40 Semiconductor Devices

CHAPTER 2

Bipolar Junction Transistor

2.1 TRANSISTORS VS. VACUUM TUBES

Transistor was invented by John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattin of
Bell Laboratory in year 1948. Invention of transistor revolutionized electronic
industry. Transistors have replaced bulky vacuum tubes. Main advantages of
transistor over the vacuum tubes are given below.
(1) Filament (or heater) is not needed. Delays due to heating are very less.
Heating power required is also very less or almost negligible.
(2) These are light in weight and small in size.
(3) Transistors require very low operating voltages.
(4) Transistors have very low power consumption. Thus, they increase circuit
efficiency.
(5) There is no effect of ‘ageing’ on transistors. They have very long life.
(6) Transistors are shockproof.
Two major types of ‘three terminal’ semiconductor devices are:
(1) Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and
(2) Field effect transistors (FETs)
Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) consist of two p-n junctions, which are
constructed in a special way. These junctions are connected in series and/or back
to back. Electric current flows due to both charge carriers viz. electrons and
holes. That is why, these are called ‘bipolar’.
BJTs are very often referred to as “transistors”. BJTs are widely used in
discrete circuits and also in IC design (both analog and digital).

2.2 WHAT IS A TRANSISTOR?

It is basically a
(1) Three-terminal device.
42 Semiconductor Devices

value of ‘α’ near to unity and a very large value of ‘β’. Cross-sectional view of
BJT as shown in Figure 2.2 shows that collector base junction has larger area than
that of emitter-base junction.
Unlike other transistors, BJT is not a symmetrical device. Interchanging
collector and emitter makes transistor to come out of forward active mode and
start operating in reverse mode. Transistor’s internal structure is optimized to
forward mode operation. Interchanging collector and emitter simply reverses the
values of α and β as a result their values become much smaller than those in
forward operation. ‘α’ of reverse mode is less than 0.5. Lack of symmetry is
attributed to doping ratios of emitter and collector. Emitter is “heavily doped”.
Collector is “lightly doped”. Thus, it allows application of a large reverse bias
voltage before collector-base junction breakdown occurs. Collector base junction
is reverse biased normally. It is due to the reason that emitter is heavily doped,
which increases ‘emitter injection efficiency’. ‘Emitter injection efficiency’ is the
ratio of carriers injected by emitter to the carriers injected by base. For ‘high
current gain’, carriers which are injected into emitter-base junction should come
from emitter.

2.2.3 Transportation Model of n-p-n Transistor

The transportation model of a n-p-n transistor (symbol shown in Figure 2.3 (b)) is
shown in Figure 2.3(a), below.

Collector (C)

iC

iC
iB
–
vBC + n ‘Collector’
Base (B)
p ‘Base’
iB
+ Arrow direction
vBE n ‘Emitter’ is always from “p to n”.
–
p n iE
iE
Emitter (E)
(a) (b)

Figure 2.3: (a) n-p-n transportation model (b) Symbol n-p-n transistor

Chief points are given below.

(1) Narrow base region is coupling between two ‘back-to-back’ p-n junctions.
(2) Emitter injects electrons into base region of transistor. All electrons travel
across narrow base. These electrons are removed by collector.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 43

(3) Base-emitter-voltage ‘VBE’ and base-collector-voltage ‘VBC’ determine

current in transistor. If VBE and VBC are positive, they forward bias their
p-n junctions.
(4) Terminal currents are collector current (iC), base current (iB) and emitter
current (iE).

2.2.4 Transportation Model of p-n-p Transistor

The transportation model of a p-n-p transistor (symbol shown in Figure 2.4 (b)) is
shown in Figure 2.4(a), below.

Emitter (E)

iE

E
iE
iB
+ p ‘Emitter’
vEB
– Base (B)
iB
n ‘Base’
–
vCB + p ‘Collector’ iC
iC
C Collector (C)
(a) (b)

Figure 2.4: (a) p-n-p transportation model (b) Symbol of p-n-p transistor

Chief points are given below.

(1) If voltages ‘VEB’ and ‘VCB’ are positive, then they will forward bias their
respective p-n-junctions.
(2) Collector current and base current exit transistor terminals. Emitter current
enters the transistors.

2.3 HETEROJUNCTION BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (HBT)

HBT is an improvement over BJT. HBTs can handle very high frequency signals
typically up to several hundred gigahertz (GHz). HBTs are very commonly used in
ultra fast circuits like R.F. systems. H.B.T has different semiconductors for transistor
elements. Emitter of HBT is made up of a “Large band gap” material than its base
material. Two common HBTs are silicon-germanium and aluminum-gallium-
arsenide. Other semiconductors can also be conveniently used for HBT. HBTs are
developed by epitaxy techniques like “MOCVD” and “MBE”.
44 Semiconductor Devices

2.4 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

Three transistor configurations have been discussed below.

