Turbine Steam Path Damage:

Theory and Practice

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals

T.H. McCloskey
R.B. Dooley
Electric Power Research Institute

and

W.P. McNaughton
Cornice Engineering, Inc.

EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
 About EPRI
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ii
Acknowledgments

This two volume work summarizes the current state of knowledge of steam path
damage in steam turbines. It is an integration of the work performed and reported
by literally hundreds of researchers, designers, and turbine operators spanning the
twentieth century, with emphasis on developments of the past twenty years. The
authors have drawn extensively from that work. We have had the rare privilege of
working with an outstanding group of experts and consultants worldwide who have
provided review, comment, supporting documentation, illustrations and figures for
this book. We would like to acknowledge the following reviewers:

Individual Organization Country

M. Ball EPRI Consultant England
D.A. Barnett Pacific Power Australia
A. Bursik EPRI Consultant Germany
B. Conlin ESKOM South Africa
W. David Siemens AG Germany
J. Denk ABB Power Generation Ltd. Switzerland
X. Du China Light & Power Hong Kong
L.B. Dufor KEMA The Netherlands
P. Ford FCA Australia
D. French David N. French, Inc. U.S.A.
M.B. Henry Austa Electric Australia
A. Hesketh Alstom Energy, Ltd. England
J.J. Hickey ESB Ireland
Y. Hoffman Sverdlovenergo Russia
A. Holmes Alstom Energy, Ltd. England
S.R. Holdsworth Alstom Energy, Ltd. England
E. Hoxtermann VGB Germany
U. Izrailev ORGRES Russia
P. James PowerGen England
B. Kooy KEMA The Netherlands
T. Lam Turbine Technology International U.S.A.
A. Leyzerovich Consultant U.S.A.
K. Mathwin ESKOM South Africa
K.-H. Mayer Alstom Germany
P. Millett EPRI U.S.A.
C. Moore Ontario Hydro Canada
R. Ortolano Turbine RESCUE U.S.A.
S. Paterson Aptech Engineering Services, Inc. U.S.A.
A. Petrov Moscow Power Institute Russia
T. Petrova Moscow Power Institute Russia
F. Pocock EPRI Consultant U.S.A.
M. Pollard Carolina Power & Light U.S.A.
V. Rezinskikh All Russian Thermal Engineering Institute (VTI) Russia
B. Roberts Alstom Energy, Ltd. England
S. Sakurai Hitachi, Ltd. Japan
W. Sanders Turbo-Technic Services, Inc. Canada
R. Scott ABB Power Generation U.S.A.

iii
 V.N. Semenov Moscow Power Institute Russia
T. Shoji Tohoku University Japan
Y. Shtromberg ORGRES Russia
G. Silvestri Consultant U.S.A.
M.O. Speidel Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Switzerland
W. Steltz Consultant U.S.A.
R. Svoboda ABB Power Generation, Ltd. Switzerland
B. Syrett EPRI U.S.A.
H. Termuehlen Siemens Power Corporation U.S.A.
E. Tolksdorf VGB Germany
F.H. van Zyl ESKOM South Africa
R. Viswanathan EPRI U.S.A.
A. Whitehead General Electric Company U.S.A.
D. Willaman Siemens-Westinghouse U.S.A.
K. Woolhouse FCA Australia

All the figures were drawn by Marilyn Winans of EPRI Graphics in the Communications Group.

