HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 2

DR. EDITHA Q. VILLAVICENCIO, RGC, Rpm

 Development is…
• systematic changes and continuities in the
individual that occur between conception
and death

• changes occur in three broad areas:

physical, cognitive, and psychosocial

• Predictable changes in behavior

HOW DO WE STUDY
DEVELOPMENT?
 Factors of Development
• Biological Factor (Nature)
Human behavior is the result of already-
present biological factors

• Environmental Factor Nurture

Human behavior is the result of interaction

with ones environment
• Nature – the
influence of our
inherited
characteristics on our
personality, physical
growth, intellectual
growth, and social
interactions.
• Nurture –the
influence of the
environment on
personality, physical
growth, intellectual
growth, and social
interactions.
 Genetics and Development

• Genetics – the science of inherited traits

 How many chromosomes do humans
have ?

• 46 chromosomes – it is called as the

karyotype which can help identify chromosome
abnormalities that are evident in either the
structure or the number of chromosomes.

• 23 chromosomes from the mother ( from the

egg )
• 23 chromosomes from the father ( from the
sperm )
• - holding an estimated 25,000 genes.
• To help identify chromosomes, the pairs have been
numbered from 1 to 22, with the 23rd pair labeled "X"
and "Y."

• In addition, each chromosome arm is defined further by

numbering the bands that appear after staining; the
higher the number, the further that area is from the
centromere.

• Autosomes -The first 22 pairs of chromosomes

• Sex Chromosomes - the final pair
• an individual has determines that person's gender;
females have two X chromosomes (XX), and males have
an X and a Y chromosome (XY
Transmission of Traits
CHROMOSOMES

GENES

DNA
 THE DNA
• DNA(
Deoxyribonucleic
Acid )– special
molecule that
contains the genetic
material of the
organism
GENES
• Gene –
section of
DNA having
the same
arrangement
of chemical
elements
Dominance and Recessiveness
• Dominant –
referring to a gene
that actively
controls the
expression of trait.

• 75% Dominant
• Recessive –
referring to a gene
that only
influences the
expression of a
trait when paired
with an identical
gene.

25% Recessive
Dominant Traits Recessive Traits

• Earlobe Attached • Free Earlobes

• Rolling of Tongue • Inability to roll tongue
• Cleft Chin • Normal Chin
• Dimples • No Dimples
• Right-handedness • Left-Handedness
• Curly Hair • Straight Hair
• Short Stature • Tall Stature
• Broad Nose • Narrow Nose
• Large Eyes • Small Eyes
• Abundant Body hair • Less Body Hair
Sex-Linked Characteristics

• Red-green colorblindness

• Male Pattern Baldness

• Hemophilia

• Muscular Dystrophy

• Sweat Gland Defect

CHROMOSOMAL
ABNORMALITIES
Down’s Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
• Down syndrome is a chromosomal condition
characterized by the presence of an extra copy of
genetic material on the 21st chromosome, either in
whole (trisomy 21) or part (such as due to
translocations).

• The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per

733 births, although it is statistically more common with
older parents due to increased mutagenic exposures
upon some older parents' reproductive cells.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• MICROGENIA
– abnormal
smallness of
the chin
• oblique eye fissures with epicanthic skin
folds on the inner corner of the eyes
muscle hypotonia
a flat nasal bridge
a single palmar fold
a protruding tongue,or
macroglossia
• height, weight, and head
circumference are smaller

• short stature and bowed legs

the average height for men is 5
feet 1 inch (157 cm) and for
women is 4 feet 9 inches (144
cm)

• Individuals with DS are also at

increased risk for obesity as
they age and tend to be "round
in shape".
KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME
• It is also known as 47,XXY or
XXY syndrome.

• It is a genetic disorder in
which there is at least one
extra X chromosome to a
standard human male
karyotype, for a total of 47
chromosomes rather than the
46 found in genetically normal
humans.
 PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
• weaker muscles and reduced strength.
• taller than average.
• less muscle control and coordination
• do not produce as much testosterone as
other boys
• they have a less muscular body
• less facial and body hair
• broader hips.
• larger breasts
• weaker bones
• lower energy
• gynecomastia (increased breast tissue).
A man suffering from Klinefelter
 Turner’s Syndrome

• Turner syndrome occurs

in 1/2500 live births. It is
caused by a partial or
complete absence of one
of the X chromosomes in
a female.
 PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Puffy hands and feet Broad chest
• deficits in visual • webbing of the neck
special abilities.
• short stature
• absence of
spontaneous breast
development
• amenorrhea.
• shield chest
• deformity of the
forearm
 PROCESS OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
• Conception – the moment at which a female
becomes pregnant.

• Ovum – the female sex cell or egg.

