improves in white-
ground about one-half of its depth. In the ness in the furnace. There are several
centre of this tub, is placed a shaft, in a species of white clay, found in many dif-
perpendicular position, from which radiate ferent localities, most of which, however,
in a horizontal direction a number of knives are known under the denomination of pipe-
or cutters. clay ; or they are distinguished by the
This machine is put in motion by
6. names of the places where they are ob-
horse-power, and by it the clay is repeat- tained.
edly cut, and properly kneaded. The work- 10. In preparing these clays for use,
man then cuts it into thin slices with a they are reduced to a minute division by
small wire, and having rejected all matters machinery, and afterwards dissolved in
not fit for his purpose, he further kneads it water, and otherwise treated in a manner
with his hands, and forms it into lumps similar to that used for the better kinds of
corresponding in amount of matter with common wares, as described in the seventh
the different vessels which he proposes to and eighth paragraphs. For the purpose of
make. diminishing the shrinkage in the fire, and
7. For the best kinds of this ware, the with the view of increasing the whiteness
same species of clay is used ;
but then it of the ware, pulverized flint-stone is added
is differently prepared. It is first dissolved to the clay, in the proportion of about one

; and when the coarser particles


in water part of the former to five of the latter.
have settled to the bottom of the vessel, 11. In reducing the silex to the requi-
the fluid suspending the rest is drawn off, site fineness, it is first brought to a red
and made to pass through a sieve into a heat ; and, while in this state, it is thrown
reservoir. After the particles of the ma- into cold water, to diminish the cohesion
terial have precipitated, the water is drawn of its parts. It is then pounded by ma-
off,and the residuum is thrown upon a chinery, levigated with water in a mill,
large 'flat pan or reservoir made of bricks, sifted, mashed, and otherwise treated like
where the mass is freed from its superflu- the clay. The materials are mixed while
ous moisture by evaporation in the air, or in a state of thin pulp.
by means of artificial heat applied beneath. 12. The several operations performed
It is then laid by in a damp place, for fu- by the potter in converting the clay, thus
ture use. prepared, into different kinds of vessels,
8. Before the clay, thus purified from and in completing the whole process of
extraneous and coarser particles, is formed the manufacture of earthen ware, may be
into vessels, it is beaten with a stout piece included under the following divisions, viz.
of wood, until the mass has become of an throwing, turning, pressing, burning, paint-
equal consistence throughout, and then re- ing and printing, and glazing. They are
peatedly cut into two pieces with a wire, not, however, used in producing and
all
and slapped together to expel the air. The finishing vessels of every shape and quality.
former of these operations is called wedg- Throwing. This operation is per-
13.
ing, and the latter slapping. formed on a potter’s wheel, which consists
;

238 THE POTTER.

of a round table, and some simple means pitcher in such a mould, the material,
to put it in motion. The clay having been which has been spread out to a proper and
placed on the centre of this machine, the uniform thickness, upon the inside
is laid
workman communicates to the latter a ro- of ea.ch portion of and the superfluous
it,

tary motion with his foot, and gives the clay is trimmed off with a knife. The
proposed form to the material with his mould is then closed, and thin strips of
hands, which have been previously wet clay are laid over the seams the removal :

with water, to prevent them from sticking. of the several pieces of the mould, com-
This method is used for all vessels and pletes the operation.
parts of vessels of a circular form and, ;
17. Handles, spouts, figures in relief,
in many cases, no other operation is neces- and other additions of this nature, are se-
sary to give them the requisite finish, so parately made in moulds, and stuck on
far as their conformation is concerned. the vessels with the same kind of mate-
14. Turning. The vessels are cut from rials, sometimes mingled with a small pro-
the thrower’s wheel with a small wire portion of plaster of Paris. These appen-
and when, by the evaporation of moisture, dages are added after the vessels have be-
they have become firm enough to endure come partially solid in the air.
the operation, they are turned on a lathe. 18. Burning. All vessels, even after
The objects of this operation are to com- they have been dried in the atmosphere,
municate to them a more exact shape, and are in a very frangible state ;
and, to ren-
to render them more uniform in thickness. der them sufficiently firm for use, they are
The potter’s wheel, with the addition of submitted to the process of burning in a
some contrivance to hold the pieces in a kiln. To preserve the ware from injury
proper position, is frequently used for turn- while enduring the fire, the several pieces
ing. The coarser kinds of common wares are inclosed in cylindrical boxes called
are never turned. saggers, which are made of baked clay.
15. Pressing. Vessels, or parts of ves- These boxes are placed one above another
sels,which are of an irregular shape, and around the sides of the kiln, which is of a
which cannot be formed on the wheel, are circular form, and gradually tapering to
usually made by a process called pressing. the top.
This kind of work is executed in moulds 19. Inburning the coarser wares, every
made of plaster of Paris, and these are piece not thus inclosed; but between
is i

formed on models of clay or wood, which every two saggers, a naked piece is placed. ,

have been made in the exact shape of the A moderate fire is first raised, which is
proposed vessel. Sometimes individual gradually increased, until the contents of
specimens of the wares of one country or the kiln are brought to a red heat. The s

pottery are used as models in another ; in burning occupies between twenty-four and I

such cases, the expense of the moulds is forty-eight hours. All wares, except the j

considerably diminished. coarsest kinds, are twice, and sometimes 3

16. The moulds frequently consist of thrice, burned ;


and, after having been once 5

several parts, which fit accurately toge- submitted to the process, they are said to )

ther for example, the mould for a pitcher


;
be in a state of biscuit.
is composed of two pieces for the sides, 20. Painting and printing. When the J

and one for the bottom. In forming a vessels are to be ornamented with colours, ,
; ;

THE POTTER. 239

it is necessary, in most cases, that this The clays, however, which contain but
part of the work be done after the first little or no oxyde of iron are chosen, since
burning. In China, and at the porcelain this,substance would cause the ware to
manufactory in Philadelphia, the drawings melt and warp before a sufficient degree
are executed by hand with a pencil the : of heat could be applied to give it the re-
same method used in Europe, in elabo-
is quisite hardness.
rate pieces of workmanship. But in the 24. The glazing is formed by a vitrifi-
common figured wares, where but one co- cation of the surface of the vessels, caused
lour is used, the designs are first engraved by the action of common salt thrown into
on metallic plates, and impressions are ta- the kiln, when
has been raised to its
it
ken from them on thin paper, by means of greatest heat. This glazing is more per-
a copper-plate printing-press. fect than that on ordinary earthen wares,
21. In transferring to vessels designs being insoluble in most chemical agents.
thus produced, the paper, while in a damp hardly necessary to remark that this
It is
state, is applied closely to the surface of method of glazing precludes the use of
the biscuit, and rubbed on with a piece of saggers.
flannel. The porosity of the earthen ma- 25. Porcelain. This ware exceeds every
terial causes the immediate absorption of other kind in the delicacy of its texture,
the colouring matter, which, in all cases, and is peculiarly distinguished by a beau-
is some metallic oxyde. For a blue colour, tiful semi-transparency, which' is conspicu-
the oxyde of cobalt is used and for a black,
; ous when held against the light. In China,
those of manganese and iron. The paper it is made chiefly of two kinds of earth
is washed from the ware with a sponge. one of which is denominated petuntze, and
22. Glazing. To prevent the penetra- the other kaolin but both are varieties
tion of fluids, and to improve the appear- of felspar, found in the mountains, in dif-
ance of the ware, a superficial vitreous ferent localities. They are brought to the
coating is necessary. This can he pro- manufactories from a distance in the form
duced by the aid of various substances; of bricks ; the materials, as taken from the
but, in a majority of cases, red lead is the mines, having been reduced to an impal-
basis of the mixture employed for this pur- pable powder in mortars, either by the la-
pose. Equal parts of ground flints and red bour of men or by water-power.
lead are used for the common cream-co- 26. These materials are combined
in
loured wares. These materials are mixed different proportions in the manufacture,
with, and suspended in, water, and each according to the quality of the proposed
piece dipped in the liquid.
is The mois- ware. In the best kind, equal quantities
ture is soon absorbed by the clay, leaving are used ; but for those of inferior quality,
the glazing particles on the surface, which ;
a greater proportion of petuntze is employ-
in the burning that follows, is converted The
ed. translucency so much admired
into a uniform and durable vitreous coat- in porcelain, or tseki, as the Chinese call
ing. it, is owing to the petuntze, which, in
23. Stone ware. The materials of this burning, partially melts, and envelopes the
ware, as well as the mode of preparing infusible kaolin.
them, differ but little from those of the 27. It is not known who was the invent-
common and better kinds of earthen wares. or of porcelain, as the Chinese annals are
240 THE POTTER.

silent with regard to this point ;


nor do we try, and this is yet in its infancy. The es-
know more of the date at which the manu- tablishment is located in Philadelphia, and
facturewas commenced. It is certain, it has been lately incorporated, with the pri-
however, that it must have been before vilege of one hundred thousand dollars
the century of the Christian era.
fifth capital.
Since this ware has been known to Euro- 32. The principle of induration by heat,
peans, it has been manufactured chiefly, is the same manufacture of earthen
in the
and in the greatest perfection, in the large wares as in making bricks and as the lat-
;

and populous village of King-te-ching. ter can be more easily dispensed with than
28. Porcelain was first brought to Eu- the former in a primitive state of society,
rope from Japan and China, and for a long but reasonable to suppose that earthen
it is

time its materials and mode of manufac- ware was first invented: but the art of
ture remained a secret, in spite of the ef- making bricks must have been practised
forts of the Jesuit missionaries, who resi- before the deluge, or the posterity of Noah
ded in those countries. At length, in 1712, would not have attempted so soon as about
father Entrecolles sent home to France, one hundred years after that catastrophe,
specimens of petuntze and kaolin, toge- to build a city and a tower of these mate-
ther with a summary description of the rials. It is, therefore, evident that this
process of the manufacture. art was of antediluvian origin; and it

29. Shortly after this important event was probably one of the earliest brought
had transpired, it was discovered that ma- to any degree of perfection.
terials nearly of the same kind existed in 33. The art of the potter was practised
abundance in various parts of Europe. The more or less by every nation of antiquity,
manufacture of porcelain was, therefore, and the degree of perfection to which it
soon commenced in several places ;
and it was carried in every country corresponded
has since been successfully carried on. with the state of the arts generally. The
30. The porcelain wares of Europe are Greeks were consequently very celebrated
superior to those of the Chinese, in the for their earthen wares. The Etruscans
variety and elegance of their forms, as have also been particularly noted for their
well as in the beauty of the designs exe- manufacture of the elegant vases which
cuted upon them ; but as some of the pro- have been dug, in modem times, from the
cesses, successfully practised in China, re- depositories of the dead, in Lower Italy.
main still to be learned by the Europeans, 34. Until the commencement of the
the oriental porcelain has not yet been manufacture of porcelain in Europe, this ;

equalled in the hardness, strength, and art continued in a very rude condition, al-
durability of its body, and in the perma- though practised to a considerable extent :

nency of its glaze. The manufacturers of in many places. It was much improved in i

Saxony are said to have been the most suc- England about the year 1720, by the addi-
cessful in their imitations in these respects. tion of flints to the usual material; and, be- •

31. The porcelain earths are found in tween thirty and forty years after this, it t

various parts of the United States, but was brought to great perfection, in all its 3

particularly at Wilmington, in the state branches, chiefly through the scientific ex- •

of Delaware. Nevertheless, there is now ertions of the celebrated potter, Josiah i

but one porcelain manufactory in our coun- Wedge wood.


THE GILDER. 229

away, and the remaining portion is laid 3. Before the application of the metal,
upon the surface of the wood. The out- a tedious process mus£ be performed, by
lines are next drawn on the wood, by way of preparation. The surface to be
moving the pencil around those on the pa- gilded is successively covered with from
per. The design having been thus trans- five to seven coats of glutinous size, made
ferred, the superfluous portions of the wood by boiling scraps of parchment in water,
are cut away, with carving tools ;
of which with the addition of a little whiting. The
there is a considerable variety, both of size average thickness of the coat thus pro-
and form. The tools are driven with a duced, is about one-sixteenth of an inch.
mallet or with the palm of the hand, but 4. The next rubbed with free-
surface is
in most cases with the latter. stone and pumice stone, of a shape cor-
6. A capacity for designing, and a know- responding with the pattern of the frame,
ledge of drawing and modelling, are par- while a small quantity of water is occa-
ticularly necessary, to make a finished car- sionally applied, to increase their effects.
ver. Without these qualifications, at least After this, the
sizing is rendered still
in some degree, one may be a mechanic, smoother, by friction with sand paper.
but not an artist. The subject most diffi- This surface is then covered with three
cult of execution is the human figure, and coats of burnished gold size which is ,

in producing it with accuracy, the same composed of English pipe clay, venison
qualifications in the artist are required, suet, and French bole, or red chalk, mixed
and the same general process is pursued, in a suitable quantity of weak parchment
as in producing it in marble. size. The preparation is completed by
rubbing the surface with worn sand paper,
by washing it in water with a sponge, and
THE GILDER. by rubbing it with a piece of cloth.
1. Carving and gilding are, in most 5. The leaf on with a broad, but
is laid
cases, ostensibly united as one business, thin brush, called a tip. Before the gold
although in fact they are branches of man- is applied, however, the surface is well

ufacture totally distinct. The gilder, there- wet with alcohol and water. When dry,
fore, who writes over his door, “Carver the parts designed to be bright, are bur-
and Gilder,” seldom has any practical nished with a polished agate or flint. In
knowledge of carving. For every thing the best kind of work, a second coat of
in this line of work, he is dependent on the leaf is required. In gilding irregular
the carver, who commonly pursues his surfaces, such as the ornaments at the cor-
business in a private way. ners of the frames, a size made of linseed
2. The operation of gilding, as per- oil, white lead, yellow ochre, and japan, is

formed by those whose business is now laid on a few hours before the application
under consideration, is executed chiefly of the leaf. This is called gilding in oil.
on wood. It is employed most frequently 6. The ornaments on the frames are
for picture and looking-glass frames, and cast in moulds, and are made of a compo-
for upholstery fixtures. It is a mechanical sition of glue, whiting, rosin, turpentine,
process, and consists in applying gold leaf and Burgundy pitch. The moulds are
to surfaces, in such a manner as to ad- taken from patterns, originally executed
here with tenacity. by the carver.
1. The cooper manufactures casks, tubs, in the days of our Saviour ;
and to such he
pails, and various other articles for domes- alluded, when speaking of putting new
tic use, as well as vessels for containing wine into old bottles. Earthern vessels,
all kinds of liquids and merchandise of a of various dimensions, were also in exten-
dry nature. He also applies hoops to boxes sive use at the same time. The custom
which are to be transported, with their of keeping wine in such vessels is still

valuable contents, to a distance from the common in the southern parts of Europe.
cities. Pliny gives to the Piedmontese the merit
2. The productions of this art being of of introducing casks. In his time, they
prime necessity, the trade must have been were daubed with pitch.
exercised at a very early period. Roman 4. Cedar and oak are the woods chiefly

writers on rural economy speak of the ex- employed as materials in this business ;

istence of its productions more than two and the persons who carry it on, as well
thousand years ago; nevertheless they are as journeymen, confine their attention to
still unknown in some countries, and there the production of wares from one or the
the inhabitants keep or carry liquids in other of these woods : hence the division
skins daubed over with pitch. of the workmen into cedar coopers and
3. Bottles of this kind were used, more oak coopers.
or less, in all parts of the Roman empire, 5. It is not always the case, however,
THE COOPER. 231

that every cooper executes all kinds of gauge. The several pieces to compose
work belonging one of these di-
to either the bottom are brought to the proper form
visions of the trade; but this is not because and smoothness with a straight drawing-
there is any peculiar difficulty attending knife and having been slightly fastened
;

any part of the business, but because some together by wooden pins, the whole, as one
particular kind of coopering is required piece, is inserted in its proper place by
in preference to others: for example, in drivingit down from the top on the inside.

some places flour barrels are the casks The whole process is finished by driving
most needed ;
in others, those for sugar, on the hoops, and making the holes in the
tobacco, pearl-ash, or some kind of spirits. handles.
6. In illustrating the general operations 9. The
cedar employed in this business
•of this business, we will describe the pro- is a considerable tree, which grows in va-
cess of making a timber is first
tub. The rious parts of the world, but especially in
cut to the proper length with the kind of the United States, where it occupies large
saw used in the cities for cutting fire- wood. tracts called cedar or cypress swamps.
It is next split into pieces with a froio, the The wood is soft, smooth, and of an aroma-

curvature of which corresponds, at least tic smell. It is much used for


likewise
with some degree of exactness, to that of shingles. The Dismal Swamp, lying in
the proposed vessel. The several pieces Virginia and North Carolina, contains an
are then shaved on the edges with a abundance of this kind of timber,
straight drawing-knife on the inside with,
10. The operations in oak vary from
one of a concave form, and on the outside those in cedar so far as to conform to the
with one of corresponding convexity. nature of the material, and the form of the
7. After this, they are jointed on a long vessels manufactured. In bringing the
plane, which is placed with its face up- staves to the proper form, the workman is
wards, in an inclined position. The work- guided altogether by the eye and, if they ;

man guided in giving the proper angle


is must be bent, they require to be heated.
to the surface cut with the plane by a The fire for this purpose is made of shav-
wooden gauge of peculiar form. The ings and chips in a small furnace of sheet
staves, having been thus prepared, are set iron, called a crusset. The hoops, both
up in a truss hoop ; and after this has been for cedar and oak wares, are made of thin
driven down, one or two others which are strips of iron, or of small oak, hickory,
to remain are put on. The outside is then ash, or cedar saplings.
made smooth with a convex drawing-knife, 11. The coopers in England derive a
and the inside with a smoothing-plane, the great deal of their employment from the
edge of which is circular, to correspond West India trade. puncheons,
Barrels,
with the form of the surface. The inside and hogsheads, are carried out of the coun-
of small wooden vessels is generally made try filled with dry goods, and are returned
smooth with a crooked drawing-knife. filled with rum and sugar. In the United
8. The staves are now sawn off to a States, much work of this kind is done for
uniform length at the bottom, and a groove the same market ; but then the staves and
iscut for the insertion of the bottom. The heads are only fitted and marked here, to
latter operation is performed by means of be afterwards put together in the West
a cutting instrument fixed in a kind of Indies.
THE WHEELWRIGHT.
4.

1. The artisan who makes the wood- riages made in this country are the cart,
work of common wheel carriages, or the wagon, gig, and coach; and of each of
wheels of coaches, is denominated a wheel- these there are various sorts, differing in
wright; but under this head we propose strength and mode of construction, to suit
to include whatever we may say on the the particular purposes to which they are
construction and finishing of wheel car- to be applied. The business of making
riages in general. these vehicles is divided into a number
2. It must be evident, even to a super- of branches ;
but, as the manufacture of
ficial observer, that this business, in its the coach embraces a greater variety of
different branches, occupies a large space operations than any other species of car-
in our domestic industry; since almost riage, we have selected it as affording the
every farmer in the country owns a vehi- best means of explaining the operations of
cle of some sort, and since the streets of the whole business.
©ur busy cities and towns exhibit, during In large establishments for making
a great part of the day, scenes of bustle coaches and other vehicles of the best
occasioned, in a great measure, by the workmanship, the operators confine their
passing and repassing of carriages of dif- attention to the execution of particular
ferent kinds. parts of the work: for example, one man
3. The principal kinds of wheel car- makes the wheels, another the carriage
THE WHEELWRIGHT. 233

and body, another fashions and applies the 8. The wheels and carriage, after hav-
iron, another does the painting and polish- ing received one coat of paint, are sent to
ing, and another the trimming. In small- the blacksmith to be ironed. The hub is

er establishments, a greater proportion of bound, at each end, with hoops of iron,


the work is executed by one person. commonly plated with brass or silver, and
5. The wheels of the coach, as well as the outside rim or felloes are bound with
those of every other vehicle in which they an iron tire, and fastened with strong nails
are used, are composed of a hub, and seve- or spikes. The tires are made red-hot
ral spokes and felloes. The hubs are com- before they are applied, that they may
be
monly made of a kind of tough wood, call- made to fit in every part with accuracy.
ed gum, which is reduced to the desired 9. Bands, bolts, or strips of iron, are ap-
form in the lathe. The hole through the plied to those parts of the wood-work which
centre is made with a common auger, and may be exposed to friction, or which re-
enlarged with one tapering towards the quire additional strength. The axles are
point, and having through its whole length also made of wrought
iron, either by the
two cutting edges. The mortices for the blacksmith who
executes the other iron
spokes are made with a chisel driven with work, or by persons who manufacture them
a mallet. by the quantity for sale. The same re-
6. The spokes are made of white oak, mark is applicable to the thorough-boxes,
and the felloes of ash or hickory and both ;
which are inserted into the hub to prevent
are brought to the required form and injury by friction, and to cause the wheel
smoothness with the saw, axe, drawing- to revolve with freedom and accuracy.
knife, spoke-shave, chisel, and sand-paper. 10. The painting, varnishing, and polish-
The constituent parts of the carriage or ing, of the body of the coach, when done
running gears are the axles, perch, and in the best manner, embrace a tedious pro-
spring-beds or bolsters, to which are added cess. It is first covered with a coat of
the tongue or pole, and some other parts paint: the grain of the wood is then filled
connected with it. ed up with putty, and the surface is again
7.The joints in this part of the vehicle covered with paint. Five coats of filling,
are made perfectly tight by the application composed of ochre, japan varnish, and
of putty ;
whereas, in the body, glue is spirits of turpentine, are next successively
used for this purpose. The latter substance applied. After the surface has been rub-
will not answer in the former case, since bed with a solid piece of pumice-stone, it
it cannot bear exposure to water. The is again painted, and rubbed with sand-

wood generally employed for the carriage paper. Several coats of paint are next
part, as well as for the frame of the body, laid on, and the work is finished by the
is ash; and the several parts are sawn application of a few coats of copal-var-
from planks of suitable thickness. In this nish, and by the use of pumice-stone. The
part of the work, the operator is guided painting and varnishing of the wheels and
by patterns made of thin pine boards. The carriage part is far less expensive and
panels of the body are made of thin boards tedious.
of poplar or bass-wood. The manner in 11. The
nature of the trimmings, and
which the several parts are dressed and put the manner
in which they are put toge-
together is too obvious to need description. ther and applied, need not be described,
30 U2
234 THE WHEELWRIGHT.

since a few moments’ inspection of a finish- carriage on leathers, or supported it on

ed vehicle of this kind will give any one springs and the use of almost every spe-
;

a clear conception of the whole of this cies of vehicle for the conveyance of per-
branch of the business. So far as trim- sons was banished by the policy of the
ming the inside and the manufacture of barbarous nations that afterwards became
cushions are concerned, the operations are masters of civilized Europe; the feudal
similar to those of the upholsterer. lords conceiving it important that their
12. Wheel carriages may be classed military vassals should serve them on horse-
among the primitive inventions ;
although back.
the first authentic notice we have of their 15. Even as late as the sixteenth cen-
use we find in the scripture history of Jo- tury, ministers rode to court, and magis-
seph, the son of Jacob, in which it is rela- trates of imperial cities to council, on the
ted that this great and good man “ was back of this animal and, in the same man-
;

made to ride in the second chariot” of the ner, kings and lords made their public
king’s, and that he sent wagons from entry on the most solemn occasions. In
Egypt to convey thither his father and accounts of papal ceremonies which occur
family from the land of Canaan. during several centuries, we find no men-
13. Covered wagons were used in the tion of a state-coach; but, instead of it,
days of Moses; and the, wandering Scy- state-horses or state-mules. The horse for
thians, in the time of the Romans, had his holiness was required to be a gentle
them covered with leather. The seat for and tractable nag, of a gray colour and a ;

the driver is said to have been invented by stoolwith three steps was necessary to aid
Oxylus, an yEtolian, who took possession him in mounting. The emperor or kings,
of the kingdom of Elis, about 1100 years if present, held his stirrup, and led his

before Christ. Many of the nations of beast. Bishops also made their public en-
antiquity used chariots in the field of bat- trance on horses or asses richly decorated.
tle,and the axles were sometimes armed 16. Covered carriages, however, were
with scythes, or some other sharp cutting known in the principal states of Europe
instruments. Two persons commonly oc- in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries;
cupied one vehicle, one of whom drove but they were at first used only by women
the horses, and the other fought the ene- of rank, since the men thought it disgrace-
my. The inhabitants of the promised land ful to ride in them. At this period, when
fought in chariots, even before the settle- the electors of the German empire did not
ment of the people of Israel in that coun- choose to be present at the meetings of
try; and the Greeks likewise employed the states, they excused themselves to the
them, for warlike purposes, at the siege of emperor by stating that their health would
Troy. not permit them to ride on horseback, and
14. The carriages used by the Romans it was not becoming for them to ride like

v/ere of various kinds,some of which were women.


carried on the shoulders of men, and others, 17. But, for a long time, the use of car-
having two or four wheels, were drawn by riages was forbidden even to women ;
and,
horses, asses, mules, or oxen. Neverthe- as late as the year 1545, the wife of a cer-
less, neither they, nor any other nation of tain duke obtained from him, with great
antiquity, ever suspended the body of any difficulty, the privilege of using a covered
;

THE WHEELWRIGHT. 235

carriage, in a journey to the baths. The spread all over Italy ;


and here, also, glass
permission was granted on the condition panels originated.
that her attendants should not enjoy the 21. Carriages of some sort were used
same favour. Nevertheless, it is certain in England at a very early period, and those
that emperors, kings, and princes, began firstemployed by the ladies were called
to employ covered carriages on journeys, whirlicoats. According to some authors,
in the fifteenth century; and a few in- coaches were introduced in the year 1555
stances occur of their use in public solem- but, according to others, not until twenty-
nities. Ambassadors appeared, for the first five years after this period. Before the
time, in coaches, at a public solemnity, in latter date, Queen Elizabeth, on public
1613, at Erfurth. same horse with her
occasions, rode Dn the
18. In the history of France, we find chamberlain, seated behind him on a pil-
many proofs that, in the fourteenth, fif- lion; although, in the early part of her
teenth, and sixteenth, centuries, the French reign, she owned a chariot.
monarchs commonly rode on horses, the 22. In 1601, men were forbidden the
servants of the court on mules, and the prin- use of the coach by act of Parliament, the
cesses, together with the principal ladies, legislators supposing such indulgence to
sometimes at least, on asses. Carriages be too effeminate but this law seems to
;

of some sort, however, appear to have been have been little regarded, as this vehicle
used at a very early period there. An or- was in common use about the year 1605.
dinance of Philip the Fair, issued in 1294, Twenty hackney
years after this time,
forbids their use by the wives of citizens. coaches began to ply in London ; but
19. In the year 1550, three coaches these were prohibited in 1635, on the
were introduced into Paris ;
one of which alleged ground that the support of so many
belonged to the queen, another to Diana horses increased the expense of keeping
de Poictiers, and the third to Raimond de those belonging to the king. Two years aft
Laval, a cavalier of the court of Franeis I. however, fifty coaches were licens-
ter this,
who was so large that no horse could carry ed, and in 1770 there were one thousand.
him. however, that the
It is not certain, 23. The stage coach was first employed
body of these vehicles were suspended on in France, and was introduced into Eng-
leather straps. The inventor of this ma- land near the middle of the eighteenth
terial improvement cannot be ascertained, century by Jethro Tull, the celebrated agri-
nor is it positively determined that it had culturist. They were not employed, in
been made, until about the middle of the any country, in the transportation of the
seventeenth century. mail, until the year 1784. Before this
20. Coaches were introduced into Spain time, it was carried chiefly on horseback.
and Portugal in the year
1546 and into ; 24. In the United States, the manufac-
Sweden near the close of the same centu- ture of carriages of every kind has greatly
ry. In the capital of Russia, there were increased within a few years, and those
elegant coaches as early as the beginning lately made exhibit many improvements
of the seventeenth century. In Switzer- on those of former periods. The places
land, theywere rare as late as 1650. Car- which seem to be most distinguished for the
riages began to be used at Naples in the manufacture of good carriages in this coun-
thirteenth century; from this place they try ar< Philadelphia, Newark, and Troy,
THE POTTER.
1. The artisan called the potter con- tions-—common earthen ware, white earth-
verts plastic materials into hard and brittle en ware, stone ware, and porcelain ;
but
vessels of various kinds, denominated, in of each of these, there are many varie-
general terms, earthen ware. ties.