2.4.1 Common Emitter (CE)

In this CE configuration, input is applied between base and emitter. Output is taken
from collector and emitter. Emitter of transistor is “Common” to both input and
output circuits and that is why it is called “Common-emitter”.

B Output

E
Input

Figure 2.5: CE configuration

2.4.2 Common Base (CB)

In CB configuration, input is applied between emitter and base. Output is taken
from collector and base. Base of transistor is common to both input and output
and that is why is called ‘Common-base’.

E C

Input Output
B

Figure 2.6: CB configuration

2.4.3 Common Collector (CC)

In CC configuration, inputs are applied between base and collector. Output is
taken between the emitter and collector. Collector of transistor is common to both
input and output and that is why it is called ‘Common-collector’.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 45

E
Input

Output

Figure 2.7: CC configuration

α)” AND “BETA (β

2.5 TRANSISTOR “ALPHA (α β)”

Number of electrons which cross the transistor base and reach transistor collector
is a measure of BJT efficiency. Heavy doping of emitter region and light doping of
base region causes more and more electrons injection from emitter into base. Less
holes are injected from base into emitter. “βF” or “hfe” represent common emitter
current gain. ‘β’ is called “Base current amplification factor”. ‘β’ is ratio of change
in D.C. collector current to the change in D.C. base current in forward active
region. ‘β’ is around 100. However, it can vary between 20 to 500.
Another parameter is common base current gain. It is denoted by ‘αF’, which
is called “current amplification factor”. ‘αF’ is ratio of change in collector current
to the change in emitter current for a constant collector base voltage (VCB). ‘α’
and ‘β’ are thus given as

∆ IC ∆ IC
α= and β =
∆IE ∆ IB

α β
Also, β = 1 − α and α = 1 + β
( ) ( )
Current amplification factor ‘α’ is always less than unity. As, base current decreases,
‘α’ approaches unity. ‘α’ ranges from 0.9 to 0.99.

2.6 COMPARISON OF THREE CONFIGURATIONS

Table 2.1 below gives a comparison between three transistor configurations, as

discussed earlier.
46 Semiconductor Devices

Table 2.1: Comparison table

Sr.No. Parameter CB CE CC

(1) Input dynamic resistance Low (20 Ω – 100 Ω) Moderate Very high
(750 Ω–1000 Ω) (750K Ω)
(2) Output dynamic Very high Very high Low
resistance (450 K – 1 MΩ) (10 K Ω–1 KΩ) (50 Ω)
(3) Current gain Less than unity High (about100) —
(about 0.98)
(4) Leakage current Very small Very large
(1 µA – 5 µA) (20 µA–500 µA) —
(5) Application For high freqn For Audio freqn Impedance
matching
(6) Voltage gain about 150 about 500 less than 1

2.7 CURRENT COMPONENTS

Figure 2.8 below, shows three currents viz. iE, iB, and iC, and their flow inside the
transistor and in peripheral circuit.
Reverse current components are due to drift of thermally generated minority
carriers. These are not shown in Figure 2.8.
Forward bias Reverse bias

n p n

E Injected Diffusing Collected iC C

electrons electrons electrons
iE iC
iE
Injected holes (iB1)
Recombined
Electrons (iB2)

iB

–  + iB – +
BE CB
B
iE iE iC iC
– + – +
BE CB

Figure 2.8: Current components in a n-p-n transistor in active mode

2.8 MODES OF OPERATION

There are five (05) distinct modes of transistor operations. Figure 2.9 shows
input-output characteristics of transistor.
Figure 2.10 depicts various transistor operation modes.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 47

IC Saturation

Forward IB
active

Cut off
VCE
Cut off
IB Reverse
active

Saturation

Figure 2.9: Input-output characteristics

Emitter junction

Reverse Forward
Reverse

Cutoff
or Forward
off active
Collector junction

Forward

Saturation
Reverse or
active on

Figure 2.10: Transistor operation modes

Table 2.2: Operation condition and modes

Condition JE JC Region of
Emitter junction Collector junction operation

FR Forward biased Reverse biased Active

FF Forward biased Forward biased Saturation
RR Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff
RF Reverse biased Forward biased Inverted
48 Semiconductor Devices

2.8.1 Cutoff
If both junctions ‘JE’ and ‘JC’ are reverse biased, transistor is doing nothing. A
very little current flows. It corresponds to a logical “OFF’, or an open switch.

+10 V

RL oA

VBE
oV
E

Figure 2.11: ‘Cutoff’ in transistor

2.8.2 Active
It is of two types viz. forward active and reverse active. Both these modes have
been described below.

2.8.2.1 Forward Active

In this, emitter-base junction is forward biased. Base-collector junction is reverse
biased. BJTs possess very large “common-emitter current gain (β)” in this forward
active mode. In this case, collector-emitter current is proportional to base current.