iv
Preface

Historically, most treatises about steam turbines have concentrated on thermo-

dynamics or design. In contrast, the primary focus of this book is on the problems
that occur in the turbine steam path. Some of these problems have been long known
to the industry, starting as early as A. Stodola’s work at the turn of the century in which
mechanisms such as solid particle erosion, corrosion and liquid droplet damage were
recognized. What we have tried to do here is to provide, in a single, comprehensive
reference, the current state of knowledge for major forms of steam path damage. For
each problem, topics covered include features (microscopically and macroscopically)
of the damage, common locations and susceptible units, mechanism, root causes,
determining the extent of damage, repairs and immediate actions to be taken, and
longterm actions.
There are strong motivations for directing the focus to steam path problems.
Failures of blades and discs in fossil and nuclear turbines represent a serious loss
of availability for power generation suppliers and other energy suppliers worldwide.
Other problems such as deposition onto blade surfaces result in efficiency losses
that restrict operation, may result in reduction of maximum capacity, and result in
significant economic penalties.
Three strongly held philosophical beliefs underlie the approach taken in this book.
First, that understanding of the mechanism and root cause of each incidence is of
paramount importance to the permanent alleviation of the problem. Second, that by
understanding what causes these problems to occur, it should be possible to antici-
pate their development, monitor evolving “precursors” in the unit, and take early
action to avoid a significant condition from occurring. This will become particularly
important to turbine operators as the period between planned overhauls increases,
thus placing a premium on detecting developing damage without opening the turbine.
Third, a formalized company-wide program for correction, prevention, and control
can minimize turbine-related problems. Events can emanate from inadequate initial
design, from poor operation and maintenance, cycle chemistry environments, and
lack of proper management support. It is clear that more than just proper technical
guidance will be necessary to reduce the costs associated with turbine damage.
Over the last twenty years, many people and groups have influenced our thinking on
this very diverse topic; while a complete listing would cover many pages, a sample
provides a flavor for the breadth of their contributions.
Many excellent papers and design text books have been written on the subject of
steam turbines, including those written by Wilfred Campbell, Ken Cotton, Ralph
Ortolano, M. Prohl, Neville Rieger, J. Kenneth Salisbury, Bill Sanders, George Silvestri,
and A. Stodola to name just a few. Over the last 10 years, tremendous support has
also been available internationally, and many individuals and organizations have
assisted in developing solutions to most of the known steam path failures. Particular
acknowledgment is made of Walter David (Siemens), Joseph Denk (ABB), Alan
Hesketh (Alstom), Stuart Holdsworth (GEC), Markus Speidel (Swiss Federal Institute
of Technology), and Bobby Svoboda (ABB).

v
 EPRI has addressed a number of steam path damage mechanisms and has held
numerous conferences, which have consolidated our thinking. Vis Viswanathan, our
colleague at EPRI, has dedicated his professional career to the better understanding
of high temperature failure mechanisms and remaining life techniques, and his book
“Damage Mechanisms and Life Assessment of High Temperature Components”
remains a mountain in the field. John Stringer, the Executive Technical Fellow at
EPRI, suggested the development of this book as a follow on to the similar Boiler
Tube Failure Book. Gail McCarthy, Director of EPRI’s Strategic Science and
Technology has enthusiastically supported all our efforts over the last three years,
and more importantly provided the funding for our time.
Over the last six to eight years there has been a concentrated effort worldwide
through the International Collaboration of Steam Chemistry and Corrosion to fully
and comprehensively understand the environment in the phase transition area.
Exciting and potentially very significant breakthroughs have been achieved in our
understanding of nucleation, condensation, early condensate, liquid films on blade
surfaces, and concentration mechanisms. Among the many that have been instru-
mental in this work are Albert Bursik, Otakar Jonas, Alain Kleitz, and Fabio Sigon.
The results of this work have necessitated new thinking about some of the most
important turbine damage mechanisms, including corrosion fatigue and stress
corrosion cracking. With this new knowledge, we felt the time was right to bring
together for the first time the intricate links between mechanical aspects and
cycle chemistry.
This book is our attempt to bring together the information on all the mechanisms in
a form that separates the theory and practice. We hope this approach will be most
useful to the operating engineers responsible for the turbine. We hope also that the
book will be a natural springboard for the development of a coordinated Steam Path
Damage Reduction Program, which will drastically reduce availability losses and
improve the efficiency of steam turbines wherever they operate.
During the compilation, we have realized that full understanding is not available for
all the damage and deposition mechanisms, but we now feel that the deficiencies
have been recognized which must lead to further research and development to
address them.

Tom McCloskey
Barry Dooley
Warren McNaughton

Palo Alto, California

June, 1999

vi
Nomenclature

a crack size; flaw size

a* condensation coefficient
A the “A” parameter for qualitative measurement of creep damage
Ao, A2 constants
A1 crack and specimen geometry factor (equation 6-6)
b fatigue strength exponent
c fatigue ductility exponent
c’ particle fraction (equation 17-1)
cax coefficient defined from velocity triangles (see Figure 32-2)
C, C1 , C2 , C3 , C4, C5 , C6, C7, C8 , C9 , C10 constants
C* a path independent integral used to determine stress and strain at a
creep crack tip
Ca acoustic velocity
CE erosion coefficient
Cf skin friction coefficient
CL clearance
Co impurity concentration in gas
C∞ the impurity concentration in the bulk fluid
Ct extension of C* into small-scale creep regime
C(t) extension of C* into small-scale creep regime
d diameter
da/dN crack growth rate
D damage index
D* damping energy
Dm average diameter of rotating blades
Do damping energy loss per unit volume
Dc lower-bound creep-rupture ductility
Dp fatigue ductility obtained from pure fatigue tests
E Young’s modulus
Ec crevice corrosion potential above which crevice corrosion may start
Ecorr corrosion potential
ED erosion depth
ED,R relative erosion depth
Ep pitting potential above which pitting may start
Epp protection potential below which existing pits stop growing
ƒ frequency
ƒs surface finish
FR resonance response factor (equation 6-3)
Fs factor of safety
G the “G” parameter for creep; a modified Larson-Miller parameter (Figure 6-4)
h enthalpy per unit mass
hb blade height
hR relative height
H* enthalpy
H machine harmonic

vii vii
Nomenclature (continued)

