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Small-Signal Analysis of
BJT Differential Pairs
Now lets consider the case where each input of the
differential pair consists of an identical DC bias term VB, and
also an AC small-signal component (i.e., v1( t ) and v2( t ) )

VCC

RC RC
vO 1 (tv ) (t )
O2
VB + v1( t )+ Q1 iE 1 iE 2Q2 v2( t ) +VB
+
vBE 1 vBE 2
- I-
VEE
As a result, the open-circuit output voltages will likewise have
a DC and small-signal component.
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Recall that we can alternatively express these two small-signal

components in terms of their average (common-mode):

v 1 ( t ) + v 2( t )
vcm ( t ) B
2

and their differential mode:

vd ( t ) Bv1( t ) - v2( t )

Such that:

vd ( t ) vd ( t )
v1( t ) = vcm( t ) + v2( t ) = vcm( t ) -
2 2

I.E.: VCC

RC RC
vO 1 (tv ) (t )
O2
v (t ) vd ( t )
VB +vcm ( t ) + d Q1 iE 1 iE 2Q2 vcm ( t ) -
+
+VB
2 + 2
vBE 1 vBE 2
- I-
VEE
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Now, let’s determine the small-signal voltage gain of this

amplifier!

Q: What do you mean by gain? Is it:

vo 1 vo 2 vo 1 vo 2
Avo B or Avo B or Avo B or Avo B ???
v1 v2 v2 v1

A: Actually, none of those definitions!

This is a differential amplifier, so we typically define gain in

terms of its common-mode ( Acm ) and differential ( Ad ) gains:

vo 1 v vo 1 v
Acm B = o2 and Ad B = - o2
vcm vcm vd vd

So that:
vo 1(t ) = Acm vcm (t ) + Ad vd (t )

vo 2(t ) = Acm vcm (t ) - Ad vd (t )

Q: So how do we determine the differential and common-

mode gains?

A: The first step—of course—is to accomplish a DC analysis;

turn off the small-signal sources!
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VCC

RC V V
RC
O1 O2

VB Q1 I 2 I 2Q2

I
VEE
This DC analysis is quite simple!

1. Since the DC base voltage VB is the same for each

transistor, we know the two emitter currents will each be:

I
IE 1 = I E 2 =
2

We know one current, we know em’ all!

I
IC 1 = I C 2 = a
2

I 1
IB 1 = IB 2 =
2 ( b + 1)
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Likewise, for the BJTs to be in active mode, we know that:

VCB > 0 � VC >VB .

From KVL, the collector voltage is:

I
VC =VCC - RC IC = VCC - a R
2 C

Therefore, in order for the BJTs to be in the active mode:

I V -VB
VCC - a R >VB � I < 2 CC
2 C a RC

2. Now, we determine the small-signal parameters of each

transistor:

IC a I
gm 1 = gm 2 = =
VT 2 VT

IB 1 I
rπ 1 = rπ 2 = =
VT 2 ( β + 1 ) VT

2 VA
ro 1 = ro 2 =
aI
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3. Turning off the DC sources:

RC RC
vo 1 (t )
vo 2 (t )
vd ( t ) vd ( t )
vcm ( t ) + Q1 ie 1 ie 2 Q2 vcm ( t ) -
2 2

And now inserting the hybrid-pi BJT model:

vo 1 ( t ) vo 2 ( t )

+ RC +
+ RC +
vcm ( t ) - -
vcm ( t )
vbe1 rp ro ro rp vbe2
+vd (t ) + - gmv be 1 gmv be 2 - + -vd (t )
2 - - 2

Now, tidying this schematic up a bit:

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RC RC
vo 1 ( t ) vo 2 ( t )

ro ro
gmv be 1 gmv be 2

- -

rp vbe1 rp vbe2

+ +
+ +
vcm ( t ) vcm ( t )
- -

vd (t ) + vd (t ) +
+ 2 - - 2 -

Q: Yikes! How do we analyze this mess?

A: In a word, superposition!

Q: I see, we turn off three sources and analyze the circuit

with the one remaining source on. We then move to the next
source, until we have four separate analysis—then we add the
results together, right?

A: It’s actually much easier than that!

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We first turn off the two differential-mode sources, and

analyze the circuit with only the two remaining (equal valued)
common-mode sources.

RC RC
vo 1 ( t ) vo 2 ( t )

ro ro
gmv be 1 gmv be 2

- -

rp vbe1 rp vbe2

+ +
+
vcm ( t ) - vcm ( t ) +
-

From this analysis, we can determine things like the common-

mode gain and input resistance!
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We then turn off the two common-mode sources, and analyze

the circuit with only the two (equal but opposite valued)
differential-mode sources.