2. Alurnine is the basis of all clays, and 4. Common earthen ware. This ware is
is the only earth that possesses the degree made of a kind of clay very generally dif-
of plasticity which renders the operations fused over the earth, and which is essen-
of the potter practicable. It is, however, tially the same with that employed in
never found or used in a pure state, but in making bricks. The potters are often sup-
combination with other substances, par- !
plied with this material by the brickma-
ticularly with silex, lime, magnesia, and j
kers, who select for them that which is too
the oxyde of iron. |
tenacious, or fat ,
for their own purpose.
3. In the manufacture of vessels from All common clays contain more or less of
argillaceous compounds, the different de- the oxyde of iron, which causes the wares
grees of beauty and costliness depend upon made of them to turn red in burning.
the quality of the raw materials, and the 5. In preparing the clay for use, the
labour and skill expended in the operation. potter adds to it, when necessary, a portion
The various productions of the pottery may of fine loam, in order to lessen its tenaci-
be classed under the following denomina- ty, and to prevent the vessels to be made
THE POTTER. 237

of from cracking while undergoing the


it White and cream-coloured wares are
9.
fire. When the materials have been mix- made of clays which contain so little oxyde
ed, and partially incorporated with water, of iron that it does not turn red in burning,
the mass is thrown into a tub, fixed in the but, on the contrary, improves in white-
ground about one-half of its depth. In the ness in the furnace. There are several
centre of this tub, is placed a shaft, in a species of white clay, found in many dif-
perpendicular position, from which radiate ferent localities, most of which, however,
in a horizontal direction a number of knives are known under the denomination
of pipe-
or cutters. clay; they or
are distinguished by the
This machine is put in motion by
6. names of the places where they are ob-
horse-power, and by it the clay is repeat- tained.
edly cut, and properly kneaded. The work- 10. In preparing these clays for use,
man then cuts it into thin slices with a they are reduced to a minute division by
small wire, and having rejected all matters machinery, and afterwards dissolved in
not fit for his purpose, he further kneads it water, and otherwise treated in a manner
with his hands, and forms it into lumps similar to that used for the better kinds of
corresponding in amount of matter with common wares, as described in the seventh
the different vessels which he proposes to and eighth paragraphs. For the purpose of
make. diminishing the shrinkage in the fire, and
7. For the best kinds of this ware, the with the view of increasing the whiteness
same species of clay is used ;
but then it of the ware, pulverized flint-stone is added
is differently prepared. It is first dissolved to the clay, in the proportion of about one
in water ; and when the coarser particles part of the former to five of the latter.
have settled to the bottom of the vessel, 11. In reducing the silex to the requi-
the fluid suspending the rest is drawn off, site fineness, it is first brought to a red
and made to pass through a sieve into a heat ;
and, while in this state, it is thrown
reservoir. After the particles of the ma- into cold water, to diminish the cohesion
terial have precipitated, the water is drawn of its parts. then pounded by ma-
It is
off, and the residuum is thrown upon a chinery, levigated with water in a mill,
large flat pan or reservoir made of bricks, sifted, mashed, and otherwise treated like

where the mass is freed from its superflu- the clay. The materials are mixed while
ous moisture by evaporation in the air, or in a state of thin pulp.
by means of artificial heat applied beneath. 12. The several operations performed
It is then laid by in a damp place, for fu- by the potter in converting the clay, thus
ture use. prepared, into different kinds of vessels,
Before the clay, thus purified from
8. and in completing the whole process of
extraneous and coarser particles, is formed the manufacture of earthen ware, may be
beaten with a stout piece
into vessels, it is included under the following divisions, viz.
ef wood, until the mass has become of an throwing, turning, pressing, burning, paint-
equal consistence throughout, and then re- ing and printing, and glazing. They are
peatedly cut into two pieces with a wire, not, however, used in producing and
all
and slapped together to expel the air. The finishing vessels of every shape and quality.
former of these operations is called wedg- Throwing. This operation is per-
13.
ing, and the latter slapping. formed on a potter’s wheel, which consists
238 THE POTTER.

of a round table, and some simple means pitcher in such a mould, the material,
to put it in motion. The clay having been which has been spread out to a proper and
placed on the centre of this machine, the uniform thickness, is laid upon the inside
workman communicates to the latter a ro- of each portion of it, and the superfluous
tary motion with his foot, and gives the clay is trimmed off with a knife. The
proposed form to the material with his mould is then closed, and thin strips of
hands, which have been previously wet clay are laid over the seams : the removal
with water, to prevent them from sticking. of the several pieces of the mould, com-
This method is used for all vessels and pletes the operation.

parts of vessels of a circular form; and, 17. Handles, spouts, figures in relief,
in many cases, no other operation is neces- and other additions of this nature, are se-
sary to give them the requisite finish, so parately made in moulds, and stuck on
far as their conformation is concerned. the vessels with the same kind of mate-
14. Turning. The vessels are cut from rials, sometimes mingled with a small pro*
the thrower’s wheel with a small wire; portion of plaster of Paris. These appen-
and when, by the evaporation of moisture, dages are added after the vessels have be-
they have become firm enough to endure come partially solid in the air.
the operation, they are turned bn a lathe. 18. Burning. All vessels, even after
The objects of this operation are to com- they have been dried in the atmosphere,
municate to them a more exact shape, and are in a very frangible state; and, to ren-
to render them more uniform in thickness. der them sufficiently firm for use, they are
The potter’s wheel, with the addition of submitted to the process of burning in a
some contrivance to hold the pieces in a kiln. To preserve the ware from injury
proper position, is frequently used for turn- while enduring the fire, the several pieces
ing. The coarser kinds of common wares are inclosed in cylindrical boxes called
are never turned. saggers, which are made of baked clay.
Pressing Vessels, or parts of ves-
15. . These boxes are placed one above another
sels,which are of an irregular shape, and around the sides of the kiln, which is of a
which cannot be formed on the wheel, are circular form, and gradually tapering to
usually made by a process called pressing . the top.
This kind of work is executed in moulds 19. In burning the coarser wares, every
made of plaster of Paris, and these are piece is not thus inclosed; but between
formed on models of clay or wood, which every two saggers, a naked piece is placed.
have been made in the exact shape of the A moderate fire is first raised, which is
proposed vessel. Sometimes individual gradually increased, until the contents of
specimens of the wares of one country or the kiln are brought to a red heat. The
pottery are used as models in another ; in burning occupies between twenty-four and
such cases, the expense of the moulds is forty-eight hours. All wares, except the :

considerably diminished. coarsest kinds, are twice, and sometimes ;

16. The moulds frequently consist of burned ; and, after having been once
thrice, :

several parts, which fit accurately toge- submitted to the process, they are said to i

ther ; for example, the mould


a pitcher for be in a state of biscuit.
is composed of two pieces for the sides, 20. Painting and printing. When the
and one for the bottom. In forming a vessels are to be ornamented with colours,
;

THE POTTER. 239


it is necessary, in most cases, that this The however, which contain but
clays,
part of the work be done after the first littleor no oxyde of iron are chosen, since
burning. Tn China, and at the porcelain this substance would cause the ware to
manufactory in Philadelphia, the drawings melt and warp before a sufficient degree
are executed by hand with a pencil the : of heat could be applied to give it the re-
same method is used in Europe, in elabo- quisite hardness.
rate pieces of workmanship. But in the 24. The glazing is formed by a vitrifi-
common figured wares, where but one co- cation of the surface of the vessels, caused
lour is used, the designs are first engraved by the action of common salt thrown into
on metallic plates, and impressions are ta- the kiln, when it has been raised to its

ken from them on thin paper, by means of greatest heat. This glazing is more per-
a copper-plate printing-press. fect than that on ordinary earthen wares,
21. In transferring to vessels designs being insoluble in most chemical agents.
thus produced, the paper, while in a damp It is hardly necessary to remark that this
state, is applied closely to the surface of method of glazing precludes the use of
the biscuit, and rubbed on with a piece of saggers.
flannel. The porosity of the earthen ma- 25. Porcelain. This ware exceeds every
terial causes the immediate absorption of other kind in the delicacy of its texture,
the colouring matter, which, in all .oases, and is peculiarly distinguished by a beau-
is some metallic oxyde. For a blue colour, tiful semi-transparency, which is conspicu-
the oxyde of cobalt is used and for a black,
;
ous when held against the light. In China,
those of manganese and iron. The paper it is made chiefly of two kinds of earth
is washed from the ware with a sponge. one of which is denominated petuntze, and
22. Glazing. To prevent the penetra- the other kaolin ; but both are varieties
tion of fluids, and to improve the appear- of felspar, found in the mountains, in dif-
ance of the ware, a superficial vitreous ferent localities. They are brought to the
coating is necessary. This can be pro- manufactories from a distance in the form
duced by the aid of various substances; of bricks the materials, as taken from the
;

but, in a majority of cases, red lead is the mines, having been reduced to an impal-
basis of the mixture employed for this pur- pable powder in mortars, either by the la-
pose. Equal parts of ground flints and red bour of men or by water-power.
lead are used for the common cream-co- 26. These materials are combined
in
loured wares. These materials are mixed different proportions in the manufacture,
with, and suspended in, water, and" each according to the quality of the proposed
piece is dipped in the liquid. The mois- ware. In the best kind, equal quantities
ture is soon absorbed by the clay, leaving are used ; but for those of inferior quality,
the glazing particles on the surface, which; a greater proportion of petuntze is employ-
in the burning that follows, is converted The
ed. translucency so much admired
into a uniform and durable vitreous coat- in porcelain, or tseki, as the Chinese call
ing. it, is owing to the petuntze, which, in
23. Stone ware. The materials of this burning, partially melts, and envelopes the
ware, as well as the mode of preparing infusible kaolin.
them, differ but little from those of the 27. It is not known who was the invent-
common and better kinds of earthen wares. or of porcelain, as the Chinese annals are
y

240 THE POTTER.

silent with regard to this point ;


nor do we try, and this is yet in its infancy. The es-
know more of the date at which the manu- tablishment is located in Philadelphia, and
facturewas commenced. It is certain, it has been lately incorporated, with the pri-
however, that it must have been before vilege of one hundred thousand dollars
the century of the Christian era.
fifth capital.
Since this ware has been known to Euro- 32. The principle of induration by heat,
peans, it has been manufactured chiefly, is the same in the manufacture of earthen
and in the greatest perfection, in the large wares as in making bricks and as the lat- ;

and populous village of King-te-ching. ter can be more easily dispensed with than
28. Porcelain was first brought to Eu- the former in a primitive state of society,
rope from Japan and China, and for a long it is but reasonable to suppose that earthen
time its materials and mode of manufac- ware was first invented but the art of:

ture remained a secret, in spite of the ef- making bricks must have been practised
forts of the Jesuit missionaries, who resi- before the deluge, or the posterity of Noah
ded in those countries. Atlength, in 1712, would not have attempted so soon as about
father Entrecolles sent home to France, one hundred years after that catastrophe,
specimens of petuntze and kaolin, toge- to build a city and a tower of these mate-
ther with a summary description of the rials. It is, therefore, evident that this
process of the manufacture. art was of antediluvian origin; and it

29. Shortly after this important event was probably one of the earliest brought
had transpired,was discovered that ma-
it to any degree of perfection.
terials nearly of the same kind existed in 33. The art of the potter was practised
abundance in various parts of Europe. The more or less by every nation of antiquity,
manufacture of porcelain was, therefore, and the degree of perfection to which it

soon commenced in several places and it ;


was carried in every country corresponded
has since been successfully carried on. with the state of the arts generally. The
30. The porcelain wares of Europe are Greeks were consequently very celebrated
superior to those of the Chinese, in the for their earthen wares. The Etruscans
variety and elegance of their forms, as have also been particularly noted for their
well as in the beauty of the designs exe- manufacture of the elegant vases which
cuted upon them but as some of the pro-
;
have been dug, in modern times, from the
cesses, successfully practised in China, re- depositories of the dead, in Lower Italy.
main be learned by the Europeans,
still to 34. Until the commencement of the
the oriental porcelain has not yet been manufacture of porcelain in Europe, this!
equalled in the hardness, strength, and art continued in a very rude condition, al-i
durability of its body, and in the perma- though practised to a considerable extenti
nency of its glaze. The manufacturers of in many places. It was much improved ini
Saxony are said to have been the most suc- England about the year 1720, by the addi-i
cessful in their imitations in these respects. tion of flints to the usual material; and, be -3
31. The
porcelain earths are found in tween thirty and forty years after this, iti

various parts of the United States, but was brought to great perfection, in all itst:

particularly at Wilmington, in the state branches, chiefly through the scientific ex-c
of Delaware. Nevertheless, there is now ertions of the celebrated potter, Josiahi
but one porcelain manufactory in our coun- Wedgewood.
THE GLASS-BLOWER.,
1. Glass is a substance produced from A great proportion of the sand employed
a combination of silicious earths with al- in the manufacture of the better kinds of
kalies, and, in many cases, with metallic glass in the United States, is taken from
oxides. The basis of every species of the banks of the Delaware river.
glass is silex, which
found in a state is 3. The alkaline substances used are pot-
nearly pure in the sands of many situa- ash and soda. For the finer kinds of glass,
tions. It is also found in the common pearlash, or soda procured by decomposing
dints and quartz pebbles. sea-salt, is used ;
but, for the inferior sorts,
2. When quartz pebbles or flints are em- impure alkalies, such as barilla, Scotch and
ployed, they must be
first reduced to pow- Irish kelp, and even wood-ashes, as well
der. This is done by grinding them in a mill, as the refuse of the soap-boiler’s kettle,
after they have been partially reduced, by are made to answer the purpose. Lime,
heating them in the fire, and plunging them borax, and common salt, are also frequent-
into cold water. Sand has the advantage of ly used as a flux in aid of some of the other
being already in a state of division sufficient- substances just mentioned.
ly minute for the purpose. To prepare it for 4. Of the metallic oxides which make
application, it only requires to be washed a part of the materials of some glass, the
and sifted, in order to free it from the aro-fl- deutoxide of lead, or, as it is usually de-
laceous and other substances unfit for use. nominated, red lead, is the most common.
31 V
242 THE GLASS-BLOWER.

This substance is employed in making flint 8. The crucibles are suffered to dry in
glass, which is rendered by it more fusi- the atmosphere for two or three months °
f

ble, heavy and tough, and more easy to be after which they are applied to use as they
ground and cut, while, at the same time, may be needed. Before they are placed
it increases its brilliancy and refractive in the main furnace, they are gradually
power. raised to an intense heat in one of smaller
5. Black oxide of manganese is also dimensions, built for this express purpose.
used in small quantities, with the view of The fuel employed in fusing the metal
rendering the glass more colourless and is chiefly pine wood, which, in all cases,
transparent. Common nitre produces the is previously dried in a large oven. Pour
same effect. White arsenic is also added of the five furnaces near Philadelphia,
to the materials of this kind of glass, to belonging to Doctor Dyott, are heated
promote its clearness ;
but if too much is with rosin.
used, it communicates a milky whiteness. 9. The materials having been mixed, in
The use of this substance in drinking ves- the proposed proportions, which are deter-
from danger, when the glass
sels is not free mined by weight, they are thrown into the
contains so much alkali as to render any melting pots, and, by a gradually increas-
part of it soluble in acids. ing heat, reduced to a paste, suitable for
6. The furnace in which the material's application by the blower. This part of
are melted is a large conical stack, such the process is commonly performed at
as is represented at the head of this arti- night, while the blowers are absent from
cle. In some cases, surrounded by a
it is the works.
large chimney, which extends above the 10. The applications of glass are so ex-
roof of the building. In the sides are se- ceedingly extensive, that it is inconvenient,
veral apertures, near which are placed the manufacture every spe-
if not impossible, to

crucibles, or melting pots, containing the cies of it at one glass-house, or at one es-
materials. The fuel is applied in an arch, tablishment. Some, therefore, confine their
which is considerably lower than the sur- attention to the production of window glass,
face of the ground on which the operators and such articles of hollow ware as may
stand, while at work. be made, with profit, from the same kind
7. The melting pots are made chiefly of paste. Others make vials and other
of the most refractory clays and sand. species of ware, employed by the drug-
Much of the clay used for this purpose, in gist, apothecary, and chemist. And again,
many of the glass-houses in the United the efforts, at some factories, are confined
States, imported from Germany,
is The entirely to the manufacture of flint glass,
materials, having been sifted, and mixed or to that of plate glass for mirrors.
with a suitable quantity of water, the ho- 11. The principal operations connected
mogeneous mass is formed into crucibles, with the manufacture of different species
by spreading it on the inside of vessels of glass, after the paste has been prepared,
much in the shape of a common wash tub. may be included under the following
After the clay has become sufficiently solid heads: viz. blowing, casting, moulding,
to sustain itself, the hoops are removed pressing and grinding ;
although all these
from the vessel, and the several staves are never performed in one and the same
taken apart.
THE GLASS-BLOWER. 243

12. Blowing. The operation of blowing which runs through the whole length of
is nearly or quite the same in the produc- the cone. The glass then expands into a
tion of every species of glass ware, in sheet somewhat resembling a fan. This
which it is employed. The manipulations, is supposed to be the oldest method of
however, connected with making different manufacturing window or plate glass.
articles, are considerably varied, to suit 16. The window glass produced in the
their particular conformation. This cir- manner first described, is called crown
cumstance renders it impossible for us to glass ; and the other, broad glass. But
give more than a general outline of the by neither of these methods can the
process of this manufacture. largest panes be produced. The blowing
13. In the formation of window glass, for these differs from the methods just de-
the workman gathers upon the end of an scribed, in that the material is blown into
iron tube a sufficient amount of the metal, an irregular cylinder, which is immediate-
which he brings to a cylindrical form by ly cut with shears on one side, while the
Tolling it upon a cast iron or stone table. glass is still in an elastic state. The ma-
He then blows through the tube with con- terial thus treated is laid upon a flat sur-
siderable force, and thus expands the glass face, where it expands into a uniform plate
to the form of an inflated bladder. The of equal thickness throughout.
inflation is assisted by the heat, which 17. Casting. Plate glass formed by
causes the air and moisture of the breath the method last mentioned, is denominated
to expand with great power. ; and it is used not only for
cylinder glass
14. Whenever the glass has become too windows, but also for mirrors not exceed-
stiff, by cooling, for inflation, it is again ing four feet in length. Plates of greater
softened by holding it in the blaze of the dimensions are produced by a process call-
fuel, and the blowing is repeated, until ed casting. The easting is performed by
the globe has been expanded to the requi- pouring the material, in a high state of
site thinness. Another workman next fusion,upon a table of polished copper of
receives it at the other end, upon an iron large size, and having a rim elevated
eod, called a punt, or punting ‘brow, while above its general surface, as high as the
the blowing iron is detached. It is now proposed plate. To spread the glass per-
opened, and spread into a smooth sheet, by fectly, and to render the two surfaces
the centrifugal force acquired by the rapid parallel, aheavy roller of polished copper,
whirl given to it, in the manner exhibited resting upon the rim at the edges, is pass-
in the preceding cut The sheet thus pro- ed over it.

duced is of a uniform thickness, except at always dull and


18. Plates thus cast are
the centre, where the iron rod had been uneven. To render them good reflectors,
attached. it is necessary to grind and polish them.

15. An inferior kind of window glass, The plate to be polished is first cemented,
the materials of whieh are sand, kelp, and with plaster of Paris, to a table of wood
is made by blowing the
soap-boilers’ waste, or stone. A quantity of wet sand, emory,
metal into cones, about a foot in diameter or pulverized flints, is spread upon it, and
at their base; and these, while hot, are another glass plate, similarly cemented to
touched on one side with a cold iron dip- a wooden or stone surface, is placed upon it.
ped in water. This produces a crack, The two plates are then rubbed together,
244 THE GLASS-BLOWER.

until their surfaceshave become plane and part of the mould ;


and the other part,
smooth. The last polish is given by col- called the follower, is immediately brought
cothar and putty. Both sides are polished upon it with considerable force.
in the same manner. 22. Every species of glass, before it can
19. Moulding. Ornamental forms and be used with safety, must be annealed, to
letters are produced on the external sur- diminish its brittleness. The annealing
face of vessels, by means of metallic consists merely in letting down the tem-
moulds; and the process by which this perature by degrees. Small boys, there-
kind of work is performed is called mould- fore, convey the articles, whatever they
ing. In the execution, the workman ga- may be, as fast as they are made, to a
thers upon the end of his iron tube, a pro- moderately heated oven, which, when fill-
per amount of the material, which he ex- ed, is suffered to cool by degrees.
tends,and brings to a cylindrical form, by 23. Cutting. The name of cut glass is
rolling it upon his table. He then expands given to the kind which is ground and
it a little by a slight blast, and afterwards polished in figures, appearing as if cut
lets it down into the mould, which is im- with a sharp instrument. This operation
mediately filled by blowing still stronger is confined chiefly to flint glass, which,
through the tube. being more tough and soft than the other
20. The vessel is then taken from the kinds, is more easily wrought. In addition
mould, and disengaged from the tube. The to this, it is considerably more brilliant,
same tube, or a punting iron having been producing specimens of greater lustre.
attached to the bottom, the other end is 24. An establishment for grinding glass
softened in the fire, and brought to the contains a great number of wheels of cast
proposed form with appropriate tools, while iron, stone, and wood, of different sizes;
the iron is being rolled up and down upon and the process consists entirelyin holding
the long arms of the glass-blower’s chair. the glass against these, while they are
The ornamental moulds are made of cast revolving with rapidity. When a consid-
iron, brass, or copper,
and are composed erable portion of the material is to be re-
cf two parts, which open and shut upon moved, the grinding is commonly coin*
hinges. The moulds for plain vials, cas- menced on the iron wheel, on which is
tor oil bottles, small demijohns, &c., are constantly pouring water and sharp sand,
made of the kind of clay used for the cru- from a vessel above, which, from its shape,
cibles. These consist merely of a mass is called a hopper.
of the clay, with a cylindrical hole in it 25. The period of the invention of glass
of proper diameter and depth. is quite unknown but the following
; is the
21. Pressing. This process is applied usual story of its origin. Some merchants,
in the production of vessels or articles driven by a storm upon the coasts of Phoe-
which are very thick, and which are not nicia, near the river Belus, kindled a fire
contracted at the top. The operation is on the sand to cook their victuals, using
performed in iron moulds, which consist as fuel some weeds which grew near. The
of two parts, and which have upon their ashes produced by the incineration of these
internal surfaces the figures to be impress- plants, coming in contact with the sand,
ed upon the glass. The material, while united with its particles, and, by the influ-
in an elastic condition, is put into the lower ence of the heat, produced glass.
THE GLASS-BLOWER. 245

26. This production was accidentally supplied the greatest part of the glass used
picked up by a Tyrian merchant, who, in Europe. The artists of Bohemia, also,
from its beauty and probable utility, was came to be held in considerable reputa-
led to investigate the causes of its forma- tion.
tion and who, after many attempts, suc-
; 30. The art was first practised in Eng-
ceeded in the manufacture of glass. The land in the year 1557, when a manufactory
legend probably originated in the fact, was erected at Crutched Friars, in the city
that glass was very anciently made at of London and shortly afterwards, another
;

Tyre ; and that the sand on the sea-shore at the Savoy in the Strand. In these es-
in the immediate neighbourhood of the Be- tablishments, however, were made little
lus, was well adapted to glass-making. else than common window-glass, and coarse
27. It is certainly probable that an acci- bottles; all the finer articles being still im-
dental vitrification might have given rise to ported from Venice. In 1673, the cele-
the discovery ;
but the circumstance would Duke of Buckingham brought work-
brated
have been more likely to take place in some men from Italy, and established a manu-
operation requiring greater heat than that factory for casting plate-glass for mirrors
necessary for dressing food in the open air. and coach-windows. The art in all its
The invention of glass must have been branches is now extensively practised in
effected as early as fifteen hundred years great perfection, not only in Great Britain,
before our era. It was manufactured very but in many of the other kingdoms of Eu-
anciently in Egypt; but whether that coun- rope.
try or Phoenicia is entitled to the prefer- 31. Before the commencement of the
ence, as regards priority in the practice late war with England, very little, if any,
of this art, cannot be determined. glass was manufactured in the United
28. Glass was made in considerable per- States, except the most common window-
fection at Alexandria, and was thence sup- glass, and the most ordinary kinds of hol-
plied to the Romans as late as the first quar- low-ware. Apothecaries’ vials and bottles,
ter of the second century. Before this time, as well as every other variety of the better
however, Rome had her glass manufacto- kinds of glass-wares, had been imported
ries, to which a particular street was as- from Europe, and chiefly from England.
signed. The attention of the workmen 32. Our necessities, created by the event
was directed chiefly to the production of just mentioned, soon produced several man-
bottles and ornamental vases; specimens ufactories, which, however, did not soon
of which still remain, as monuments of become flourishing owing, at first, to in-
;

their extraordinary skill. experience, and, after the peace, to exces-


29. In more modern times, the manu- sive importations. But adequate protection
facture of glass was confined principally having been extended to this branch of our
to Italy and Germany. Venice became national industry, by the tariff of 1828, it
particularly celebrated for the beauty of is now in a highly prosperous condition

the material, and the skill of its workmen; so much so, that importations of glass-ware
and as early as the thirteenth century, it have nearly ceased.
V2
1

1. The word optician is applicable to move at the same distance from each other.
persons who are particularly skilled in the Rays which continually approach each
science of vision ;
but especially to those other are said to converge and when
who devote their attention to the manufac- they continually recede from each other,
— the
j

ture of optical instruments; such as they are said to diverge. The point at
j

spectacles, the camera o magic


scura, the which converging rays meet is called the
lantern, the telescope, the microscope, and focus .

the quadrant. 4. Any pellucid or transparent body, as


2. Light is an emanation from the sun air, water, and glass, which admits the
and other luminous bodies; and is that sub- free passage of light, is called a medium.
stance which renders opaque bodies visible When rays, after having passed through
to the eye. It diverges in a direct line, one medium, are bent cut of their original
unless interrupted by some obstacle, and course by entering another of difierent
its motion has been estimated at tivo hun- density, they are said to be refracted; and
dred thousand miles in a second. when they strike against a surface, and
8. A ray of light is the motion of a sin- are sent back from it, they are said to be
gle particle and a parcel of rays passing
; reflected.
from a single point is called a pencil of 5. A lens is glass ground in such a form
rays. Parallel rays are such as always as to collect or disperse the rays of light
THE OPTICIAN. 247

which pass through it. These are of dif- All the light reflected from the latter
ferent shapes; and they have, therefore, object towards the lens, passes through it,

received different appellations. A plano- and concentrates, within the room, in a


convex lens has one side flat, and the other focal point at which, if a sheet of paper,
;

convex a plano-concave lens is flat on one


: or any other plane of a similar colour, be
side, and concave on the other a double : placed, the image of the object will be
convex lens is convex on both sides a dou- : seen upon it.
ble concave lens is concave on both sides 9. This phenomenon is called the came-
a meniscus is convex on one side, and con- ra obscura, or dark chamber, because it is
cave on the other. By the following cut, necessary to darken the room to exhibit it.
the lenses are exhibited in the order in The image at the focal point within the

nA
which they have been mentioned. room is in an inverted position. The rea-
son why it is thrown in this manner will
be readily understood by observing the di-
1 i nr \ rection of the reflected rays, as they pass

1 L i * 1
from the object through the
camera obscura, customary to place
it is
lens. In the

6. An incident ray is that which comes a small mirror immediately behind the
from any luminous body to a reflecting lens, so as to throw all the light which

surface and that which is sent back from


;
enters, downwards upon a whitened table,
a reflecting surface is called a reflected where the picture may be conveniently
ray. The angle of incidence is the angle contemplated.
which is formed by the incident ray with 10. From the preceding explanation of
a perpendicular to the reflecting surface the camera obscura, the theory of vision
and the angle of reflection is the angle may be readily comprehended, since the
8.
formed by the same perpendicular and the eye instrument of this
itself is a perfect

reflected ray. kind. A


careful examination of the follow-
7. When proceeding from
the light ing representation of the eye will render
every point of an object placed before a the similarity obvious. The eye is sup-
11.
lens is collected in corresponding points posed to be cut through the middle, from
behind it, a perfect image of the object is above downwards.
there produced. The following cut is given
by way of illustration.

a a, the sclerotica ; l b, the choroidss ; c c, the retina ; d d, the cor-


nea; e, the pupil; f f, the iris ; g, the aqueous humour; h, the
crystalline hii7nour ; i i, the vitreous humour .

The lens, may be supposed to be The sclerotica is a membranous


placed in the hole of a window-shutter of coat, to which the muscles are attached
a darkened room, and the arrow at the right which move the eye. The cornea is united
to be standing at some distance without. to the sclerotica around the circular open-
248 THE OPTICIAN.

ing of the latter, and is that convex part 15. The visual point or the distance at
,

of the eye, which projects in advance of which small objects can be distinctly seen,
the rest of the organ. The space between As an ave-
varies in different individuals.
thisand the crystalline lens is occupied by rage, it may
be assumed at eight or nine
the aqueous humour and the iris. The iris inches from the eye. In some persons, it
is united to the choroides, and it possesses is much nearer, and in others, considerably
the power of expanding and contracting, more distant. The extreme, in the former
to admit a greater or less number of rays. case, constitutes myopy, or short-sighted-
12. Th q crystalline lens is a small body ness ; and, in the latter case, presbyopy, or
of a crystalline appearance and lenticular long-sightedness.
shape, whence its name. It is situated 16. Myopy is chiefly caused by too great
between the aqueous and vitreous hu- a convexity of the cornea and the crystal-
mours, and consists of a membranous sack line lens, which causes the rays to con-
filled with a humour of a crystalline ap- verge to a focus before they reach the
pearance. The vitreous humour has been retina. Objects are therefore indistinctly
thus denominated on account of its resem- seen by myoptic persons, unless held very
blance to glass in a state of fusion. The near the eye to throw the focus farther
retinais a membrane which lines the back. This defect may be palliated by the
whole cavity of the eye, and formed
is use of concave glasses, which render the
chiefly, if not entirely, by the expansion rays, proceeding from objects, more diver-
of the optic nerve. gent.
13. The rays of light which proceed from 17. Presbyopy is principally caused by
objects pass through the cornea, aqueous hu- too little convexity of the cornea and crys-
mour, crystalline lens, and vitreous humour, talline lens, which throws the focal point
and fall upon the retina in a focal point, of rays reflected from near objects, beyond
to which it is brought chiefly by the influ- the retina. This defect is experienced by
ence of the cornea and the crystalline lens. most people, to a greater or less degree,
The image, in an inverted position, is after they have advanced beyond the forti-
painted or thrown on the cornea, which eth year, and occasionally even by youth.
perceives its presence, and conveys an im- A remedy, or, at least, a palliation, is found
pression of it to the brain, by means of the in the use of convex glasses, which render
optic nerve. the rays more convergent, and enable the
14. Optical instruments. The art of eye to refract them to a focus farther for-
constructing optical instruments is found- ward, at the proper point.
ed upon the anatomical structure, and 18. The opticians have their spectacles
physiological action of the eye, and on the numbered to suit different periods of life
laws of light. They are designed to in- but, as the short-sighted and long-sighted
crease the powers of the eye, or to remedy conditions exist in a thousand different de-
some defect in its structure. In the cur- grees, each person should select for him-
sory view which we may give of a few of self such as will enable him to read with-
the many optical instruments which have out effort at the usual distance.
been invented, we will begin with the 19. The great obstacle to viewing small
spectacles', since they are best known, objects at the usual distance, arises from
and withal the most simple. too great a divergence of the light reflect-
THE OPTICIAN. 249

ed from them, which causes the rays to general construction is the same with that
reach the retina before they have con- of the solar microscope ;
but in the appli-
verged to a focus. This defect is remedied cation, the light of a lamp is employed in-
by convex lenses, which bring the visual stead of that from the sun.
point nearer to the eye, and consequently 24. Telescopes are employed for view-
cause the rays to concentrate in a large ing objects which from their distances ap-
focus upon the retina. The most powerful pear small, or are invisible to the naked
microscopic lenses are small globules of eye. They are of two kinds refracting
glass, which permit the eye to be brought and reflecting. The former kind is a com-
very near to the object. pound of the camera obscura and the sin-
20. Microscopes are either single or gle microscope. It consists of a tube,
double. In the former case, but one lens having at the further end a double convex
is used, and through this the object is lens, which concentrates the rays at a focal
viewed directly; but, in the latter case, point within, where the image is viewed
two or more glasses are employed, through through a microscopic lens, placed at the
one of which a magnified image is thrown other end.
upon a reflecting surface, and this is view- 25. In the construction of reflecting
ed through the other glass, or glasses, as telescopes, concave mirrors or specula are
the real object is seen through a single combined with a double convex lens. A
microscope. large mirror of this kind is so placed in the
21. The solar microscope, on account tube that it receives the rays of light from
of its great magnifying powers, is the most objects, and them upon another of
reflects
wonderful instrument of this kind. The a smaller size. From
this they are thrown
principles of its construction are the same to a focal point, where the image is viewed
with those of the camera ohscura. The through a double convex lens. The specula
difference consists chiefly in the minor are made of speculum metal, which is a
circumstance of placing the object very composition of certain proportions of cop-
near the lens, by which a magnified image per and tin,

is thrown at the focal point within the 26. Manyoptical appearances are of so
room. frequent recurrence that they could not
22. In the case of the camera obscura, have escaped the earliest observers; never-
the objects are at a far greater distance theless,ages appear to have elapsed before
from the' glass on the outside, than the any progress was made towards an expla-
images, at the focal point, on the inside. nation of them. Empedocles, a Greek phi-
The comparatively great distance of the losopher, born at Agrigentum in Sicily,
object, in this case, causes the image to 460 years before Christ, is the first person
be proportionably smaller. In the solar on record who attempted to write system-
microscope, a small mirror is used to re- atically on light.
ceive the rays, and to reflect them directly 27. The subject was successively treat-
upon the object. ed by several other philosophers ;
but the
23. The magic an instrument
lantern is ancients never attained to a high degree
used for magnifying paintings on glass, of information upon it. We have reason
and for throwing their images upon a to believe, however, that convex lenses
white surface in a darkened room. Its were, in some cases, used as magnifiers,
32
250 THE OPTICIAN.

and as burning-glasses although the theo-


;
those by Maurolicus, although neither of
ry of their refractive power was not under- these philosophers had any knowledge of
stood. what the other had done. The importance
28. The magnifying power of glasses, of Porta’s discoveries will be evident, when
and some other optical phenomena, were it is observed, that, before his time, vision
largely treated by Alhazen, an Arabian was supposed to be dependent on what
philosopher, who flourished about the year were termed visual rays, proceeding from
1100 of our era: and,in 1270, Yitellio, a the eye.
Polander, published a treatise on optics, 32. The telescope was invented towards
containing all that was valuable in Alha- the latter end of the sixteenth century.
zen’s work, digested in a better manner, Of this, as of many other valuable inven-
and with more lucid explanations of various tions, accident furnished the first hint. It
phenomena. is said that the children of Zacharias Jan-
29. Roger Bacon, an English monk, who sen, a spectacle-maker of Middleburg, in
was born in 1214, and who lived to the Holland, while playing with spectacle-
age of seventy-eight, described very accu- glasses in their father’s shop, perceived
rately the effects of convex and concave that, when the glasses were held at a cer-
lenses, and demonstrated by actual experi- tain distance from each other, the dial of
ment, that a small segment of a glass the clock appeared greatly magnified, but
globe would greatly assist the sight of old in an inverted position.
persons. Concerning the actual inventor 33. This incident suggested to their fa-
of spectacles, however, we have no certain ther the idea of adjusting two of these
information; we only know, that these glasses on a board, so as to move them at
useful instruments were generally known pleasure. Two such glasses inclosed in a
in Europe about the beginning of the four- tube completed the invention of the sim-
teenth century. plest kind of the refracting telescope.
30. In the year 1575, Maurolicus, a Galileo greatly improved the telescope,
teacher of mathematics at Messina, pub- and constructed one that magnified thirty-
lished a treatise on optics, in which he de- three times, and with this he made the as-
monstrated that the crystalline humour of tronomical discoveries which have immor-
the eye is a lens, which collects the rays talized his name.
of light from external objects, and throws 34. John Kepler, a great mathematician
them upon the retina. Having arrived and astronomer, who was born at Weir,
at a knowledge of these facts, he was in Wurtemburg, in the year 1571, paid
enabled to assign the reasons why some great attention to the phenomena of light
people were short-sighted, and others long- and vision. He was thefirst who demon-

sighted. strated that the degree of refraction suf-


John Baptista Porta, of Naples, was
31. fered by light in passing through lenses,
contemporary with Maurolicus. He invent- corresponds with the diameter of the cir-
ed the camera obscura, and his experiments cle ofwhich the concavity or convexity is
with this instrument convinced him that the portion of an arch. He very success-
light was a substance, and that its recep- fully pursued the discoveries of Maurolicus
tion into the eye produced vision. These and Porta, and asserted, that the images of
discoveries corresponded very nearly with external objects were formed upon the
THE OPTICIAN. 251

optic nerve by the concentration of rays to the phenomena of the refraction of light
which proceed from them. through the prism ;
and having observed a
35. In 1625, the curious discovery of certain surprising fact, he instituted a va-
Scheiner was published at Rome, which riety of experiments, by which he was
placed beyond doubt the fact, that vision brought to the conclusion, that light was
depends upon the formation of the image not a homogeneous substance but that it
;

of objects upon the retina. The fact was is composed of particles, which are capa-
demonstrated by cutting away, at the back ble of different degrees of refrangibility.
part, thetwo outside coats of the eye of 38. By the same experiments, he also
an animal, and by presenting different proved, that the rays or particles of light
objects before it: the images were dis- differ from each other in exhibiting dif-
on the naked retina.
tinctly seen painted ferent colours some producing the colour
;

36. Near the middle of the seventeenth red, others that of yellow, blue, &c. He
century, the velocity of light was disco- applied his principles to the explanation of
vered by Roemer; and, in 1663, James most of the phenomena of nature, where
Gregory, a celebrated Scotch mathemati- light and colour are concerned
and almost
;

cian, published the first proposal for a re- every thing which we know upon these
flecting telescope. But as he possessed subjects was laid open by his experi-
no mechanical dexterity himself, and as he ments.
could find no workman capable of executing 39. The splendour of Sir Isaac Newton’s
his designs, he never succeeded in carry- discoveries obscures, insome measure, the
ing his conceptions into effect. This was merits of earlier and subsequent philoso-
reserved for Sir Isaac Newton who, being
;
phers ; yet several interesting discoveries
remarkable for manual skill, executed two in regard to light and colour, as well as
instruments of this kind, in the year 1672, many important improvements of optical
on a plan, however, somewhat different instruments, have been made since his
from that proposed by Gregory. time although the light by which these
;

37. In the course of the year 1666, the have been achieved has been derived prin-
attention of Sir Isaac Newton was drawn cipally from his labours.
THE GOLDBEATER, AND THE JEWELLER.
GOLD. As a representative of property, it has been
1. The metals most extensively employ- used from time immemorial and, before ;

ed in the arts are gold, silver, copper, lead, coinage was invented, it passed for money
tin,and iron. These are sometimes found in its native state. In this form, gold is

uncombined with any other substance, or current in some parts of Africa and
still ;

combined only with each other in either : even in the Southern States of our own
of these cases, they are said to be in a na- country, in the vicinity of the gold mines,
tive state. But they are more frequently the same practice prevails in a measure.
found united with some substances which, 3. Gold is rarely employed in a state of
in a great measure, disguise their metallic perfect purity, butis generally used in
qualities ;
or, in other words, in a state of combination with some other metal, which
ore. The mode of separating the metals renders it harder, and consequently more
from their ores, will be noticed in con- capable of enduring the friction to which
nexion with some of the trades in which !
it is exposed. The metal used for this
they are prepared for, or practically ap- j
purpose is called an alloy and generally
,

plied in, the arts. consists of silver or copper.


