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Control Tuning of Energy Storage Systems based

on Operating Point Consistency


Andrés Argüello, Tiago R. Ricciardi and Marcos J. Rider
Department of Systems and Energy, University of Campinas
Campinas, SP, Brazil
andresag@dsee.fee.unicamp.br

Abstract—The operating point (OP) of energy storage systems provement from renewable intermittent sources like solar and
(ESS) may change drastically and with a certain frequency, wind, and even frequency control) due to their fast response
depending on their dispatch. In order to use this technology and operation flexibility. Several of these applications would
to its full extent, such condition should not represent a limiting
constraint in terms of performance and stability. However, linear likely require the setpoint of ESSs to vary drastically and
controllers as the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) generally with a certain frequency, making its dynamic performance an
require the linearization of the system around a point to perform important study issue.
their tuning and do not necessarily guarantee correct operation
As any dynamic system, ESS controller gains can be chosen
over the wide range required by ESSs. In order to address this
issue, this paper presents a study to select a consistent OP when to suit a series of desirable requirements, but they do not
tuning the PIDs for the active power control loop in an ESS. Two necessarily guarantee the proper operation of the system in
scenarios of simulated OPs were obtained from an optimal power significantly different OPs. The authors in [3] mention that
flow (OPF) (critical setpoint shifts, and centroids of clusters for the performance of linear controllers for ESS deteriorates and
representative cases), with a third one to evaluate saturation.
A genetic algorithm (GA) was used at each point to minimize
can become unstable if the operating point is out of the range
reference tracking error and to ensure operating constraints. defined by the linearization for parameter tuning.
The simulation results were confirmed through a mathematical Control selection and tuning of dynamic systems, such as
analysis which indicates that since the system’s behavior depends the ESS, is a task with several approaches. For instance, ESS
heavily on the OP, tunings based on saturation points are the most
consistent choice. controller design and comparisons have been reported in ref-
Index Terms—Dynamic simulation, Energy storage systems, erences [4], [5], optimal control strategies to operate the ESS
Genetic algorithm, Optimal power flow, PID tuning can be found in [6], [7] and optimal heuristic and rule based
tuning strategies for dynamic systems in [8], [9]. However,
I. I NTRODUCTION the following question remains to be answered: Given a linear
ESS control scheme and a desired operation strategy, which
Modern power systems planning and operation has gradu-
OP should be used to perform an ESS controller tuning that
ally changed along with the new available technologies (power
preserves adequate dynamic response characteristics in a wide
electronics, digital communications). In addition to the more
range of OPs?
powerful computational capabilities in terms of software and
hardware (information acquisition, processing and simulation), To address this issue, it is necessary to define a criteria to
and the creation of a market driven by a renewed popular select one OP to conduct a consistent tuning with fixed values,
interest in small scale distributed generation and active load which keeps the desired dynamic performance characteristics
management (alternative energy sources, bill reduction). when tested in other OPs. To fill this gap, this paper presents
All of these factors attract investors and system operators a study that aims to classify the possible points where an
attention, and therefore, the regulation authorities have devel- ESS can operate, and determine the most consistent OP type
oped standards since wide adoption of distributed resources for parameter tuning of its PID controllers, supported by a
equipments requires specialized studies, in order to analyze theoretical analysis and simulation.
their interaction with the network and to ensure their own The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section II
safe operation. presents the dynamic model of the energy storage system.
Recent works have studied the effects on the grid’s operation Later on, section III presents a brief explanation about the uti-
and control when involving these distributed resources, in lized OPF and how the classification of the OPs was conducted
topics such as voltage stability, power quality, and rotational into critical shifts and representative centroids of clusters,
/ solid state machines [1], [2], to mention a few. as well as the mathematical justification for considering the
One of the most promising distributed resources is the saturation points. The GA configuration for optimal tuning at
ESS, due to the potential benefits of its use and since the each selected OP is presented at section IV, and the results
commercial prices have dropped in the last years. ESSs can be of a Monte Carlo (MC) study for comparison of each tuning
used by system operators in a variety of ways (for operational dynamic performance are presented in section V. Finally, the
costs reduction, reactive compensation, power quality im- conclusions are given in section VI.