Hv hardness
ip pit current density
IF Frenkel rate of formation of critical sized nuclei (equation 8-1)
J constant (equation 4-2)
k constant
kb Boltzman constant
kƒ fatigue strength reduction factor (fatigue stress concentration factor)
kƒm stress concentration factor for mean stress
ks surface roughness factor
K, KI stress intensity factor
KD partitioning coefficient
KIC fracture toughness
KISCC threshold stress intensity for stress corrosion cracking
∆K cyclic stress intensity factor, stress intensity range
∆KTH threshold stress intensity in fatigue
Kt stress concentration factor
l flaw length
L length
m mass flow
m* molecular mass
m1” mass flux of impurity
M mass
MH machine harmonic
n constant
n’ cyclic strain hardening coefficient
nb blade speed
no number of grain boundaries with a crack or cavity (“A” parameter method)
ni number of applied stress-strain loops (equation 6-5)
nT number of grain boundaries with a crack or cavity (“A” parameter method)
nv number of grain boundaries without a crack or cavity (“A” parameter
method)
N number of cycles
Nƒ (one half of the) number of strain reversals to failure
Ni number of cycles to failure for cycle i (equation 6-5)
Nl pure fatigue life (number of cycles)
NR rated speed
NREY Reynolds number
p partial pressure in the gas phase
P pressure
PI probability of initiation
PW windage power
q notch sensitivity factor (equation 4-1)
Q* Arrhenius activation energy
Q quantity of heat
r radius

viii
Nomenclature (continued)

R stress ratio = (σmin/σmax)

R* universal gas constant
RSCC SCC crack growth rate
s entropy per unit mass
S stimulus (equation 6-3)
S entropy
Se endurance limit
Ss supersaturation (ratio of pressure to saturation partial pressure at a given
steam condition)
Sy material yield strength
Su material ultimate strength
Sc Schmidt number
t time
td actual or calculated time to SCC initiation (equation 25-1)
th hold time
ti time spent under condition i
tN normalized time (equations 25-1 and 25-2)
tr time to rupture
tr i time to rupture under condition i
T temperature
Ts service temperature (Figure 8-13)
Tm metal temperature (Figure 8-13)
Ts service temperature
TT tempering temperature
u internal energy per unit of mass
U internal energy or energy storage
v volume per unit mass
vp pit and crevice growth rate
V velocity
V(H) potential (Figure 19-6)
V* volume
VSHE electrode potential
w weight
W* work
W wheel speed (rotating blade speed)
x wetness, %
X energy released in bucket/stage energy (Figure 3-7)
y, yo moisture content

α nozzle angle
α‘ angle of impingement
β thickness
χ, γ, ξ angles as marked in figures
δ damping
ε strain

ix
Nomenclature (continued)

∆ε strain range
∆εp /2 plastic strain amplitude
ε creep rate; also in change in strain
εƒ’
•
fatigue ductility coefficient
εi the strain accumulated under condition i
εri the strain to rupture under condition i
εt total strain
∆εp cyclic plastic strain
∆εxx strain range components (used for strain-range partitioning)
φ contact angle
φc critical contact angle
φT surface energy per unit area or surface tension of condensed material
φV volumetric flow coefficient
Λ conductivity
η efficiency
λ1, λ2 attenuation
ν frequency
ρ density
σ stress
σ* service stress
σa alternating stress
σao nominal alternating stress
σbo nominal bending stress
σco nominal centrifugal stress
σD vibratory stress (equation 4-2)
σƒ’ fatigue strength coefficient
σƒ flow stress
σm mean stress
σmo nominal mean stress
σmax maximum stress
σmin minimum stress
σr stress range = σmax - σmin
σrel relative stress
σs steady-state stress
σt total stress
σy yield stress
∆σ stress range
υ molecular volume
ω circular frequency

x
Table of Contents Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals

Chapter Page
Acknowledgments iii
Preface v
Nomenclature vii

1 Introduction and Background 1-1

1.1 Historical Background to Turbine Damage 1-1
1.2 Significance of Turbine Blade Failures 1-2
1.3 Objectives of this Book 1-3
1.4 Scope of Coverage 1-3
1.5 Organization of this Book 1-5
1.6 Recent Developments in the Identification, Correction,
and Prevention of Steam Path Damage 1-6
1.7 Some Challenges that Remain 1-7
References 1-10