RC RC
vo 1 ( t ) vo 2 ( t )

ro ro
gmv be 1 gmv be 2

- -

rp vbe1 rp vbe2

+ +
v (t ) + v (t ) +
+ d - - d
2 2 -

From this analysis, we can determine things like the

differential mode gain and input resistance!

Q: This still looks very difficult! How do we analyze these

“differential” and “common-mode” circuits?

A: The key is circuit symmetry.

We notice that the common-mode circuit has a perfect plane

of reflection (i.e., bilateral) symmetry:
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ic 1 RC RC ic 2
vo 1 ( t ) vo 2 ( t )
+ +
ro vce 1 vce 2 ro
gmv be 1 gmv be 2
- ie 1 ie 2 -
v e 1( t ) v e 2( t )
- -

rp vbe1 vbe2 rp
iin 1 + + iin 2
+
vcm ( t ) -
+
vcm ( t )
-

The left and right side of the circuit above are mirror images
of each other (including the sources with equal value vcm ).

The two sides of the circuit a perfectly and precisely

equivalent, and so the currents and voltages on each side of
the circuit must likewise be perfectly and precisely equal!

For example:

vbe 1 = vbe 2 iin 1 = iin 2

vo 1 = vo 2 gmvbe 1 = gmvbe 2
and
vce 1 = vce 2 ic 1 = ic 2
ve 1 = ve 2 ie 1 = ie 2
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Q: Wait! You say that—because of “circuit symmetry”—that:

ie 1 = ie 2 .

But, just look at the circuit; from KCL it is evident that:

ie 1 = - ie 2

How can both statements be correct?

A: Both statements are correct!

In fact, the statements (taken together) tell us what the

small-signal emitter currents must be (for this common-mode
circuit).

There is only one possible solution that satisfies the two

equations—the common-mode, small-signal emitter currents
must be equal to zero!
ie 1 = ie 2 = - ie 2 = 0

Hopefully this result is a bit obvious to you.

If a circuit possess a plane of perfect reflection (i.e.,

bilateral) symmetry, then no current will flow across the
symmetric plane. If it did, then the symmetry would be
destroyed!

Thus, a plane of reflection symmetry in a circuit is known as

virtual open—no current can flow across it!
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ic RC RC ic
vo ( t ) vo ( t )
+ +
ro vce vce ro
gmv be gmv be
-
0 0 -
ve ( t ) ve ( t )
- -

rp vbe vbe rp
iin + + iin
+
vcm ( t ) +
vcm ( t )
- The Virtual Open -

Thus, we can take pair of scissors and cut this circuit into two
identical half-circuits, without affecting any of the currents
or voltages—the two circuits on either side of the virtual open
are completely independent!
RC
vo ( t )

ro
gmv be
The Common-Mode
-
Half Circuit
rp vbe

iin +
+
vcm ( t ) -
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Now, since roπ ? r and ro ? RC , we can simplify the circuit by

approximating it as an open circuit:
RC
vo ( t )

gmv be

rp vbe
+
iin
+
vcm ( t ) -

Now, let’s analyze this half-circuit!

From Ohm’s Law:

vbeπ =
in r i

And from KCL:

iin = - gmvbe

Thus combining:
vbe = - ( gmπr ) vβv
be = - be
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Q: Yikes! How can vβv

be = - be ?? The value β is not equal to
- 1 !!

A: You are right ( β �- 1 )!

Instead, we must conclude from the equation:

vβv
be = - be

that the small-signal voltage vbe must be equal to zero !

vbe = 0

Q: No way! If vbe = 0 , then gmvbe = 0 . No current is

flowing, and so the output voltage vo must likewise be equal to
zero!

A: That’s precisely correct! The output voltage is

approximately zero:

vo ( t ) @ 0

Q: Why did you say “approximately” zero ??

A: Remember, we neglected the output resistance ro in our

circuit analysis. If we had explicitly included it, we would find
that the output voltage would be very small, but not exactly
zero.
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Q: So what does this all mean?

A: It means that the common-mode gain of a BJT

differential pair is very small (almost zero!).

vo
Acm = @0
vcm

Likewise, we find that:

iin @ 0

Such that the common-mode input resistance is really big:

Rincm @� !!!

The common-mode component of inputs v1( t ) and v2( t ) have

virtually no effect on a BJT differential pair!