978-1-5386-5844-4/18/$31.00 2018
c IEEE
B3 B4 B5
PtrRef B1 B2
+ L2 L3 L4
PI P
- TS
Ptr ibatRef vdcRef
L1
+ + P,Q
-1 PI T -1 PID d
Q C2
- - P,Q P,Q P,Q
Q C1 LA PT CB
ibat D vdc idRef B7
L6 L5
ibat iL idc id
BAT DCDC CAP VSC GRID L7
vbat vdc vd B8 B6
P AE1

L8
P PV
P AE2 P,Q
Fig. 1. ESS model block diagram MP

Fig. 2. OPF test network


II. ESS M ODEL
Detailed models of ESSs for time domain simulations
differential term which approximates a feedforward term of
typically include their control dynamics, phase-locked loops,
the DC busbar input iL and output idc currents.
the power electronics DCDC and voltage source converters
(VSC), the DC busbar with its corresponding capacitance in Pout
iL = ibat D idc = (3)
the typical VSC topology, the inductive coupling between vdc
the storage element and the DCDC converter and the storage The current through the coupling between the storage element
element itself (flywheels, battery banks, compressed air units, and the DCDC converter is described by a differential equation
super magnetic storage, etc) [10], [11]. involving the coil’s inductance Ldc and resistance Rdc . The
Depending on the time characteristics of the studied phe- dynamics of the capacitor voltage are linked to the DC busbar
nomena, some dynamics can be simplified or even neglected. capacitance Cdc .
For instance, in sufficiently short intervals, the battery cells
can be represented as a constant voltage source. The present dibat 1
= (vbat − Rdc ibat − Dvdc )
work uses a modified version of the dq model proposed dt Ldc
in [11], since it was determined that the DCDC converter, dvdc 1 did 1  ref 
the storage element inductive coupling, and DC busbar are = (iL − idc ) = id − id (4)
dt Cdc dt TI
the most important stages for the stability analysis of the ESS
active power control loop, due to its strong coupling and the In the present work, the VSC is simplified to a first order delay
non-linear characteristics of the DC-DC converter. with time constant TI due to the inner current control loop pa-
The block diagram of the control system is detailed in Fig. 1. rameter choice, which decouples the dq axis controls [11]. All
The equations for each stage are described as follows: measurement delays were neglected and the storage element
(a battery bank) was considered a constant voltage value vbat .
Pout = vd id Ptr = Pout (1) It is important to note that these state variables, which result
in a strong state coupling, were chosen to represent the model
The active power output Pout is measured as the flow through
since they have a physical meaning. Algebraic techniques may
an ideal transformer which couples the ESS to the network,
be used to decouple the states, however the control structure
where only the direct axis components of the voltage vd and
would have to be modified as well.
the current id are considered. The control loop acts on the
injected power flow Ptr , the battery current ibat , and the DC III. D ETERMINATION OF THE ESS O PERATING P OINTS
busbar voltage vdc . The auxiliary variables xauxi are used to
represent the integral of the error ei of the PIDs. Since the operating point is important to proper tune the ESS
controls, this section discusses how typical operating points
ref
e1 = Ptr − Ptr e2 = iref
bat − ibat
ref
e3 = vdc − vdc can be obtained. To exemplify a dispatch for an ESS, an OPF
was conducted for a 1 week period in 15 minutes intervals,
dxaux1 dxaux2 dxaux3
= e1 = e2 = e3 using the system in Fig. 2, where the impedances and demand
dt dt dt
curves are based on real data from urban costarrican medium
iref
bat = KpP e1 + KiP xaux1 D = − (KpT e2 + KiT xaux2 ) voltage (MV) circuits, with an artificial grid structure. The
  network was modeled as a single phase equivalent, where TS
ref Kdd
id = − Kpd e3 + Kid xaux3 − (iL − idc ) (2) is the transmission system, C1 and C2 are switched capacitors
Cdc for power factor correction and voltage drop at peak demand,
From the equations it can be seen that the controlled variables PV is a 5 MW photo voltaic generator, and L5 is a normally-
are the battery current reference iref
bat , the normalized DCDC open line. The aggregated load peak demands and number of
converter duty cycle D, and the reference current for the direct customers are: LA (2 MW, 1000), PT (16 MW, 13000), CB
axis component iref
d , respectively. The last one includes a (7MW, 6000) and MP (13 MW, 1700).
Active Power, kW TABLE I
3000
OP S AND SHIFTS , O BJ 4
2000
Obj1
1000
Obj2 ESS AE1 AE2
0 Obj3 OP P0 , pu ∆P , pu vd0 , pu P0 , pu ∆P , pu vd0 , pu
Critical shifts
-1000 Obj4
1 -0.4942 1.4528 0.9837 -0.3603 0.6595 1.0005
-2000
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 2 0.9581 -1.496 0.9905 0.8705 -1.3922 0.9824
Time, sample 3 -0.4942 1.4528 0.9837 -0.3603 0.6595 1.0005
4 0.878 -1.298 0.9889 0.8222 -1.4074 0.9825
Centroids of clusters
Fig. 3. AE2 active power dispatch
5 -0.7338 -0.013 0.9854 -0.0337 -0.0075 0.998
6 0.8977 -0.0034 0.9915 0.7357 -0.9875 0.9967
7 -0.142 1.0459 0.9866 -0.3629 0.0087 0.9955
The combined energy and demand cost, using the actual 8 -0.4022 0.002 0.9913 0.6693 0.019 0.9971
9 -0.0087 0.0014 0.993 0.0129 0.3133 0.9977
transmission to distribution tariff in Costa Rica for such 10 0.8539 -1.0744 0.9911 -0.8647 -0.0573 0.9928
circuit would be around 13.4 M USD / month, where the Saturation
energy represents 78 % of the total bill, including the MV 11 0 1 1 0 1 1
12 0 -1 1 0 -1 1
distribution losses. Such tariff has different prices for energy 13 -1 1 1 -1 1 1
and demand depending on the time period, where peak is the 14 1 -1 1 1 -1 1
most expensive, followed by valley and night period.
In order to reduce operational costs, suppose that the DSO 1