+10 V

RL
IC

IB
+
VBE
E
–

Figure 2.12: Forward active mode

50 Semiconductor Devices

VCC – VCE = IC RC

 −1  VCC
or IC =  VCE +
 RC  RC

Comparing above with “y = (mx + c)” equation, which is of straight line Here,
 −1   VCC 
slope is   and intercept ‘C’ is   with IC axis. This straight line in the
 RC   RC 
case of transistors is known as “D.C. load line”. It is shown in Figure 2.14 below.

IC (mA)
A
VCC
RC
Q
C

B
VCE (Volts)
O D VCC

Figure 2.14: D.C. load line

2.9.1 Importance of D.C. Load Line

Current ‘IC’ and voltage ‘VCE’ of transistor are represented by D.C. load line.
When IC is maximum (= VCC/RC), then VCE = 0. If IC = 0, then VCE is maximum.
Also, at IC = 0, VCE is equal to VCC. From DC load line it can be seen that for
collector current ‘OC’, collector-emitter voltage ‘VCE’ is ‘OD’. Thus, load line is
a far more convenient and direct solution.
Also, resistance ‘RC’ is called ‘load’ or simply ‘load resistance’. Therefore,
D.C. load line is also called as “load line”.

2.9.2 Operating Point

Zero signal values of ‘IC’ and ‘VCE’ are called ‘operating point’.
In a circuit, operating conditions of transistor are described in terms of ‘VCE’
and ‘IC’. ‘VCE’ and ‘IC’ fix up operating points of transistor. Operating point is
also decided by number of other factors like VCC, RC, RB, VBE and VBB. Firstly,
values of VCC and RC are determined, which insure ‘operating-point’ of transistor
lying on its ‘D.C.-load line’. Exact operating point lying on D.C. load line is decided
by value of base current ‘IB’. Base current ‘IB’ is decided by value of ‘VBE’ (of
transistor), RB and VBB. By applying KVL to base circuit of transistor, we get the
following.
52 Semiconductor Devices

Collector leakage current is greatly affected by temperature changes. A rise of

10°C doubles the collector leakage current. Collector leakage current may be as
high as 0.2 mA in the case of low powered Germanium transistors.
Self-destruction of an untablized transistor is called “thermal runaway”. To
avoid thermal runaway, ‘IC’ should be kept constant.

2.10.2 Biasing Methods

Three biasing methods are described below.

2.10.2.1 Fixed biasing

Operating point in fixed biasing is obtained by following three steps

Step 1: Find base current IB

(VCC − VBE )
IB =
RB

As, VBE << VCC, therefore

IB ≈ (VCC/RB)

+ VCC

RB RC

+
VBE –

Figure 2.16: Fixed-biasing

Step 2: Find collector current

 VCC 
‘IC’. I C ≅ β I B provided I C ≤  
 RC 
Step 3: Find collector emitter voltage ‘VCE’.

VCE = (VCC – IC RC)

2.10.2.1.1 Advantages
Advantages of fixed biasing are given below.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 53

(1) Only one resistance ‘RB’ is needed. It is very simple circuit.

(2) Biasing conditions are very easily achieved, Calculations are simple.
(3) There is no loading of source by biasing circuit. Because, there is no
resistor across base-emitter junction.

2.10.2.1.2 Disadvantages
Disadvantages of fixed-biasing are given below.
(1) It provides poor stabilization.
(2) Stability factor is very high.

2.10.2.2 Biasing with feedback resistor

It is shown in Figure 2.17 below.

+ VCC
(IB + IC)

RC
IB

RB

IB
IE

Figure 2.17: Biasing with feedback resistor

Here, resistor ‘RB’ connects collector with base (input). Due to feedback,
base current is dependent on collector voltage. This dependence nullifies changes
in base current. This method is also called as “voltage-feedback” bias circuit.

2.10.2.2.1 Disadvantages
Its disadvantages are given below.
(1) Stability factor is high.
(2) It provides negative feedback. Thus, gain of amplifier is reduced.