2 Thermodynamic Principles and Power Plant Steam Cycles 2-1

2.1 Introduction and Significance of Challenges Facing
Turbine Components 2-1
2.2 Review of Thermodynamic Principles 2-1
2.3 Steam Properties 2-2
2.4 Steam Cycles - Theory 2-6
2.5 Turbine Efficiency and Overview of Losses 2-9
2.6 Steam Cycles - Practice 2-14
2.7 Moisture Limitations 2-17
References 2-19

3 Turbine Design and Construction Fundamentals 3-1

3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.2 Overall Turbine Design 3-1
3.3 Fossil and Nuclear Turbine Designs Compared 3-8
3.4 Steam Turbines for Co-Generation, Combined Cycle and
Geothermal Plants 3-9
3.5 Rotors 3-9
3.6 Casings 3-12
3.7 Valves 3-13
3.8 Seals 3-14
3.9 Bypass Systems 3-14
3.10 Drains 3-15

xi
Table of Contents Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals (continued)

Chapter Page
4 Turbine Blading Design I: Overview of Function, Features
and Materials of Construction 4-1
4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Features and Structure of HP and IP Blades 4-1
4.3 Features and Structure of LP Blades 4-3
4.4 Required Material Properties 4-5
4.5 Materials of Construction for HP and IP Blades 4-7
4.6 Materials of Construction for LP Blades 4-8
4.7 Surface Treatments 4-11
References 4-11

5 Turbine Blading Design II: Stresses, Evaluation of Frequency

Response and Aerodynamics 5-1
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Turbine Blade Stresses 5-2
5.3 Frequency Response and the Campbell Diagram 5-14
5.4 Aerodynamic Analysis and Flow Analysis of Blades 5-18
References 5-19

6 Life Assessment Methods 6-1

6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 A Generic Procedure for Blade and Blade Attachment
Life Assessment 6-1
6.3 Stress Analysis 6-4
6.4 Fatigue Analysis 6-6
6.5 Fracture Mechanics Analysis 6-7
6.6 Deterministic and Probabilistic Methods 6-8
6.7 Creep and Creep-Fatigue 6-8
6.8 Life Assessment for Creep Damage 6-11
References 6-14

7 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine 7-1

7.1 Introduction 7-1
7.2 Developing Guidelines for Cycle Chemistry: Origin and
Transport of Impurities; Solubility and Volatility 7-3
7.3 Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines 7-6
7.4 Nuclear Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines 7-13
7.5 Specific Application of Cycle Chemistry Guidelines 7-15
References 7-21

xii
Table of Contents Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals (continued)

Chapter Page
8 Impurities in the Turbine: Condensation, Droplet and Liquid Film
Formation, and Deposition 8-1
8.1 Introduction 8-1
8.2 Moisture Nucleation 8-2
8.3 Effect of Chemistry on Nucleation 8-6
8.4 The Early Condensate 8-7
8.5 Liquid Film Formation 8-9
8.6 Deposition on Blade Surfaces 8-10
8.7 Observations of Electrically Charged Droplets and Liquid Films 8-13
8.8 Summary of Impurity Concentration and Deposition 8-13
8.9 Instrumentation for Analysis of Steam Samples, Condensate,
and Deposits 8-14
References 8-16

9 Metallurgical and Chemical Analysis; Mechanical Testing 9-1

9.1 Introduction 9-1
9.2 Identify Damaged Locations (Step 1, Figure 9-1) 9-1
9.3 Complete Damage Report (Step 2, Figure 9-1) 9-2
9.4 Sample Identification, Documentation and Removal
(Step 3, Figure 9-1) 9-2
9.5 Prepare Background Information Package (Step 4, Figure 9-1) 9-3
9.6 Prepare Metallurgical Evaluation Plan (Step 5, Figure 9-1) 9-3
9.7 Visual and Other NDE of As-Received Sample(s)
(Step 6, Figure 9-1) 9-3
9.8 Metallographic and Fractographic Analysis (Step 7, Figure 9-1) 9-3
9.9 Chemical Analysis: Alloy Verification and Deposit Analysis
(Step 8, Figure 9-1) 9-4
9.10 Evaluate Mechanical Properties (Step 9, Figure 9-1) 9-5
9.11 Prepare a Damage Analysis Report (Step 10, Figure 9-1) 9-5
References 9-5