G1
acquired two ESS: AE1 (5 MW, with 3 hours of autonomy) 0.5 cG1
and AE2 and (3 MW, with 2 hours of autonomy) and tested G2

P, pu
0 cG2
four objective functions for the OPF: Obj1) Energy losses min- G3
-0.5 cG3
imization, Obj2) Tariff energy cost minimization, Obj3) Tariff G4
cG4
demand minimization and Obj4) Tariff total cost minimization. -1
G5
Simulations were carried on for a month of data and it was -1.5
cG5
G6
found that by installing the AE1 and AE2 at buses B5 and B4 1.01
cG6
1
respectively (the most beneficial allocation), the savings would
v d0 , pu 0.99
be around 4.23 % at Obj4. As an example, Fig. 3 presents 0.5
1
0.98 0
-0.5
one day of the OPF dispatch operations for the AE2. Using -1
P 0 , pu
the OPF results, three values can be used to characterize an
OP and its respective disturbance: 1) the starting power value Fig. 4. OP k-means clustering for AE2
P0 , 2) the OP setpoint shift ∆P and 3) the starting network
voltage vd0 .
C. Artificial OPs from mathematical analysis
It was noted in some tests that some tunings under different
A. Most critical shifts
OPs became unstable, where non-minimal phase dynamics
It can be seen from Fig. 3 that, depending on the dispatch appeared under certain conditions and oscillations got more
strategy, the ESS could be required to have drastic operating pronounced. After conducting a linearization and isolating the
ref
shifts. These are attractive to be used as the most critical transfer function Pout /Ptr , it was seen that the system’s gain
disturbance to be suffered by the ESS and as a good starting K for Pout 6= 0, is directly proportional to the OP, represented
point to tune the parameters of the control system. However, by ibat0 (since Pout ≈ id ≈ idc ≈ iL ≈ ibat at steady state):
they should be evaluated under different conditions after being K = (−ibat0 vd0 KpP KpT Kdd ) (Cdc TI )
−1
(5)
tuned. A summary of the most critical operating shifts (most
positive ∆Pmax and most negative ∆Pmin per ESS) is given so that higher gains drag a pair of poles to the right-hand half
in Table I. These conditions are denoted in the column OP, by of the complex plain if the tuning is poor, making the system
the rows 1-2 for the AE1, and 3-4 for the AE2. unstable (see Fig. 5). It was also noted that the location of a
zero in the system changes according to the OP:
−1
B. Common OPs clustering 0 = s + (ibat0 Rdc − vdc0 D0 ) (ibat0 Ldc ) (6)
It is not feasible to perform a tuning for every possible since vdc0 D0 ≈ 1 and Rdc  1, the phase is determined by
OP. However, in order to evaluate representative conditions, ibat0 , meaning that if ibat0 > 0, it has non-minimal phase.
the OPF results were condensed into artificial OPs given by The higher the ibat0 , the closer the zero is to the imaginary
the centroids of clusters obtained by k − means. These were axis and therefore, and the more important its overall effect.
classified into six groups: G1 to G6, as in rows 5 to 10 of The most critical conditions occur near saturation, |P0 | ≈ 1,
Table I. A graphical representation of the clusters and their so OP rows in Table I from 11-14 were included as candidates
centroids (bold border) is detailed in Fig. 4. to perform parameter tuning considering saturation.
150 TABLE II