2.10.2.3 Voltage divider biasing circuit

It is shown in Figure 2.18 below.
Here, two resistors ‘R1’ and ‘R2’ are put across supply voltage ‘VCC’. These
resistors provide biasing. Emitter resistance ‘RE’ provides stabilization. Voltage
divider circuit is formed by ‘R1’ and ‘R2’. Voltage drop across ‘R2’, forward
biases base-emitter junction. As a result, base current and collector current flow in
zero signal conditions.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 55

Terminal ‘3’ : Emitter

I in : Base current (ib)
io : Collector current (ic)
Vin : Base to emitter voltage (VBE)
Vo : Collector to emitter voltage (VCE)
h-parameters are defined as
hin = hie; Input impedance of transistor (It corresponds to emitter
resistance ‘re’.)
hrx = hre; Dependence of transistor’s ‘IB – VBE’ curve on ‘VCE’. It is
very small and can be neglected.
hfx = hfe; Current gain of transistor. This parameter ‘hfe’ is specified as ‘hfe’.
It is same as D.C. current gain ‘βDC’, which is given in datasheets.
hox = hoe; Output impedance of transistor. It is basically an admittance
and needs to be inverted so as to convert it into an impedance.
‘h’-parameters with subscripts signify A.C. conditions or analyses. DC conditions
are specified in upper case. For CE topology, h-parameter analysis model is
commonly used. h-parameter model simplifies circuit analysis. ‘hoe’ and ‘hre’
parameters are set to infinity and zero, respectively. h-parameter model is well
suited for low frequency and small signal analysis. For high frequency analyses,
inter electrode capacitors must be considered.

2.11.2 High Frequency Model; Ebers-Moll Model

High frequency model was developed by Ebers-Moll in 1954. It is also termed as
“Coupled-diode model”. It is an ideal model for a BJT. This model fits well for
forward active mode, reverse active mode, saturation and cut-off modes of
operation.
Ebers Moll model has two diodes and two current sources. It is shown in
Figure 2.20, below.
Two diodes in this model are base-emitter and base collector diodes. Current
sources signify minority carriers flowing through base region. Current sources
depend on current flowing through each diode. Parameters of this model are:
– + – +

VBE VBC

IB
R IR F IF

VBE VBE
IF = IES e VT – 1 IR = ICS e VT – 1
IE IC

Figure 2.20: Ebers-Moll model

 Bipolar Junction Transistor 57

WB

E B C

p-type n-type p-type

WB eff

Figure 2.22: ‘Early-effect’

Here, WB: Physical base width (thickness of doped base region) and
WBeff : Effective base width
If emitter-base junction is forward biased, then ‘WD’ does not change. If
collector-base junction is reverse biased, then ‘WD’ changes with collector voltage
change. It is so because collector is less heavily doped with respect to base. The
principle involved is called ‘charge-neutrality’. This principle governs these two
widths. Emitter-base junction remains unchanged as emitter-base voltage remains
same.
Two consequences of ‘base-modulation’ affecting current are mentioned below.
(1) There is very little chance of recombination within the “smaller” base
region.
(2) Charge gradient is increased across the base. Therefore, current of minority
carriers, which are injected in emitter junction, increases.
These two factors increase collector or “output” current of transistor as
collector voltage is increased. This increased current is shown in Figure 2.23,
below.

IC

VA = Early voltage

– VA VCE

Figure 2.23: Early voltage in output characteristic plot of a BJT

58 Semiconductor Devices

Tangents to these characteristics especially at large voltages are extrapolated

backward which intercept with voltage axis at a single voltage called as “Early
voltage”. Early voltage is denoted as ‘VA’.

2.13 PHOTOTRANSISTOR

A phototransistor is normally connected in common-emitter configuration. Base is

kept open and radiation is concentrated on a region near collector junction. This
transistor works in “active region”. In forward bias, minority carriers are thermally
generated. Electrons cross from base to collector and holes and from collector to
base. They constitute reverse saturation collector current ‘ICO’. As, base is open
IB = 0.

Thus, IC = (β + 1) ICO

If light is turned ‘ON’, additional minority carriers are photo generated. These
additional minority carriers contribute to reverse saturation current, similar to
thermally generated minority charges. Let ‘Il’ be the component of reverse saturation
current due to light, then total collection current ‘IC’ is given as

IC = (β + 1) (ICO + Il)

Current due to radiation is multiplied by (β + 1), a very large factor, due to transistor
action.

Radiations

C E
n p n
IC
JC JE

+ –
VCE

Figure 2.24: A phototransistor

IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIPS

Important relationships are given below.

1. In a n-p-n transistor, minority carrier concentration in base (p-region) is given

as

η (o ) =
η po eVBE / VT
60 Semiconductor Devices

Here,
IB : Base current
α : Current amplification factor
and ICBO : Collector-base current with emitter open (Leakage current)

(c) Input characteristic is shown in Figure 2.25 below.

(d) Input resistance ‘ri’ is

IE (mA)

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
VEB (V)
0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 2.25: Input characteristic of CB configuration

∆ VCB
ri = at constant VCB
∆ IC

(e) Output resistance ‘ro’ is

∆ VBE
ro = at constant I E
∆ IE

(f) Output characteristic is shown in Figure 2.26 below.