10 Monitoring and Diagnostics 10-1

10.1 Introduction 10-1
10.2 Turbine Instrumentation 10-1
10.3 Performance Testing 10-2
10.4 Monitoring Performance by Enthalpy Drop Testing 10-4
10.5 Measuring LP Stage Efficiency and Wetness Levels with
an Optical Wetness Probe 10-6
10.6 Interpreting Enthalpy Drop Test Results 10-7
10.7 Other Degradation Diagnostics 10-7
10.8 Measuring Blade Vibration 10-7
10.9 Modal Testing 10-11
References 10-11

xiii
Table of Contents Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals (continued)

Chapter Page
11 Inspection and NDE Methods 11-1
11.1 Introduction 11-1
11.2 Steam Path Audits and Outage Inspections 11-1
11.3 Visual Examination and Access Issues 11-3
11.4 Inspection of Rotating Blades 11-6
11.5 Inspection of Stationary Blades and Turbine Components 11-7
11.6 Inspection of Disc Rim Blade Attachments and Disc Keyways 11-8
References 11-8

12 Formalized Programs for the Correction, Prevention

and Control of Damage 12-1
12.1 Formalizing a Company-Wide Program for Correction,
Prevention and Control of Steam Path Damage 12-1
12.2 Corporate Directives/Philosophy Statement and Program Goals 12-3
12.3 The Turbine Condition Assessment Team (T-CAT);
Multidisciplinary Approach and Personnel Training 12-4
12.4 Comprehensive Reporting and Trending 12-5
12.5 Economic Evaluations 12-5
12.6 Extending the Interval Between Turbine-Generator Outages 12-9
12.7 Shortening Outage Length 12-10
References 12-12

13 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods 13-1

13.1 Introduction 13-1
13.2 Blade Replacement 13-1
13.3 Information Common to All Blade Repairs 13-2
13.4 Erosion Shield Repair 13-4
13.5 Tenon and Coverband (Shroud) Repair 13-6
13.6 Lashing Lugs and Tiewire Repair 13-6
13.7 Airfoil Repair 13-8
13.8 Rotating Blade Root Repair 13-8
13.9 Repairs to Stationary Blades/Nozzles 13-8
13.10 Information Common to All Rotor Repairs 13-9
13.11 Repair of Disc Rim Blade Attachment Area of Rotors 13-12
References 13-13

xiv
Chapter 1 • Volume 1

Introduction and
Background

1.1 Historical Background to In 1883, de Laval built his first prac-

Turbine Damage tical steam engine, using high
The potential for steam power was velocity steam jets to push blades of
recognized by the ancients, with a turbine wheel. That single-stage,
descriptions of potential steam single-wheel turbine operated at
weapons or novelties contained in speeds up to 26,000 rpm with tip
works by Archimedes and Hero of speeds of the larger rotors over 365
Alexandria (a reaction design). m/sec (1200 fps). de Laval had to
Giovanni de Branca, in 1629 sug- solve several problems which are
gested a steam jet to blow against a still central to turbine design includ-
modified waterwheel and turn a ing (i) how to lower the high centrifu-
roasting spit (an impulse design). gal forces, (ii) how to eliminate
vibration, and (iii) how to ensure
Steam power, used in reciprocating
steady operation.2 He recognized
steam engines drove the industrial
the phenomena of critical speed. In
revolution and many contributors
the mid 1880s Charles Curtis
slowly added improvements to the
patented a turbine design based on
basic device invented by Thomas
this concept of expanding steam
Savery in 1698.1 In contrast, the
through a nozzle, then impacting the
development of a steam turbine
high-velocity, low-pressure steam jet
started much later but had a shorter
on the blades of a rotating wheel.1
development period. Throughout
It included velocity compounding for
the late 18th and 19th centuries, a
the first time. This design was
series of investigators worked
acquired by General Electric in
toward designing a practical steam
1897 and has been the subject of
turbine. More than one hundred
constant improvement since, includ-
patents granted up to 1880 allowed
ing, for example, the issue of
the basic developments to occur
patents for reheating steam in 1905
that lead finally in the 1880s to the
and 1906, although the use of
point when the technology to build
regenerative feedwater heating and
practical working steam turbines
reheat were not actually incorpo-
caught up to the vision. At this time
rated until the 1920s.1
Carl Gustaf de Laval and Charles
Parsons built practical steam tur-
bines of two different designs: an
impulse type and a reaction type,
respectively.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 1-1