• Fertilization – the union of the egg and sperm

• Zygote – cell resulting from the uniting of the

ovum and sperm; divides into many cells,
eventually forming the baby.
REPRODUCTION
SPERM CELL AND EGG CELL
SEX DETERMINATION
TWINS
CONJOINED TWINS
 STAGES OF PRE-NATAL
DEVELOPMENT
• Germinal Period –first two weeks after
fertilization, during which the zygote
moves down to the uterus and begins to
implant in the lining embryo
PERIOD OF THE OVUM
Embryonic Period – the period from two to eight
weeks after fertilization, during which the major
organs and structures of the organism develop.

• Critical Periods – times during which certain

environmental influences can have an impact on
the development of the infant.
• Teratogen – any factor that can cause a birth
defect
PERIOD OF THE EMBRYO
CAUSES OF IRREGULARITIES
• A teratogen is any environmental substance or
agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that
can have a detrimental effect on a developing
fetus.

• Exposure to teratogens during the prenatal

stage can significantly raise the risk of birth
defects
• Alcohol use during pregnancy has been found
to be the leading preventable cause of mental
disabilities in children in the United States (Maier
& West, 2001).

• Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can

cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
with life-long consequences for the child,
ranging in severity from minor to major.
• Use of any type of drug—whether illegal,
prescription, or over-the-counter—can be
dangerous during pregnancy.

• babies can be born addicted to certain drugs

and are also more likely to be born prematurely,
have low birth weight, and experience other
physical defects.
• Many end up with attention and behavioral
problems as well.
• Smoking while pregnant can result in premature
birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (2013)

• Other issues that can be caused by prenatal

exposure to smoking are inattentiveness, muscle
tension, and colic (a form of pain which starts
and stops abruptly and occurs due to muscular
contractions in the body)
• Radiation increases the risk of childhood
cancer, as well as emotional and behavioral
disorders; because of this, it is recommended
that pregnant women avoid x-rays unless
absolutely necessary.

• Maternal infections such as viruses or

parasites can also cause brain damage to the
fetus, or even death.
• Pollution, such as exposure to mercury or
PCBs, can cause physical deformities, abnormal
speech, and difficulty with coordination

• Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother

can have negative effects on various aspects of
fetal development, and can cause harm to both
mother and child.
TERATOGENS
Fetal Period – the time from about eight
weeks after conception until the birth of the
child.

• Fetus – name for the developing organism

from eight weeks after fertilization to the
birth of the baby
 Four critical areas of
adjustment for the newborn
• Respiration • Digestion
• Circulation • Temperature regulation
 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
• Infants are born with reflexes that help the
infant survive: sucking, rooting, Moro (
startle ), grasping, and Babinski.

• The senses, except for vision, are fairly

well developed at birth.

• Gross and fine motor skills develop at a

fast pace during infancy and early
childhood.
 GRASPING REFLEX
• a response to a touch
on the palm of the
hand. Infants can
grasp an object, such
as a finger, so
strongly that they can
be lifted into the air.
ROOTING REFLEX
• if an alert newborn is
touched anywhere
around the mouth, he
will move his head and
mouth toward the
source of the touch.
• In this way the touch of
his mother’s breast on
his cheek guides the
infant’s mouth toward
her nipple
 SUCKING REFLEX
• it follows contact with
the nipple is one of
the infant’s most
complex reflexes. The
infant is able to suck,
breathe air, and
swallow milk twice a
second without
getting confused
MORO OR STARTLE REFLEX
• This reflex is quite unusual.

• An infant lying on its back when startled by

a loud noise out of sight above his or her
head will show a very complex response.

• The arms will spread out at right angles to

the body and grasp upwards, and the legs
will spread outward.
 BABINSKI REFLEX
• It happens if someone ran a thumbnail right up
the center bottom of your foot. Your toes would
curl, and your foot would withdraw.
• Before first birthday, an infant will do exactly the
opposite—the toes flare outward, and the foot
presses against the stimulus.
• Pediatricians use the shift in the Babinski from
infant like to adult like form around the first
birthday as a sign of normal neurological
development.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF POST-NATAL
DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES IN DEVELOPMENT
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Developed by Sigmund Freud

• Inability to have pleasure or satisfaction in

each psychosexual stages would lead to
FIXATION
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
 stage Age range Focus of pleasure activities fixations
Oral 1-2 years Mouth, lips, tongue Sucking, Oral-Receptive
biting, Oral- Aggressive
Anal 2-3 years Anus, buttock Toilet Anal-Retentive
training Anal Expulsive
Phallic 3-6 years Genital region Oedipus
complex
Electra
Complex
Latency childhood Genital region

Genital Puberty Genital region

onwards
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
• Developed by Erik Erickson

• According to Erikson, the ego develops as it

successfully resolves crises that are distinctly
social in nature.

• These involve establishing a sense of trust in

others, developing a sense of identity in society,
and helping the next generation prepare for the
future.
• Erik Erikson maintained that personality
develops in a predetermined order, and builds
upon each previous stage.
• This is called the epigenic principle.