Q: So what about the differential mode?

A: Let’s complete our superposition and find out!

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RC RC
vo 1 ( t ) vo 2 ( t )

ro ro
gmv be 1 gmv be 2

- -

rp vbe1 vbe2 rp
+ +
v (t ) + + vd ( t )
+ d - -
2 - 2

Q: Hey, it looks like we have the same symmetric circuit as

before—won’t we get the same answers?
ic 1 RC RC ic 2
vo 1 ( t ) vo 2 ( t )
+ +
ro vce 1 vce 2 ro
gmv be 1 gmv be 2
- ie 1 ie 2 -
v e 1( t ) v e 2( t )
- -

rp vbe1 vbe2 rp
iin 1 + + iin 2
+
vd ( t ) + vd ( t )
+ - - -
2 2
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A: Not so fast!

Look at the two-small signal sources—they are “equal but

opposite”. The fact that the two sources have opposite “sign”
changes the symmetry of the circuit.

Instead of each current and voltage on either side of the

symmetric plane being equal to the other, we find that each
current and voltage must be “equal but opposite”!

For example:

vbe 1 = - vbe 2 iin 1 = - iin 2

vo 1 = - vo 2 gmvbe 1 = - gmvbe 2
and
vce 1 = - vce 2 ic 1 = - ic 2
ve 1 = - ve 2 ie 1 = - ie 2

This type of circuit symmetry is referred to as odd

symmetry; the common-mode circuit, in contrast, possessed
even symmetry.

Q: Wait! You say that—because of “circuit symmetry”—that:

ve 1 = - ve 2 .

But, just look at the circuit; from KVL it is evident that:

ve 1 = ve 2
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How can both statements be correct?

A: Both statements are correct!

In fact, the statements (taken together) tell us what the

small-signal emitter voltages must be (for this differential-
mode circuit).

There is only one possible solution that satisfies the two

equations—the differential-mode, small-signal emitter
voltages must be equal to zero!

ve 1 = - ve 2 = ve 2 = 0

More generally, the electric potential at every location along a

plane of odd reflection symmetry is zero volts. Thus, the
plane of odd circuit symmetry is known as virtual ground!
ic RC RC ic
vo ( t ) -vo ( t )

+ -
ro vce ro
vce 1
gmv be - gmv be
- ie ie +
ve = 0 ve = 0
- +

rp vbe vbe rp
+ -
iin -iin
+ +
v (t ) - The Virtual Ground vd ( t )
+ d - -
2 2
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Again, the circuit has two isolated and independent halves.

We can take our scissors and cut it into two separate “half-
circuits”:
RC
vo ( t )

ro
gmv be

rp vbe The Differential-Mode

Half Circuit
iin +
vd ( t ) +
-
2

Note the only difference (aside from the small-signal source)

between the differential half-circuit and its common-mode
counterpart is that the emitter is connected to ground  it’s
a common-emitter amplifier!

Let’s redraw this half-circuit and see if you recognize it:

iin
vo ( t )
+

vd ( t ) +
-
rp vbe ro RC
2 gmv be
-
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Q: Hey, we’ve seen this circuit (about a million times)

before! We know that:

vd ( t ) g R
vo ( t ) = - gm ( ro RC ) @- m C vd ( t )
2 2

And also:
1 vd ( t )
iin ( t ) =
rπ 2

Right?

A: Exactly!

From this we can conclude that the differential-mode small-

signal gain is:

vo ( t )
Ad B =- 1
gm RC
vd ( t ) 2

And the differential mode-input resistance is:

d vd ( t )
Rinπ B = 2r
iin ( t )

In addition, it is evident (from past analysis) that the output

resistance is:

d
Rout = ro RC @ RC
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Now, putting the two pieces of our superposition together, we

can conclude that, given small-signal inputs:

vd ( t ) vd ( t )
v1( t ) = vcm( t ) + v2( t ) = vcm( t ) -
2 2

The small-signal outputs are:

vo 1( t ) = Acm vcm ( t ) + Ad vd ( t ) @ Ad vd ( t )

vo 2( t ) = Acm vcm ( t ) - Ad vd ( t ) @ -Ad vd ( t )

Moreover, if we define a differential output voltage:

vod ( t ) B vo 1( t ) - vo 2( t )

Then we find it is related to the differential input as:

vod ( t ) = 2Ad vd ( t )

Thus, the differential pair makes a very good difference

amplifier—the kind of gain stage that is required in every
operational-amplifier circuit!