Parsons, in 1884, took a different
approach and built a turbine that in
concept is very similar to today’s
machines.3 The steam entered a
single casing and flowed axially in
opposite directions through two
groups of turbine wheels, each con-
taining fourteen consecutive wheels.
The design was intended to subdi-
vide the pressure drop among the
stages and reduce the required rpm.
An early experimental turbine, pro-
ducing 7.46 kW (10 hp) with 7.6 cm
(3 in.) wheels, operated at 17,000
rpm.2 In 1887 Parsons designed a
compound turbine with a high pres-
sure and a low pressure turbine
mounted on the same shaft.
Parsons went on to develop a radial
flow reaction turbine and a condens-
ing turbine. The condensing tur-
bine, developed only seven years
after Parson’s initial turbine was
more efficient than steam engines of
the time, which had seen over two
hundred years of development.4
The rights to manufacture the
Parsons reaction turbines were
acquired by Westinghouse in 1895;
Allis-Chalmers also acquired rights
to manufacture the Parsons design.1
The first power station to produce
electricity from a steam turbine was
in 1888 in a Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
England, power station using a
Parsons generating set.
The improvement of designs, opera-
tion and efficiency continue to today
and make interesting historical read-
ing.1-7 For example, standardization
to 1,800 and 3,600 rpm machines
(from a variety of speeds - 720, 750,
1200, 1500 and 1800) occurred in
North America when 25 Hz power
stopped being used by utilities and
the frequency was standardized to
60 Hz. This process began in the
1920s, although at least one major
U.S. utility continued to use 50 Hz
until the 1940s.
Given the topic of this book, it is
interesting to reflect that many of the
1-2 Introduction and Background
damage mechanisms discussed in
Volume 2, have been long recog-
nized:
• Moisture effects. The level of
allowable moisture in the last
stages of the LP turbine has been
a practical limit on the usable
temperatures and pressures of
steam since the earliest turbine
designs. Severe erosion was
found in LP blades of early tur-
bine designs and lead to the
imposition of a limitation of about
12% on exit wetness. A second,
although less limiting effect, was
characterized by Baumann8 as
early as 1910: that the efficiency,
η, of wet stages of the LP
decreases approximately 1% for
every 1% increase in wetness in
the stage.
• Solid particle erosion. The study
of erosive processes has a long
history. For example, Stodola2
wrote of solid particle erosion
affecting turbine blades: “The
wear by entrained foreign matter
in the steam, which is mostly
nothing but hard burned boiler
sediment, produces a smooth,
almost mirror-like, surface, and is
more pronounced at about the
mid-height of the bucket, where
the velocity of flow is evidently a
maximum.”
• General corrosion of rotating and
stationary blades. Stodola2 also
has extensive discussions of cor-
rosion of rotating and stationary
blades.
1.2 Significance of Turbine Blade
Failures
Steam path damage, particularly of
blades, has long been recognized
as a leading cause of steam turbine
unavailability for large fossil fuel
plants worldwide.9-11 It has been
estimated that turbine problems cost
the U.S. utility industry as much as
one billion dollars per year and that
the cost for industrial turbines, which
suffer similar problems, is higher.12
Our analysis indicates the following
general conclusions:
• Damage to steam path compo-
nents by various mechanisms
continues to result in significant
economic impact domestically
and internationally.
• Corrosion fatigue of blades in low
pressure (LP) turbines continues
to be the most significant form of
steam path damage. It occurs in
the phase (dry-to-wet) transition
zone (PTZ); thus the majority of
LP blade damage occurs in the
last two rows in fossil fuel units,
while in nuclear units, a greater
portion of the damage is in the L-
3 through L-6 rows of LP turbines.
• Significant damage occurs by
stress corrosion cracking in
rotors of both nuclear and fossil
units; increasingly, attention has
focused on the disc rim blade
attachment region.
• Damage in high pressure (HP)
and intermediate pressure (IP)
turbines of fossil units caused by
solid particle erosion also contin-
ues to be significant, although
improved designs and coatings
have decreased the rate of dam-
age accumulation from that seen
in the late 1970s and 1980s.
• Deposition of copper in the HP
and IP sections has seen recent
increases in occurrence, although
this phenomenon originally
occurred in the late 1950s.
• Steam path damage is often con-
current with other problems in the
plant, Figure 1-1; in many cases,
more than one problem is evident
in units reporting blade failures.
• For many observations of dam-
age, either the root cause is not
determined, or it is determined
incorrectly. As a result, corrective
actions taken have varying suc-
cess rates, and the same types of
damage often reoccur. Usually,
 the final failure is remote enough
from the events, or more normally, Number of Units
series of events, that the true 40
cause is obscured.14 1 - Condenser leaks
2 - Corrosion in boiler
As users push for more economic 35 3 - Stress corrosion in boiler
operation of units, a key goal is to 4 - Stress corrosion in turbine
move to longer periods between 5 - Silica deposits
planned turbine outages. Thus there 30 6 - Cu deposits
are strong economic drivers pushing 7 - Valve hang up
to decrease the rate at which dam- 8 - Erosion in LP turbine
9 - Solid particle erosion
age in blades accumulates, and 25
10 - Malfunction of water treatment system
maintain unit efficiency without the 11 - Bellows expansion joint failure
need for intervening maintenance 12 - Other
outages. This will require careful 20
analysis of damage, determination
of the underlying mechanism,
correction of the root cause and 15
choice of the appropriate actions to
avoid reoccurrence—the topics of
this book. 10