2. Gold is a metal of a yellow colour, — ; 4. For convenience in commerce, this
a characteristic by which it is distinguish- precious metal supposed to be divided
is
j

ed from all other simple metallic bodies. I into twenty-four equal parts, called carats.
GOLD. 253

If perfectly pure, it is denominated gold gold is contained in the ores of other me-
24 carats fine; if alloyed with one part tals, they are roasted, in order to drive off
of any other metal or mixture of metals, the volatile parts, and to oxidize the other
it is said to be 23 carats fine. The stand- metals. The gold is then extracted by
ard gold coin of the United States and amalgamation, by liquefaction with lead,
Great Britainis 22 carats fine or, in other ;
by the aid of nitric acid, or by other me-
words, it contains one-twelfth part of alloy. thods adapted to the nature of the ore.
Gold, made standard by equal parts of cop- 8. Gold obtained in any of these me-

per and silver, approaches in colour more thods is always more or less alloyed with
nearly to pure gold than when alloyed in some other metal, especially with silver or
any other manner. copper; but a separation is produced, so
5. Gold is found in veins in mountains, far as it is required for the purposes of
most usually associated with ores of silver, commerce, by two processes, one of which
sulphurets of iron, copper, lead, and other is called cupellation and the other part-
,

metals. It is often so minutely distributed, ing. The' former of these operations con-
that its presence is detected only by pound- sists in melting the gold with a quantity
ing and washing the ores in which it exists. of lead, which readily oxidizes and vitri-
But the greatest part of the gold in the fies, and which causes the same changes
possession of mankind, has been found in to take place in the metal to be detached
the form of grains and small detached from the mass of gold. The operation is
masses, amid the sands of rivers and in called cupellation, because it is usually
alluvial lands, where
had been deposit- it performed on a cupel, a vessel formed of
ed by means of water, which had detached bone-ashes, or sometimes of wood-ashes.
it from its original position in the moun- 9. Cupellation is effectual in removing

tains. copper, but not so with regard to silver:


6. To separate or extract gold from the the latter is separated by means of a pro-
foreign matters with which it may be com- cess called parting. The metal is rolled
bined, the whole is first pounded fine, and out into thin sheets or strips, and cut into
then washed by putting it in a stream of small pieces. These are put into diluted
water, which carries off the stony parti- nitric acid,which, by the aid of a moderate
cles, while the gold, by its specific gravi- heat, dissolves the silver, leaving the gold

ty, sinks to the bottom. To render the in a porous state.


separation still more perfect, this sediment Another process, called cementation
10. ,

is mixed with ten times its weight of is alsosometimes used. It is performed


quicksilver, and put into a leather bag, in by beating the alloyed metal into thin
which it is submitted to a pressure that plates, and arranging them in alternate
forces the fluid part through its pores; layers with a cement containing nitrate
while the more solid part of the amalgam, of potash and sulphate of iron. The whole
which contains most of the gold, remains. is then exposed to heat, until a great part

7. To separate the quicksilver from the of the baser metals has been removed bv
gold, themass is subjected to the process the action of the nitric acid liberated by
of sublimation in earthen retorts, which, the nitre. Cementation is often employ-
as applied to metals, is similar in its effects ed by goldsmiths to refine the surface of
to distillation, as applied to liquids. When articles in which the gold has been com-
W
254 THE GOLD-BEATER.

bined, in too small a proportion, with me- a marble anvil with a hammer weighing
tals of less value. sixteen pounds, until the gold has been
11. The average amount of gold annu- spread to near the size of the vellum
ally obtained in every part of the globe leaves : it, in the mean time, being often
cannot fall far short of twenty-five millions turned over.
of dollars in value : of which South Ame- 4. The gold leaves are next divided into
rica supplies about one half, and Europe four equal squares, with a steel knife on a
about one twenty-fifth part. The amount leather cushion and the 600 leaves thus
;

yielded by the Southern States of our Union produced are interlaid with a kind of lea-
cannot be accurately ascertained, but the ther or parchment made of the intestines
whole sum coined at the United States’ of the ox, and beaten with a hammer
Mint in 1834, from gold obtained in this weighing twelve pounds, until the leaves
quarter, amounted to $898,000, and since have been extended as before. They are
1824, to $3,679,000. In 1824, the sum again quartered and interlaid, and beaten
was but $5,000. Our Southern mines will with a hammer weighing six or eight
probably continue to increase in produc- pounds.
tiveness. 5. The gold having now been sufficient-
ly extended, the packets are taken apart,
and the leaves cut to a proper and uniform
THE GOLD-BEATER.
size,by means of a cane frame on a leather
1. Gold, not being subject to intrinsic cushion. The leaves, as fast as they are
change by atmospheric action, or by that trimmed, are placed in a book, the paper
of common chemical agents, is extensive- of which has been covered with red bole,
ly used in gilding various substances, either to prevent the gold from sticking. Of the
With the view of preserving them from de- two ounces and a half of gold thus treated,
cay, or for the purpose of embellishment. only about one ounce remains in perfect
To prepare the gold for application in this leaves which, altogether, amount to 2,000
;

manner is the business of the gold-beater. three inches and three-eighths square.
2. The metal melted with some
is first The books contain twenty-five leaves, so
borax in a crucible, and formed into an in- that one ounce of gold makes eighty books.
got by pouring it into an iron mould. The 6. Gold extended into leaves is alloy-
mass is next hammered a little on an an- ed, in a greater or less degree, with sil-

vil, to increase the cohesion of its parts, ver or copper, or both ;


because, in a pure
and afterwards repeatedly passed between state, would be too ductile. The newest
it

steel rollers, until it has become a riband skins will work the purest gold, and make
as thin as paper. the thinnest leaf, because they are the
3. Two ounces and a half of this riband smoothest. The alloy varies from three
are cut into 150 pieces of equal dimensions. to twenty-four grains to the ounce, but in
These are hammered a little to make them general it is six, or one part of alloy to
smooth, and then interlaid with pieces of eighty of gold.
fine vellum four inches square. The 7. A kind of leaf called party gold is
whole, with twenty other pieces of vellum formed by the union of a thin leaf of gold
on each side, is inclosed in two cases of and a thicker one of silver. The two are
parchment. The packet is then beaten on laid together, and afterwards heated and
THE JEWELLER. 255

pressed, until they have cohered. They it is applied in this way, it is flattened
are then beaten and otherwise treated, as between and then
rollers of polished steel,
in the process just described. Silver, and wound on yellow by machinery. The
silk
likewise copper, are also beaten into leaves, coating of gold on the silver wire employed
although they will by no means bear so in this way, does not exceed the millionth
great a reduction as gold. Considerable part of an inch in thickness.
quantities of copper leaf are brought from
Holland, which in commerce is known
by the denomination of “Dutch leaf,” or THE JEWELLER.
“Dutch gold.” 1. The jeweller makes rings, lockets,
8. The ancient Romans were not igno- bracelets, brooches, ear-rings, necklaces,
rant of the process of gold-beating, although watch-chains, and trinkets of like nature.
they did not carry it so far as we do. Pliny The materials of the best quality of these
informs us that they sometimes made 750 ornaments are gold, pearls, and precious
leaves four fingers square, from an ounce stones, although those of an inferior kind
of gold. At Preeneste was a statue of For- are often used.
tune, gilt with leaves of a certain thickness; 2. There are several stones to which is
hence those beaten to the same degree of applied the epithet precious , of which the
thickness were called Prcenestines. Those following are the principal — the diamond,
of another and less degree of thickness, the ruby, the sapphire, the topaz, the chry-
were called qucestoriales, for a similar solyte, the beryl, the emerald, the hya-
reason. cinth, the amethyst, the garnet, the tour-
9. The Romans began to gild the inte- malin, and the opal. To these may be
rior of theirhouses immediately after the added rock crystal, the fine flints of peb-
destruction of Carthage. The wainscots bles, the cat’ s-eye, the mundi or
oculus
of the Capitol were ornamented in this
first hydrophanes, the chalcedony, the moon-
manner and afterwards
;
it became fashion- stone, the onyx, the cornelian, the sar-
able to gild the walls and ceilings of pri- donyx, agates, and the Labrador-stone.
vate dwellings, as well as articles of fur- These stones, together with different kinds
niture. of pearl, are also called gems or jewels.
10. Gold wire. The ductility of gold 3. The precious stones are valuable, as
is more conspicuous in wire than in leaves. articles of merchandise, in proportion to
The wire thus denominated is in reality their scarcity, weight, transparency, lus-
silver wire covered with gold. It is formed tre, and hardness. In most of these par-
by covering a silver rod with thick leaves ticulars, the diamond is superior to any
of gold, and then drawing it successively other but those of the same size are not
;

through conical holes of different sizes, always of equal value, for all are not of
made in plates of steel. The wire may the same colour or brilliancy. The very
be reduced, in this manner, to a degree best are said to be diamonds of the first
of extreme fineness, the gold being drawn water. The diamond was
called adamant
out with the silver, and constituting for it by the ancients, although this term was
a perfect coating. not confined exclusively to this stone.
11. Wire thus formed is often used in 4. The weight and consequent value
the manufacture of gold thread. Before of the most precious stones are estimated
— ;;

258 THE JEWELLER.


in carats, one of which is equal to four mous price of £136,000. Its weight is
grains troy weight, and the value of each 136 carats ;
and, before it was cut, it was
carat is increased in proportion to the size as large as a common pullet’s egg.
of the stone. In England the cost of a 7. A
celebrated diamond, in the posses- '

cut diamond of the first water is thus esti- sion of the emperor of Russia, is denomi-
mated :
nated the Effingham or Russian diamond.
1 carat is = £ 8 It was brought to England by the earl of

2 do. is 2X2X8= 32 Effingham, while governor-general of In-


3 do. is 3X3X8= 72 dia,and sold to the empress Catharine for
4 do. is 4X4X8= 128 £90,000. It is inferior in shape to the last
By the foregoing examples, it will be seen mentioned, but superior to it in magnitude,
that the weight is multiplied by itself, and it weighing 198 carats. The king of Eng-
the product by the price per carat, which land has a diamond which cost £22,000.
may be some other sum, according to the 8. The largest diamond hitherto known

general characteristics of the stone. was found in the island of Borneo, and it is

This rule, however, is not extended


5. now in the possession of the rajah of Mat-
to diamonds of more than 20 carats in tan. Many years ago, the governor of Ba-
weight nor is this or any other rule of
;
tavia offered in exchange for it $150,000,
estimate strictly adhered to in every case and two large brigs of war with their
nevertheless, it probably comes pretty near equipments and outfit; but the rajah re-
to general usage. In the same country, a fused to part with the jewel, to which the
perfect ruby of 3| carats is worth more Malays supposed miraculous power be-
than a diamond of equal weight. ruby A longed, and which they believed to be
weighing one carat may be worth 10 connected with the fate of his family.
guineas; two carats, 40 guineas; three The weight of this diamond is 367 carats.
carats,150 guineas six carats, 1000 gui-
;
9. Other jevrnls, belonging to different

neas. A ruby of a deep red colour, ex- sovereigns, as well as to private persons,
ceeding 20 carats, is called a carbuncle might be mentioned but a sufficient num-
;

and of these, 108, weighing from 100 to ber has been noticed to enable the reader
200 carats each, are said to be in the to form some idea of the extravagant ex-

throne of the Great Mogul. penditures often made for articles of ima-
6. Some of the European sovereigns ginary value. We will merely add that
have in their possession diamonds of great the royal family of Portugal is in posses-
value, several of which were originally sion of a stonewhich was formerly sup-
brought to England from India. The posed to be a diamond, but which has
Pitt or Regent diamond was purchased lately been proved to be some kind of
in India by Robert Pitt, grandfather of crystal of little value. The weight of
the Right Honourable William Pitt, for this stone is 1680 carats; and, until its
£12,500 sterling. It was brought to Eng- real character was discovered, it was va-
land in a rough state, and £5000 were lued at 224 millions sterling.
there expended in cutting it ;
but the cut- 10. The value of precious stones was
tings themselves were worth £7000 or much increased in ancient times, by the
£8000. It was sold to the duke of Or- absurd notion commonly entertained, that
leans, for the king of France, at the enor- they possessed miraculous powers in pre-
THE JEWELLER. 257

venting or curing diseases, as well as in can be readily fastened to one end of the
keeping off witches and evil spirits. These mandrel. The diamond dust is made into
notions still prevail more or less in hea- thin paste with olive oil, and is applied to
then nations and many, even in countries
;
the point of the instrument. The small
called Christian, wear them, or something invisible particles insinuate themselves into
else, as amulets for the same or similar the iron, where they remain permanently
purposes. fixed. In producing figures and letters
11. The Gem-sculptor. Figures and let- with a tool thus charged with the hardest
ters are often cut in precious stones by substance in nature, the precious stone is
the gem-engraver or gem-sculptor, whose brought in contact with it while in rapid
art, according to the opinion of some wri- motion.
ters, originatedwith the Babylonians but, ;
14. The engraved gems of antiquity
according to others, it had its commence- have been greatly esteemed, as works of
ment in India or Egypt. In the latter art, by the curious, and various methods

country, it was first employed in the pro- have, therefore, been devised to imitate
duction of hieroglyphical figures on basalt them. This has been done in glass in such
and granite rocks. This art, which is de- perfection, both as to form and colour, that
nominated lithoglyptics, or the glyptic good judges can scarcely distinguish the
art, was held by the
in great estimation imitationsfrom the originals. The im-
Greeks in ancient times. It arose to emi- pression of the gem is first taken in some
nence with the other fine arts; and like kind of fine earth; and, upon the mould
them had its zenith of perfection, was
it thus formed, the proposed material is
buried with them in the ruins of the pressed, while in a plastic state.
Roman empire, and with them revived 15. The
precious stones generally have
towards the end of the fifteenth century. likewise been imitated with great success.
12. The productions of gem-sculpture The basis of the different compositions is
are chiefly of two kinds. The first of a paste made of the finest flint glass, the
these are cameos ,
which are little bas- materials of which have been selected and
reliefs or figures raised above the surface. combined with great care. The desired
They are commonly made of stones, the colour is produced with metallic oxydes.
strata of which are of different colours, so A great number of complex receipts are
that the figure is different in colour from in use among manufacturers of these arti-
the ground on which it has been raised. cles.
The other productions of this art are de- 16. The Lapidary. The precious.stones
nominated intaglios. The work of these and imitations of them in glass are brought
is the reverse of that first mentioned, since to the desired form by the lapidary. The
the figure is cut below the surface of the instrument with which this artist cmefly
stone, so that they serve as seals to pro- operates is a wheel which is made to re-
duce impressions in relief upon soft sub- volve horizontally before him. put It is
stances. in motion by means of an endless rope
13. This artist performs his work by extending from another wheel, which is
means of a lathe, with the aid of diamond moved with the left hand of the operator,
dust. The instruments are made of soft while, with his right, he holds in a proper
iron, and are fixed in leaden chucks, which i position the substance to be reduced,
33
1

W2
258 THE JEWELLER.

17 The precious stones, being of small


. morbid concretions or calculi, produced
size, cannot be held with steadiness on the by the endeavour of the animal to fill up
wheel with the hand, nor with any holding the holes which may have been made from
instrument : they are, therefore, first fas- without by small worms. Others suppose
tened, by means of sealing-wax, to theend them to be mere concretions of the animal
of small sticks. By this simple means, and juice about some extraneous matter which
a small upright post, against which the may have been intruded by some means
hand or the other end of the stick is rest- into the shell.
ed, the workman can hold a stone in any 22. To collect the shells containing these
position he may desire. singular productions, is the business of
18. The lapidary’s wheel is made of divers who have been brought up to this
,

different kinds of metals. The diamond is dangerous occupation. They must gene-
cut on a wheel of soft steel, by the aid of rally descend from eight to twelve fathoms,
its own dust mixed with olive-oil. The and must remain beneath the surface of the
oriental ruby, sapphire, and topaz, are cut water for several minutes, during which
on a copper wheel in the same manner, time they are exposed to the attacks of
and polished with tripoli and water. Stones the voracious shark. In addition to the
of a less degree of hardness are cut and danger from this,- cause, the employment
polished on a leaden or tin wheel with is very destructive of health.
emory and rotten stone. 23. In preparing a diver for his descent,
19. The ancients wmre not acquainted a rope is tied round the body, and a stone

with any method of cutting the diamond, weighing twenty or thirty pounds is fast-
although they applied its powder to polish- ened to the foot to sink him. His ears and
ing, cutting, and engraving other stones. with cotton, and a sponge
nostrils are filled
Gems of this kind, either rough, or polished dipped in fastened to his arm, to
oil is

by nature, were set as ornaments, and which he may now and then apply his
were valued according to the beauty and mouth, in order to breathe without inhaling
perfection of their crystallization and trans- water. In addition to these equipments,
parency. The value of any precious stone he is furnished with a knife, with which
or jewel depends much upon the skill of the shells may be detached from the rocks,
the lapidary. and with a net or basket, in which they
29. The Pearl-fisherman . —Pearls are may be deposited.
obtained from a testaceous fish of the oys- 24. Thus equipped, he descends to the
ter kind, found in the waters of the East bottom, and having filled his depository, or
and West Indies, as well as in other seas having stayed below as long as he may be
of different latitudes. These oysters grow able, he unlooses the stone, gives the sig-
in some parts of the globe, in clusters, on nal to his companions above, who quickly
rocks in the depths of the Such
sea. draw him into the boat. At some pearl-
places are called pearl-banks, of which employed, which
fisheries, the diving-bell is

the most celebrated are near the islands of in some degree obviates some of the dan
Ceylon and Japan, and in the Persian Gulf. gers before stated.
The finest and most costly pearls are the 25. The shells thus obtained are laid by,
oriental. until the body of the animal has putrified,
21. Pearls are considered by some to'be [j
when they commonly open of themselves.
THE JEWELLER. 259

Those which contain any pearls generally practice of the arts, connected with the
have from eight to twelve. The pearls production of jewelry, long before the days
having been dried, are assorted according of the Jewish lawgiver. We
learn from
to their various magnitudes; and, to effect the twenty-fourth chapter of Genesis, that
this separation, they are passed through the servant of Abraham presented a golden
nine sieves of different degrees of fine- ear-ring and bracelets for the hands, to
ness. The largest pearls are about the Rebekah, who afterwards became the wife
size of a small walnut but such are very
;
of Isaac. Perhaps these were brought
rare. The smallest are called seed pearls. from Egypt by the patriarch about seventy
26. Pearls are of various colours, such years before.
as white, yellow, lead-colour, blackish, and 30. Menhave ever been fond of per-
totally black. The “ white water” is pre- sonal ornaments, and there have been but
ferred in Europe, and the “ yellow water,” few nations since the flood, which have not
in Arabia and India. In regard to their encouraged the jeweller in some way or
form, they vary considerably ; being round, other. In modern times, the art has been
pear-formed, onion-formed, and irregular. greatly improved. The French, for light-
The inner part of the pearl muscle is called ness and elegance of design, have sur-
nacre or mother of pearl, and this is man- passed other nations ; but the English, for
ufactured into beads, snuff-boxes, spoons, excellence of workmanship, have been
and a variety of other articles. considered, for ages, unrivalled.
27. Pearls were objects of luxury among 31. In the United States, the manufac-
the ancients. A pearl valued by Pliny at ture of jewelry is very extensive, there
a certain sum, which, reduced to our cur- being large establishments for this purpose
rency, amounts to $375,000, was dissolved in Philadelphia, and in Newark, N. J., as
by Cleopatra, and drunk to the health of well as in several other places. So exten-
Antony, at a banquet. These beautiful sive have been the operations in this branch
productions are not estimated so highly of business, and to such advantage have
at present. The largest will sometimes they been carried on, that importations
command four or five hundred dollars, from other countries have ceased, and this
although very few, which are worth over too, without the influence of custom-house
forty or fifty dollars, are ever brought to duties.
this country. 32. The capital necessary in carrying
28. The gem-engraver and the jeweller on the business of the jeweller is con-
were both employed by Moses, in preparing siderable, inasmuch as the materials are
the ornaments in the ephod and breast- very expensive. The operations likewise
plate of the high-priest. In the former require the exercise of much ingenuity.
were set onyx stones, and in the latter, These, however, we shall not attempt to
twelve different stones. On the gems of describe, since our article on this subject
both ornaments, were engraved the names has already been extended beyond its pro-
of the twelve tribes of Israel. per limits, and since, also, they could be
39. We, however, have evidence of the hardly understood withoutactual inspection.
THE SILVERSMITH, AND THE WATCH-MAKER.

SILVER. by Congress at one to sixteen. In China


1. Silver is a metal of a fine white col- and Japan, it is said to be one to nine or
our, and, in brilliancy, inferior to none of ten.
the metals except steel. In malleability, 3. There are two methods of separating
it is next to gold, it being capable of re- silver from its various ores,and these are
duction into leaves not more than the called smelting and amalgamation. In the
TFoV o °f an i nc h in thickness, and of
o' former method, the ore and a due propor-
being drawn into wire much finer than a tion of lead are heated together and the
;

human hair. latter, from its great affinity for silver,


2. The relative value of silver and gold unites with it, and separates it from other
has varied considerably in different ages. substances. The two metals are after-
In the prosperous period of ancient civili- wards separated from each other, by melt-
zation, one pound of gold was worth twelve ing them on a cupel, and then exposing
of silver. In Great Britain, the relative them to a current of atmospheric air, by
value of the two metals is one to fifteen which the lead is converted into an oxyde,
and one-fifth; and, on the continent of while the silver remains untouched. This
Europe, it is about one to fifteen. In the process is called cupellation.
United States, the relative value of these 4. In the other method, the first thing
two metals has been recently established done is to roast the ore, to expel the sul-
;

THE SILVERSMITH. 261


phur and other volatile parts. It is then are commonly satisfied with the less ex-
reduced to an impalpable powder, by ma- pensive metal.
chinery and having been sifted, it is agi-
;
3. A great proportion of the silver used

tated sixteen or eighteen hours in barrels, by this mechanic has been previously
with a quantity of quicksilver, water, and coined into dollars. In working these into
iron, combined in certain proportions. This different utensils or vessels, he first melts
agitation causes the several substances them in a crucible, and casts the silver
composing the charge ,
to unite according into solid masses by pouring it into iron
to their respective affinities. moulds and having forged it on an anvil,
;

5. The and mercury combine,


silver he reduces it still further, and to a uniform
forming an amalgam, which, having been thickness, by passing it several times be-
put into a leather sack, a part of the latter tween steel rollers. In giving additional
is separated from the rest by filtration, explanations of the operations of the sil-

still leaving six parts of this metal to one versmith, we will describe the manner in
of the silver. The amalgam is next sub- which a plain tea-pot is manufactured.
mitted to the action of heat in a distilling 4. In forming the body, or containing
furnace, by which the mercury is subli- part, the plate, forged and rolled as just
mated. described, cut into a circular form, and
is

6. The value of the silver annually placed on a block of soft wood with a
taken from the mines in all parts of the concave face, where it is beaten with a
World, is supposed to be about $20,000,000, convex hammer until it has been brought
of which Mexico and South America yield to a form much like that of a saucer. It
the greater part. The several silver mines is then placed upon an anyil, and beaten

of Europe and Asia produce about two a while with a long-necked hammer with a.
millions and a half. round flattish face.
5. It is next raised to the proposed form

by forging it on a long slender anvil, called


a stake with a narrow-faced hammer,
,
THE SILVERSMITH. which spreads the metal perpendicularly
1. The who forms certain arti-
artisan from the bottom, or laterally, according to
cles of gold and silver is called indiffer- the position in which it may be held when
ently a goldsmith or a silversmith. The brought in contact with the metal.
former denomination is most commonly 6. After the piece has been thus brought
employed in England, and the latter in the to the proposed form, it is planished all
United States. over by beating it with a small hammer on
2. The most common subjects of manu- the outside, while it rests on a small steel
facture by the silversmith are, cups, gob- head on the inside. During the perform-
lets, chalices, tankards, spoons, knives, ance of these operations, the silver is occa-
forks, waiters, bread-trays, tea-pots, coffee- sionally annealed by heating it in the fire
pots, cream-pots, sugar-bowls, sugar-tongs, but it is worked while in a cold state, ex-
and pencil-cases. Many of these articles cept in the forging, when it is wrought
first
he sometimes makes of gold this : is espe- while a below red heat.
little
cially the case in Europe, and some parts 7. The several pieces which compose a
of Asia, In the United State-s, the people tea-pot of ordinary construction amount to
262 THE SILVERSMITH.

about fifteen; the greater part of which a drawing is first made on the
with silver
are rolled and forged in the manner just a lead pencil. The several parts are then
described. The knob on the lid, the han- raised from the other side, corresponding
dle,and the spout, are sometimes cast, and as nearly as possible to it. The vessel or
at other times, the two pieces of which piece then filled with, or placed upon
is
they are formed are cut from a plate, and melted cement, composed of pitch and
brought to the proper figure by impressing brick-dust, and after the cement has be-
them with steel dies. come hard by cooling, the chaser reduces
8. The figures seen on the cheaper kinds the raised parts to the form indicated by
of silver tea-pots, as well as on other ves- the drawing, by means of small steel
sels and utensils, are commonly made by punches. The roughness of surface, and
passing the plates or strips between en- frosty appearance are produced by punches
graved steel rollers, or by stamping them indented on the end.
with steel dies. The dies are commonly 12. The operations of the silversmith
brought in sudden and violent contact with are exceedingly various, many of which
the metal by means of an iron drop, which could be hardly understood from mere de-
is let fall from a height upon it. scription. We would therefore recom-
9. After the several parts have been mend to the curious, actual inspection,
brought to the proper shape, and to the assuring them that the ingenuity displayed
requisite finish, they are firmly united to- in executing the work in the different
gether by means of a solder composed of branches of the business, is well worthy
about three parts of silver and one of brass of their attention. We will merely add,
and copper. Before the spout and handle that spoons, knives, and forks, are not cast,
are soldered on, the other parts, which as is frequently supposed, but forged from
have been thus united into one piece, are strips of silver cut from rolled sheets.
brought to a certain degree of polish. 13. The earliest historical notice of gold
10. This is effected chiefly in a lathe, and silver is found in the thirteenth chap-
by holding against the piece, while in ter of Genesis, where it is stated that
rapid motion, first a file, then a scraper, Abraham returned to Canaan from Egypt,
and afterwards pumice stone and Scotch “rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.”
stone. It is then held against a rapidly This event took place about 1920 years
revolving brush, charged with fine brick- before Christ; but little more than 400
dust and sweet oil. The handle and spout years after the deluge. From the author-
are next soldered on. After this, the vessel ity of the same book, we also learn, that
is annealed, and put in pickle, or, in other during the life of this patriarch, those
words, into a weak solution of oil of vit- metals were employed as a medium of
riol. It is then scoured with, sand and commercial intercourse, and as the mate-
water, and the whole operation is com- rials for personal ornaments, vessels, and
pleted by burnishing the smooth parts with utensils.
a steel instrument. 14. From the preceding facts, we have
11. In the more expensive kind of wares, reason to believe that gold and silver were
the raised figures and the frosty appear- known to the antediluvians ; for, had not
ance are produced by a process called thisbeen the case, they could hardly have
chasing. In executing this kind of work, been held in such estimation so early as
:

THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. 263

the time of Abraham. In short, they riod, or by whom, is not stated. Its con-

were probably wrought even in the days struction was varied, in different ages and
of the original progenitor of the human countries, according with the particular
race, as was evidently the case with iron modes of reckoning time but the constant ;

and copper. dropping or running of water from one


vessel into another, through a small aper-
ture, is the basis in all the forms which it
THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. has assumed. The time was indicated by
1. The great divisions of time, noted by the regularly increasing height of the wa-
uncivilized men, are those which are indi- ter in the receiving vessel.
cated by the changes of the moon, and the 5. The clepsydra was introduced into
annual and diurnal revolutions of the earth Greece by Plato, near 400 years before
but the ingenuity of man was very early Christ; and, about 200 years after this,
exercised in devising methods of measur- into Rome, by Scipio Africanus. It is said
ing more minute periods of duration. that Pompey brought a valuable one from
2. The earliest contrivance for effecting the East, and that Julius Csesar met with
was the sun-dial. This instru-
this object one in England, by which he discovered
ment was known to the ancient Egyptians, that the summer nights were shorter there
Chaldeans, Chinese, and Bramins. It was than in Italy.
likewise known to the Hebrews, at least 6. The use which Pompey made of his
as early as 740 years before Christ, in the instrument was to limit the length of
days of Ahaz the king. The Greeks and speeches in the senate. Hence he is said,
the Romans borrowed it from their east- by a historian of those times, to have
ern neighbours. The first sun-dial at Rome been the first Roman who put bridles upon
was set up by Papirius Cursor, about 300 eloquence. A similar use was made of
years before Christ. Before this period, the clepsydra in the courts of justice, first
the Romans determined the time of day by in Greece, and afterwards in Rome.
the rude method of observing the length 7. A kind of water-clock, or clepsydra,
of shadows. adapted to the modern divisions of time,
3. The sun-dial, as it is now construct- was invented near the middle of the seven-
ed, consists of a plate, divided into twelve teenth century; and these were exten-
equal parts, like the face of a clock, on sively used, in various parts of Europe, for
w hich
7
the falling of a shadow indicates a considerable time : but they are now en-
the time of day. The shadow is projected tirely superseded by our common clocks
by the sun, through the intervention of a and watches, which are far more perfect
rod or the edge of a plate stile erected on in their operation, and, in all respects,
the plane of a dial. But since the dial was better adapted to the purposes to which
useful only in the clear day, another in- they are applied.
strument was invented, which could be 8. The invention of the clock is con-
used at all times, in every variety of situ- cealed in the greatest obscurity. Some
ation and to this was given the name of
; writers attribute it to the monks, as this
clepsydra. instrument was used in the twelfth cen-
4. This instrument is supposed to have tury, in the monasteries, to regulate the
been invented in Egypt but at what pe-
; inmates in their attendance on prayers
264 THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER.
both by night and by day. Others sup- the improvement was rendered completely
pose that a knowledge of this valuable successful, in 1656, by Christian Huygens,
instrument was derived from the Sara- a Dutch philosopher. The laws of the os-
cens, through the intercourse arising from cillation of the pendulum were first inves-
the crusades. Be this as it may, clocks tigated by Galileo, the great Italian phi-
were but little known in Europe, until the losopher, and father of the Galileo just
beginning of the fourteenth century. mentioned. His attention was attracted
9. Richard, abbot of St. Alban’s, Eng- to this subject by the swinging of a lamp
5
land, made a clock in 1326, such as had suspended from the ceiling of the cathe-
never been heard of until then. It not dral, at Pisa, hi3 native city.
only indicated the course of the sun and 13. The clocks first made were of a
moon, but also the ebbing and flowing of large size, and were placed only in public
the tide. Large clocks on steeples began edifices. The works were, at length, re-
to be used in this century. The first of duced in their dimensions, and these use-
this kind is supposed tohave been made ful machines were gradually introduced
and put up in Padua by Jacobus Dondi. into private dwellings. They were finally
10. A steeple
clock was set up in Bo- made of a portable size, and were carried
logne, in 1356; and, in 1364, Henry de about the person. These portable clocks
Wyck, a German artist, placed one in the had, for their maintaining power, a main-
palace of Charles V., king of France. In spring of steel, instead of a weight, as in
1368, three Dutchmen introduced clock- the case of the larger time-keepers.
work into England, under the patronage 14. The original pocket-watches differed
of Edward III. Clocks began to be com- but little, if at all, in the general plan of
mon both in England and on the continent, their construction, from the portable clocks
about the end of the fifteenth century. just mentioned. The transition from one
11. The clock of Henry de Wyck is kind of instrument to the other was, there-
the most ancient instrument of this kind fore, obvious and easy; but the time of
of which we have a description. The the change cannot be certainly deter-
wheels were made of wrought iron, and mined. It is commonly admitted, how-
the teeth were cut by hand. In other ever, that Peter Hele constructed the first
respects, also, it was a rude piece of me- watch in 1510.
chanism, and not at all capable of keeping 15. Watches appear to have been ex-
time with accuracy. But, rude as it was, tensively manufactured at Nuremburg, in
it is not likely that it was the invention Germany, soon after their invention, as
of a single individual : but that, after the one of the names by which they were de-
firstrude machine was put in motion, it signated, was Nuremburg eggs. These
received several improvements from va- instruments, as well as clocks, were in
rious persons. This has, at least, been the common use in France in 1544, when the
case with all the improvements made on company of clock and watch makers of
the clock of Henry de Wyck, to the pre- Paris was first incorporated.
sent day. 16. In 1658, the spring balance was
12. The application of the pendulum invented by Doctor Nathaniel Hooke, mi
to clock-work appears to have been first English philosopher. At least, 'the inven-
made by Vincenzo Galileo, in 1649 ;
but tion is attributed to him by his countrymen.
— ; ;

THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. 265

On the continent, it is claimed for Christian in sixty minutes, and the hour hand to the
Huygens. Before this improvement was one which makes the same revolution in
made, the performance of watches was so twelve hours. Greater and smaller divi-
defective, that the best of them could not sions of time are kept and indicated on the
be relied upon for accurate time an hour same principle. The part of a clock which
together. They were accordingly con- keeps the time is called the going part
structed so as to be wound up twice a day, and that which strikes the hour, the strik-
and to be set occasionally. ing part.
17. After the great improvements had 20. The division of labour is particu-
been effected in the clock and watch by larly conspicuous in the manufacture of
Huygens and Hooke, several others of watches, as the production of almost every
minor importance were successively made part is the labour of a distinct artisan.
by different persons; but our limits do not The workman who polishes the several
allow us to give them a particular notice parts,and puts them together, is called
we will only state that the repeating ap- among this class of tradesmen the finisher
paratus of both clocks and watches was or watchmaker. Those, therefore, who
invented, about the year 1676, by one Bar- deal largely in watches in England, pur-
low, an Englishman ;
—that the compensa- chase the different parts from the several
tion or gridiron pendulum was invented manufacturers, and cause them to be put
by George Graham, of London, in 1715, together by the finisher.
and that jewels were applied to watches, 21. Watches are extensively manufac-
to prevent friction, by one Facio, a German. tured in various parts of Europe, but par-
18. Clocks and watches are constructed ticularly in French Switzerland, France,
on the same general principles. The me- and England. The London watchmakers
chanism of both is composed of wheel- have been celebrated for good workman-
work, with contrivances to put it in mo- ship, for more than a century and a half.
tion, and to regulate its movements. The This manufacture has not yet been com-
moving or maintaining power in large menced in the United States, although the
clocks is a weight suspended by a cord to machinery, or inside work, is very com-
a cylinder. In watches, and sometimes in monly imported in tin boxes, and after-
small clocks, this office is performed by a wards supplied with dial plates and cases.
steel spring. In the clock, the regulation This is especially the case with the more
of the machinery is effected by the pendu- valuable kind of watches.
lum, and in the watch by the balance- 22. Brass clocks are manufactured in
wheel or spring balance. In either case, the most of our cities, and in many of our vil-
maintaining power is prevented from ex- lages and wooden clocks, in great num-
;

pending itself except in measured portions. bers, in the state of Connecticut. These
19. The time is indicated by hands or last are carried by pedlars into the remot-
pointers, which move on the dial plate. est parts of the country, so that almost
The minute hand is attached to the axle every farmer in our land can divide the
of the wheel which makes its revolution day by the oscillations of the pendulum.
34
!

THE COPPERSMITH, THE BUTTON MAKER, &c

COPPER. tory furnace, and exposed to a greater heat.


1. Copper a ductile and malleable
is
By this treatment the sulphur and arsenic
metal, of a pale yellowish red colour. It are soon driven off
is sometimes found in a native state, but
3. The ore is then transferred to the fus-
not in great quantities. The copper of
ing furnace, and smelted in contact with
commerce is principally extracted from the fuel. The specific gravity of the
copper
ores called sulphurets. Copper mines are causes it to sink
beneath the scoria into a
wrought in many countries but those of
; receptacle at the bottom of the furnace.
Sweden are said to furnish the purest cop- To render the metal sufficiently pure, it
per of commerce, although those of the requires repeated fusions, and even after
island of Anglesea are said to be the these, it usually contains a little lead, and
richest. a email portion of antimony.
2. In working sulphuretted ore* it is first Alloys of copper
4. . Copper is com-
broken into pieces, and roasted with a bined by fusion with a great number of
moderate heat in a kiln to free it from sul- metals, and in such combinations, it is of
phur. When the ore is also largely com- great importance in the arts. When
bined with arsenic, a greater degree of added in small quantities to gold and sil-
heat is necessary. In such a case, it is |
ver, it increases their hardness without
spread upon a large floor of a reverbera- materially injuring their colour, or dimin-
THE COPPERSMITH. 267

ishing their malleability. An alloy, called structor of every artificerin brass and
white copper, imported from China, and. iron.” This individual was the seventh
denominated in that country pakfong, is generation from Adam, and was born about
composed of copper, zinc, nickel, and iron. the year of the world 500.
It is very tough and malleable, and is easily

cast, hammered, and polished. When well


manufactured, it is very white, and as lit-
THE COPPERSMITH.
tle liable to oxidation as silver. 1. Copper, being easily wrought, is ap-
5. Copper, with about one-fourth of its plied to many useful purposes. It isformed
weight of lead, forms pot-metal. Brass into sheets by heating it in a furnace, and
isan alloy of copper and zinc. The pro- compressing it between steel rollers. The
portion of the latter metal varies from one- operation of rolling constitutes a distinct
eight i to one-fourth. Mixtures, chiefly of business, and is performed in mills erected
these two metals, are also employed to for the express purpose.
form a variety of gold-coloured alloys, 2. The
rolled sheets are purchased ac-
among which are prince's metal, pinch- cording to weight by the coppersmith, who
beck tombac, and hath metal.
,
employs them sheathing the bottoms of
in
6. A series of alloys is formed by a ships, in covering the roofs of houses, and
combination of tin and copper. They are in constructing steam-boilers and stills. He
all more or less brittle, rigid, and sonorous, also fabricates them
a variety of into
according to the relative proportions of the household utensils, although the use of this
two metals; these qualities increasing with metal in preparing and preserving food, is

the amount of tin. The principal of these attended with some danger, on account of
alloys are, bronze, employed in the casting the poisonous quality of the verdigris
of statues ;
gun-metal, of which pieces of which is produced on the surface.
artillery are made; bell-metal of which ,
3. An attempt has been made to obviate
bells are made; and speculum-metal, which by lining the vessels with a
this difficulty,

is used for the mirrors of reflecting tele- thin coating of tin. This answers the
scopes. purpose fully, so long as the covering of
The alloys of copper were very pre-
7. tin remains entire. But in cases of ex-
valentamong the nations of antiquity, and posure to heat, it is liable to be melted off,

were used in many cases where iron w’ould unless it be kept covered with water.

have answered a much better purpose. 4. This metal can be reduced, by forg-
The instruments of husbandry and of war, ing, to any shape but during the process,
;

as well as those for domestic uses gene- it wall bear no heat greater than a red

rally, were usually made of bronze ; a heat and, as it does not admit of welding,
;

composition which furnishes the best sub- like iron, different pieces are united with
stitute for iron and steel. The Corinthian bolts or rivets of the same metal, as in
brass, so celebrated in antiquity, was a the ease of the larger kinds of vessels ;
or
mixture of copper, gold, and silver. by means of solder made of brass and zinc,
8. The earliest information of the use or zinc and lead, as in the case of those of
of this metal by mankind, is found in the smaller dimensions.
fourth chapter of Genesis, in which it is 5. Brass is applied to a greater variety
stated, that, “Tubal-Cain was the ii> of purposes in the arts than copper. This
268 THE BUTTON MAILER.

preference has arisen from its superior having on it, an engraved figure, if they
beauty, from the greater facility with are to be of the ornamental kind. In either
which it can be formed into any required case, the die is usually driven with a fly
shape, and from its being less influenced press.
by exposure to the ordinary chemical 3. The shanks are next placed on one
agents. side of the proposed button, and held there
6. Some of the articles manufactured temporarily with a wire clasp. small A
of brass, are forged to the required form, quantity of solder and rosin having been
and others are made of rolled sheets; applied to each shank, the buttons are
but, in most cases, they pass through the exposed to heat on an iron plate, until
the
hands of the brassfounder, who liquifies solder shall have melted. The shanks
the metal and pours it into moulds of sand. having been thus firmly soldered on, the
For the sake of lightness, and economy of buttons are turned off smoothly on their
material, many articles are made hollow edges in a lathe.
in such cases, they are cast in halves or 4. The buttons are next freed from
pieces, and these are afterwards soldered oxide, by immersing them in diluted
nitric
together. acid, and by They are
friction in a lathe.
7.Pieces which have been east are then put into a vessel containing a quantity
generally reduced in size, and brought of nitric acid supersaturated with mercury.
more exactly to the proposed form either The superior attraction of the copper for
in a lathe, with tools adapted to turning, the acid, causes a portion ofit to be ab-
or in the vice, with files, and other suit- sorbed and the mercury held in solution
;

able instruments. The operators in brass by it is deposited on the buttons, which


form a class of mechanics distinct from are next put into a vessel containing an
those who work in copper. amalgam of mercury and gold.
5. The amalgam is formed by melting
the two metals together, and -afterwards
THE BUTTON MAKER. pouring them into cold water. The com-
1. Trifling as the manufacture of but- position having been put into a bag of
tons may appear, there are few which chamois leather, and a part of the mercury
include a greater variety of operations. pressed through the pores, the remaining
The number of substances of which they portion is left in a condition approaching
are made is very great ;
among which are the consistency of butter, and in a fit state
gold, silver, various alloys of copper, steel, for use. Before the buttons are put into
tin, glass, mother-of-pearl, bone, horn, and the amalgam, a small quantity of nitric
tortoise-shell, besides those which consist acid is added.
of moulds of wood or bone, covered with 6. The buttons having been covered
silk,mohair, or with similar materials. with the amalgam, as before stated, the
2. In making gilt buttons, the blanks or mercury is discharged, that the gold may
bodies are cut from rolled plates of brass, adhere directly to the brass. This object
with a circular punch driven by means of is effected by heating the buttons in an
a fly wheel. The blanks thus produced, iron pan, until the amalgam begins to melt,
are planished with a plain die, if they are when they are thrown into a large felt cap,
intended for plain buttons ; or with one [
and stirred with a brush. This operation
THE PIN-MAKER. 269

is repeated several times, until all the mer- part of the operation is performed with
cury has been volatilized. The whole pro- great rapidity, as a boy twelve years of
cess is finished by again burnishing them, age can sharpen 16,000 in an hour. When
and putting them on cards for sale. the wires have been thus pointed, the
7. White metal buttons are made of length of a pin is taken off at each end,
brass alloyed with different proportions of by another hand. The grinding and cut-
tin. They are cast, ten or twelve dozens ting off are repeated, until the whole
at a time, in moulds formed in sand, by length has been used up.
means of a pattern. The shanks are 3. The next operation is that of forming
placed in the centre of the moulds, so the heads, or, as the pin-makers term it,

that, when the metal is poured in, they head-spinning. This is done with a spin-
become a part of the buttons. The but- ning-wheel, by which one piece of wire is
tons are next polished with
in a lathe, wound upon another the former, by
; this
grindstone dust and oil, rotten stone and means, being formed into a spiral coil
crocus martis. They are then boiled with similar to that of the springs in elastic
a quantity of grained tin, in a solution of suspenders. The coiled wire is cut into
crude red tartar or argol, and lastly, finished suitable portions with the shears, every
with finely pulverized crocus, applied with two turns of it being designed for one
buff leather. head. These heads are fastened to the
8. Glass buttons are made of various lengths by means of an instrument like a
colours, in imitation of the opal and other hammer, which is put in motion with the
precious stones. While manufacturing foot, while the hands are employed in tak-

them, the glass is kept in a state of fusion, ing up, adjusting, and placing the parts
and a portion of it for each button is upon the anvil.
nipped off out of the crucible with a me- 4. The pins are now finished, as to
tallic mould, somewhat similar to that their form ;
but still they are merely brass.
used for running bullets, the workman To give them the requisite whiteness, they
having previously inserted into it the are thrown into a copper vessel, containing
shank. a solution of tin and the lees of wine.
After a while, the tin leaves the liquid,
and fastens on the pins, which, when taken
THE PIN-MAKER.
out, assume a white appearance. They
1. There is scarcely any commodity are next polished by agitating them with
cheaper than pins, and none which passes a quantity of bran in a vessel moved in a
through the handsmf a greater number of rotary manner. The bran is separated from
workmen in the manufacture; twenty-five them, as chaff is separated from wheat.
persons being successively employed upon 5. Pins are also made of iron wire, and
the material, before it appears in these coloured black by a varnish composed of
useful articles, ready for sale. linseed oil and lamp-black. This kind is
2. The wire having been reduced to the designed for persons in mourning. Pins
required size, is cut into pieces long enough are likewise made with a head at each
to make six pins. These pieces are brought end, to be used by females in adjusting the
to a point at each end by holding them, a hair for the night, without the danger of
handful at a time, on a grindstone. This pricking. Several machines have been
X 2
270 THE PIN-MAKER.

invented for this manufacture, one of which We see here the origin of the phrase, pin-
makes a solid head from the body of the money, which is now applied to designate
pin itself ; but the method just described the sum allowed to the wife for her per-
still continues to be the prevailing one. sonal expenses generally.
6. Pins are made of various sizes. The 9. Prior to the year 1443, the art of
smallest are called minikins, the next making pins from brass wire was not
short whites. The larger kinds are num- known in England. Until that period,
bered from three to twenty, each size in- they were made of bone, ivory, or box-
creasing one half from three to five, one wood. Brass pins are first mentioned in
from five to fourteen, and two from four- the English statute book in 1483, when
teen to twenty. They are put up in pa- those of foreign manufacture were pro-
pers, according to their numbers, as we hibited.

usually see them, or in papers containing 10. Although these useful implements
all sizes. In the latter case, they are sold are made in London, and in several other
by the pound. places in England, yet Gloucester is the
7. It is difficult, or even impossible, to principal seat of this manufacture in that
trace the origin of this useful little article. kingdom. It was introduced into that
It is probable, however, that it was in- place in 1626, by John Silsby, and it now
vented ha France, in the fifteenth century. contains nine distinct manufactories, in
One of the prohibitions of a statute, relat- which are employed about 1500 persons,
ing to the pin-makers of Paris of the six- chiefly women and children. Pins are
teenth century, forbid any manufacturer to also manufactured extensively in the vil-
open more than one shop for the sale of his lages near Paris, and in several other
wares, except on new-year’s day, and on places in France, as well as in Germany.
the day previous. 11. The business of making pins has been
8. Hence we may infer, that it was cus- lately commenced in the city of New-
tomary to give pins as new-year’s presents, York, and it is said that the experiment
or that it was the usual practice to make has been so successful, both in the perfec-
the chief purchases at this time. At length tion of the workmanship, and in the rapid-
it became a practice, in many parts of ity of the production, that pins of Ame-
Europe, for the husband to allow to his rican manufacture bid fair to compete, at
wife a sum of money for this purpose. least, with those of foreign countries.
THE TINPLATE WORKER, &c.

TIN. they increase in size, as they penetrate


1. Tin is a whitish metal, less elastic, the earth. The direction of these veins,
and less sonorous than any other metal, or, as the miners call them, lodes, is usu-
except lead. It is found in the mountains ally eastand west.
which separate Galicia from Portugal, and 3. The miners follow the lode, whereso-

in the mountains between Saxony and ever it may lead and when they extend
;

Bohemia. It also occurs in the peninsula to such a depth that the waters become
of Molucca, in India, Mexico, and Chili. troublesome in the mine, as is frequently
But the mines of Cornwall and Devon- the case, they are pumped up with ma-
shire, in England, are more productive chinery worked by steam, or drawn off* by
than those of all other countries united. means of a drain, called an adit. The lat-
2. There are two ores of tin, one of ter method is generally adopted, when
which is called tin stone and the other
, practicable.
tin pyrites; the former of these is the 4. The ore is raised to the surface
kind from which the metal is extracted. through shafts, which have been sunk in a
The ore is usually found in veihs, which perpendicular direction upon the vein.
often penetrate the hardest rocks. When At the top of the shaft, is placed a wind-
near the surface of the earth, or at their lass, to draw up the kibbuts, or baskets,
commencement, they are very small, but containing the ore. Near St. Austle, in
272 TIN.

Cornwall, is a mine which has not less ance that the metal is pure, and that the
than fifty shafts, which are now in
half of duty has been paid.
use. Some of the veins have been worked 8. The duty is four shillings sterling
a full mile, and some of the shafts are per hundred weight, which is paid to the
nearly seven hundred feet deep. Duke of Cornwall, who is also Prince of
5. At St. Austle Moor, there is a mine of Wales. The revenue from this source
stream tin * about three miles in length. amounts to about thirty thousand pounds a
The tin, together with other substances, year. The owner of the soil also receives
has been deposited in a valley, by means of one sixth, or one eighth of the ore as his
small streams from the hills. The deposite dish as the miners call
, it. The miners
isabout twenty feet deep, and the several and the smelters receive certain propor-
materials of which it is composed, have tions of the metal for their services.
settled in strata, according to their specific 9. Tin was procured from Britain at a
gravity. The ore, being the heaviest, is very early period. The Phoenicians are
of course, found at the bottom. said by Strabo to have passed the pillars of
The ore, from whatever source it
6. Hercules, now the Straits of Gibraltar,
may be obtained, is first pulverized in a about 1200 years before Christ. But the
stamping mill, and then washed, to free it time at which they discovered the tin
from the stony matter with which it may islands, which they denominated Casso-
be united. The ore, thus partially freed rides, cannot be ascertained from history,
from foreign matter, is put into a rever- although evident from many circum-
it is

beratory furnace, with fuel and limestone, stances, that the Scilly Islands, and the
and heated intensely. The contents of western ports of Britain, were the places
the furnace having been brought to a state from which these early navigators procured
of fusion, the lime unites with the earthy the tin withwhich they supplied the parts
matters, and flows with them into a liquid of the world to which they traded.
glass, while the carbon of the coal unites 10. For a long time, the Phoenicians
with the tin. The metal sinks, by its and the Carthaginians enjoyed the tin
specific gravity, to the bottom of the fur- trade to the exclusion of all other nations.
nace, and is let out, after having been ex- After the destruction of Carthage by the
posed to the heat about ten hours. Romans, a colony of Phocean Greeks,
7. The tin thus obtained is very impure: established at Marseilles, carried on this
it therefore requires a second fusion, to trade ;
but came
hands of the
it into the
render it fit for use. After having been Romans, after the conquest of Britain by
melted a second time, it is cast into blocks Julius Ceesar.
weighing about three hundred pounds. 11. The Cornish mines furnish incon-
These blocks are taken to places desig- testable proofs of having been worked
nated by law, and there stamped, by in- many hundred years ago. In digging to
spectors appointed for the purpose, by the the depth of forty or fifty fathoms, the
Duke of Cornwall.In performing this miners frequently meet with large timbers
operation, the inspector cuts off a corner, embedded in the ore. Tools for mining
and stamps the block at that place, with have also been found in the same, or simi-
the proper seal, and with the name of the lar situations. The mines, therefore,
smelter. These precautions give assur- which had been exhausted of the ore,
TIN. 273

have, in the course of time, been replen- then freeing them from oxide by heating,
ished by a process of nature. scaling, and rolling them.
12. To what purposes the ancients ap- 16. The tin is melted in deep oblong
plied all the tin which they procured at vessels, and kept in a state of fusion by a
so much labour and cost, is not precisely charcoal fire. To preserve its surface from

known. It is probable, that the Tyrians osidation a quantity of fat, or oil, is kept
consumed a portion of it, in dyeing their floating upon it. The plates are dipped
purple and scarlet. It formed then, as it perpendicularly into the tin, and held there
now does, many important alloys with cop- for some time. When withdrawn, they
per. The mirrors of antiquity were made are found to have acquired a bright coat-
of a composition of these metals. ing of the melted metal. The dipping is
13. The method of extracting tin from performed three times for single tin plate,
its ores was probably very defective in and six times for double tin plate. The
ancient times. At least, it was so for tin penetrates the iron, and forms an alloy.
several centuries before the time of Eli- 17. Various articles of iron, such as
zabeth, when Sir Francis Godolphin intro- spoons, nails, bridle-bits, and small chains,

duced great improvements in the tin works. are coated with tin, by immersing them in

The use of the reverbatory furnace was that metal, while in a state of fusion.
commenced about the beginning of the The great affinity of tin and copper, ren-
eighteenth century, and soon after, pit- ders itpracticable to apply a thin layer of

coal was substituted for charcoal. the former metal to the surface of the lat-

14. This metal, in its solid state, is ter and this is often done, as stated in the
;

called block-tin. It is applied, without article on the coppersmith.

admixture with any other metal, to the 18. Tin and quicksilver are applied to
formation of vessels, which are not to be the polished surface of glass, for the pur-
exposed to a temperature much above that pose of forming mirrors. In silvering
of hot water. A
kind of ware called plain looking-glasses, a flat, horizontal
biddery ware , is made of tin alloyed with slab is used as a table. This is first

a little copper. The vessels made of this covered with paper, and then with a sheet
composition are rendered black by the ap- of tin foil of the size of the glass. A
plication of nitre, "common salt, and sal quantity of quicksilver is next laid on
ammoniac. Foil is also made by pressing the foil,and spread over it with a roll of
it between steel rollers, or by hammering, cloth, or with a hare’s foot.
as in the case of gold, by the gold-beaters. 19. After as much quicksilver as the
15. But tin is most extensively applied surface will hold, has been spread on, and
as a coating to other metals, stronger than while it is yet in a fluid state, the glass is
itself, and more subject to oxidation. The shoved on the sheet of foil from the edo-e
plates which are usually denominated tin, of the table, driving a part of the liquid
are thin sheets of iron coated with this metal before it. The glass is then plaeed
metal. The reduced to thin plates
iron is in an inclined position, that every unne-
in a rolling-mill, and these are prepared for cessary portion of the quicksilver may be
being tinned, by first steeping them in drained off ;
after which it is again laid
'

water acidulated with muriatic acid, and flat upon the slab, and pressed for a con-
35
274 LEAD.

siderabie time with heavy weights. The performed, by means of several machines
remaining quicksilver amalgamates with invented by Seth Peck, of Hartford Co.,
the tin, and forms a permanent, reflecting Connecticut, These machines greatly ex-
surface. pedite the manufacture of tin wares, and
they have contributed much towards re-
ducing their price.
THE TIN-PLATE WORKER. This manufacture is an extensive
5.
1. The materials on which the tinner, branch of our domestic industry and vast ;

or tin-plateworker operates, are the rolled quantities of tin, in the shape of various
sheets of iron, coated with tin, as just de- utensils, are sold in different parts of the
scribed. He procures the sheets by the United States, by a class of itinerant mer-
box, and applies them to the roofs and other chants, called tin-pedlars ,
who receive in
parts of houses, or works them up into payment for their goods, rags, old pewter,
various utensils, such as pails, pans, bake- brass, and copper, together with feathers,
ovens, measures, cups, and ducts for con- hogs’ bristles, and sometimes ready money.
veying water from the roofs of houses.
2. In making the different articles, the
sheets are cut into pieces of proper size, LEAD.
with a huge pair of shears, and these are 1. Next to iron, lead is the most exten-
brought to the proposed form by different sively diffused, and the most abundant
tools, adapted to the purpose. The seve- metal. It is found in various combinations
ral parts are united by means of a solder in nature, but that mineralizedby sulphur
made of a composition of tin and lead. is the most abundant.This ore is denom-
The solder is melted, and made to run to inated galena by the mineralogists, and is
any part, at the will of the workman, by the kind from which nearly all the lead of
means of a copper instrument, heated for commerce is extracted.
the purpose, in a small furnace, with a 2. The ore having been powdered, and
charcoal fire. freed, as far as possible, from stony matter,
3. On
examining almost any vessel of is fused either in a blast or reverberatory
tin ware, it will be perceived, that, where furnace. In the smelting, lime is used as
the parts are united, one of the edges, at a flux, and this combines with the sulphur
least, and sometimes both, are turned, that and earthy matters, while the lead unites
the solder may be easily and advantage- with the carbon of the fuel, and sinks to
ously applied. It will also be discovered the bottom of the furnace, whence it is
that iron wire is applied to those parts re- occasionally let out into a reservoir.
quiring more strength than is possessed by 3. Lead extracted from galena, often
the tin itself. The edges and handles are contains a sufficient proportion of silver to
especially strengthened in this manner. render it an object to extract it. This is

4. The edges of the tin were formerly done by oxidizing the lead, by means of
turned on a steel edge, or a kind of anvil heat* and a current of air. At the end of
called a stock, with a mallet ;
and in some this operation, the silver remains with a
cases, this method is still pursued, but this small quantity of lead, which is afterwards
part of the work is now more expeditiously separated by the process of cupellation.
LEAD. 275

The oxide is applied to the purposes for in, which, unites with the tube previously
which it is used, or it is reduced again to formed. But pipes cast in this way are
a metallic state. found to have imperfections, arising from
4. The lead mines on the Mississippi flaws and air bubbles.
are very productive, and very extensive. 8. In the third method, which is the one

The principal mines are in the neighbour- most commonly practised, a thick tube of
hood of Galena, in the north-western part lead is cast upon one end of a long polished
of Illinois, and these are the richest on the iron cylinder or mandrel of the size of the
globe. The lead mines in the vicinity of bore of the intended pipe. The lead is
Potosi, Missouri, are also very productive. then reduced, and drawn out in length,
About 3,000,000 pounds are annually either by drawing it on the mandrel through
smelted in the United States. circular holes of different sizes, in a steel
5. Lead, on account of its easy fusibility plate, or by rolling it between contiguous
and softness, can be readily applied to a rollers, which have a semicircular groove
variety of purposes. It is cast in moulds, cut round the circumference of each.
to form weights, bullets, and other small 9. The fourth method consists in forc-
articles. Cisterns are lined, and roofs, &c. ing melted lead, by means of a pump, into
are covered with sheet lead and also in ; one end of a mould, while it is discharged
the construction of pumps and aqueducts, in the form of a pipe, at the opposite end.
leaden pipes are considerably used. The Care is taken so to regulate the tempera-
mechanic who applies this metal to these ture, that the lead is chilled just before it

purposes, is called a plumber. leaves the mould.


6. Lead is cast into sheets in sand, on 10. Shot is likewise made of lead.
large tables having a high ledge on each These instruments of death are usually
side. The melted lead is poured out upon cast in high towers constructed for the
the surface from a box, which is made to purpose. The lead is previously alloyed
move on rollers across the table, and is with a small portion of arsenic, to increase
equalized, by passing over it, a straight the cohesion of its particles, and to cause
piece of wood called a strike. The sheets it to assume more readily the globular form.
thus formed are afterwards reduced in It is melted at the top of the tower, and

thickness, and spread to greater dimen- poured into a vessel perforated at the bot-
sions, by compressing them between steel tom with a great number of holes.
rollers. 11. The lead, after running through
Leaden pipes may be made in various
7. these perforations, immediately separates
ways. They were at first formed of sheet into drops, which cool in falling through
lead, bent round a cylindrical bar, or man- the height of the tower. They are re-
drel,and then soldered but pipes formed
; ceived below in a reservoir of water,
in this manner were liable to crack and which breaks the fall. The shot are then
break. The second method consists in proved by rolling them down a board
casting successive portions of the tube in a placed in an inclined position. Those
cylindrical mould, having in it a core. As which are irregular in shape roll off at the
fast as the tube gets cold, it is drawn nearly sides, or stop, while the spherical ones
out of the mould, and more lead is poured continue on to the end.
;;

4.

THE IRON FOUNDER, &c.