IC (mA)

5 IE = 5 mA

4 IE = 4 mA

3 IE = 3 mA

2 IE = 2 mA

1 IE = 1 mA
IE = 0 mA
0
Collector-Base VCB (volts)
voltage

Figure 2.26: Output characteristic of CB configuration

 Bipolar Junction Transistor 61

5. Common emitter (CE) connection/configuration

Important terms in CE connection have been summarized below.
(a) Current amplification factor ‘β’ is

∆ IC
β=
∆ IB

(b) Collector current ‘IC’ is

 α 
IC = β IB + ICEO β = 1 − α 
 ( ) 
Here, ICEO : Collector-emitter current with base open
(c) Emitter current ‘IE’ is

 α 
 Here, (β + 1) = ( α ) 
1 −
IE = (β + 1) IB + ICEO 

 = (β α ) 

(d) Input characteristic is shown in Figure 2.27 below.

IB (A)

4
V

0V

3
=1

=1
CE
V

2
CE
V

0 VBE (volts)
0.7 1.4 2.1

Figure 2.27: Input characteristics of CE configuration

(e) Input resistance ‘ri’ is

∆ VBE
ri = at constant VCE
∆ IB

(f) Output resistance ‘ro’ is

62 Semiconductor Devices

∆ VCE
ro = at constant I B
∆ IC

(g) Output characteristic is shown in Figure 2.28 below.

IC

5 mA IB = 25 A

4 mA IB = 20 A

3 mA IB = 15 A

2 mA IB = 10 A

1 mA IB = 5 A

0
VCE

Figure 2.28: Output characteristics of CE configuration

6. Common collector (CC) connection/configuration

Important terms in CC connection have been summarized below.
(a) Current amplification factor ‘ γ ’is

 ∆ IE 
γ = 
 ∆ IB 

1
or γ= (1 + β )
(1 − α )
(b) Collector current ‘IC’ is

IC = (β + 1) IB +(β + 1) ICBO

Here, ICBO : Collector-base current with emitter open

7. Avalanche multiplication factor ‘M’ is

1
M= n
1 − (VCB B VCBO )
64 Semiconductor Devices

Stability factor ‘S’ is

(β + 1) ∂ IC
S= = at constt I B and β
 d I  ∂ I CO
1 − β  B  
  d IC  

In fixed bias, ‘IB’ is independent of IC.

d IB
Thus, =0
d IC

and S = (β + 1)

Here, ICO : Collector leakage current

11. In voltage divider bias method

(V2 − VBE )
IC =
RE

 VCC 
Here, V2 =   R2
 R1 + R 2 

Thus, VCE = [VCC –IC (RC + RE)]

Here, stability factor ‘S’ is

S=1

(V2 − VBE )
and IE = ≈ IC
RE

12. In collector to base bias circuit

VCE = VCC – (IC + IB) RC

(VCE − VBE ) VCC

or IB = ≈
( RC + RB ) ( RB + βRC )
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 65

As, IC = βIB

Thus, VCE = (VCC – ICRC)

Collector to base bias circuit is shown in Figure 2.29 below.

IC + IB

RC

RB
– +
IC
IB

VCE
+
VBE –

Figure 2.29: Collector to base bias

13. Transistor as an amplifier

Figure 2.30 below, depicts an amplifier circuit using a transistor.

+ VCC

RC

IC
X

CC
IB

Output

Signal IE

Figure 2.30: Transistor amplifier

66 Semiconductor Devices

Output is available either across ‘RC’ or across terminal ‘X’ and ‘Y’ as shown in
Figure 2.30. Output magnitude remains same in either case.

Performance
In common emitter (CE) amplifier
Input resistance ‘Ri’ is

∆ VBE
Ri = ∆ = hie
IB

Output resistance ‘Ro’ is

∆ VCE  1 
Ro = = 
∆ I C  hoe 

Effective collector load ‘RAC’ is

RAC = RC || RO

RC × RO
= R +R
( C O)
In a single stage amplifier, effective load is same as collector load ‘RC’. If amplifiers
are cascaded, input resistance ‘Ri’ of next stage plays an important role. Effective
collector load ‘Reff’ is parallel combination of RC, RO and Ri. It is obtained as

Reff = (RC || RO || Ri)

RC × Ri
= R +R
( C i)

IB

VBE Rin

Figure 2.31: CE amplifier

 Bipolar Junction Transistor 69

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Q1. In a p-n-p transistor, forward emitter current is 2 mA. Collector circuit

is open. Find
(i) Junction voltage ‘VC’ and ‘VE’
(ii) VCE
(ICO = 2 µA , I Eo = 1.6 µA and ‘αN’ = 0.98, where ‘αN’ represents
normal mode of operation of transistor)
Also, investigate whether transistor is in ‘saturation’ or ‘cutoff’ or
‘active’ region.
Solution: (i) It is given that

IC = 0

IE = 2 mA

 I 
We know, =VE VT ln 1 − E 
 I Eo 

In a p-n-p transistor, ‘ I Eo ’ is negative.