1.3 Objectives of this Book 5

The importance of operator and
maintainer training, experience, and
commitment to the health of the unit
cannot be overemphasized.14 As a
result, the primary objective of this
book is to compile the most recent
knowledge about turbine steam
path damage: identifying the under-
lying mechanisms, determining their
root cause, and choosing immediate
and longterm actions to lessen or
prevent recurrence of the problem.
Additional objectives are:
• To provide direct, easy-to-follow
actions to be taken if steam path
damage has occurred.
• To provide guidance that can
help identify unit “precursors” that
might warn of accumulating dam-
age in the turbine.
• To provide sufficient background
information so that the reader can
readily understand what causes
the underlying damage.
• To provide information about how
to establish a company-wide pro-
gram for the correction, preven-
tion and control of steam path
damage.
1 2 3 4
0
Figure 1-1. Relation between various plant problems and blade failures.
Source: R.C. Bates, F.J. Heymann, V.P. Swaminathan, and J.W. Cunningham13
1.4 Scope of Coverage
This book contains the damage
mechanisms affecting the turbine
steam path in fossil fuel and nuclear
power plants. For the first time
mechanical aspects have been
linked with chemical environment
factors to provide an understanding
of the key steam path damage
types. This book also takes a “unit
wide” view of turbine damage.
Many problems that occur in the
turbine do not originate there;
understanding how to avoid these
problems requires a much wider
view of what is occurring through-
out the unit.
Extensive coverage is provided of
damage to blade attachments
(blade root and disc/rotor attach-
ment areas), roots, airfoils,
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Plant Problems
lacing/tiewires, shrouds and tenons.
Many of the damage forms covered
also affect seals, valves, and piping
systems (such as bypasses and
crossover/crossunder piping) and
such coverage is delineated in each
chapter on damage types. However,
seals, valves and piping are also
affected by damage types not rele-
vant to blades; where this is the
case, these damage types have not
been included in the book.
There is also no specific coverage
of rotor or disc damage mecha-
nisms, except in the disc rim attach-
ment area (steam path). However,
much of the discussion of creep
(Chapter 15) and stress corrosion
cracking (Chapter 25) in the disc
rim attachment region will be rele-

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 1-3

vant to other rotor/disc problems.
Other compilations of detailed infor-
mation are available that do specifi-
cally address the failures and analy-
sis of these components.15,16
Similarly reference can be made to
(ref. 15) for information pertaining to
turbine casing damage and control.
For exhaust hoods, only flow-
accelerated corrosion (Chapter 29)
is covered.
Although the specific focus and
examples are steam turbine blades
in traditional fossil fuel and nuclear
plants, the information contained
here will also be relevant to some of
the damage mechanisms that affect
boiler feedpump turbines, combined
cycle and geothermal plants. Table
1-1 indicates the applicability of the
mechanisms for various units.

Table 1-1
Relevance of Damage Mechanism to Various Unit Types
Damage Mechanism Chapter Traditional Nuclear Nuclear Boiler feedpump Combined Geothermal
Fossil-Fuel (BWR) (PWR) turbines in Cycle Units
co-generation units

Creep and creep-fatigue in 15 x n.k. n.k. x x n.k.

blade attachment of rotors

Creep and creep-fatigue 16 x n.k. n.k. x x n.k.

in blades

Solid particle erosion 17 xx A few reports A few reports n.k. n.k. xx

of a problem of a problem

Copper deposition 19 xx n.k. n.k. x n.k. silica, sulfur and

others, not copper

Fatigue (LP) 20 xx x x x x n.k.