IRON. the purposes of the arts at a very early


1. The properties which iron possesses, period. Tubal-Cain who was the seventh
in its various forms, render it the most use- generation from Adam, “ was an instructor
ful of all the metals. The toughness of of every artificer in brass and iron.” Noah
malleable iron renders it applicable to must have used much of this metal in the
purposes where great strength is required construction of the ark, and of course, he
while its difficult fusibility, and property must have transmitted a knowledge of it

of softening by heat, so as to admit of to his posterity.


forging and welding, cause it to be easily Nevertheless, the mode of separating
wrought it from the various substances with which
2. Cast iron, from its cheapness, and it is usually combined, was but imperfectly

from the facility with which its form may understood by the ancients and their use
;

be changed, is made the material of nu- of it was, most likely, confined chiefly to
merous structures. Steel, which is the the limited quantity found in a state
most important compound of iron, exceeds nearly pure. Gold, silver, copper, and tin,
all other metals in hardness and tenacity are more easily reduced to a state in which
and hence it is particularly adapted to the they are available in the arts. They were,
fabrication of cutting instruments. therefore, often used in ancient times,
3. Iron was discovered, and applied to for purposes to which iron would have
IRON 277

been more applicable. This was the case ception of the iron and dross, when melted
especially with copper and tin. above. The heavth requires to be removed
5. Fifteen distinct kinds of iron ore, at the end of every
blast, which is usually
have been discovered by mineralogists; continued from six to ten months in succes-
but of these, not more than four have been sion, unless accidentally interrupted.
employed in making iron. There are, 10. The preparation for a blast, consists
however, several varieties of the latter principally in providing charcoal and ore.
kind, all of which are classed by the The wood former is cut in the win-
for the
smelters of iron under the general denom- ter and spring, and charred and brought to
ination of bog and mountain , or hard ores. the furnace during the spring, summer,
6. The former has much of the appear- and autumn. What is not used during the
ance of red, brown, or yellowish earth, time of hauling, is stocked in coal-houses,
and is found in beds from one to six feet provided for the purpose.
thick, and in size, from one fourth of a rood 11. The wood is charred in the following
to twenty acres. The mountain, or hard manner. It is first piled in heaps of a

ore, to a superficial observer, differs but spherical form, and covered with leaves
little in its appearance from common rocks and dirt. The fire is applied to the wood,
or stones. It is found in regular strata in at the top, and when it has been sufficiently
hills and mountains, or in detached masses ignited, the pit is covered in ;
but to sup-
of various sizes, in hilly land, from two to port combustion, several air-holes are left
eight feet below the surface. near the ground. The colliers are obliged
7. The bog ore is supposed to be a de- to watch the pit night and day, lest, by
posite from water which has passed over the caving in of the dirt, too much air be
the hard ore. This is evidently the case admitted, and the wood be thereby con-
where both kinds occur.
in hilly countries, sumed to ashes.

Some iron-masters use the bog some, the ;


12. When the wood has been reduced
hard ;
and others, both kinds together. In to charcoal, the fire is partially extin-
this particular, they are governed by the guished by closing the air-holes. The
ore, or ores, which may exist in their coals are drawn from the pit with an iron-
vicinity. toothed rake, and while this is being per-
8. The apparatus in which the ore is formed, the dust mingles with them, and
smelted, is called a blast furnace, which smothers the fire which may yet remain.
isa large pyramidal stack, built of hewn Wood is also charred in kilns made of brick.
stone or brick, from twenty to sixty feet in 13. The hard ore is dug by miners, or,

height, with a cavity of a proportionate as they are commonly denominated, ore-


size. In shape, this cavity is near that of diggers. In the prosecution of their la-
an egg with the largest end at the bottom, bour, they sometimes follow a vein into a
and is lined with fire brick or stone, capa- hill or mountain. When the ore is found
ble of resisting an intense heat, f in strata, or lumps, near the surface, they
9. Below this cavity is placed the dig down it.toThis kind of ore com-
hearth, which is composed of four or five monly contains sulphur and arsenic, and to
large coarse sand stones, split out of a solid free it from those substances, and to render
rock, and chiselled, so as to suit each other it less compact, it is roasted in kilns, with
exactly. These form a cavity for the re- refuse charcoal, which is too fine to be
Y
278 THE IRON FOUNDER.

used for any other purpose. It is then 18. Pig crude iron, as it is some-
iron, or
broken to a suitable fineness with a ham- times called, being saturated with carbon
mer, or in a crushing mill. The bog ore and oxygen, and containing also a portion
seldom needs any reduction. of scoria, is too brittle for any other pur-
14. Every preparation having been pose than castings. Many of these, such
made, the furnace is gradually heated with as stoves, grates, mill-irons, plough-irons,
charcoal, and by degrees filled to the top, and kitchen utensils, are commonly manu-
when a small quantity of the ore is thrown factured at blast furnaces, and in many
on, and the blast is applied at the bottom, cases nearly all the iron is used for these
near the hearth. The blast is supplied by purposes. In such cases, the metal is

means of one or two cylindrical bellows, taken in a liquid state, from the hearth, in
the piston of which is moved by steam or ladles.
water power. 19. In Great Britain and Ireland, and
15. The coal is measured in baskets, perhaps in some other parts of Europe,
holding about one bushel and a half and ;
iron ore is smelted with coke a fuel ,
which
the ore, in boxes holding about one peck. bears the same relation to pit coal, that
Six baskets of coal, and as many boxes of charcoal does to wood. It is obtained by
ore as the furnace can carry, is called a heating or baking the coal in a sort of
half charge, which is renewed as often as oven or kiln, by which it becomes charred.
it may be necessary to keep the furnace Daring the process, a sort of bituminous
full. With every charge is also thrown in tar is disengaged from it, which is care-

one box of limestone. fully preserved, and applied to many use-


16. The limestone is used as a flux, to ful purposes.
aid in the fusion of the ore, and to separate
its earthy portions from the iron. The iron

sinks by its specific gravity, to the bottom


THE IRON FOUNDER.
of the hearth, and the earthy portions, now 1. The appellation of founder is given
converted into glass by the action of the to the superintendent of a blast furnace,
limestone and heat, also sink, and float and likewise to those persons who make
upon the liquid iron. This scum, or, as it castings either of iron, or any other metal.
is usually culled, scoria, slag, or cinder, is In every case, the term is qualified by a
occasionally removed by instruments made word prefixed, indicating the metal in
for the purpose. whieh he operates, or the kind of eastings
17. When the hearth has become full which he may make as, Srnss-founder,
;

of iron, the metal is let out at one corner iron-founder, or bell-founder. But what-
of it, into a bed of sand, called a pig-bed, soever may be the material in which he
which is from twenty to thirty feet in operates, or the kind of eastings which he
length, and five or six in width. One con- may produce, his work is performed on the
cave channel, called the sow, extends the same general principle.
whole length of the bed, from whieh forty 2. The sand most generally employed

or fifty smaller ones, called pig moulds, by the founder is loam, which possesses a
extend at right angles. The metal, when sufficient proportion of argillaceous mat-
cast in these moulds, is called pig iron, ter, to render it moderately cohesive, when
and the masses of iron, pigs. . damp. The moulds are formed by burying
;

THE IRON FOUNDER. 279

in the sand, wooden or metallic patterns, 7. Several moulders work together in


having the exact shape of the respective one foundry; and, when they have com-
articles to be cast. To exemplify the ge- pleted a sufficient number of moulds, they
neral manner of forming moulds, we will fill them with the liquid metal. The me-
explain the process of forming one for the tal for small articles is dipped from the

spider, a very common kitchen utensil. hearth or crucible of the furnace with iron
3. The pattern is laid upon a plain board, ladles, defended on every side with a thin
which, in this application is called a follow coating of clay mortar, and poured thence
board, and surrounded with a frame called into the moulds. But in casting articles
a flask, three or four inches deep. This requiring a great amount of iron, such as
is filled with sand, and consolidated with cannon, and some parts of the machinery
rammers, and by treading it with the feet. forsteam engines, the iron is transferred
Three wooden patterns for the legs are to the moulds in a continued stream
next buried in the sand, and a hole is made through a channel, leading from the bot-
for pouring in the metal. tom of the crucible. In such cases, the
4. One side of the mould having been moulds are constructed in a pit dug in the
thus formed, the flask, with its contents, is earth near the furnace. Large ladles full
turned over, and, the follow board having of iron are, in some founderies, emptied
been removed, another flask is applied to into the moulds by the aid of huge cranes.
the first, and filled with sand in the same Although the moulders have their
8.
manner. The two flasks are then taken distinct work to perform, yet they often
apart, and the main pattern, together with assist each other in lifting heavy flasks
those for the legs, removed. The whole and in all cases, in filling the moulds.
operation is finished, by again closing the The very labourious;
latter operation is
flasks. but the exertion is continued but a short
5. The mode of proceeding in forming time, since the moulds, constructed during
moulds for different articles, is varied, of a whole day can be filled in ten or fifteen
course, to suit their conformation. The minutes.
pattern is composed of several pieces,
often 9. Iron founderies are usually located
and the number and form of the flasks are in, or near, large cities, or towns, and are
also varied accordingly. Cannon balls are supplied with crude iron, or pig metal from
sometimes cast in moulds of iron and to ;
the blast furnaces in the interior. The
prevent the melted metal from adhering metal is fused either with charcoal or
to them, the inside is covered with pulver- with pit coal. In the former case, an arti-
ized black lead. ficial blast is necessary to ignite the fuel
6. Rollers for flattening iron are also but in the latter, this object is often ef-
cast in iron moulds. This method is called fected in air furnaces, which are
so con-
chill casting, and has for its object the structed that a sufficient current of air is
hardening of the surface of the metal, by obtained directly from the atmosphere.
the sudden reduction of the temperature, 10. The making castings of
practice of
which takes place in consequence of the iron is comparatively modern those of the
:

great power of the mould, as a conductor ancients were made of brass, and other
of heat. These rollers are afterwards alloys of copper. Until the beginning of
turned in a powerful lathe. the last century, iron was but little applied
280 THE BAR IRON MAKER.

in this way. This use of it, however, has from six to twelve hundred pounds, and
extended so rapidly, that cast iron is now is most commonly moved by water power.

the material of almost every kind of ma- 5. For manufacturing bar iron directly

chinery, as well as that of innumerable from the ore, the furnace is similar in its
implements of common application. Even construction to the one just described, and
bridges and rail-roads have been con- the operations throughout are very similar.
structed of cast-iron. A fire is first made upon the hearth with
charcoal ;
and, when the fuel has become
well ignited, a quantity of ore is thrown
THE BAR IRON MAKER. upon it, and the ore and the fuel are re-
1. Bar iron is manufactured from pig- newed as occasion may require. As the
iron, from blooms and directly from the
, iron melts, and separates from the earthy
ore ;
the process is consequently varied in portions of the ore, it sinks to the bottom
conformity with the state of the material of the hearth. The scoria is let off occa-
on which it is commenced. sionally, through holes made for the pur-
2. In producing bar iron from pigs, the pose. When iron enough has accumulated
latter are melted in a furnace similar to a to make a loop as the mass
, is called, it is
smith’s forge, w ith
T
a sloping cavity ten or taken out, and forged into bars under the
twelve inches below, where the blast-pipe tilt-hammer.
is admitted. This hearth is filled with This way of making bar iron is de-
6.
charcoal and dross, or scoria; and upon nominated the method of the Catalan
these is laid the metal and more coal. forge, and is by far the cheapest, and most
After the coal has become well ignited, expeditious. It is in general use in all the
the blast is applied. The iron soon begins southern countries of Europe, and it is be-
to melt, and as it liquefies, it runs into the ginning to be extensively practised in the
cavity or hearth below : here, being out of United States. When a Catalan forge is
the reach of the blast, it soon becomes employed in making blooms ,
it is called a
solid. bloomery.
3. It is then taken out, and fused again 7. The blooms are about eighteen inches
in the same manner, and afterwards a third long, and four in diameter. They are
time. After the third heat, when the iron formed under the tilt-hammer, and differ
has become solid enough to bear beating, in substance from bar iron in nothing, ex-
it is slightly hammered with a sledge, to cept that, having been imperfectly forged,
free it from the adhering scoria. It is the fibres of the metal are not fully ex-
then returned to the furnace, but being tended, nor firmly united. The blooms
placed out of the reach of the blast, it are manufactured in the interior of the
soon becomes sufficiently compact to bear country where wood is abundant, and sold
the tilt-hammer. by the ton, frequently, in the cities, to be
4. With this instrument, the iron is converted into bar or sheet iron.
beaten, until the mass has been considera- These blooms are converted into bar
8.
bly extended, when it is cut into several iron,by first heating them in an air fur-
pieces, which, by repeated beating and nace, by means of stone coal, and then
forging, are extended into bars, as we see passing them between chill cast iron roll-
them for sale. The tilt-hammer weighs ers. The rollers are filled with grooves;.
THE WIRE DRAWER. 281

which gradually decrease in size from one to a rod sufficiently small to be forced
side to the other. When the iron has through the largest hole. The best wire
passed through these, the bloom of eigh- is produced from rods formed by the me-

teen inches in length, has become ex- thod mentioned.


first ,

tended to nearly as many feet. The bar Various machines are employed to
2.
thus formed having been cut into four overcome the resistance of the plate to the
-pieces, the process is finished by welding passage of the wire. In general, the wire
them together laterally, and again passing is held by pincers, near the end, and as
them between another set of rollers, by fast as drawn through the plate, it is
it is
which they are brought to the form in which wound upon a roller, by the action of a
they are to remain. wheel and axle, or other power. Some-
9. Blooms are also laminated into sheets, times, a rack and pinion are employed for
on the same principle, between smooth this purpose,and sometimes a lever, which
rollers, which are screwed nearer to each acts at intervals, and which takes fresh
other every time the bloom is passed be- hold of the wire every time the force is
tween them. Very thin plates, like those applied.
which are tinned for the tin-plate workers, 3. The wire are made
finer kinds of
are repeatedly doubled, and passed between from the larger by repeated drawings,
the rollers, so that in the thinnest plates, each of which is performed through a
sixteen thicknesses are rolled together, oil smaller hole than the preceding. As the
being interposed prevent their cohe-
to metal becomes stiff and hard, by the repe-
sion. The last rollings are performed tition of this process, it is occasionally an-
while the metal is cold. nealed, to restore its ductility. Wire is
10. Rolled plates of iron are frequently formed of other metals by the same gene-
cut into rods, and narrow strips. This ral method.
operation is performed by means of ele-
vated angular ring's upon rollers, which
are so situated that they act reciprocally THE STEEL MANUFACTURER.
upon each other, and cut like shears. 1. Steel a compound of iron and car-
is

These rings are separately- made, so that bon ;


and, as there are several methods by
they can be removed for the purpose of which the combination is produced, there
sharpening them, when necessary. The are likewise several kinds of steel. The
mills in which the operations of rolling best steel is said to be made of Swedish or
and slitting iron are performed, are called Russian bar iron.
rolling and slitting mills. 2. The most common method of forming
steel is by the process of cementation .

The operation is performed in a conical


THE WJRE DRAWER. fbrnace, in which are two large cases or
1. Iron is reduced to the form of wire troughs, made of fire brick, or good fire
by drawing rods of it through conical stone ;
and beneath these is a long grate.
holes in a steel|plate. prepare theTo On the bottom of the cases is placed a
metal for the operation of drawing, it is layer of charcoal dust; this a and over
subjected to the action of the hammer, or layer of bar *iron. Alternate strata of
to that of rollers, until it has been reduced these materials are continued to a con-
?
36 Y 2
;

282 THE STEEL MANUFACTURER.

siderable height, ten or twelve tons of iron 7. is also made directly from cast
Steel
being put in at once. iron, or at once from the ore. This kind
3. The whole is covered with clay or is called natural or German steel, and is
sand, to exclude the air, and flues are car- much inferior to that obtained by cementa-
ried through the pile from the furnace be- tion. The best steel, produced directly
low, so as to heat the contends equally and from the ore, comes from Germany, and is
completely. The fire is kindled in the made in Stiria. It is usually imported in
grate,and continued for eight or ten days, barrels, or in chests about three feet long.
during which time, the troughs, with their 8. Steel is sometimes alloyed with other
contents, are kept red hot. The progress of metals. A celebrated Indian steel, called
the cementation is discovered by drawing wootz, supposed to be carbonated iron,
is

a test bar from an aperture in the side. combined with small quantities of silicium
4. When the conversion of the iron into and aluminum. Steel alloyed with a very
steel appears to be complete, the fire is ex- small proportion of silver, is superior to
tinguished and after having been suffered
; wootz, or to the best cast steel; some
to cool for six or eight days, it is removed. other metals are also used with advantage
Iron combined with charcoal in this man- in the same application.
ner, is denominated blistered steel from , 9. Steel was discovered at a very early
the blisters which appear on its surface, period of the world ; for aught we know,
and in this state, it is much used for com- long before the flood. Pliny informs us,
mon purposes. that, in his time, the best steel came from
5. To render this kind of steel more China, and that the next best came from
perfect, the bars are heated to redness, Parthia. A manufacture of steel existed
and then drawn out into bars of much in Sweden as early as 1340 of the Chris-
smaller dimensions, by means of a ham- tian era, but it is generally thought that
mer moved by water or steam power. the process of converting iron into steel
This instrument is called a tilting ham- by cementation, originated in England at a
mer on which account, the bars formed
;
later period. The method of making cast
by it are called tilted steel. When the steel was invented at Sheffield, in the lat-
bars have been exposed to heat, and after- ter country, in 1750, and for a long time it

wards doubled, drawn out, and welded, the was kept secret.
product is called shear steel. been but a few years since
10. It has
6. But steel of cementation, however thismanufacture was commenced in the
carefully made, is never quite equable in United States. At present, we have four-
its texture ;
steel possessing this latter teen steel furnaces, viz at Boston, one :

quality made, by fusing bars of blistered


is New-York, three; Troy, one; New-Jersey,
steel, in a crucible placed in a wind fur- two; Philadelphia, three; York Co. Pa,
nace.
T
W
hen the fusion has been com- one Baltimore, one and Pittsburg, two.
; ;

pleted, the liquid metal is cast into small These furnaces together are said to be ca-'
bars or ingots, which are known in com- pable of yielding more than 1600 tons of
merce by the name of cast steel. Cast steel in a year. The American steel is
steel is harder, more elastic, closer in tex- employed in the fabrication of agricultu-
ture, and capable of receiving a higher and it has entirely excluded
ral utensils,
polish than common steel. the common English blistered steel.
THE BLACKSMITH, AND THE NAILOR.
THE BLACKSMITH. and of every description, for the
artists
1. The blacksmith operates in wrought tools with which they operate: in short,
iron and steel, and from these materials, we can scarcely fix upon a single utensil,
he fabricates a great variety of articles, vehicle, or instrument, which does not
essential to domestic convenience, and to owe its origin, either directly or indirect-
the arts generally. ly, to the blacksmith.
2. This business is one of those trades 4, This business being thus extensive
essential in the rudest state of society. in its application,it cannot be presumed

Even the American Indians are so sensi- that any one person can be capable of ex-
ble of its importance, that they cause to ecuting every species of work. This, how-
be inserted in the treaties which they ever, is not necessary ; since the demand
make with the United States, an article for particular articles is frequently so great,
stipulating for a blacksmith to be settled that the whole attention may be directed
among them, and for a supply of iron. to the multiplication of individuals of the
3. The utility of this trade will be fur- same kind. Some smiths make only an-
ther manifest by the consideration, that chors, axes, scythes, hoes, or shovels. v
almost every other business is carried on 5. In such cases, the workmen acquire
by its aid. The agriculturist is dependent great skill and expedition in the manufac-
on it for farming utensils, and mechanics ture. A tilt hammer is often used in forg-

284 THE BLACKSMITH.


ing large masses of iron, and even in tends to produce a rapid oxidation of the
making utensils as small as the hoe, the surface. This result is measurably pre-
axe, and the sword but the hammer which
;
vented by immersing the iron in sand and
may be employed bears a due proportion in common salt, which, uniting, form a vitre-
its weight to the mass of iron to be wrought. ous coating for its protection. This coating
In all cases in which a tilt hammer is used, is no inconvenience in the forging, as its
the bellows from which the blast proceeds fluidity causes it to escape immediately
is moved by water or steam power. under the action of the hammer.
6. In the shop represented at the head 10. Steel is combined with iron in the
of this article, sledges and hammers are manufacture of cutting instruments, and
used as forging instruments, and these are other implements, as well as articles re-
wielded by the workmen themselves. The quiring, at certain parts, a great degree
head workman has hold of a piece of iron of hardness. This substance possesses the
with a pair of tongs, and he, with a ham- remarkable property of changing its degree
mer, and two others, with each a sledge, of hardness by the influence of certain de-
are forging it upon an anvil. The two grees of temperature. No other substance
men are guided in their disposition of the is kn own to possess this property ;
but it is

strokes chiefly by the hammer of the mas- the peculiar treatment which it receives
ter-workman. from the workman that renders it available.
7. In ordinary blacksmith shops, two 11. If steel is heated to redness, and
persons commonly work at one forge one ;
suddenly plunged into cold water, it is ren-
of whom takes the lead in the operations, dered extremely hard, but, at the same
and the other works the bellows and uses time, too brittle for use. On the other
the sledge. From the part which the lat- hand, if it is suffered to cool gradually, it

ter takes in the labour, he is called the becomes too soft and ductile. The great
blower and striker. A man or youth, who object of the operator is to give to the

understands but little of the business, can, steel a quality equally distant from brittle-

in many cases, act in this capacity tolera- ness and ductility. The treatment by which
bly well. this is effected is called tempering which ,

8. The iron is rendered malleable by will be more particularly treated in the

heating with charcoal or with stone coal,


it article on the cutler, whose employment
which is ignited intensely by means of a is a refined brancli of this business.
blast from a bellows. The iron is heated
more or less, according to the particular
object of the workman. When he wishes THE NAILOR.
to reduce it into form,he raises it to a 1. Nail-making constitutes an exten-
white heat. The welding heat is less in- sive branch of the iron business ;
as vast
tense, and is used when two pieces are to quantities of nails are annually required
be united by welding. At a red heat, and by all civilized communities. They are
at lower temperatures, the iron is render- divided into two classes, the names of
ed more compact in its internal texture, which indicate the particular manner in
and more smooth upon its surface. which they are manufactured ;
viz. —
9. The joint action of the heat and air, wrought nails and cut nails.
while the temperature is being raised, I 2. The former are usually forged on the
;

THE NAILOR. 285

anvil, and when a finished head is re- an average, is not more than two cents
quired, as is commonly the case, it is ham- per pound above that of bar iron.
mered on the larger end, after it has been 5. On account of the greater expense
inserted into a hole of an instrument form- of manufacturing wrought nails, they are
ed for the purpose. Workmen by practice sold much higher. It is said that nine-
acquire surprising dispatch in this busi- tenths of all the nails of this kind, used in
ness; and this Circumstance has prevented the United States, are imported from Eu-
the general introduction of the machines rope. We thus depend upon foreign coun-
which have been invented for making nails tries for theseand many other articles, be-
of this description. Wrought nails can be cause they can be imported cheaper than
easily distinguished from cut nails, by the we can make them and this circumstance
;

indentations of the hammer which have arises chiefly from the difference in the
been left upon them. price of labour.
3. In making cut nails, the iron is first 6. The first machine for making cut
brought into bars between grooved rollers. nails was invented in Massachusetts about
The size of the bars is varied in con- thirty years ago,
by a Mr. Odion, and soon
formity with that of the proposed nails. afterwards another was contrived, by a
These bars are again heated, and passed Mr. Reed, of the same state. Other ma-
between smooth rollers, which soon spread chines, for the same purpose, 'have like-
them into thin strips of suitable width and wise been constructed by different persons,
thickness. These strips, having been cut but those by Odion and Reed are most
into pieces two or three feet in length, are commonly used. Before these machines
heated to a red heat in a furnace, to be were introduced, the strips of iron just de-
immediately converted into nails, when scribed were cut into wedgelike pieces by
designed for those of a large size. For an instrument which acted on the princi-
small nails, the iron does not require heat- ple of the shears; and these were after-
ing. wards headed, one by one, with a hammer
4. The end of the plate is presented to in a vice.The fact, that the manufacture
the machine, by a workman who turns the of this kind of nails originated in our coun-
material over, one way, and then the
first try, is worthy of recollection.

other, for every nail. The machine has a 7. This manufacture includes also, that
rapid reciprocating motion, and cuts off, of tacks and spikes but since, in the pro-
;

at every stroke, a wedgelike piece of iron duction of these, the same general me-
constituting a nail without a head. This thods are pursued, they need no particular
is immediately caught near the head, and notice. The different sizes of tacks are

compressed between gripes and at the distinguished by a method which indicates


same time, a force is applied to a die at the number per ounce ;
as two, three, or
the end, which spreads the iron sufficient- four hundred per ounce. Spikes are de-
ly to form the head. From one to two signated by their length in inches, and
hundred can be thus formed in a minute. nails by the terms, two-penny, three-pen-
This fact accounts for the low rate at ny, four-penny, ten-penny, and so on up to
which cut nails are now sold, which, on sixty-penny.
;

THE CUTLER.
1. Under the head of cutlery, is com- and polishing ;
and these are performed in
prehended a great variety of instruments the order in which they are here men-
designed for cutting and penetration, and tioned.
the business of fabricating them is divided 3. The general method of forging iron
into a great number of branches. Some and steel, in every branch of this business,
manufacture nothing but axes ;
others is the same with that used in the common
make and chisels
plane-irons augers
;
blacksmith’s shop, for more ordinary pur-
saws or carvers’ tools. Others again,
;
poses. The process, however, is somewhat
make smaller instruments, such as table- varied, to suit the particular form of the
knives, forks, pen-knives, scissors, and ra- object to be fashioned for example the
:
;

zors. There are also cutlers who manu- blades and some other parts of the scissors
facture nothing but surgical instruments. are formed by hammering the steel upon
2. The coarser kinds of cutlery are made, indented surfaces called bosses. The bows,
of blistered steel welded to iron. Tools of which receive the finger and thumb, are
a better quality are made of shear steel, made by first punching a hole in the metal,
while the sharpest and most delicate in- and then enlarging it by the aid of a tool
struments are formed of cast steel. The called a beak-iron.
several processes constituting this business 4. The steel, after having been forged,
may be comprised in forging, tempering, is soft, like iron, and to give it the requi-
THE CUTLER. 287

sitedegree of strength under the uses to colour and this is used for fine
is full blue,
which the tools or instruments are to be saws, augers, &c. At 600 degrees, a dark
exposed, it is hardened. The process by blue approaching to black settles upon the
which this is effected is called tempering, metal, and this produces the softest of all
and the degree of hardness or strength to the grades of temper, which is used only
which the steel is brought is called its for the larger kinds of saws.
temper,- which is required to be higher or Other methods of determining the
8.
lower according to the use which is to be degree of temperature at which the differ-
made of the particular instrument. ent kinds of cutlery are to be immersed, a
5. In giving to the different kinds of in- second time, in cold water, are also prac-
struments the requisite temper, they are tised. By
one method, the pieces of steel
first heated to redness, and then plunged are covered with tallow or oil, or put into
into cold water. This, however, raises the a vessel containing one of these substances,
temper too high, and, if left in this condi- and heated over a moderate fire. The ap-
tion, they would be too brittle for use. To pearance of the smoke indicates the de-
bring them to a proper state, they are heat- gree of heat to which it may have been
ed to a less degree of temperature, and raised. A more accurate method is found
again plunged into cold water. The de- in the employment of a fluid medium, the
gree to which they are heated, the second temperature of which can be regulated by
time, is varied according to the hardness a thermometer. Thus oil, which boils at
required. That this particular point may 600 degrees, may be employed for this pur-
be perfectly understood, a few examples pose, at any degree of heat which is below
will be given. that number.
6.Lancets are raised to 430 degrees 9. The grinding of cutlery is effected
Fahrenheit. The temperature is indicated on cylindrical stones of various kinds,
by a pale colour, slightly inclined to yel- among which freestone is the most com-
low. At 450 degrees, a pale straw-colour mon. These are made to revolve with
appears, which is found suitable for the prodigious velocity, by means of machine-
best razors and surgical instruments. At ry. The operation is therefore quickly per-
470 degrees,- a full yellow is produced, formed. The polishing is commonly ef-
which is suitable for pen-knives, common fected by using, first, a wheel of wood ;

razors, &c. At 490, a brown colour ap- then, one of pewter


and, lastly, one co-
;

pears, which is the indication of a temper vered with buff leather sprinkled with an
proper for shears, scissors, garden hoes, and impure oxide of iron, called colcothar or
chisels intended for cutting cold iron. crocus The edges are set with either
.