(Imaginary Axis, seconds -1)


-1
-0.9
ESS PARAMETERS TUNING PER OP, O BJ 4
100 -0.8
-0.7
Active power, pu

-0.6 AE1
50 -0.5
-0.4 OP KpP KiP KpT KiT Kpd Kid Kdd
-0.3
0 -0.2 Critical shifts
-0.1
0 1 0.001 9.801 3.201 5.401 6.301 9.001 0.001
0.1
-50
0.2 2 0.101 9.101 0.601 0.201 9.501 9.401 0.001
0.3
3 0.001 10.001 9.301 10.001 9.801 10.001 0.001
-100
4 0.901 5.801 0.001 10.001 8.301 3.601 0.001
-150
Centroids of clusters
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 5 10.001 10.001 7.301 10.001 0.071 0.171 0.001
Time, s Real Axis (seconds-1) 6 0.311 10.001 0.301 2.971 8.481 4.051 0.261
7 0.211 10.001 7.401 9.711 3.081 9.801 0.011
Fig. 5. Eigenvalue sensitivity to variation of P0 , poor tuning 8 9.561 9.971 0.131 9.271 0.201 0.191 0.021
9 9.271 10.001 0.341 0.511 1.871 2.701 0.011
10 0.591 10.001 0.201 8.291 4.531 9.311 0.321
1 150
-1 0.1 Saturation
(Imaginary Axis, seconds -1)

0.8 -0.9 0.2


-0.8
-0.7
0.3
0.4
11 0.081 10.001 0.711 9.501 4.281 9.681 0.011
0.6 100
-0.6
-0.5
0.5
0.6
12 0.781 10.001 4.271 4.601 2.991 8.941 0.091
Active power, pu

0.4 -0.4 0.7

50
-0.3 0.8 13 0.001 10.001 10.001 10.001 10.001 10.001 0.001
-0.2 0.9
0.2
-0.1
0
1 14 0.001 10.001 10.001 1.441 3.201 10.001 0.001
0
0
-0.2