Therefore, I Eo = – 1.6 µA

 2 
Now, VE = 0.026 ln  1 + −3 
 1 ⋅ 6 × 10 
or = 0.1853V
For forward bias case

 α I 
=Vc VT ln  1 − n E 
 I Co 
 

 0.98 × 2 × 10−3 
or = 0.026 ln 1 − 
 2 × 10−6 
or = 0.179 V
(ii) ‘VCE’ is obtained as

VCE = (VC – VE)

or = 0.0063 V
(iii) From above results, we find that transistor is in “saturation region”.
70 Semiconductor Devices

Q2. In a transistor ‘αdc’ is 0.99. Collector leakage current ‘ICo’ is 5 µA.

Find base current and collector current, if ‘IE’ is 2 mA.
Solution: We know that
IC = (αdc IE + ICo)

Thus, I=
C (0.99 × 2 × 10 −3
+ 5 × 10−6 )
or IC = 1.985 × 10–3 A
Base current is obtained as
IB = (IE – IC)

or ( −3
IB = 2 × 10 − 1.985 × 10
−3
)
or IB = 15 µA
Q3. In a transistor, if emitter current changes by 4 mA, collector current
changes by 0.83 mA. What is short-circuit current gain of this transistor?
Solution: Short circuit current gain ‘α’ is

 ∆ iC 
α or hfb =  
 ∆ iE 

 0.83 × 10−3 
Thus, α =  −3 
 4 × 10 
or α = 0.2075
Q4. A common base circuit is shown in Figure 2.32, below. Find ‘VCB’ and
‘IC’. Transistor is made up of Silicon semiconductor material.

VCC = 18 V

RC = 3 k

IC

IB

IE

RE = 2 k

VEE = 10 V

Figure 2.32: A common base circuit

 Bipolar Junction Transistor 71

Solution: In the case of a Silicon transistor

VBE = 0.7 V
Applying KVL in emitter loop yields
VEE = (IE RE + VBE)

(VEE − VBE )
or IE =
RE

 10 − 0.7 
Thus, IE =  
 2 × 103 
or IE = 4.65 mA
Here, I B ≈ 0 so I C ≈ I E
Thus, IC = 4.65 mA
Applying KVL in collector loop yields
(VCC – VCB) = IC RC
or VCB = VCC – IC RC
VCB = (18 – 4.65 × 10–3 × 3 × 103)
or VCB (18 – 13.95)
VCB = 4.05 V
Q5. What will be ‘α’ rating of transistor as shown in Figure 2.33 below?
Also, find value of IC.

IC

 = 49
IB = 341 A

IE = 15 mA

Figure 2.33: A B.J.T.

Solution: We know that

β
α = 1+ β
( )
49
In this case, α = 1 + 49
( )
72 Semiconductor Devices

or α = 0.98
Further, IC = α IE
or IC = 0.98 × 15 × 10-3
or IC = 14.7 mA
Also, IC = β IB
or IC = 49 × 341 × 10-6A
or IC = 14.7 mA
Q6. In an application, maximum power dissipation ‘PD’ of a transistor is
100 mW. Find maximum allowable collector current without causing
any destruction to transistor. Consider VCF = 25 V.
Solution: We know that
PD = VCE × IC
In this case, 100 mW = 25 V × IC
100 mW
or IC =
25V
or IC = 4 mA
Q7. Potential divider method of biasing is used in a transistor circuit. Here,
R1 = 50 KΩ, R2 = 10 KΩ and RE = 1 KΩ. If VCC = 15 V, find
(a) IC with VBE = 0.1 V, and
(b) IC with VBE = 0.3 V
Solution: It is given that
R1 = 50 KΩ, R2 = 10 KΩ , RE = 1 KΩ and VCC = 15 V
(a) If VBE = 0.1 V, voltage across R2 is

 R2 
V2 =  
 R1 + R2 

10
VCC = 10 + 50 × 15
( )
= 2.5 V

(V2 − VBE )
Collector current ‘IC’ =
RE

(2.5 − 0.1)
or =
1 KΩ
74 Semiconductor Devices

Further, VCE = VCC – IC (RC + RE)

= 15 − 0.5 × 10−3 (1 + 2 ) × 103

= 13.5 V
Collector potential ‘VC’ = (VCC – IC RC)

or ( −3
= 15 − 0.5 × 10 × 2 × 10
3
)
or = 14 V
Q9. In the circuit shown below in Figure 2.35, operating point is chosen
such that IC = 5 mA and VCE = 1V. If RC = 1.1KΩ , VCC = 10 V and β
= 50, find R1, R2 and RE. (assume VBE = 0.3 V and I1 = 5 IB)

+ VCC = 10 V

I1 2.2 k
IC
R1 I1 >> IB
VCE

I1 IB
IE
R2 VBE
RE

Figure 2.35: Voltage divider circuit

Solution: It is given that

R C = 1.1 KΩ
V CC = 10 V
β = 50
VBE = 0.3 V
and I 1 = 5 IB
‘IB’ is quite small in comparison with ‘I1’, therefore I1 flowing through
R1 also flows through R2 (approximately in same amount).