7. At 510 degrees, the brown becomes hones or whetstones, or with both, accord-
dappled with purple spots, which shows ing to the degree of keenness required.
the proper heat for tempering axes, com- 10. Almost every description of cutlery
mon chisels, plane-irons, &c. At 530 de- requires a handle of some sort; but the
grees, a purple colour is established, and nature of the materials, as well as the
;his temperature is proper for table-knives form and mode of application, will be
md large shears. At 550 degrees, a bright readily understood by a little attention to
olue appears, which is proper for swords the various articles of this kind which
;,nd watch springs. At 560 degrees, the daily fall in our way.
288 THE CUTLER,
11. A process has been invented, by ed, that the food might be taken upon
which edge tools, nails, &c., made of cast them, as upon a fork and knives of the
*,

iron, may be converted into good steel. It same shape are still common on the conti-
consists in stratifying the articles with the nent of Europe. Round-topped knives
oxide of iron, in a metallic cylinder, find were not adopted in Paris, until after the
then submitting the whole to a regular banishment of Napoleon Bonaparte to
heat, in a furnace built for the purpose. Elba, in 1815, when every thing English
This kind of cutlery, however, will not became fashionable in that city.
bear a very fine edge. 16. In France, before the revolution of
12. The sword and the knife were pro- 1789, it was customary for every gentle-

bably the first instruments fabricated from man, when invited to dinner, to send his
iron, and they still continue to be leading knife and fork before him, by a servant;
subjects of demand, in all parts of the or, if he had no servant, he carried them
world. The most celebrated swords of himself, in his breeches pocket. A few of
antiquity were made at Damascus, in Sy- the ancient regime still continue the old
ria. These weapons never broke in the custom. The peasantry of the Tyrol, and
hardest conflicts, and were capable of cut- of some parts of Germany and Switzer-
ting through steel armour without sustain- land, generally carry about them a case,
ing injury. containing a knife and fork, and a spoon.
13. The fork, as applied in eating, is 17. The use of the fork, for a long time,
an invention comparatively modern. It was considered so great a luxury, that the
appears to have had its origin in Italy, pro- members of many of the monastic orders
bably in the fourteenth century ; but it was were forbidden to indulge in it. The
not introduced into England, until the Turks and Asiatics use no forks, even to
reign of James the First, in the first quar- this day. The Chinese employ, instead
ter of the seventeenth. Its use was, at of this instrument, two small sticks, which
first, the subject of much ridicule and op- they hold in the same hand, between dif-
position. ferent fingers.
14. Before the introduction of the fork, 18. The manufacture of cutlery is car-
a piece of paper, or something in place of ried on most extensively in England, at
it, was commonly wrapped round some Birmingham, Sheffield, Walsall, Wolver-
convenient projection of the piece to be hampton and London. London cutlery has
carved and', at this place, the operator
; the reputation of being the best, and this
placed one hand, while he used the knife circumstance induces the dealers in that
with the other. The carver cut the mass city, to affix the London mark to articles
of meat into slices or suitable portions, and made at other places. In the United
laid them upon the large slices of bread States, there are many establishments for
which had been piled up near the platter, the fabrication of the coarser kinds of cut-
or carving dish, and which, after having lery, such as axes, plane-irons, saws, hoes, ,

been thus served, were handed about the scythes, &c., but for the finer descriptions •

table, as we now distribute the plates, of cutting instruments, we are chiefly de-
15. The knives used at table were point- pendent on Europe.
;

1. It is the business of the gun-smith to 3. The formed by forging a bar


barrel is

manufacture fire-arms of the smaller sorts of iron into a flat piece, of proper length
such as muskets, fowling-pieces, rifles, and and thickness; and then, by turning the
pistols. plate round a cylindrical rod of tempered
2. The principal parts of the instru- steel, called a mandril, the diameter of
ments fabricated by this artificer, are the which is considerably less than the intend-
barrel, the stock,' and the lock. In per- ed bore of the barrel. The edges
of the
forming the operations connected with this plate are made to overlap each other about
business, great attention is paid to the di- half an inch, and are welded together by
vision of labour, especially in large estab- heating the tube in lengths of two or three
lishments, such as those belonging to the inches at a time, and by hammering them
United States, at Springfield and Harper’s with very brisk, but moderate strokes, upon
Ferry: for example; one set of workmen an anvil which has a number of semicir-
forge the barrels, ramrods, or some part cular furrows upon it.
of the lock; others reduce some part of the 4. In constructing barrels of better work-
forged material to the exact form required, manship, the iron is forged in smaller
by means of files ; and again another class pieces, eight or nine inches long, and
of operators perform some part of the work welded together laterally, as well as length-
relating to the stock. wise. The barrel is now finished in the
37
290 THE GUN-SMITH.

usual way ;
or it is first made to undergo the duced somewhat with the file, and polished
additional operation of twisting ,
a process — with substances usually employed for such
employed upon those intended to be of su- purposes. The several pieces of the lock
perior quality. The operation is performed having been put together, it is fastened to
by heating small portions of it at a time, the stock with screws. Other particulars
and twisting them successively, while one in regard to the manufacture of small-arms
end is held fast. will be readily suggested by a careful in-
5. The barrel is next bored with seve- spection of the d ififer ent kinds, whieh are
ral bits, each a little larger than the pre- frequently met with.
ceding one. The last bit is precisely the 9. The period at which, and the coun-
size of the intended calibre. After the try where, gunpowder and fire-arms were
barrel has been polished* and the breech first invented, cannot be certainly deter-
closed with a screw, its strength and sound- mined. Some attribute their invention to
ness are tested by means of a ball of the the Chinese; and, in confirmation of this
proper size, and a charge of powder equal ©pinion, assert that there are now cannon
in weight to the ball. Pistol-barrels, whieh in China, whieh were made in the eighti-
are to go in pairs, are forged in one piece, eth year of the Christian era. On this
which is cut asunder, after it has been, supposition, their use was gradually ex-
bored. tended to the west, until they were finally
6. Barrels for rifles are much thicker adopted in Europe in the fourteenth cen-
than those for other small-arms: and, in tury.
addition to the boring in common barrels, however, attribute the inven-
10. Others,
they are furrowed with a number of grooves tion of gunpowder to Berthold Schwartz, a
or rifles ,
which extend from one end of the monk, who lived at Mentz, between the
cavity to the other, either in a straight or years 1290 and 1320. It is said, that in
spiral direction. These rifles are supposed some of his alchymistic experiments, he
to prevent the rolling of the ball in its put some saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal,
passage out, and to direct it more uner- into a mortar, and having accidentally
ringly to the object of aim. dropped into it a spark of fire, the contents
7. The stocks are uniformly manufac- exploded, and threw the pestle into the
tured from the wood of the walnut-tree. air. This circumstance suggested to his
These are first dressed in a rough manner, mind the employment of- the mixture for
usually in the country. After the wood throwing projectiles. Some traditions, how-
has been properly seasoned, they are fin- ever, attribute the invention to Constantine
ished by workmen, who commonly confine Antlitz, of Cologne.
their attention to this particular branch of 11. The fire-arms first used in Europe
the business. In each of the United States were cannon, and these were originally
armories, employed a machine with which
is made of wood, wrapped in numerous folds
the stocks are turned and also one, with ;
of linen, and well secured with iron hoops.
which the place for the lock is made. They were conical in shape, being widest
8. The several pieces composing the at the muzzle; but this form was soon
lock are forged on anvils, some of which changed for the cylindrical. At length
have indented surfaces, the more readily they were made of bars of iron, firmly
;o give the proposed form. They are re- bound together with hoops of the same
THE GUN-SMITH. 291

metal. In the second half of the fourteenth before the beginning of the eighteenth
century, a composition of copper and tin, century.
which was brought to form by casting in 15. The bayonet was invented, about
sand, came into use. the year 1640, at Bayonne ;
but was not
it

12. Cannon were formerly dignified with generally introduced until the pike was
great names. Charles V. of Spain had entirely discontinued, about sixty years
twelve, which he called after the twelve afterwards. It was first carried by the
apostles. One at Bois-le-Duc is called the side, and was used as a dagger in close
devil a sixty-pounder, at Dover Costle, is fight; but, in 1690, the custom of fastening
called Queen Elizabeth's pocket-pistol; it to the muzzle of the fire-lock was com-

an eighty-pounder, at Berlin, is called the menced in France, and the example was
thunderer; two sixty-pounders, at Bremen, soon followed throughout Europe.
the messengers of bad news. But can- 16. Gunpowder, on which the use of
non are, at present, denominated from the fire-arms depends, is a composition of salt-
weight of the balls which they carry as ; petre, sulphur, and charcoal. The propor-
six-pounders, eight-pounders, &c. tion of the ingredients is varied considerably
13. Fire-arms of a portable size were in different countries, and by different man-
invented about the beginning of the six- ufacturers in the same country. But good
teenth century. The musket was the first gunpowder may be made of seventy-six
of this class of instruments that appeared parts of saltpetre, fifteen of charcoal, and
and the Spanish nation the first that adopt- nine of sulphur. These materials are first
ed its use as a military weapon. It was reduced to a fine powder separately, and
originally very heavy, and could not be then formed into a homogeneous mass by
well supported in a horizontal position moistening the mixture with water, and
without a rest. The soldiers, on their pounding it for a considerable time in
march, carried only the rest and ammuni- wooden mortars.
tion, while each was followed by a youth 17. After the paste has been suffered to
who bore the musket. dry a little, it is forced through a kind of
14. The powder was not ignited with a sieve. By this process, it is divided into
spark from a flint, but with a match. Af- which depends upon that
grains, the size of
terwards, a lighter match-lock musket was of the holes through which they have been
introduced, which was carried by the sol- passed. The powder is then dried in ovens,
diers themsel ves. The rest, however, main- and afterwards put into barrels, which are
tained its ground until about the middle made to revolveon their axis. The fric-
of the seventeenth century. The troops tion produced by this motion destroys the as-
throughout Europe were furnished with perities of the grains, and renders their sur-
fire-locks, such as are now used, a little faces smooth, and capable of easy ignition.
4.

THE VETERINARY SURGEON.


1. The horse, as well as the other do- ther Greek or Roman, nothing worthy of
mestic animals, is subject to a great vari- notice has been transmitted to us, beyond
ety of diseases, which, like those affecting an occasional citation of names, in the
the human system, are frequently under works of Columella, a Roman writer, who
the control of medicinal remedies; and flourished in the reign of Tiberius CfEsar,
the same general means which are effica- and in Vegetius Renatus, who lived two
cious in healing the disorders of our race, centuries afterwards. The former treated
are equalty so in controlling those of the at large on the general management of do-
inferior part of the animal creation. mestic animals, and the latter more profess-
2. The great value of the domestic ani- edly on the diseases to which they are liable.'
mals has rendered them, from the earliest Both of these writers treated their
periods, the objects of study and attention, subject in elegant classical Latin ;
but
not only while in health, but also when la- neither they nor any other ancient author
bouring under disease. For the latter state, whose works have reached had any us,
a peculiar system was early formed, in- professional acquaintance with medicine
cluding a materia medica, and a general or surgery. Celsus is the only physician
mode of treatment considerably different of those times who is said to have written
from those for human patients. on animal medicine ; but this part of hi®
3. Of the authors of this system, whe- works is not extant.
THE VETERINARY SURGEON. 293
5. Xenophon is the oldest veterinary 9. At this period, that branch of this art
writer on record ;
but his treatise is con- which relates to the medical and surgical
fined to the training and management of treatment of the horse, attracted the atten-
the horse for war and the chase'. The tion of William Gibson, who had acted in
chief merit of the ancient writers on this the capacity of army surgeon in the wars
subject consists in the dietetic rules and do- of Queen Anne. He was the first author
mestic management which they propose. of the regular medical profession, in Eng-
Their medical prescriptions are said to be land, who attempted to improve veterinary
an inconsistent and often discordant jumble science ;
and the publication of his work
of many articles, devoid of rational aim, or forms an era in
its annals since his work ;

probable efficacy. became, and has continued to the present


0. On the revival of learning in Europe, day, the basis ,of the .superior practice of
when the anatomy and physiology of the the English.
human body had become grand objects of 10. The eighteenth century was abun-
research in the Italian schools, veterinary dantly fruitful in veterinary pursuits and
anatomy attracted the attention of Ruini publications. France took the lead but a ;

and whose descriptive labours on


others, zeal for this branch of science pervaded
the body of the horse have sinee served for Germany and the states north of that part
the ground-work and model to all the of Europe, and colleges were established
schools in Europe. in various countries, with the express view
7. The works
of the veterinary writers of cultivating this branch of the medical
of antiquity were eagerly sought and trans- art. It is said that the French have im-
lated in Italy and France* and the art was proved the anatomical and surgical branch-
extensively cultivated, sometimes under es of the art, and the English those which
regular medical professors. Every branch relate to the application of medicines.
of the equine economy was pursued with 11. The first veterinary school was in-
assiduity and success, whether it related stituted at Lyons, in 1762. Another was
to harness and trappings, equitation arid established at Alfort, in 1766. A similar
military menage, or the methodical treat- institution was opened at Berlin in 1792 ;

ment of the hoof, and the invention of va- and in the same year, one at St. Pancras,
rious kinds of iron shoes. Evangelista of near London. In these colleges, lectures
Milan distinguished himself in the educa- are given, and degrees conferred. In the
tion or breaking of the horse ;
and to him diplomas, the graduate is denominated ve-
is attributed the invention of the martin- terinary surgeon. A great number of these
gale. surgeons have been dispersed in the armies
8. The new science having been ex- of Europe, as well as through the different
tended over a great proportion of the con- countries, where they have been employed
tinent of Europe, could scarcely fail of in the medical and surgical treatment of
occasional communication with England: diseased animals, to the great advantage
nevertheless, the medical
treatment of of their owners.
horses and other domestic animals contin- 12. From the preceding account, it is
ued exclusively in the hands of farriers evident that the light of science has shone
and cow-doctors, until some time in the conspicuously, in Europe, on the domestic
first quarter of the eighteenth century. animals, in relation to their treatment, both
Z2
294 THE VETERINARY SURGEON.

while in health, and when labouring under horse, from the practice of supplying him
disease. In the United States, we have with shoes. The morbid affections of the
no institution for the cultivation of this footwere probably the first which attract-
branch of knowledge. The press, how- ed their notice ; and descanting upon these
ever, has been prolific in the production of induced the general belief, that they under-
works treating on the various branches of stood every other disease which might
the veterinary art and many persons, by
;
affect the animal.
their aid, have rendered themselves com- 15. These men, as labourers in iron,
petent to administer to animals in eases of were orginally termed ferrers or ferriers,
disease, in a rational manner. from the Latin word ferrum, iron, and —
13. Nevertheless, the praatice of animal their craft, ferriery. These terms, by a
medicine is confined chiefly to illiterate usual corruption or improvement in lan-
men, who, from their laborious habits, or guage, have been changed to farrier and
from other causes, have not attained to that farriery, both of which still remain in gen-
degree of information on animal diseases, eral use, the former as applied to persons
and the general effects of medicine, that who shoe horses and administer to them
might enable them to prescribe their rem- medicines and surgical remedies, and the
edies on scientific principles. But this latter to the art itself, by which they are,
state of things is not peculiar to our coun- or ought to be, guided.
try; for notwithstanding the laudable ef- 16. The appellation of veterinary sur-
forts of enlightened men in Europe, the geon is applicable to persons who have
blacksmiths form a vast majority of the received a diploma from some veterinary
horse-surgeons and physicians in every college, or who have, at least, studied ani-
part of it ;
and the medical treatment of mal medicine scientifically. There are a
the other domestic animals commonly
is few such individuals in the United States;
intrusted to persons who are still more in- and the great value of the domestic ani-
competent. mals, and the general increase of know-
14. The attention of blacksmiths was ledge, certainly justify the expectation,
very early turned to the diseases of the that their number will increase.
QUESTIONS
ON

THE ARTICLES OF THE PRECEDING PAGES,


NUMBERED

ACCORDING TO THE PARAGRAPHS TO WHICH THEY REFER,

THE AGRICULTURIST,
]. What is meant by the word proved processes which relate 33, 34. Before the invention of
Agriculture ? to the amelioration of the soil ? the saw-gin, how were the seeds
2. What is said of the agri- 15. What are the cultivators separated from the upland cot-
culture of the antediluvians ? of the soil called, in the United tons? Who invented the saw-
3. To what did Noah resort States ? gin?
for support immediately after the 16. Whatis the general pro- 35. Where was the sugar-cane
deluge ? cess of cultivating most of the first cultivated ?
4. Werethe husbandmen, for productions which have been 36. When was
the cane intro-
several centuries after the flood, mentioned? duced Arabia Felix ? Who
into
acquainted with any proper 17. How are corn, beans, pota- introduced it into America, and
mode of restoring exhausted toes, and pumpkins cultivated ? the West Indies ? Where is it
soils ? 18. How are the crops, men- now cultivated ?
5 What people first adopted tioned in this paragraph, se- 37. When was sugar known
the measure of retaining per- cured ? only as a medicine, in Europe ?
petual possession of their lands ? 19. What course is pursued, 38. How is the sugar-cane
6. By w hat means can the
r
in securing corn ? propagated ?
reader form some idea of the 20. How do the blacks pro- 39. How is the juice of the
extent to which this art was cul- ceed, at their husking matches ? cane expressed, evaporated, and
tivated, in ancient times ? 21. In what country did In- cooled ? How is the syrup se-
7. Was agriculture neglected dian corn and potatoes origin- parated from the sugar ?
by the learned men of anti- ate ? 40. How is this sugar further
quity ? 22. For what are the grasses purified ? and where ?
8. Until what period did agri- valuable to man ? 41. How is loaf-sugar manu-
culture maintain a respectable 23. Where was rice first cul- factured ?
standing in the Roman empire ? tivated ? 42. What is molasses ? From
9. When, and where, did 24. Where is rice now culti- what isrum distilled?
husbandry begin to be practised, vated ? How many crops do the 43. From what is sugar manu-
with considerable success, in Chinese obtain in a year, from factured in the Northern parts
England ? Who wrote the first the same ground ? of the United States, and the
book on husbandry, in the Eng- 25. How do they proceed, in Canadas?
lish language ? raising a crop ? 44. 45. How
is the sugar ob-
10. When, and by whom, were 26. How is the crop cut ? and tained from the sap? and how is
improvements made on the the- how is the rice threshed and it clarified ?
ory of this author ? cleared ? 46. What
is said of lands in
11. When did agriculture 27. When was rice introduced their native state ?
again receive a new impulse? into the Carolinas ? How is it 47. How
is land cleared by
When, and at whose suggestion, there sown and managed ? the Pennsylvanians?
was the Board of Agriculture 28. Where is cotton cultivated? 48, 49. How is land cleared by
established ? How many kinds of cotton are settlers from New-England ?
12. Where have agricultural there produced in the Southern 50. What is done with the
societies been formed, and pe- States ? ashes obtained in this mode of
riodical journals published, in 29. How are the plants pro- clearing land ?
imitation of those in Great Bri- pagated, and managed while 51, 52. What is the process of
tain? growing ? making pot-ash? and also of
13. In what do the great mo- 30. When is the cotton fit to pearl-ash ?
dern improvements in husband- be gathered ? 53, 54. Do the settlers usually
ry consist? 31. 32. How are
the seeds se- complete the whole process ? Is
14. To what science are we parated from the cotton ? De- the trade in ashes profitable to
indebted, for many of the im- scribe the roller-gin, and saw-gin. the settlers ?
296 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

THE HORTICULTURIST.
1. From what did the Creator gardening practised from the 13. Can we draw a distinct
form man? and in what situation eighth to the thirteenth century ? line between horticulture and
did he place him ? 7. When was gardening intro- agriculture ?
2. What may be supposed to duced into England as a source 14. Name the divisions of a
have been the state of this art of profit? complete garden.
before the flood? 8. When
did horticulture at- 15. What is said of professed
3. What statement in scrip- tract the attention of the first gardeners in Europe ?
ture may be regarded as proof characters in England ? 16. What is said of gardening
of the early attention to garden- 9. What is said of the ad- in the United States ?
ing after the flood ? vancement and present preva- 17. What is said of the hot-
4. What is one of the first in- lence of English gardening? house, and the green-house ?
dications of advancement to- 10. What is said of Horticul- 18. What vegetables are com-
wards civilization among savage tural Societies ? monly cultivated in gardens for
nations ? 11. What is said of authors the table ?
5. At what stage of refine- who have written upon practical 19. At what particular ob-
ment does ornamental gardening gardening ? jects does the scientific horticul-
begin to be attended to ? 12. What is said of periodical turalist aim in laying off his
6. By whom was ornamental publications upon horticulture ? garden ?

THE MILLER.
1. In what does the business 7. Explain the machinery of monly employed to move heavy
of the miller consist ? the common mill, as exhibited by machinery ? and when was the
2. What method of reducing the picture in this paragraph. windmill invented ?
grain to flour is the most simple ? 8. In what manner is the com- 13. Where are our most cele-
3. What is said of the hand- minuted grain bolted ? brated flour-mills ?
mill? 9. Of what materials are mill- 14. What is hominy ? and in
4. In what particular does the stones made ? what manner is it prepared-?:
modern corn or flour mill differ 10. In what manner is the 15. Describe the hominy mor-
from the ancient hand-mill ? miller paid for his services in a tar.
5. What is said of the surfaces grist mill ? 16. What kind of com is com-
of the stones ? 11. What is meant by a mer- monly chosen forhominy ?
6. What is said of the form of chant-mill ? 17. How is hominy prepared
the two stones ? 12. What agent is most com- for the table ?

THE BAKER.
1. In what does the business 7. What kinds of grain are of bread begin to be practised
of the baker consist ? most commonly employed in as a regular profession ? What
2. When did man begin to use making bread ? is said of the bakers of Rome ?
farinaceous grains, as his princi- 8. What are the component 15. In wliat manner is the
pal means of support ? parts of flour ? price of bread regulated in many
3. In what manner was the 9. How many
general me- of the cities of Europe ?
method of making fermented thods of making bread are there ? 16. What is said of the laws
bread discovered ? 10. Explain the theory of mak- regarding this subject in the
4. In what manner was bread ing light bread. United States ?
baked before the invention of 11. What substances are used 17. What is said of the labo-
the oven? as substitutes for yeast and lea- rious nature of this business ?
5. From what material were ven ? 18. Describe the daily rou-
the primitive ovens formed ? 12. Is the art of making bread tine of the baker’s labours.
6. Why is it that the animal universally practised ? 19. What is said of the differ-
economy requires dry food ? 13. 14. When did the baking ent branches of this business ?
OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 297

THE
11.
CONFECTIONER.
1. In what does the business marmalades, conserves, candies, 12. In what manner is soda
of the confectioner consist ? sugar-plumbs, ice cream, cakes ? water prepared ?

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. What are In what other articles does 13. Of what materials are pies
liquid and dry confects, jellies, the confectioner deal ? and tarts composed ?

4,
THE BREWER, AND THE DISTILLER.
THE BREWER. different kinds of beer differ 8. For what purposes are
1. What is meant by the art from each other ? crude spirits re-distilled, after
of brewing? What kind of 12. Why are ale and porter having been brought to market?
grain is usually preferred by the called stock liquors ? 9. What is said of the decep-
brewer ? 13. Where were fermented tions practised in this kind of
2, 3. By what means is barley liquors first used ? merchandise ?
converted into malt ? 14. What nation is most cele- 10.
T
What is said of the ambix?
5. Describe the process of brated for brewing good liquors? 11. Were the ancients ac-
mashing. quainted with alcohol ?
6. How many times does the 12. What opinion with regard
same malt require to be THE DISTILLER. to the use of alcohol is becoming
mashed ? 1. From what substances is general ?
7. What is done with the pro- alcohol extracted ? 13. What is said of the anti-
duct of the mashing-tun ? 2, 3, 4. From what materials quity of the use of wine ?
8. By what means is the fer- is whiskey obtained and what : 14, 15. Describe the process
mentation effected ? is the process by which this of making wine.
9. When does the brewer’s liquor is produced ? 16. What deleterious sub-
cleansing take place ? 5. What is done with the re- stances are used to improve the
10. What are the denomina- mains of the beer ? sensible qualities of wine ?
tions of the products of the 6. From w hat r
are brandy, 17. What kinds of wine are
brewery ? rum, arrack, &c. distilled ? most usually met with in this
11? In what respects do the 7. What is said of the alembic ? country ?

•'•V THE BUTCHER.


« 1, 2.What is said of the sub- countries did it spread in ancient 7. From whom do the butch-
sistenceof man on vegetable times ? and where is it still en- ers obtain their animals ?
and animal food ? What is said tertained ? 8. In what manner does the
of the preference of one to the 5. What is the leading fea- butcher proceed in slaughtering
other, in different climates ? ture of this doctrine ? and why an ox?
3. What is said of the Divine does it lead to abstinence from 9. Where is the meat sold in
permission and prohibitions in the flesh of animals ? large towns and cities ?
regard to the use of flesh as 6. How are the people in the 10. What is said of the em-
food? country supplied with meat? ployment of runners ?
4. Where
did the doctrine of and how in the villages, large 11. What is said of the health
transmigration arise? in what towns, and cities ? and corpulency of butchers ?

THE TOBACCO PLANTER, AND THE TOBACCONIST.


THE TOBACCO PLANTER. 2. When was this plant intro- 6, What is said of the differ-
1. Of what
country is tobacco duced into Europe ? ent species of this plant ?
a native production? What is 3, 4. Detail the circumstances 8. In what manner is a tobac-
said of the several names by which were attendant upon its co bed made ?
which it has been distinguished? introduction. 9 When are the plants trans-
38
298 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

fered to the field, and how is 2. Iiow many kinds of snuff 8. Where does the kind of to-
their cultivation continued ? are there ? bacco grow, of which chewing
10. What is said of the tobac- 3. In ‘what manner is snuff tobacco is made ?
co worms ? manufactured ? 9, In what manner is
10.
11. In what manner
1. the In what manner are the
is 7.
4. chewing tobacco prepared ?
tobacco secured ? different kinds of snuff put up 11. What is said of the use of
12. How is it prepared for for sale ? snuff as a dentifrice ?
market ? 5. Of how many principal 12. What is said of the effects
parts are cigars composed ? of tobacco on the constitution ?
6 Where is the best kind of 13. What is said of the extent
THE TOBACCONIST. tobacco for cigars cultivated ? of the use of tobacco here ?
What is the business of the How many cigars can an 14. In what manner is the use
tobacconist ? expert hand make in a day ? of tobacco perpetuated ?

THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH, &c.

THE MANUFACTURER 16. What is said of spinning 32. What is said of the cotton
OF CLOTH. worsted ? and what of spinning and woollen manufacture in the
1. In what manner were men flax, by machinery ? United States ?
clad in the primitive ages? 17. What is the first step pre-
2. What fibres of the vegeta- paratory to weaving ?
ble and animal kind are em- 18. After the warp has been THE. SILK-WORM.
ployed in the manufacture of wound on a cylindrical beam, By what insect is silk pro-
1.
cloth ? how is it prepared for the recep- duced ? From what is the silk-
3. How many principal
oper- tion of the filling ? worm produced ? and what are
ations are comprised in the man- 19. Describe the manner in itsseveral transformations ?
ufacture of cloth ? which weaving is performed. In what manner are the
2.
4. What objects are effected in 20. What is said of weaving fibres of the cocoon wound upon
carding ? and in what manner is in general ? and what of power a reel ?
the operation performed ? looms ? 3. What is done with the raw
5. Whatsaid of machines
is 21. By what means is the ir- silk by the manufacturers ?
for carding wool in the United regular nap removed from the 4. What is said of the origin
States ? finest cottons ? of the silk worm ?
6. What kinds of wool are 22. How are stuffs made of 5. When did the Greeks and
combed? and in what does the vegetable fibres whitened ? the Romans become acquainted
operation consist ? 23. How are fine cottons con- with silk?
7. When, and by whom, was verted into calico? 6. What
is said of the costli-
the first machine for combing 24. What is said of worsted ness of silk in ancient times ?
wool invented 1 fabrics ? 8. Until what period was the
8. In what does the process of 25. To what kind of stuffs is Roman empire supplied with
spinning consist ? the art of fulling applicable ? silk by the Persians ?
9. 10, 11. By whom, and in 26. Describe the process of 9. By whose assistance did
what manner, is the operation fulling. Justinian obtain some eggs from
performed ? 27. In what manner is the nap India ?
12. When, and by whom, was raised, and cut off to an even 10. When, and by whom was
the jenny invented ? surface ? the rearing of these worms in-
13. When, and by whom, was 28. What is said of the manu- troduced into Sicily ?
the water spinning - frame in- facture of cloth in families ? 11. By whom, was the silk-
vented ? 29. 30. Relate the history of worm introduced into England ?
14. By whom, and when, was the woollen manufacture in and how has it succeeded there?
the mule invented ? England. 12. What is said regarding
15. In what manner are the 31. What is said of the extent the silk -worm, and the silk
fine and short wools carded and of the woollen manufacture in manufacture in the United
spun in the manufactories ? England ? States ?
OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 299

THE DYER, AND THE CALICO PRINTER.

THE DYER. 10. What is said of the origin and some other colouring sub-
1. In what does the art of and antiquity of dyeing ? stances ?
dyeing consist ? 11. What was the favourite
2. What is the nature of the colour of the ancients ? and how THE CALICO PRINTER.
union of the colouring matter was the mode of communicating 1. What arts are combined
with the fibres ? it suggested ? in calico printing ?
3. In what manner are the 12. What is said of the use of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Describe the pro-
several substances to be dyed, this colour by the Jews and cess of calico printing.
prepared for the process ? Babylonians ? 7. In what respect does calico
4. How are the substances 14. What is said of the Tyrian printing differ from dyeing ?
used in dyeing divided ? purple ? 8. What is said of this art in
5. Name the principal sub- 16. What colour was second India ?
stances used as mordants. in repute among the ancients ? 9. When were calicoes first
6. Name the leading colours. 17. By what means was the brought to Europe ? and when
7. 8. What substances are used art of dyeing lost, and how was was calico printing commenced
in making the dyes for these col- it recovered, in the western parts in London ? How
many yards
ours ? and how are the interme- of Europe ? are supposed to be printed annu-
diate hues produced ? 18. What is said of indigo, ally, in the United States ?

THE HATTER.

1 In what does the business 15, 16, 17, 18. What is said of 23. Can the origin of hats be
of the hatter consist ? the different coverings for the ascertained with certainty ?
2. What is done with the two head, in different ages and 24. What tradition have the
kinds of hair, which cover the countries ? What is said of the hatters in regard to the origin of
skins of the fur-clad animals ? turban ? the art of felting ?
3. Of what materials are the 19. What is said of the ancient 25. When did hats become
body of hats composed ? helmet ? generally known ?
4. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Describe the 20. What is said of the Ro- 26. 27. What is said of the
process of felting. mans, the Scotch, and the Eng- adoption of the hat by the
10. In what manner are the lish? clergy ?
hats coloured ? 21. What is said of the Chi- 28. What opposition was made
11. Describe the operations of nese, in regard to their use of to the introduction of hats in
th e finisher. caps? England ?

THE ROPE-MAKER.

1. What vegetable substances 8. Of how many strands does animal fibre in the manufacture
are used as materials for ropes ? cordage generally consist ? of ropes ?
2. Where are the operations 9, 10. In what manner are the 15. Where is hemp cultivated?
of rope-making performed ? strands formed into small cord- What is said of flax, as a mate-
3. In what does the first part age, and also into large cordage? rial forcordage, and of hemp, as
of the process consist? 11. At what stage of the pro- a material for cloth ?
4. 5, 6. Describe the wheel of cess, and in what manner, is tar 16. What is said of the gene-
the rope-maker, and the opera- applied to the material ? of this manufacture ?
ral utility
tions of spinning. 13. What is said of cotton 17. Of what
use are old ropes?
7. In what does the second yarn and Manilla hemp ? 18. What is said of the in-
part of the process consist ? 14. What is said of the use of vention of this art ?
300 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

THE TAILOR.
1. In what does the business 5. Name the instruments em- 8. What is said of the primi-
of the tailor consist ? ployed in performing the opera- tive method of sewing ?
2. In what manner is the mea- tions of the tailor. 9. What is said of the practice
sure of the person taken ? 6. What is said of the art of of this art as a business ?
3. By what classes of work- the master tailor, and his quali- 10. Describe the Roman toga.
men, are the several parts of the fications ? 11. What is said of the tunica
labour performed ? 7. By whom was given the of the Romans ?
4. What is said of the employ- first hint as to the art of cloth- 12. What is said of the toga
ment of females in this business? ing the human body ? prcetexta, and toga virilis ?

1.

THE MILLINER, AND THE LADY’S DRESS-MAKER.


THE MILLINER. 7, 8. What is said of the head- Why are not the custom-
2.
1. Name some of the materi- dresses of the ladies, in the ers of the dress-maker easily
als used by the milliner. eighteenth century? and what pleased ?
Describe the process of
2. of those of the present age ? 3. Why should the dress-ma-
making a hat or bonnet ker understand something of
3. What is said of Leghorns ? anatomy and physiology ?
4. Describe the process of THE LADY’S DRESS-MAKER. 4. From what country are the
making hats from straw. What said of the union
is fashions for ladies’ dresses gene-
6. What is said of the anti- of this business with that of the rally procured ?
quity of head-dresses ? milliner ?

THE BARBER.
1. What is the business of the Spaniards punish the loss of first
4. worn by the fashionables of
barber ? 17.
honour ? Paris ?
3.
2. What said of the prac-
is 8. What anecdote is related 18. What is said of the oppo-
tice of shaving among the peo- of the brave John de Castro? sition of the clergy of England
ple of antiquity ? 9. When did whiskers attain to wigs ?

3. When was the practice in- their highest degree of favour ? 19. What cause is assigned
troduced among the Romans ? 10. What is said of the whis- for the easy introduction of the
4.Where did the first barbers kers of Confucius ? wig ?

of Rome shave their customers ? 11. What are the usual requi- 20. What is said of the fashion
5. When was this custom ban- sites for shaving ? of wearing wigs ?

ished from the western empire ? 12. What is said of dressing 21. 22. What is said of manu
and when was it again revived? the hair in ancient times ? facturing wigs and false curls ?
6. By whom was the custom 13. In what manner did the 24, 25. What is said of the
of shaving introduced into Rus- adult Romans wear their hair ? performance of surgical opera-
sia ? and what circumstances at- 15. What is said of the anti- tions by the barbers and bath-
tended its introduction ? quity of artificial hair ? keepers ? and what of the bar
7. In what manner did the At what period were wigs ber’s sign ?

THE TANNER AND THE CURRIER.


THE TANNER. the antiquity of the art of By whom was the subject
1. In what does the art of tanning ? throughly investigated ? and
tanning consist ? What is said regarding the what was the result of the in-
2. What is said respecting true principle of tanning ? vestigation ?
' ,

OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 1. 301

5. Describe the skin which 10. What is said of oak bark, THE CURRIER.
envelopes the bodies of ani- and other astringent substances What is the business of the
13.
mals. used for tanning ? currier ?

6. What denomination is given 11, 12. Describe the process 3. Describe the process of
to the skins of large animals ? of tanning calf-skins. dressing the calfskin.
and what to those of small ani- From what sources does 4. What is said of blacking
mals ? the tanner obtain his hides and horse-hides, and harness leather?
7. 8, 9. Describe the process skins ? and what is said of hides 5. What is said of the divi-
of making sole-leather obtained from South America ? sions of the trade of the currier ?
12.

14.

THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER,


1. What is said of the anti- 6. What is said in regard to Describe the process of
quity of the shoe ? the fashion of boots and shoes in making a leather shoe ?

2. Of what materials did the different ages ? What of shoe-


is said
people of antiquity manufacture 7. What is said of rights and thread, and shoemaker’s wax ?
their shoes ? lefts, and crimping ? 16. What is said of wooden
3. What is said of the cover- 9. What said of the mate-
is pegs and brass nails ?
ing used for the feet by the Ro- rials for boots and shoes, em- 17. What is said of journey-
mans ? ployed in Europe and America? men confining their attention to
4. What kind of shoes were 10. What is said of the me- particular kinds of work ?
worn by the senators ? and like- thod
8. of carrying on this busi- 18. What is meant by being
3. by the women ?
wise ness ? on a tramp, or whipping the cat l
5. What is said of the boots 11. What is said of the differ- 19. What is said of the finding
worn in ancient times ? ent sizes of shoes and boots? stores, and the leather-cutter ?

THE SADDLER AND HARNESS MAKER, &c.

THE SADDLER AND HAR- the saddle among the Romans? THE TRUNK MAKER.
NESS MAKER. and likewise in England ? 1. In what does the manufac-
1. What is said of the inven- 4. What is said of the tree of ture of trunks consist?
tion of the saddle ? the saddle ? 2. What is said of the mate-
2 What
did the rider use on 5, 6. Describe the process of rials of which the best kind of
the back of the horse, before the making a common saddle. trunks are made ?
saddle came into use ? Describe the process of 3. How long has trunk-making
What is said of the use of making bridles and harness. been a separate trade ?,

THE SOAP BOILER, AND THE CANDLE MAKER.