-0.4 -50
AE2
-0.6
OP KpP KiP KpT KiT Kpd Kid Kdd
-0.8 -100
Critical shifts
-1
-150 1 0.501 9.001 0.101 2.401 4.901 1.401 0.101
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
2 0.001 9.801 9.601 9.901 9.901 9.901 0.001
Time, s Real Axis (seconds-1)
3 0.001 9.701 0.101 10.001 10.001 0.001 0.101
4 0.201 7.501 0.101 10.001 10.001 10.001 0.001
Fig. 6. Eigenvalue sensitivity to variation of P0 , good tuning Centroids of clusters
5 9.991 10.001 0.071 0.121 9.771 9.891 0.041
6 0.961 10.001 0.171 4.731 3.811 8.321 0.211
IV. PARAMETER T UNING 7 9.831 9.991 0.091 9.891 0.211 0.391 0.001
8 0.131 10.001 0.331 9.941 9.951 9.621 0.281
9 2.381 10.001 0.231 2.351 4.971 8.531 0.121
In the present work, a GA was used to solve for an 10 9.691 9.851 0.131 0.121 5.821 9.561 0.001
evolutionary parameter guess, using the time resulting curves Saturation
and ensuring the desired constraints. Such tuning of the three 11 0.901 8.921 0.431 7.021 3.011 8.211 0.351
PIDs per ESS was conducted simultaneously since strong 12 1.151 9.931 2.791 2.161 2.761 8.821 0.111
13 0.021 5.401 7.151 1.681 3.051 6.851 0.231
coupling between the states is present due to vdc , and since 14 0.121 7.241 1.421 9.041 2.921 8.801 0.311
the DCDC converter introduces a non linearity to the system
with the products of variables D, ib at and vd c.
The objective function aims to minimize the area between constraints was not respected, the algorithm run was repeated.
ref
signals Pout and Pout , when a reference shift occurs, de- The resulting tunings for every OP are described in Table II.
scribed by ∆P , starting from P0 . The ultimate goal is to obtain
the parameters for the best possible performance, without V. T UNINGS COMPARISON
violating the operating limits and granting stability. In order to evaluate the tunings quality for every candidate
To this end, the Matlab GA toolbox was configured as OP, a MC study was conducted with the following character-
follows: ∞ generations with 200 individuals each, 90 % istics: 1) 1000 iterations (it was experimentally observed that
recombination with scattered/random algorithm, and a stall after 500 iterations the results converged), 2) random values
stop condition after 20 generations without improvement. The for the operating point: ∆P , P0 and vd0 between ±2, ±1 and
gains KpP , KiP , KpT , KiT , Kpd , Kid , Kdd were discretized 1 ± 0.5 pu respectively and 3) if a ∆P was higher than 1 pu
to the interval [0.001, 10.001] in steps of 0.001. The ESS it was applied in two times of equal space and magnitude.
parameters for the (AE1, AE2) were set to: Ldc =(0.02, 0.015), The instability index is the percentage of unstable tests.
Rdc =(0.005, 0.003), Cdc =(0.01,0.008) and TI =(0.01,0.011). An iteration was considered stable if the change in Pout
The imposed operating constraints are described as follows: was smaller than a tolerance value for every sample at the
1) Maximum regular and non-minimal phase overshoots for last second of simulation. The linear model matches the
Pout : 20 % of ∆P , 2) Maximum value for ibat and iref d : instability index results tendency. These were not included in
± 1.5 pu, 3) Maximum D: 1.5 pu, 4) Allowed interval for the document due to space limitations. The ideal instability
vdc : [0.8, 1.2] pu, 5) Maximum steady state error for Pout and index would be zero. The tuning performance was stored as
ref
vdc : 0.1 %, 6) Minimum damping for eigenvalues of linearized the sum of absolute output error to Ptr in kWh/step. The
model: 0.1. Saturation conditions were imposed as well for lower the performance index, the better the tuning. Unstable
id and iL at ±1.5 pu. If any of the previously described iterations were neglected for this index calculation.
0.6 1.1
TABLE III Good tuning Good tuning
0.4
MC STUDY RESULTS , O BJ 4 Poor tuning 1.05 Poor tuning
0.2
1

P out , pu
ESS AE1 AE2

vdc , pu
0
0.4
0.95
Critical shifts -0.2 0.3
1.06

1.04
OP % Instab. kWh/step % Instab. kWh/step -0.4
0.2 0.9
1.02

1 0 0.1907 0 0.1337 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03


0.85
1
-0.6
2 4.9 0.2581 0 0.1113 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03

3 0 0.1756 0 0.1836 -0.8


0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

4 38.6 0.4663 20.9 0.1476 Time, s Time, s

Centroids of clusters Active power output DC busbar voltage


5 46.4 0.3953 1.4 0.1108
6 0 0.1889 0 0.1114 Fig. 7. Output active power
7 0 0.1816 74.7 0.234
8 64.8 0.5645 0 0.1097
9 37.5 0.2141 0 0.1106 A genetic algorithm (GA) was used to simultaneously tune
10 0 0.1769 53 0.157
Saturation the controllers of the ESS at each candidate OP. The char-
11 0 0.1885 0 0.1243 acteristics amongst the tunings were compared with a Monte
12 33.7 0.3299 33.5 0.2005 Carlo study, which demonstrated that the most consistent OPs
13 0 0.1866 0 0.2058
14 0 0.1919 0 0.1582 are those which start near to saturation.
The analytical study demonstrated the system’s gain is
directly proportional to the actual power output, where the
The tuning quality results are detailed in Table III. It can most restrictive situation appears near to positive saturation.
be observed that the most consistent strategy with the better Other signals in the GA’s cost function may be included to
performance is the one that includes saturation conditions, further improve the tunings consistency, such as D and vdc .
starting from saturation (OP 11 and 13). This result is justified ACKNOWLEDGMENT
by the mathematical analysis since the conditions near satu-
This work has been partially funded by CPFL Energia under
ration naturally limit the overall gain K. The tuning quality
the ANEEL R&D program (PD-02937-3018/2016).
is compared for a poor tuning and a good one at Fig. 7. It
can be seen how the better one presents no overshoot at the R EFERENCES
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