 IC 
Base current ‘IB’ =  β 
 

5 × 10−3
=
50
= 0.1 mA
Current via ‘R1’ and ‘R2’ is obtained as below.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 75

Given that I1 = 5 IB
Thus, I1 = 5 × 0.1 × 10–3
or = 0.5 mA
VCC
Further, I1 = R + R
( 1 2)
10
or 0.5 × 10−3 =
( R1 + R2 )
or ( R1 + R2 ) = 20 KΩ
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at collector side, we get
VCC = (IC RC + VCE + IE RE)
or VCC = (IC RC + VCE + IC RE)
In this case,
10 = (0.5 × 1.1 × 103 × 10–3 + 1 + 0.5 × 10–3 × RE)
or (10 – 5.5 – 1) = 0.5 × 10–3 RE
3.5
or RE =
5 × 10−3
or RE = 700 Ω
Voltage across ‘R2’ is obtained as
V2 = (VBE + VE)
or = (VBE + IE RE)
or V2 = (0.3 + 5 × 0.7)
or V2 = 3.8 V
V2
Resistance R2 =
I1

3.8
=
0.5 mA
= 7.6 KΩ
and R1 = (20 – 7.6) KΩ
= 12.4 KΩ
Q10. A Ge transistor (β = 50) is used in a self biasing circuit. In circuit, VCC
= 16V and RC = 1.5 KΩ. Quiescent point ‘Q’ is VCE = 8V and IC = 4
mA. For stability factor ‘S’ = 12, find values of R1, R2 and RC.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 77

Let ‘N’ be the ground point. Then

VBN = (VBE – IE RE)
or = (0.2 + 4.08 × 0.49)
or = 2.2 V
and V = (VBN + IB RB)
or = (2.2 + 0.08 × 7.05)
or = 2.76 V
V VCC
Also, =
RB R1

16
=
R1

 16 RB 
Thus, R1 =  
 V 

 16 × 7.05 
or =  
 2.76 
or = 41 KΩ

(VCC − VBN )
Further, I R1 =
R1

16 − 2.2
or =
41 × 103
or = 0.337 mA

Also, I=
R2 (IR 1
− IB )
or = 0.257 mA

 VBN 
Thus, R2 =  I 

 R2 

 2.2 
or R2 =  
 0.257 
or R2 = 8.56 KΩ
Note that stability factor is improved. Power drained by biasing resistors
‘R1’ and ‘R2’ from battery is increased.
78 Semiconductor Devices

Q11. h-parameters in case of a common-emitter transistor amplifier circuit

are given as
hie = 100 Ω, hre = 2.5 × 10–4, hfe = 50 and hoe = 25 µA.
Find,
(a) Maximum ‘RL’ for which Ri does not differ by more than 10% of its
value at RL = 0.
(b) Maximum ‘RS’ for which Ro does not differ by more than 10% of
its value at RS = 0.
Solution: (a) We know that

 

(
 h − h fe hre ) 

Ri =  
ie
 1
  hoe +  
  RL 

Subscript ‘e’ denotes CE configuration. If RL = 0, then Ri = hie.

  
  h h 
 h −  fe re 
Thus, 0.9 Ri = 0.9 hie =  ie  1 
  hoe + R 
  L 

 
 h ⋅h 
 fe re  = 0.1 hie
So h + 1 
 oe R 
 L 

 0.1 hie 
or h fe ·hre  0.1 hie hoe +
= 
 RL 

hie
or 0.1
RL
= (h fe ⋅ hre − 0.1hie hoe )
hie 1  h h 
or =  h fe ⋅ hre − ie oe 
RL 10  10 

1
hie
RL = 10
or  hie hoe 
 h fe ⋅ hre − 10 
 
80 Semiconductor Devices

– 10 V

3K ICS

0
7K
hfe = 100
IB
– RE
3V 500 
+ IE

Figure 2.36: Transistor circuit

(b) Output voltage ‘vo’.