THE SOAP BOILER. 6. What is said of barilla and 15. What is said of Marseilles
1. In what does the business kdp ? white soap, Castile, and toilet
of the soap boiler consist ? 7, 8, 9, 10. Describe the pro- soaps ?

2. In whose works does the cess of making common brown 16. What is said of the man-
earliest notice of soap occur ? or yellow soap ? ufacture of white soap ?
3. What substances were used 11. In what manner is the 17. In what manner is the
for cleansing the skin and arti- soap cut into bars ? mottled appearance of some
cles of clothing, before soap was 12, 13. What is said of the soaps produced ?
invented ? adulterations of soap? and in
4. Name the substances most what manner may they be de-
commonly employed in making tected ? THE CANDLE MAKER.
soap. 14. What is said of the man- 1. Define the subject of the
5. What is said of soda ? ufacture of soft soap ? candle maker’s labours,
2 A
302 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES
9.

3. What of the mate-


is said wicks ? and in what manner is cess by which spermaceti is sep-
rials of which the wicks of can- the application made ? arated from the oiL
dles are made ? Describe the process of 16. What use is made of
4.In what manner are the making mould candles ? sperm-oil ?
wicks prepared ? 11. Describe the manner in 17. What is said of the origin
5. In what manner is tallow which bees’- wax is whitened, or of the art of making candles ?
separated from the membran- bleached ? 18. What is said of the lamps
ous part of suet ? 12. From what animal is sper- used in ancient times?
6. 7. How is tried tallow pre- maceti obtained? 19. What is said of the tallow
pared for application to the 13. 14, 15. Describe the pro- tree' 2

THE COMB-MAKER AND THE BRUSH-MAKER.


14.

THE COMB-MAKER. 10. What Is said of the twin- 3. In what does the first part
For what purposes is the
1. ning machine ?
••
of the process of brush-making
comb used, and of what materi- 11. Flow are the combs pol- consist ?
als is it made ? ished ? 4. Whence are the bristles ob-
2. What is said of the inven- 12. 13. What colours are pre- tained ?

tion of the comb? ferred ? and in what manner 5. In what


state are the bris-
3. Whatsaid of the differ-
is are they produced ? tles, when
they come into the
ent species of the turtle ? How
are the combs hands of the brush-maker?
4. What is said of the use of brought to the proper shape ? 6. In what manner are the
the shell of the hawk’s-bill tur- 16. What is said of welding bristles assorted into different
tle by the ancients ? together pieces of shell ? lengths ?

5. 6. What is the general size 17. What is said of carved 7. By what means are the
6,
of the hawk’s-bill turtle ? and on work on combs ? bristles fastened into the stocks
what part of the animal does the of the brushes ?

shell grow ? THE BRUSH-MAKER. 9-For what purposes is a


7, 8, 9. In making combs from
1. What is said of the general veneer applied to the back of
the horns of cattle, what is done use of brushes ? the brush ?

before the teeth are cut? and 2. From what sources does the 10. What
part of the manu-
5.
in what manner are the teeth brush- maker obtain his stocks facture does the ornamenter per-
cut? and handles? form ?

THE TAVERN-KEEPER.

1. What are the several de- Greeks, when one applied for 11. At what period were
nominations applied to houses lodging ? inns established by law in Scot-
of public entertainment ? 7. What is said of arrange- land ?

2. Why is the business of the ments for mutual accommoda- 1 What is said of legislative
2.

tavern-keeper one of great pub- tion amongthe ancients ? enactments as applied to this
lic utility ? 8. What is said of the hospi- business ?

3. What of the susten-


is Said tality of the middle ages ? 13. What is said of the amount
ance and protection of travel- 9. What is said of the hospi- of travelling, and what of the
lers in the early ages ? tality of the nobles of Europe taverns of the present century ?
15. What is said of the tavern-
4. What is said of the hospi- in particular ?
tality of the ancients ? 10. What circumstances led keeper’s license ?

"
What precautions were ob- to the general establishment of 16, 17. What is said of tem-
served by strangers among the inns? perance taverns ?
'

OF THE PRECEDING PAGES 303

THE HUNTER. *

1. What is said of hunting and 13. In what manner do the 19. What is said of the prose-
fishing as the primary occupa- North American Indians hunt cution of the fur-trade by a class
tions of man ? the bison ? of men in Missouri ?
2, 3. What is said of many of 14. What
is said of the fur- 20. What is said of the effects
the branches of Noah’s family ? clad animals in North America, of the warfare which has been
4. What is said of Nimrod ? and in the Northern parts of carried on against the larger
6. What is said of William Asia ? quadrupeds, and fur-clad animals
the Conqueror ? and what of the 15. What is said of a fur com- of North America?
game laws of Great Britain ? pany, formed by Prince Rupert 21. 22. What is said of the fur
8. What quadrupeds are most and others? and what of the trade prosecuted on the north-
hunted in Europe ? North-West Fur Company? west coast of America ?
9. What is said of hunting the 16. With what commodities 23, What animals are the
wolf? do these companies supply the chief objects of pursuit by the
10. In what manner is the lion Indians ? and what skins do they hunters of Siberia? What is
hunted in Africa ? receive in return ? said of the exiles and conquered
12. Which
are the most for- 17. 18. In what manner is the tribes of Siberia ?
midable animals in North Ame- intercourse managed with the 24. Where did the custom of
rica ? Indians ? weaiing furs originate ?

THE FISHERMAN.
1. What is said of the use of acter, numbers, and general 32. How are the fish caught
fishes as food in the early ages ? utilityof the mackerel ? on the coast of Labrador, and at
2, 3. Where is found the ear- 20. In what manner is this the other places mentioned ?
liest notice of the actual use of fish caught ? 33. What kind of seal is the
this class of animals ? 21. Why was this fish much most numerous and important ?
4. At what time had fish be- esteemed by the Romans ? 34. On what accounts is this
come a regular article of diet in 22. To what genus of fishes animal valuable ?

all parts subject to the Roman does the salmon belong? and 36. What is said of a sealing
empire ? where is it found ? voyage to tire Antarctic ocean ?

5. What methods
of catching 23. What said in regard to
is 37, 38. What months of the
fish were pursued in ancient the attachment of the salmon to year are best adapted for sealing
times ? their native river, and to the spot in the Arctic ocean ? In what
6. What is said of the great for the annual deposit of their manner are the seals caught?
variety of fish by Linnasus ? spawn ? and how are the skin and blub-
7. What is said of the supply- 25. By what means are sal- ber taken off and secured ?
ing of towns and cities with mon caught? 39. What is said of the differ-
fresh fish ? 26. In what countries are sal- ent species of the whale ?
8. Whatsaid of the differ-
is mon numerous ?
fisheries 40. Where is the mystecetus
ent varieties of the herring ? 27. In what parts of Europe found ?
9, 10. What is said of the win- is the cod-fish found in the 41. On what principles are the
ter residence of the herring, greatest abundance ? vessels engaged in this fishery
and what of its emigrations ? 28. Where are the chief fitted out?
11. How far south do these places of resort for this fish on 42. When do the whalers
fish proceed ? the coasts of America ? commence operations in the
12. What is said of the young 29. What nations have ac- northern latitudes? and between
herring ? quired the right to catch and what latitudes are the whales
13. 14, 15. Where, and how cure fish on the Grand Banks, met with ?
are these fish caught ? and several other of the British 43. What is said of the prepa-
16. How is this fish estimated possessions. rations on the fishing stations for
in the Southern states ? 30. By what means are the attacking the whale ?
17. By whom was this fish fishcaught on the Grand Banks ? 45. Describe the conduct of
brought into notice ? 31. In what manner are the fishermen in pursuit of a
18. What is said of the shad ? they treated after having been whale, and likewise that of the
19. What is said of the char- caught ? latter when pursued ?
304 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

46, 47. What is the conduct chunks of blubber before the 57. What people first prose-
of the whale after having been whalers leave the fishing sta- cuted the whale fishery ?
struck? and what of the men tion ? 58. What led to the discovery
when fast to the animal ? 53. In what maimer is the oil of the principal haunts of the
48. What particular position separated from the fritters or whale ? and where were these
is favourable tocatching this fenks ? animals found in the greatest
animal? and what unfavour- 54. Where is the spermaceti abundance ?
able ? cachalot found in the greatest 59. What is said of the Dutch
Describe the manner in
49. numbers ? whale-fishery ?
which the blubber is secured. 55. In what manner do the 60. What is said of the Eng-
50. Describe the blubber. whalers proceed in catching this lish whale-fishery ?
51. What is said of the whale- animal ? 61. 62. What is said of the
bone ? 56. How much oil is obtained whale-fishery of the United
52. What is done with the from a large cachalot ? States ?

THE SHIP-WRIGHT.
1 What is said of Noah’s of Europe, nearly a total des- 16. In what manner do the
ark ? truction of the art of building workmen proceed in fashioning
2. What is said of the progres- ships ? the various parts of a vessel ?
sive steps in navigation among 9. What circumstances occa- 17. In what manner are the
the ancient Egyptians? sioned a renewal of this art in several parts of the frame put
3. What is said of the use of the middle ages ? together?
the raft by the Phoenicians ? 10. To what particular disco- 18. What is. said of applying
4. For what purposes were very is attributed the great and fastening on the planks ?
the first vessels constructed by change in the general construc- 19. What is said of the caulker
the Phoenicians ? and what was tion of vessels ? and scraper ?
their shape ? 11. To what nations are we 20. What is said of sheathing
5. What is said of the succes- indebted for most of the im- the bottom of the vessel ?
sive improvements of ships in provements in ship-building ? 21. What are the immediate
ancient times? What was the 12. What is said of the im- preparations for a launch ?
approved length of a ship of provements made in the United 22. When every thing has
4. ? and like wise
war that for mer- States ? been made ready, what is done,
cantile purposes ? 13. What is the first thing to cause the vessel to glide into
6. What is said of the mast, done towards building a vessel ? the water ?
oars, rowers, and bow ? 14. What kinds of timber are 23. What is said of a launch
7. What is said of the size of used in the United States ? in ancient times ? and what of it
vessels in ancient times? 15. What is said of the crooked in modem times ?
8. What
causes occasioned a sticks which form the sides of 24. What is said of equipping
retrogression, and, in some parts the vessel ? the vessel?

THE MARINER.
1. In what does the business 5. What is said of the quali" 8. What is said of the present
of the mariner consist? and fications of a skilful pilot in an- existence of similar customs in
what does Horace say of the cient times ? regard toship-wrecked mariners?
first seaman ? 6. What is said of the offering 9. What is said of the naviga-
2. What
said of the advan-
is of sacrifices, and the observance tion’of the Carthaginians ?
tages resulting to the world at of omens before undertaking a 10. What is said of the decline
large from this business ? voyage ? and revival of navigation ?
What is said of the sailors 7. What is said of the sailors 11. What was the chief cause
of antiquity in regard to their who had escaped the multiplied of the rapid advance in naviga-
dependence on the land ? dangers of the sea ? tion ?
12. OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 305
25.
What is said of the man- sextant, the chronometer, the covered ? Who constructed the
ner of using the magnetic nee- half-minute glass, the log, and working steam engine ?
first
dle, until the year 1302? the sounding line severally used? Who first suggested steam
14. To what nation is naviga- 21. What is meant by naviga- navigation ? and who rendered
tion indebted for many valuable tion proper ? and what by navi- it completely successful in prac-
improvements ? gation common ? tice ?

15, 16. What is said of the 22. What is said of the appli- 27. What is said of Greenwich
discovery of the New World by cation of steam to the purposes Hospital ?

Columbus ? of navigation ? 28. What is said of the gene-


18. What instruments are now 23. What is the chief obstacle ral character of seamen in every
employed in navigation ? to the employment of steam in age of the world ?

19, 20. For what purposes are long voyages ? 29. W hat T
is said of the super-
the mariner’s compass, the azi- 24. When, and by whom was stitions of many of the inhabit-
muth compass, the quadrant, the the expansive force of steam dis- ants of this country ?

THE MERCHANT.
1. What is meant by the word 15. What more is said of the quest of the Saracens ? and their
merchant? colonial system of the Phoeni- enjoyment of the eastern trade ?
2. How
are importing and ex- cians ? 28. What is said of the preju-
porting merchants distinguished 16. What is said of the policy dice of the Christians against
from each other ? pursued by Carthage ? and what the followers of Mohammed?
3. How
is the business of of the three “ Punic wars ”? 29. What European power
merchants transacted in foreign 17. At what period was Tyre first rose to commercial emi-
countries ? in its most prosperous state ? and nence ?

4. What is said of the imposi- when was it finally destroyed ? 30. Wha t is said of the houses
tion of duties on foreign goods ? 18. What is said of the city of first built by the refugees ?

5. What is said of the sale of Alexandria ? 31. When do we find the Ve-
goods to merchants of different 19. What is said of the prose- nitians trading to Constantinople?
grades, before they come to the cution of the plans of Alexan- and likewise at Alexandria?
consumers ? der by Ptolemy ? What cities rivalled Venice in
6. What is said of dealers in 20. What is said of the fleets the tenth century ?
a small way ? of Ptolemy, and trade to India ? 32. What is said of the Cru-
7. What is said of the general 21. What is said of the Greeks, sades ?

retail merchant ? in regard to their attention to 33. Where did commerce and
8. What said of barter ?
is nautical affairs ? and what of manufactures begin to command
9. How
often do the country Corinth ? attention in the thirteenth cen-
storekeepers visit the cities, to 22. When did Rome become tury ? What precautions were
replenish their stores ? the great mart for the sale of taken against robbers and ban-
10. What is said of the high merchandise ? and what did the ditti ?

antiquity of commerce ? What Romans give in return lor it ? What


34. is said of the Hanse
is said of the precious metals as 23. What more is said of the Towns ?
a standard of value ? city of Rome ? 35. Where, and how often did
11. Where do we find the 24. When was Byzantium the representatives of the league
earliest hint respecting the ex- made the seat of the Roman meet?
istence of trade between differ- empire and what were the
? 36. What were the objects of
ent nations ? effects of this measure ? the league, as disclosed in the
12. What is said of Egypt as 25. At what period did the fourteenth century ?
the emporium of commerce ? invasions of the Roman empire 37. By what means was the
13. What issaid of the Phoe- commence ? and what were treasury of the league supplied ?
nicians, and their chief cities, their effects on commerce and 38. Why
did the princes of
Tyre and Sidon ? the arts ? Europe combine against the as-
14. What effect had the set- 26. What is said of the contin- sociation? and when did they
tlement of the Israelites, in the uance of trade' in the Eastern command their cities to with-
“ Promised Land,” on the Phoe- empire ? draw from it ?

nicians ? 27. What is said of the con- 39. How long did the trade to
39 2 A 2
308 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

the East Indies continue to be Provinces enjoy the whole trade 52. What is said of the per-
carried on through Persia and of the East ? mission of the Roman Pontiff in
Egypt ? 45. What is said of the com- regard to charging interest on
40. What effect had the dis- merce of the British Islands, pre- loans ?
covery of America, and the use vious to the last century ? 53. What is said of the Jews
of the new pathway to India, on 46. What is said of the com- and Merchants of Lombardy ?
the people of Europe ? merce of Great Britain, since 54. From what circumstances
41. What nation soon gained Elizabeth ascended the throne ? originated bills of exchange ?
the whole control of the East 47. What is said of the com- 55. When was the Bank of
India trade ? merce of the United States ? England established?
42. When was Portugal sub- 48. flow many kinds of banks 56. What is said of banking
dued by Philip II. King of are there ? institutions in this country ?
Spain? 49. When, and where, was 57. What is the nature of the
43. What is said of the people the first bank established ? business done by our banks ?
of Holland, and those of six 50. What is said of the anti- 58. What is said of the Bank
other provinces, in regard to quity of lending houses ? of North America ?
their war with Spain, and their 51. Whatsaid of the free
is 59. What is the amount of the
operations in the East Indies ? gifts collected by the church in whole banking capital in the
44. How long did the United the early ages of Christianity ? United States ?

THE AUCTIONEER.
1. What is an auctioneer? posed sale at auction made sale in the compulsory payment
2, 3. What is said of the laws known ? of debts ?

and usages regarding sales by 6. w hat manner is a sale


In T
10. What is said of it, in the
auction in the several states of of kind managed ?
this settlement of the estates of de-
our Union ? 7. What is said of the “sale ceased persons ?
4. What
is said of the sale of by inch of candle ” ? 11. What is said of the sale by
merchandise by auction in our 8. What is said of credits auction among the Romans ?
principal cities ? given at these sales ? 12. What is said of suppressing
5. In what manner is a pro- 9. What is said of this mode of sales of merchandise at auction ?

7.

THE CLERGYMAN.
1. What is said of the choice 8. What is said of the subjec- differing from the Romish com-
of the Apostles by our Saviour, tion of thewhole church to the munion ?
and their commission ? Pope of Rome, and the Patriarch 14, 15, 16, 17. What is said of
2. When did
the apostles of Constantinople ? the government of the different
commence their enterprise ? and 9. Why was the conquest of churches ?

what success attended their la- the Roman empire, by the bar- 18. What literary and religi-
bours ?
'
barians, injurious to the church ? ous qualifications have been re-
3. What issaid of the ordina- 10. When did Martin Luther quired lor admission to orders ?
tion of other persons for this begin his opposition to certain 19. What is said of the clergy
same work? practices and doctrines of the of the Roman Catholic church ?
4. When did the Christians church ? 20. What are the especial du-
become superior in numbers to 11. Who were distinguished ties of clergymen ?
the pagans of the Roman em- by the appellations, Reformers 31. Why do ministers of the
pire ? and Protestants ? gospel occupy an elevated stand
5. Where did the Christians 12. What
division of the in all Christian communities ?
pf the first and second centuries church called by the Roman
is 22. Howare the institutions of
meet for worship ? Catholics, the Western Schism ? religion supported ?
What is said of the action and what the Pastern Schism ? 23, 24, 25. What is said of the
of the whole church, in matters 13. What has been the osten- salary of the ministers of the
pf common interest ? sible object of all the churches gospel ?
OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 307

THE ATTORNEY AT LAW.


8,

1. What is an attorney at law? diciary of the United States take 15. When
a client has stated
2. In what has this profession cognisance ? his case to his attorney, what is
its foundation ? 9, 10. What is said of the the particular province of the
3. 4. What does municipal judiciary systems of the differ- latter ?
law embrace ? What is meant ent States ? What is said of the 16, 17. In what manner is the
by statute law, and what by office of justice of the peace? suit managed in the county
common law ? 11. What qualifications are court ?

5. How many departments of required for practising in the 18.What causes are brought
government are provided for, in magistrate’s court ? before the judge or judges for
the constitutions of the United 12. What is said of the county adjudication?
States, and of the several states ? courts, and what of the superior 19. What business of a pri-
6. Where is the
judicial courts ? vate nature has the lawyer?
power of the United States 13. What is said of the deci- 20. What is said of the utility
vested ? sion of civil cases on principles and responsibility of this profes-
7. Of what cases does the ju- of equity? sion ?

THE PHYSICIAN.

1. On what is the profession 10. Under whose patronage 19. What is said of the pro-
of the physician founded ? did a medical school become gress of the science of medicine
2, 3. Where does the scrip- eminent in Egypt ? in this paragraph?
ture seem to place the origin of 11. How long did Rome exist 20. To whom was the cure of
diseases and other calamities of without a professional physician diseases confided in Europe,
men ? What is the substance in it ? previous to the revival of medi-
of the Grecian fable of Pando- 12. What was
done by the cine ?
ra’s box? Romans in cases of pestilence ? 21. When did chemistry first
4. Why may we infer that 13. Who
Avas the first who begin to attract attention? —
medicinal remedies were ap- practised physic at Rome, as an When, and by whom, was the
plied in the earliest ages of the 4.
art? circulation of the blood discov-
human race ? 14. What wasthe effect of ered?
5. To what was the origin of Cato’s influence against the 22. What is said of the dis-
diseases attributed in some of Greek physicians ? coveries and theories of the se-
the ancient nations ? 15. Who was the first medical venteenth century ?

6. Where was the healing art AA riter of consideration at Rome?


r
23. What is said of the mem-
cultivated at an early period ? 16. What is said of Galen? bers of this profession in the
7. What custom of the Chal- 17. After the destruction of present century?
deans is alluded to in this para- the Western empire, where was 24. Name the principal
graph ? the science of medicine culti- branches of medical science.
8. Where were the first re- vated ? 25. What is said of the advan-
cords of medicine kept ? 18. When and where, did the tages of a diploma ?
9. Who is esteemed the father caliph Almonsur establish a 26. What is said of the prac-
of medicine ? hospital for the sick ? tice of this profession ?

THE CHEMIST.
1. What is the object of the and meaning of the word chem- 5. What is said of the writers
scientific chemist ? istry? on alchymy between the tenth
2. What is said of the com- What Avas the leading and the sixteenth centuries ?
prehensiveness of chemistry ? doctrine of the alehymistic phil- 6. What is said of the impo-

3. What is said of the origin osophers ? sitions of the alchymists ?


308 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

7. What is said of the expect- 11, 12, 13, 14, 15. What par- 20. What is said of chemistry
ations of the chemists, in regard ticulars are related of Theophilus in Great Britain ?
to the discovery of a universal Paracelsus ? 21. What is said of the new
medicine ? 17. What is said of the chem- theory, founded on the chemical
8. What incidental advanta- ical system of John Joachim affinities and combinations of
ges attended the experiments in Becher ? oxygen with the various sub-
search of the philosopher’s stone, 18. What is said of George stances in nature ?
and the universal remedy ? Ernest Stahl ? 22. What is said of a new
9. 10. What is said of the 19. When did chemistry be- technical nomenclature ?
opposition to chemical medicines, come a fashionable study in 23. What is said of chemical
and the final adoption of them ? France ? science, in the present century ?

THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY.


1. What is a druggist? and macy are performed by the ope- 8, 9. What means are used to
what are drugs ? rative chemist? and what by protect the community against
2. Whom do the druggists the apothecary ? impositions in the quality of me-
supply with materials and medi- 5. What is the particular busi- dicines ?
cines ? ness of the apothecary ? 10, 11. What is said of our
3. What is meant by pharma- 7. What is said of the business colleges of pharmacy ? and what
cy or pharmaceutics ? and privileges of the apothecary of a pharmacopoeia lor the United
4. What operations of phar- in England ? i
States ?

THE DENTIST.
1. What is said of the subjec- 10, 11, 12, 13. What is said of 25. Why does a great propor-
tion of the human family to dis- caries ? tion of dental operations consist
eases in the teeth ? 14, 15. What is said of the in inserting and extracting teeth ?
4, 5. What is said of the two treatment of caries, when the 29. What is the common opin-
sets of teeth which appear at affection is but slight ? ion relative to the extraction of
different periods of life ? 16, 17, 18. What is said of fill- teeth ?
6. What is said of the great ing carious teeth ? 31, 32. What is said of the in-
attention required, while the one 19. What is said of the efficacy sertion of artificial teeth? and
set is being changed for the of this operation ? what of their materials ?
other ? 20. What is said of the extrac- 33, 34. What is said of surgical
8. Whatis said of the atten- tion of teeth ? operations performed on the
tion the teeth required be-
to 21. 22, 23, 24. What said of
is teeth in ancient times ?
tween the ages of six and fifteen ? the nature and effects of tartar 1 35, 36. What is said of the de-
9. What is said of the sub- 25. What is the remedy for cline and revival of the art of
stances composing the teeth ? diseases arising from tartar ? dentistry ?

THE TEACHER.
1. What is said of schools in 6. What is said of Christiani- cree of Charlemagne in relation
[

ancient times, where priestly ty as regards its influence on to schools ?


and royal despotism prevailed ? education ? 12. What is said
of the schools
2. What is said of schools in 7. What
branches of learning of the Jewish rabbins? and what
the Grecian cities ? were taught in the cathedral of the Arabian schools ?
3. What is said of schools schools ? 13. What is said of the emi-
among the Romans ? 8. When were these schools nent men who proceeded from
4. How came teachers to be surpassed by the conventual the conventual schools ?
called pedagogues ? schools ? 14. What is said of the origin
5. What said of Vespasian
is 9. With what order of monks of universities ?
and Antoninus Pius, in relation were these schools connected ? 15. What is said of the division
to their support of schools ? 10, 11. What is said of the de- of the students into nations ?
16,
OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 309

17. What is said of aca- 25. What is said of the J erony- 38, 39. What particulars are
demical degrees ? mites? mentioned in relation to schools,
18. What is said of the col- 26. What is said of the study in the states in which they are
leges in the early universities ? of the ancient classics ? established by law ?
19. In what manner were the 27. What is said of the influ- 40. Why
do these schools fail
teachers in the universities paid ? ence of the art of printing, and in fully accomplishing the ends
20. To what influence did the of the reformation ? for which they have been insti-
universities become subject? 29, 30, 31, 32. What is said of tuted ?

21. What is said of popular education in Italy, Spain, Por- 41. What is said of the public
schools, connected with the con- tugal, Austria, and France? schools in the cities and populous
vents ? 33, 34, 35. What is said of towns ?

22. What is said of the lower education in England, Ireland, 42. What is said of select
parish schools ? Scotland, and Russia ? schools and private academies ?
23. What is said of the teach- 36. From what circumstance 43. What is said of private
ers employed in the trivial and has the great attention to educa- tuition and schools in the south-
other schools ? tion in the United States arisen? ern states ?

THE MUSICIAN, AND THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER.


1. What is meant by the word 13. What improvements were THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER.
music ? made by Guido Aretine ? I. What operations are united
2. What is said of the use of 14. Who invented notes by in this business ?

musical instruments before the which the duration of sound Describe the essential and
3, 4.
flood ? could be determined ? prominent parts of the organ.
3. What is said of music 16. What is said of the man- 5. What is said of the fingering
among the Hebrews ? ner of singing, by the Christians, of the organ ?
4. 5. What is said of music in the early days of the church ? 6. Where is the largest organ?

among the Greeks ? 17. What is said of the influ- 7. At what period were organs
6. When did the Greeks be- ence of a new singing-school first employed in churches ?

gin to cultivate music as a sci- established by Gregory the 8. What is said of the hand or
ence ? Great ? barrel organ ?
7. From whom did the Ro- 18. What is said of the Grego- 9. What is said of the instru-

mans derive music ?


their rian chant ? ments belonging to the class of
8. What is said of the use of 19. What is said of music in horns ?
musical instruments by the Ro- distinct parts ? 10. What is said of the instru-
mans ? 20. What is said of the influ- ments of the flute kind ?
9, 10. What is said of the man- ence of the reformation on sacred II, 12, 13. What is said of
ner of expressing musical tones music ? stringed instruments ? and what
in ancient times ? 21. What is said of the free of the piano forte, in particu-
11. In what way was the time chamber style, and the opera? lar?
of the notes indicated ? 22, 23. What is said of the em- 14. What is said of instruments
12. In what manner were the ployment of the musician ? and of percussion ?
fifteen chief notes of the Greeks what of the professors of mu- 15, 16. What is said of the bag-
expressed by the Romans ? sic? pipe ?

THE SCULPTOR.
1. What operations are in- 5. What is said of a model to made of a warm solution of
cluded in the art of sculpture ? guide the operator in the execu- glue?
2. What are the principal pro- tion of a proposed work ? 14, 15. Explain the process of
ductions of this art ? 6. In what manner is the stone taking casts from statues in
3. What is meant by each of wrought and polished ? bronze.
the terms, alto relievo, mezzo re- 8, 9, 10, 11. From what sub- 16. What is said of the great
lievo, and basso relievo 1 jects are casts taken in plaster antiquity of this art ?
4. What course of study is es- and bronze ? and in what man- 17. In what writings do we
sential to proficiency in sculp- ner are they taken in plaster ? find the first notice of this art ?
ture? 13. What is siad of moulds 18. What is said of the exist-
310 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES 33,

ence of sculpture and painting 27. Whowere the favourite 34. What is said of Nicolo
among the Canaanites in the disciples of Phidias? What is and John Pisano ?
time of Moses ? said of the beautiful style ? 35, 36. What is said of an acad-
20, 21. What is said of sculp- 28. To what causes
are attrib- emy of design formed at Flor-
ture amongthe Egyptians ? uted the great superiority of the ence ?
22. What
nation among the Greeks in sculpture ? 37, 38. What is said of Mi-
ancients was most distinguished 29. How
were the fine arts chael Angelo Buonarolti ?
for sculpture ? affected in Greece by the con- 39. What is said of the decline
23. What is said of Dceda- quest of the Romans ? of sculpture ? and what of its re-
lus ? 30. What is said of the encou- vival by Antonio Canova ?
24. What is said of the estab- ragement of the arts at Rome 40. What is said of the fine
lishment of schools of design ? and at Byzantium ? arts in France ?
25. When did Phidias flour- 31. What is said of the
decline 41. What
said of sculpture
is
ish? of sculpture ? and what of the re- in Germany,
Spain, Flolland,
26. What is said of the ideal vival of the arts of design? and England ? What is said of
style, and some of the works of 32. By what means was this the cultivation of the fine arts,
Phidias ? improvement promoted ? in the United States ?

THE PAINTER.
1. What painting?is antiquity of painting and sculp- 32. What
said of the de-
is
2. Namethe different branch- ture ? cline, preservation, and revival,
es into which the theory and 1 9. What is said of the art of of sculpture, painting, and archi-
practice of this art are divided. painting in Egypt ? tecture ?
What is meant by invention ? 20. For what purposes was 33, 34. What is said of Gio-
3, 4, 5. What is meant by each painting employed in the early vanni Cimabue ?
of the terms, composition, design, days of its existence ? 35, 36. What is said of Giotto ?
and perspective ? 23. Describe the different 37. What is said of the Acad-
6, 7. What is said of chiaro- kinds of painting, as marked by emy of St. Luke ?
obscuro ? the successive stages of the art 38, 39. What is said of Masac-
8. What is said of the employ- among the Greeks. cio ? and what of Leonardo da
ment ofcolouring substances, and 24. What is said of a picture Vinci ?
31.
the manner of their application ? called the battle of the Magnetes? 40. What is said of the intro-
9. What have given rise to 25. What is said of Aglaophon duction of oil, as a vehicle for
the different kinds of painting ? 3, Polygnotus ?
and paints ?
10. What is said of painting 26. Who carried the art of 41. What is said of painting
with crayons, and in water-co- painting to the greatest perfec- in Flanders and Germany ?
lours ? tion to which it attained in an- 42. When, and by whom, was
11. 12, said of
13. What is cient times ? the art of painting perfected ?
painting in distemper, in fresco, 27. What is said of Apelles ? 43. By whom was the art es-
and in oil ? 28. What is said of the decline sentially aided in its progressive
14. What is said of mosaics, of this art among the Greeks ? stages of advancement ?
or mosaic paintings ? 29. 30. What is said of paint- 45. What is said of Rubens
15. Into how many classes are ers, and the art of painting, and Rembrandt? and what of
drawings and paintings divided ? among the Romans ? their scholars ?
16. What the foundation of
is When did the Romans en- 46, 47, 48, 49. What is said of
the arts of design ? courage the Grecian artists with the art in Spain, France, Eng-
17. 18. What is said of the great munificence ? land, and English America ?

THE ENGRAVER.
THE WOOD ENGRAVER. practised in various parts of Eu- the close of the fifteenth centu-
What is said of engraving in rope? What were the earliest ry ? and also in the sixteenth
general ? subjects executed ? and eighteenth centuries ?
1. What is said of engraving 4. What is said of block- 6. On what kinds of wood did
on wood by the Chinese ? books ? the earlier artist operate, and
2, How early was this art 5, What is said of the art near what kind is now used ?
?

OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 5,


311
7- How
did the engravers, in THE COPPERPLATE ENGRAVER. 6, 7. What is said of line
the infancy of the art, prepare 1. Why are the engravers on engraving ?
the wood ? and how do they now metallic surfaces generally, de- 8. What is said of stippling ?
4.
do it? nominated copperplate engra- 9, 10, 11. What is said of etch-
8. In what manner is the vers ? ing
drawing made on the block? 2, 3. Describe the principal in- 12, 13. What is said of mezzo-
and how is the engraving exe- struments employed by this art- tinto 1
cuted ? ist. 14, 15, 16, 17. What is said of
9. What is said of the charac- What are the principal va- aqua-tinta ?
ter of wood engravings? and rieties or styles of engraving on 18, 19, 20. What is said of
what of their convenience ? copper ? steel engraving ?