• Like Freud, Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs

at each stage of development.

• These crises are of a psychosocial nature

because they involve psychological needs of the
individual conflicting with the needs of society
• According to the theory, successful completion
of each stage results in a healthy personality
and the acquisition of basic virtues.
• Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which
the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
• Failure to successfully complete a stage can
result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore a more unhealthy
personality and sense of self.
• These stages, however, can be resolved
successfully at a later time.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
stage Psychosocial crisis Age Basic virtue

1 Trust vs Mistrust 0-1 Hope

2 Autonomy vs Shame, Doubt 2-3 Will

3 Initiative vs Guilt 3-5 Purpose

4 Industry vs Inferiority 5-12 Competency

5 Ego identity vs Role Confusion 12-18 Fidelity

6 Intimacy vs isolation 18-40 Love

7 Generativity vs Stagnation 40-65 Care

8 Integrity vs Despair 65+ Wisdom

 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Developed by Jean Piaget

• Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make

a systematic study of cognitive development.

• His contributions include a theory of child

cognitive development, detailed observational
studies of cognition in children, and a series of
simple but ingenious tests to reveal different
cognitive abilities.
• According to Piaget, children are born with a
very basic mental structure (genetically inherited
and evolved) on which all subsequent learning
and knowledge is based.

• To Piaget, cognitive development was a

progressive reorganization of mental processes
as a result of biological maturation and
environmental experience.
 There Are Three Basic Components To
Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
• Schemas
– (building blocks of knowledge).

• equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation).

Adaptation processes that enable the transition from
one stage to another

• Stages of Development:
– sensorimotor,
– preoperational,
– concrete operational,
– formal operational
 COGNITIVE STAGES
Cognitive stage Age Function
Sensorimotor Birth-2 The main achievement during this stage
years is object permanence - knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden.

It requires the ability to form a mental

representation (i.e. a schema) of the object.

preoperational 2-7 years During this stage, young children are able
to think about things symbolically. This is
the ability to make one thing - a word or an
object - stand for something other than
itself.

Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant

has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.
 Cognitive stage Age Function
concrete 7-11 years Piaget considered the concrete stage a
major turning point in the child's cognitive
development, because it marks the
beginning of logical or operational thought.

This means the child can work things out

internally in their head (rather than
physically try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6),

mass (age 7), and weight (age 9).
Conservation is the understanding that
something stays the same in quantity even
though its appearance changes
 Cognitive stage Age Function

Formal operational 11 years and The formal operational stage begins at

above approximately age eleven and lasts into
adulthood.

During this time, people develop the

ability to think about abstract concepts,
and logically test hypotheses.
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Developed by Lawrence Kohlberg

• The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis

for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental
stages, each more adequate at responding to moral
dilemmas than its predecessor

• For his studies, Kohlberg relied on stories such as

the Heinz dilemma, and was interested in how
individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar
moral dilemmas.
 MORAL STAGES
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment
orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)

2. Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
(Paying for a benefit)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(Social norms)
(The good boy/girl attitude)

4. Authority and social-order

maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
(“the greatest good for the
greatest number of people“)

6. Universal ethical principles

(Principled conscience)
 HEINZ DILEMMA
• A woman was near death from a special kind of
cancer. There was one drug that the doctors
thought might save her. It was a form of radium
that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make,
but the druggist was charging ten times what the
drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the
radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of
the drug.
• The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he
could only get together about $1,000 which is
half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his
wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper
or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I
discovered the drug and I'm going to make
money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and
broke into the man's laboratory to steal the drug
for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the
laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or
why not?
THE ARGUMENTS:
• Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal
the medicine because he will consequently be
put in prison which will mean he is a bad person.

• Or: Heinz should steal the medicine because it is

only worth $200 and not how much the druggist
wanted for it; Heinz had even offered to pay for it
and was not stealing anything else.
• Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal
the medicine because he will be much happier if
he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a
prison sentence.

• Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because

prison is an awful place, and he would more
likely languish in a jail cell than over his wife's
death.
• Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal
the medicine because his wife expects it; he
wants to be a good husband.

• Or: Heinz should not steal the drug because

stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he has
tried to do everything he can without breaking
the law, you cannot blame him.
• Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not
steal the medicine because the law prohibits
stealing, making it illegal.

• Or: Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but
also take the prescribed punishment for the
crime as well as paying the druggist what he is
owed. Criminals cannot just run around without
regard for the law; actions have consequences.
• Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal
the medicine because everyone has a right to
choose life, regardless of the law.

• Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because

the scientist has a right to fair compensation.
Even if his wife is sick, it does not make his
actions right.
• Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz
should steal the medicine, because saving a
human life is a more fundamental value than the
property rights of another person.

• Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine,

because others may need the medicine just as
badly, and their lives are equally significant.