(c) Value of ‘Re’ so as to act in other region (saturation / active).
Ans. (a) Saturation (b) 1.645 V (c) Re = 771.56 Ω (to work in active region)
Q2. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.37 below. Find values of
‘Rc’ and ‘Re’. What should be ‘Rc’ and ‘Re’, if β is reduced to its 50%
value?
Ans. (a) Rc = 255 Ω and Re = 127 Ω
(b) Rc = 512.8 Ω and Re = 253.87 Ω

+6V

RC IC

90 K 0

 = 200
IB

90 K Re IE

–6V

Figure 2.37: Transistor circuit

Q3. Consider transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.38 below. Find ‘VBB’ (input
voltage) required to just saturate the transistor.
Ans. VBB = 14.41 Volts
 Bipolar Junction Transistor 81

+ 15 V

500 

44 K
+  = 100

VBB 1K

–
– 15 V

Figure 2.38: Transistor circuit

Q4. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in figure 2.39, below. Find output
voltage ‘vo’, if transistor is in “saturation region”. Find region of operation.
Also, find output voltage ‘vo’, if input voltage is modified to 1V.
+ 12 V

2.2 K

0
15 K
Vi = 12 V
(initially) I1
100 K
I2

– 12 V

Figure 2.39: Transistor circuit

Ans. When transistor is in “saturation”, its output ‘vo’ is 0.208 V. Transistor goes
into “cutoff region” as input is modified to 1V. In this case, output ‘vo’ is
11.999978 V ( ≈ 12 volt ).
Q5. Find value of base current ‘IB’ needed to just saturate the transistor as
shown in Figure 2.40, below.
– 12 V

4 K

IB

IE
Figure 2.40: Transistor
82 Semiconductor Devices

Ans. 56.96µA
Q6. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.41 below. If transistor is
operating in “active region”, find
(a) VE (b) VB (c) I2 (d) I C (e) β
(f) I1 (g) V1 and (h) R1
Here, the transistor is in “active region”.

12 V

3.3 K = RC
R1
V1
I1
VB

20 K IB VE
R2 100  = Re
I2 IE = 2 mA

Figure 2.41: Transistor circuit

Ans. (a) 0.2 V (b) 0.9 V (c) 0.045 mA (d) 11.96 mA

(e) 49 (f) 0.085 mA (g) 5.25 V and (h) 51.19 KΩ
Q7. What is ‘vc’ (collector output) in transistor circuit as shown in figure 2.42,
below?

+10 V

IC
vC

IB
VE = – 0.7 V
10 K

–10 V

Figure 2.42: Transistor circuit

Ans. 5.45 V
Q8. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.43 below.
Consider Silicon transistor. Find
84 Semiconductor Devices

 
 
 Hint : ' S ' = (1 + β ) 
Ans.   ∂I B 
 1 − β  
 ∂I C
  

(RC + RE) >> RB

Q11. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.46 below.
VCC = 16 V
VCC

I2 R1 RC = 1.5 K
VO
VCE = 8 V
VB  IC = 4 mA
IB S = 10

R2 RE
I1 IE

Figure 2.46: Transistor circuit

Find
 R1 
(a) RE (b) VB (c)  
 R2 
(d) If stability factor ‘S’ changes to 3, find the value of ‘R1’ , needed to
maintain the same ratio, as earlier.
R1
Ans. (a) 490 Ω (b) 2.63 V (c) = 4.19 and (d) R1 = 5.25 KΩ
R2

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q1. In a transistor having normal bias, the emitter junction

(a) has a high resistance.
(b) has a low resistance.
(c) is reverse biased.
(d) emits carriers into base region.
Q2. Current crossing collector junction in a normally biased n-p-n transistor is
called
(a) diffusion current.
86 Semiconductor Devices

Q9. As temperature in transistor increases, the base emitter resistance

(a) decreases.
(b) increases.
(c) remain same.
(d) none of these
Q10. Phase difference between input and output voltages in a CE connected
transistor is maximum.
(a) True
(b) False
(c) Sometimes true
(d) Conditionally true
Q11. BC-147 is a
(a) Germanium (Ge) transistor.
(b) Silicon (Si) transistor.
(c) Carbon (C) transistor.
(d) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) transistor.
Q12. In voltage divider bias, current ‘I1’flowing through ‘R1’ and ‘R2’ for good
stabilization should be either equal to or greater than__________
(a) 10 IB
(b) 3 IB
(c) 2 IB
(d) 4 IB
Q13. Operating point stabilization in potential divider method is given by
(a) RE
(b) Rc
(c) Vcc
(d) none of these
Q14. Base resistor method is widely used in
(a) amplifier circuits.
(b) switching circuits.
(c) rectifier circuits.
(d) clipping and clamping circuits.
Q15. Best stabilization of operating point is provided in/by
(a) Base resistor method.
(b) Collector feedback bias.