THE COPPERPLATE PRINTER.10.


1. What is the business of the 4. Of what materials is the ink 8, 9. What is said of engravings
copperplate printer ? composed which is used in this on plates of steel, and the method
2. What is said of the claims kind of printing ? of their transfer from one plate
of different nations to the honour 5, 6. Describe the process of to another ?

of introducing this art? copperplate printing. Why have engraving and


3. What incident suggested 7. What number of impressions copperplate printing become em-
the idea of taking impressions can he taken from engraved cop- ployments of considerable im-
from engraved plates ? perplates ? portance ?

THE LITHOGRAPHER.
1. What
is the origin of the 5. What is said of lithographic sions may be taken from the dif-
word lithography, and what the ink and chalk ? ferent kinds of drawings ?
nature of the art to which the 6. In what manner is the draw- 10. In what manner can im-
term is applied ? ing prepared for taking impres- pressions from engravings be
2. What kinds of stone are sons ? multiplied indefinitely ?
used in this art ? 7. 8. What is the composition 11. What is said of the inven-
3. In what manner are the of the ink used in this kind of tion of lithography ?

stones prepared for use ? printing? and in what manner 12. What was the character
4. What is said of making the are impressions taken ? of the first productions of the
drawing on the stone ? 9. What number of impres- art?

THE AUTHOR.

1. What is meant by the word 7. From what source did al- literary property in England, at
author ? phabetical writing spring ? different times ?
2. On what subjects do authors 8. What is said of the ancient 14. What is said of the juris-
commonly write ? alphabets ? and what of the con- diction of, and laws concerning,
3. 4. What is said of tradition, formation of the letters of differ- this subject in the United States ?
and other means of transmitting ent languages ? 15, 16. What is said of literary
information to posterity, before 9. What is said of the mode property in France, Germany,
the invention of letters ? of arranging the letters in wri- and some other countries ?
5. What is said of the claims ting ? 17. Why have not literary pro-
of different nations to the inven- 10.What is said of literary ductions been placed on the same
tion of letters ? property in ancient times ? footing with other property ?
6. What is said of the Penta- 11. 12, 13. What legislative 18. Do authors publish their
: teuch ? protection has been extended to own works ?
312 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

THE PRINTER.
1. From what did the art of 15. What is said of the death 24. What is said of the regular
printing arise ? of Faust, Geinsfleisch, and Gut- periodicals of Europe ?
2.
5, What is said of the uncer- temburg ? 25. What said of the
is work-
tainty which rests upon the his- 16. What said of the use of
is men in a printing office ?
toiy of printing ? vellum for the earliest printed 26. How are the types arran-
3, 4. What statements are made books ? ged in the case for use ?
in support of the claims of Haer- 17. What is said of the secre- 27. What is com *
said of the
lem ? and what in opposition to cy observed by the Mentz print- posing-slick, and what of the
them ? ers ? manner of using it ?
6, 7, 8. What
particulars 18. Into how many places was 28. What is
said of the use of
are stated of the early operations the art of printing introduced quadrats, and the galley ?
in printing at Mentz ? before the year 1500 ? 29. What is said of dividing
9. What is said of Faust and 19. In what country did print- the columns of types into pages,
14. Schcsffer ?
Peter ed newspapers originate ? and locking them up in a chase?
10. By whose aid did Guttem- 20. When did news- the first 30. What is said of the proof?
burg establish another press ? paper
4, appear in England ? 31. 32. Describe the manner
11. Who completed the inven- 21. What is said of the news- in which impressions are taken
tion of the art of printing ? papers
6. in Great Britain and Ire- from the types on paper.
12. 13. What particulars are land in 1829 ? 33. What is said of the improve-
related of the sale of Latin Bibles 22. What is said of the news- ments made in the printing busi-
in Paris by Faust ? papers in the United States ? ness within the present century?
W’hat is said of the romance 23. What is said of periodicals 34. What is said of printing
of “ Dr. Faustus and the Devil”? in France ? by machinery ?

THE TYPE-FOUNDER.
1. What, are types ? and of what 5. Describe the several ope- 7. Who invented the art of
materials are they composed ? rations connected with the fin- casting types ?

2. What is said of the matrix ishing


6. of these instruments. 8, 9. What character was
and mould used in casting types ? Name the principal sizes firstemployed in printing ? What
3. In what manner is the cast- of types. What is meant by a is said of “the Old English, Ro-
ing of types performed ? fount of types ? man, and Italic characters ?

THE STEREOTYPER.
1. What is the origin of the 3. How is a cast taken from 5. How are the plates applied
word stereotype ? a mould thus formed ? in printing ?
*

2. Of what material, and in 4. Describe the operations per- 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Give the history
what manner, are moulds form- formed on the plates in the fin- of this art, as stated in these
ed in stereotyping ? ishing room. paragraphs.

THE PAPER-MAKER, AND THE BOOKBINDER.


THE PAPER-MAKER. rus grow? and how was paper 12. Name the materials most
1, 2, 3. On what materials, and manufactured from it? commonly employed.
with what instruments, was wri- Describe the process of 14. Describe tlie first stage of
ting performed in the early days making parchment. the process.
of the art ? 8. At what place was the 15. By what means are the
4. In what substances were grea'test quantity of paper man- rags reduced to a pulp ?
materials found, adapted to works ufactured ? 16. How is the pulp rendered
of magnitude ? 9, 10, 11. Give the history of perfectly clean ? and by what
5. Where did the plant papy- the modern paper manufacture. substances is it bleached ?
17. OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 313

By what means, and in ? and the earli-


quity of this art what manner, are the books co-
what manner, are the fibrous est method of binding books ? vered ?
particles formed into a continued 4. In what manner is the fold- 10. In what manner are the co-
22. of paper ?
sheet ing of the sheets performed ? vers sprinkled or marbled ?
19, 20. Describe the success- 5. In what manner are they 11. What more is done, to pre-
ive operations necessary to com- gathered ? pare the books for the reception
plete the manufacture. 6. In what manner are the of the ornaments ?
Describe the method of sheets sewed together ? 12. 13. In what do the orna-
making paper by hand or by 7. How does the workman ments consist? and in what man-
means of moulds. proceed in preparing the book ner are they applied ?
for the application of the paste- 14. When are books said to
board ? be full-hound 1 and when half-
THE BOOKBINDER. 8. With what instrument are hound 1
1. What is bookbinding ? the leaves trimmed ? 15. How are the different sizes
2, 3. What is said of the anti- 9. With what material, and in of books designated ?

THE BOOKSELLER.
1. How
was the book business 5. Who were the first book- the trade sales in the
United
carried on, before the invention sellers, after the invention of States ?
of typography? printing ? 13. What is said of the sale
2. What is said of the copying 15,
6. Who was the first bookseller
of books by auction to miscella-
performed by the monks ? that was not also a printer ? neous collections of people ?
3. What is said of the value 8. Name some of the cities 14, 15, 16. What is said of
of books in those times ? which are centres of the book the sale of books by travelling
4. What is said of the dealers trade in Europe ? agents ? and also by country mer-
in books called stationarii ? 9, 10, 11, 12. What is said of chants ?

THE ARCHITECT.
1. What is the general sense 16, 17. What is said of the
4. Greco-Gothic and Saracenic
of the word architecture ? Egyptian, Chinese, and Grecian styles ?
2. Why may we suppose that styles of building ? 29. Why
was the term Gothic
architecture was brought to con- 18. What is meant by the or- applied to the edifices of the
siderable perfection before the ders of architecture ? middle ages ?
flood ? 19, 20, 21. What is said of the 30. What are the characteris-
3. From what circumstances three Grecian orders ? tics of this style ?
originated the different styles of 23. What is said of the gene- 31. What is the form of the
building ? ral form of the Grecian temples? ecclesiastical edifices of this style
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. What 24. When was Grecian archi- of building ?
is said of th e foundation, the col- tecture at its greatest perfection ? What
32. is meant by each
umn or pillar, the wall, the lintel, 25. What is said of the Roman of the following words —steeple,
the arch, the vault, the dome or style ? and what of the Tuscan tower, spire, lantern, turret, but-
cupola, and the roof l and Composite orders ? tress, pinnacle, parapet, and bat-
14. Name the different styles 26. What is said of the temples tlement ?
of building which have been of the Romans ? 34. What particular styles are
recognized in modem times. 27. 28. What is said of the now chiefly employed ?

THE CARPENTER.
1. What is the business of the What is said of contracts with which these artisans ope-
carpenter ? for the erectionof buildings ? rate.
2. What is said of the joiner ? 6. By what are the carpenter 8. What kinds of timber are
3. What is said of the subser- and joiner guided in the perfor- used for building in the U. States?
viency of carpentry and joinery mance of their work ? 9, 10, 11. What is said of the
>
;o the professional architect ? 7. Name the principal tools lumbering business ?
40 2 B
314 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

THE STONE-MASON, THE BRICKLAYER, &c.


THE MASON. THE BRICKMAKER. 9. What does Hollingshead
1. What
does the art of ma- 1. Of what substances is brick say of the age preceding that
sonry include ? composed of Queen Elizabeth ?
?
2. Name the rocks most used 2. Where do we find the ear-
in building in the United States. liest historical notice of bricks ?
3. What is the particular bu- THE PLASTERER.
3. 4. What methods of manu-
siness of the quarrymen ? facturing bricks were practised 1. In what departments of ar-
4. By what means are the in ancient times ? chitecture is plastering more par-
blocks of stone divided, and re- 5. What was the size of the ticularly applied ?
duced to form ? most common bricks employed 2. Of what materials is the
5. 6. By what means, and in by the Romans ? mortar for die several coats com-
what manner, are the stones pol- 6. What is said of the great posed ?
ished ? use of bricks in the United 3. What tools are used by the
8. From what sources does the States ? plasterer?
stone-cutter derive a great pro- 7. 8. Describe the operations 4. What is said of the use of
portion of his profits ? of making bricks. cornices? and what of their
9. What is a day’s work for a materials, and mode of applica-

THE STONE-MASON. gang ? tion?


11. What is said of machines 5. What is said of ornaments
Where do the stone-cutters
I.
for making and pressing bricks of irregular shape ?
?
set their own work ?
3, 4. What is the composition
12. What is said of tiles ? 6. 7. W hat
7
is said of rough-
casting ?
of the mortars used in laying
marble ? THE BRICKLAYER.
6. What is said of lime ? 1. What is the particular bu- THE SLATER.
7, 8, 9. What is said of mason- siness of the bricklayer ? 1. For w'hat particular prop-
ry required in situations under 2, 3, 4. Describe the two meth- erty is valuable?
slate stone
water ? ods of laying brick, mentioned 2, 3. Whence
are obtained
10. What is said of the walls in these paragraphs. the slates used in the United
of buildings in the construction 6. What is said of the inven- States? and how are they pre
of which costly stones are em- tion of the chimney ? pared for application ?
ployed ? 7. In what part of the house j
4. In what manner are slates
II. What instruments are em- did the Romans locate the hearth ;
applied to roofs ?

ployed in cutting and laying or fireplace ? 5, 6. What is


of the valuesaid
st< me ? 8. What method
of heating of slates, as compared with shin-
13. What was the state of this dwellings w as invented in the
?
gles? and w'hat of metallic
art in ancient times ? time of Seneca ? i
roofs ?

THE PAINTER, AND THE GLAZIER,


THE HOUSE AND SIGN PAINTER. 11. What is said of mixing what manner, are panes cut to
1. To what does house and colours for use ? any proposed size ?

sign painting relate ? 12, 13. What particulars are 4. What


said of the win-
is
2. Name some of the sub- stated in regard to the execution dows in the houses of oriental
stances employed by this art- of house painting ? countries ?
ist.
'
14, 15. What is meant by 5. What substances were used
In w'hat manner is the graining ? and what by orna-
3. 4, 5. !
for windows by the Romans ?
manufacture of white lead and menlal painting ? -
6. What statement is made by
litharge conducted ? 17. What is said of painting Gregory of Tours, with regard
6. What is said of Spanish and lettering signs ? to the employment of glass win-
brown, yellow ochre, terra di dows ?

sienna, red ochre, and chrome 7. What


does fEneas Sylvius
yellow ? THE GLAZIER. say of glass windows in Vienna,
7,8,9. What is said of linseed- 1. Describe the operation of in 1458?
oil, and spirits of turpentine ? fitting and confining panes to
|
8. 9, 10.
T
W
hat is said of co-
10. What is said of the prepa- window sashes. loured glass ? and w hat of paint-
ration of paints ? 3. By what means, and in
i
i
ing on glass ?
OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 315

THE TURNER.
1. What is said of the exten- 5. What instruments are used 8. In turning different sub-
sive application of this art ? in turning wood
and in what ? stances, what particular thing is
2. In what kind of an appara- manner are they employed ? to be especially regarded ?
tus is turning performed ? 6. What is said of the groov- 9. What is said of the perfec-
3. 4. Howis the wood fasten- ing tool ? and what of instruments tion and accuracy of this art ?
ed in the lathe in the different for turning metals ? 10. What is said of the anti-
kinds of turning ? 7. What is said of the calipers ? quity of the lathe ?

THE CABINET-MAKER, AND THE UPHOLSTERER.


THE CABINET-MAKER. 14, 15. With what substances, 6. Of what use is drawing in
1. What is the business of the and in what manner, is the bu- this business ?

cabinet-maker ? reau varnished and polished ?


5.
7. Who are the principal ope-
2, 3. What
qualifications are 17. By what means, and in rators in this business ?

required to make a finished cab- what manner, are logs of ma- 8. What is said of the skins
inet-maker ? hogany sawn into thin pieces for of beasts as applied for beds ?
4. What is
said of the changes veneering ? 9. What was the first advance-
continually taking place in the 18. What is said of the differ- ment from the use of skins ?
form and construction of furni- ent kinds of mahogany ? 10. What kind of beds did the
ture ? Romans use ?
5. What kinds of wood are 11. When did the Romans
4. frequently employed by
most the THE UPHOLSTERER. adopt the eastern custom of re-
cabinet-maker ? 1. What is the business of the clining at their meals ?
6. 7. What circumstances led upholsterer ? 12. 13, 14. What particulars
to the introduction of mahogany 2, 3, 4. Of what materials are are stated regarding this cus-
as a material for cabinet ware ? beds and mattresses composed ? tom?
9, 10, 11, 12, 13. Describe the What is the best material 15. What is said of the origin,
process of constructig a bureau. for mattresses ? use,
3, and manufact ure of carpets?

THE CHAIR-MAKER.
1. What is said of the use of 5. Where was the Windsor 9, 10. Describe the process of
the chair by the nations of anti- chair first used ? and what was finishing and ornamenting chairs.
quity ? its original construction ? 11. What is said of other kinds
2, 3. What is said of the seats 6. Whence do the chair-ma- of chairs made by the common
used by the barbarous conquer- kers obtain their stuff? chair-maker ?

ors of the Roman empire ? 7. Describe the Windsor chair. 12. What is said of the manu-
What is said of our old- 8. Describe the process of its facture of mahogany chairs ?
fashioned chair ? construction.

THE CARVER, AND THE GILDER.


THE CARVER. 6 What are the particular most frequently employed ? and
1. What is meant by carving ? qualifications necessary to make in what does the process consist?
2. What is said of the anti- a finished carver ? Describe the process of
4.
quity of carving in wood ? preparing the surface for the ap-
3. What is said of tire appli- plication of the metal.
cation of this art ? THE GILDER. 5. With what instrument is
4. What is said of the style of 1. What is
said of the union the gold leaf applied ? What is
Louis the Fourteenth ? of the two employments, carving meant by gilding in oil ?
5. In what manner is carving and gilding ? 6. How are the ornaments on
executed ? 2. For what purposes is gilding the frames produced ?
316 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES

THE COOPER.
1. What is 4. What woods are chiefly em-
the business of the 10. What is said of the opera-
cooper ? ployed in this business? tions in oak? What materials
2, 3. What is said of the anti- 6, 7, 8. Describe the process are used for hoops ?
quity of this art ? and what of of making a tub. 11. What is said of this busi-
the substitutes for its produc- 9. What is said of the cedar ness, as connected with the West
tions ? tree ? India trade ?

THE WHEELWRIGHT.
1. What is a wheelwright ? 10. Describe the process of 19. When were three coaches
3. Name the principal lands painting, varnishing, and polish- introduced into Paris ?
of wheel carriages. ing the body of the coach. 20. When were coaches intro-
4. What is said of the division 12. Where do we find the duced into Spain, Portugal, and
of labour in this business ? first authentic notice of the use Sweden 1
5. 6. What are the constituent of wheel carriages ? 21. When were coaches intro-
parts of a wdieel ? and of what 13. What is said of chariots duced into England ?
materials are they composed 1 of war ? 22. What historical particulars
7. What kind of wood is em- 14. What is said of the car- are stated with regard to the
ployed for the carriage part, and riages used by the Romans ? coach in England ?
for the frame of the body ? 15. 16, 17, 18 What is said of 23. What is said of the stage-
8, 9. To what particular parts the general practice of riding on coach ?
of the wheels and carriage does the back of the horse and mule 24. What is said of the manufac-
the blacksmith apply iron ? during the feudal ages ? ture of carriages in the U. States?

THE POTTER.
1. What is the business of the 21, 22. What is said on the sev- 29. What effect resulted from
potter ? eral processes of throwing, turn- the communication of Father En-
2. What is said of alumine ? ing, pressing, burning, painting trecolles ?

3. How may
the various pro- and printing, and glazing ? 30. What
is said of the com-
ductions of the pottery be class- 23, 24- What is said of stone parative beauty and intrinsic
ed ? warel goodness of the Chinese and Eu-
4.What is the material of the 25. Of what materials do the ropean porcelains ?
common earthen ware ? Chinese make porcelain 1 31. What is said of the exist-
5. 6. Describe the process of 26. In what proportions
are ence of porcelain earths in the
preparing the material for the the materials combined ? United States ?
most common earthen ware. 27. What is said of the inven- 22. Why may we suppose that
7, 8. How is the clay prepared tion, and early manufacture of this was one of the antediluvian
for the best kind of this ware ? porcelain ? sirts ^

9, 10, 11. Of what


materials 28. When, and by whom, were 33. What is said of the skill
are the white and cream-coloured specimens of the materials of of the Greeks and Etruscans ?
wares made, and how are they porcelain, and a description of 34. What is said of the condi-
prepared for use ? the process of the manufacture, tion and improvement of the art,
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,- sent tp France ? in modern times ?

THE GLASS-BLOWER.
1. What is glass ? 4, 5. What metallic oxides are what manner, are the melting
2. In what manner are quartz used ? pots made ?
pebbles and flints reduced to 6. Describe the furnace in 8. What fuel is employed in

powder ? which the materials are melt- fusing the metal ?

3. What alkaline substances ed. every species of glass


10. Is
are used? 7. Of what materials, and in ware made at one glass-house ?
OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 317

13, 14, 15, 16. Describe the 21. How is the operation of 27. How early is it supposed
several methods of blowing win- pressing performed ? that glass was invented ?

dow glass. 22. In what manner is glass 28. What is said of this manu-
17. How is the casting of plate annealed ? facture at Alexandria, and at
glass performed ? 23. What is said of cut glass ? Rome ?
18. By what means are such 24. In what does the process 29. 30. What is said of its ex-
plates rendered good reflector's ? of glass cutting consist ? istence in Italy, Germany, and
19. 20. Describe the manner 25. 26. What is the usual story England, in more modem times?
in which vessels are formed by of the origin of the invention of 31, 32. What is said of this man-
the process of moulding. glass ? ufacture in the United States ?

THE OPTICIAN.
1. To whom is the word opti- 14. On what is the art of 29. What particular fact was
cian applicable ? constructing optical instruments demonstrated by Roger Bacon ?
2. What
is light ? founded ? 30, 31. What is said of Mau-
Explain the terms in this
3. 15. What is said of the visual rolicus, and John Baptista Porta?
paragraph marked by italics. point ? 32, 33. What circumstances
4. What is meant by a medium? 16. 17. From what particular led to the invention of the tele-
When are rays said to be re- causes do myopy and presbyopy scope ?

fracted, and when reflected ? originate ? 34. What particular discove-


5. What is a lens ? 19. What is
26. the obstacle to ries were made by John Kepler?
6. What is an incident ray? viewing small objects at the 35. How was the fact demon-
and what a reflected ray ? usual distance? and how is it strated, that vision depends upon
7. 8. Explain the phenomenon removed ? the formation of objects upon
illustrated by the cut. 20, 21, 22. What is said of mi- the retina ?
9. Why is this phenomenon croscopes ? 36. Who
discovered the velo-
called the camera obscura ? 23. What is said of the magic city of light? and publishedwho
10. Point out the several parts lantern ? the first proposal for a reflecting
of the eye, exhibited by the cut. 24, 25. How
many kinds of telescope ?
11. 12. What is said of the telescopes are there ? and how is 37. 38. What particular disco-
sclerotica, cornea, iris, crystalline each kind constructed ? veries on light and colours were
lens, vitreous humour, and retina? Who was the first system- made by Sir Isaac Newton?
13. Explain the theory of vi- atical writer on light ? 39. What is said of the splen-
sion, as expressed in this para- 28. What is said of Alhazen dour of Sir Isaac Newton’s dis-
graph. and Vitellio ? coveries?

THE GOLDBEATER, AND THE JEWELLER.


GOLD. 9. For what purpose is the 8, 9. What is said of gold-beat-
1. What
metals are most ex- process of parting used ? and in ing and gilding among the Ro-
tensively employed in the arts?
-
what does it consist ? mans ?
2. What is said of gold as a 10. What is said of cementa- 10, 11. What is said of gold
representative of property ? tion ? wire ? and what of gold-thread ?
3. With what metals is gold 11. What amount of gold is
most frequently alloyed ? yielded by the southern states ?
4. What division of this metal THE JEWELLER.
has been adopted for conveni- 1. What is the employment
ence in commerce ? THE GOLD-BEATER of the jeweller ?
5. Where
gold found ?
is 1. What is the business of the 2. Name the principal pre-
6. How is gold separated from gold-beater ? cious stones.
foreign matters with which it 2, 3, 4. Describe the process 3. In what proportion are pre-
may be combined ? of gold-beating. cious stones valuable ?
7. What is meant by sublima- 5. Howmany perfect leaves 4, 5. How
are the weight and
tioji? and for what purpose is are obtained from the two ounces value of the most precious stones
the process employed ? and a half of gold ? estimated ?
8. In what does the process 7. What is said of party gold What
is said of the Pitt
6, 8.
of cupellation consist ? leaf? and what of Dutch leaf? or Regent diamond? and what of
2 B2
318 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES
the Effingham or Russian dia- 15 What is said of the imita- 25. How are the shells and
mond'? tion of precious stones generally ? pearls treated ?
8. What is the size of the 16, 17. In what does the busi- What
27. is said of the value
largest diamond hitherto known? ness of the lapidary consist? of pearls ?
10. What particular notion in- and in what manner does he 28. What is said of the em-
creased the value of precious perform his operations ? ployment of the gem-engraver
stones in ancient times ? 18. Of what metals is the and jeweller by Moses ?
11. Whence originated the art lapidary’s wheel made ? 29. What evidence have we
of the gem-engraver, or gem- 20. From what kind of fish of the high antiquity of the arts
sculptor ? are pearls obtained ? and where connected with the production
12. What are the productions are they found ? of jewelry ?
of gem-sculpture ? 21. What are pearls ? 30. What is said of the French
13. By what means
does this 22. Whose business is it to and English jewellers ?
artistperform his work ? collect the shells ? 31. What is said of the manu-
14. What is said of the en- 23. In what manner is the di- facture
10, of jewelry in the United
graved gems of antiquity ? ver prepared for his descent ? States ?

the silversmith, and the watchmaker.


SILVER. 13, 14. What reasons have we 11. What is said of Henry
1. What
said of the mallea-
is for supposing that gold and sil- de Wick’s clock ?
bility of silver ? ver were known to the antedi- 12. What is said of the appli-
2. What has been the relative luvians ? cation of the pendulum to clock
value of silver and gold ? work?
3, 4, 5. What methods are pur- 13. What is said of the intro-
sued for separating silver from THE CLOCK AND WATCHMAKER. duction of the clock into private
its various ores ? 1. What divisions of time are dwellings ? and what of portable
noted by uncivilized men ? clocks ?
2. What historical facts are 14. Who constructed the firs:
THE SILVERSMITH. stated in relation to the sun- watch ?
2. What are the most common dial ? 16. What is said of the inven-
subjects of manufacture by this 3. Describe the sun-dial as it tion of the spring balance ?
artisan ? is now constructed. 17. What particular inventions
3. Howare dollars reduced 4. 5, 6. What is said of the and improvements are mentioned
to plates ? clepsydra ? in this paragraph ?

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Describe the 8. What is said of the inven- Describe the mechan-
18. 19.
process of making a plain tea-pot. tion of the clock ? ism of the clock and watch.
11. In what manner is chasing 9. When were large clocks in 21. Where are watches exten-
executed ? steeples first used ? sively manufactured ?

11.

THE COPPERSMITH, THE BUTTON- MAKER, &c.

COPPER. 4. How are different pieces THE PIN-MAKER.


1. What kind of a metal is of this metal united ?
2, 3, 4. Describe the process
copper ? 5. Why is
brass applied to a of making pins.
2, 3.Describe the process by greater variety of purposes in 6. How are pins numbered
which copper is separated from the arts than copper ? and put up ?
sulphuretted ores. 6. 7. What is said of the ope- 7. What is said of the origin
4, 5, 6, 7. What is said of the rations in brass? of this instrument ?
alloys of copper ? 8. What was the origin of the
THE BUTTON-MAKER. phrase, pin-money ?
1.Name some of the sub- 9. 10. What is said of the pin
THE COPPERSMITH. stances of which buttons are manufacture in England, and
1. How is copper formed into made. also in some other parts of Eu-
sheets ? 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Describe the rope?
2.For what purposes does the several processes of manufac- What success has attend-
coppersmith employ this metal ? turing different lands of buttons. ed this business in New-York ?
OF THE PRECEDING PAGES. 319

THE TIN-PLATE WORKER, &c.

TIN. 14. What are some of the pur- LEAD.


1. Where is tin found ? poses to which tin is applied ? 1. From what kind of ore is
2. How many ores of tin are 15. In what way is it applied the lead of commerce extract-
there ? most extensively ? ed?
3. How are the mines freed 16. By what method are sheets 2. How is the metal obtained
from water ? of iron coated with this metal ? from the ore ?
4. How is the ore raised from 18, 19. Describe the process 4. What is said of the lead
the mines ? of silvering mirrors. mines on the Mississippi ?
5. What mine of
is said of a 5. To what purposes is lead
stream Austle Moor ?
tin, at St. applied ?

6. How is the metal separated THE TIN-PLATE WORKER. 6. How is lead cast into sheets?
from foreign matters ? 1. On what materials does the 7. 8, 9. Describe the several
7. What is said of the inspec- tinner operate ? and to what pur- methods of making leaden
5,
tion of tin ? poses does he apply them ? pipes.
9, 10, What is said of the trade 2, 3. Describe some of the 10, 11. Describe the manufac-
in tin, in ancient times ? operations of this artisan. ture of shot.

THE IRON FOUNDER, &c.

IRON. forming a mould for casting a THE WIRE DRAWER.


I, 2. What is said of the great spider. 1. How is iron reduced to the
usefulness and extensive appli- 7. In what manner are the form of wire ?

cation of iron ? moulds filled with the melted 2. By what means is the re-
6, 7. What is said of the dif- metal ? sistance of the plate to the pas-
ferent kinds of ores ? 9. By what means, and in sage of the wire overcome ?

8> 9, Describe the blast fur- what manner, is the metal fused?
nace. 10. What is said of the exten-
II, In what manner is
12. sive application of cast iron ? THE STEEL MANUFACTURER.
wood charred ? 1. What is the composition of
13. What preparations does steel ?

the hard ore require, before it is THE BAR IRON MAKER. 2, 3, 4. Describe the method
put into the furnace ? 1. From what materials is bar of making steel by the process
14. By what means is the iron manufactured ? of cementation.
blast supplied ? 2, 3, 4.Describe the process 5. How is blistered steel con-
15. What is called a half of making bar iron from pigs. verted into tilled steel, and shear
charge ? 5. How is bar iron manufac- steel ?
For what purpose
16. is lime- tured directly from the ore ? 6. How are bars of blistered
stone used ? 7. What are blooms, and how steel converted into cast steel ?
17, 18. What is said of the pig and where are they manufac- 7. What is said of steel made
bed ? and what of pig iron ? tured) from cast iron, or directly from
8. How are blooms converted the ore ?

into bar iron ? 8. What is said of the alloys


THE IRON FOUNDER, 9. How are blooms laminated of steel ?

1. To what class of operators into sheets ? 10. What is said of the man-
is the term founder applicable ? 10. How are rolled plates cut ufacture of steel in ihe United
3, 4. Explain the process of into rods and narrow strips ? States ?

THE BLACKSMITH, AND THE NAILOR.


THE BLACKSMITH. blacksmith to be capable of exe- 8. By what means is iron ren-
1. In what materials does this cuting every species of work? dered malleable ?
artisan operate ? 5. What is said of the use of 9. How is the oxidation of the
2, 3. What is said in reference the tilt hammer ? iron prevented while the tem-
to the geueral utility of this 7. How are the operations perature is being raised ?
trade ? conducted in ordinary black- 10. What remarkable property
4. Is it unnecessary for one smith shops ? does steel possess ?
320 QUESTIONS ON THE ARTICLES OF THE PRECEDING PAGES.
THE NAILOE. 3, 4. Describe the process of 6. What
said of machines
is
Into how many classes are
1. making cut nails. for making cut
nails ?
nails divided ? 5. Why do we depend on for- 7. How
are the different sizes
2. In what manner are wrought eign countries for wrought of tacks, spikes, and nails desig-
nails manufactured ? nails ? nated ?

THE CUTLER.
1 What is said of the division certain kinds of instruments 14. Before the fork was in-
of the cutler’s business into sev- mentioned ? troduced, what expedient was
eral branches ? 9. How are the grinding and used to supply its place in carv-
2. Name the
several processes polishing of cutlery effected ? ing?
constituting this business. 11. How may edge tools, nails, 15. What was the form of
3. What is the general method &c. made of cast iron, be con- the table knives formerly in
of forging iron and steel ? verted into good steel ? use ?

4. What is the object of the 12. Where were made the What particular custom is
16.
process of tempering ? most celebrated swords of anti- mentioned as having existed in
5. Describe the general meth- quity ? France ?
od of tempering instruments. 13.In what country, and in 18. Where is the manufacture
6. 7, 8. What degrees of tem- what century, did the fork origin- of cutlery most extensively car-
perature are used for tempering ate ? ried on ?

THE GUNSMITH.
'

I. What is the business of the 7, 8. What is said of the manu- nation first adopted their use as
gunsmith ? facture of the stocks ? and also a military weapon ?
2. What are the principal parts of the locks ? 14. mien were the troops
of the instruments fabricated by 9, 10. What is said in relation throughout Europe furnished
this artificer ? to the invention of gunpowder with fire-locks, such as are now
3, 4, 5. Describe the process and fire-arms ? used ?

of making the barrels for guns 11. What fire-arms were first 15. When was the bayonet in-
and pistols ? used in Europe ? and what was vented ?

6. Wherein do the barrels for their original construction ? 16. 17. What is gunpowder?
rifles differ from those of other 13. When
wore fire-arms of a and what is the process of its
small-arms ? portable size invented ? and what manufacture ?

THE VETERINARY SURGEON.


1. What is said of the diseases 6, 7, 8. What is said of the 11 . What places are mentioned
which affect the horse and other cultivation of this art in Europe atwhich veterinary schools have
domestic animals ? on the revival of learning ? been established ?
2. What
said of. a peculiar
is 9. What is said of the labours 12. What is said of the culti-
system formed in ancient times of William Gibson in relation to vation of this branch of know-
for animals labouring under dis- this science ? ledge in the United States ?
ease ? 10. What is said of veterinary 13. To whom is the practice
3. 4, 5. What
said of the is pursuits and publications in the of animal medicine chiefly con-
veterinary writers of antiquity ? eighteenth century ? fined ?

THE END.
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