Fatigue (HP) 21 x x x x x n.k.

Localized corrosion 23 xx xx xx x x xx

Corrosion fatigue 24 xx xx xx x x xx

Stress corrosion cracking 25 xx xx xx n.k. n.k. xx

in disc-rim attachments

Stress corrosion cracking 26 x x x n.k. n.k. xx

in blading

Liquid droplet erosion 27 xx xx xx x xx

Water induction 28 xx xx xx x x x

Flow-accelerated corrosion 29 x xx xx x x x

Fretting 31 x x x x x x

Overheating by windage 32 x unc. unc. unc. unc. unc.

Notes:
“xx” indicates damage commonly found or is a major problem when found in these units;
“x” indicates damage can be found in these units or is a lesser problem.
“n.k.” indicates damage is unknown to have occurred in this unit type.
“unc.” indicates damage is uncommon in this type of unit.

1-4 Introduction and Background

1.5 Organization of this Book
1.5.1 Coverage of Volume 1 –
Theory and Background. Volume 1
is organized by generic topic. It
contains discussion of the following
broad topics relevant to the analysis,
understanding, prevention, or cor-
rection of steam path damage
mechanisms:
• What thermodynamic principles
govern the operation of fossil and
nuclear steam turbines and how
do the steam conditions that
result influence steam path dam-
age? (Chapter 2).
• What are the generic design fea-
tures and construction fundamen-
tals of steam turbines and their
constituent components?
(Chapter 3).
• What are the features and materi-
als of construction for turbine
blading? (Chapter 4).
• What are the loads that affect tur-
bine blades; which stresses and
vibrational modes develop as a
result of those loads? (Chapter 5).
• What are the generic life assess-
ment methodologies that can be
applied to determine remaining
blade life? (Chapter 6).
• What are the environmental
influences that affect turbine
steam path damage? (Chapters
7 and 8).
• How do steam impurities originate
and become transported to the
turbine? How are turbine impurity
levels used to set overall unit
cycle chemistry guidelines, and
what are the latest guidelines for
fossil and nuclear units for boiler
water and feedwater? How does
unit layup affect turbine steam
path damage and what is the lat-
est guidance pertaining to opti-
mized layup? (Chapter 7)
• How do impurities concentrate in
the turbine through droplet forma-
tion, liquid film formation, conden-
sation, and deposition? How do
liquid films form on steam path
surfaces? (Chapter 8).
• What monitoring and diagnostic
systems are available that can
help detect incipient blade fail-
ures and prevent their occur-
rence? (Chapter 10).
• How can damage to turbine
blades be detected by the use
of nondestructive examination
methods? (Chapter 11).
• How can company-wide pro-
grams be set up for the preven-
tion and control of steam path
damage? What steps can be
taken to extend the period
between planned outages?
(Chapter 12).
• What methods are available for
blade damage repair?
(Chapter 13).
1.5.2 Coverage of Volume 2 –
Damage Mechanisms. In contrast to
Volume 1, the second volume is
organized by specific damage
mechanism. Each chapter in
Volume 2 is organized in the same
manner, with only a few exceptions
for mechanisms that occur infre-
quently, or for which the mechanism,
cause and required actions are
obvious. The first half of each chap-
ter provides Theory and Back-
ground; the second half Actions.
The Actions are intended to stand
alone and therefore typically sum-
marize all key information from the
Theory and Background (front mate-
rial) in a manner that can be used
as a checklist for activity. Reading
the front material for an understand-
ing of why those actions are recom-
mended or for more complete detail
on a particular action is probably
indicated, at least during the first
evaluation of a new damage type.
A detailed discussion of the pur-
pose and content of the Theory
and Background and Actions por-
tions of each chapter is provided
in the introduction to Volume 2
(Chapter 14).
1.5.3 What are the “Indications That
This Damage Mechanism is Active”
and why are they important? A criti-
cal aid in anticipating and confirm-
ing the presence of turbine steam
path damage is Section 1.3 of each
chapter titled “Indications that this
damage mechanism is active”. A
few words will clarify the use and
importance of this material.
There are some steam path loca-
tions that are accessible by
borescope or fiberoptics, however,
with a few exceptions, direct obser-
vation of developing damage is not
possible. Once the turbine is
opened, the standard methods of
examination can be used to charac-
terize the extent of damage.
Fortunately, for most mechanisms
there are some key operational
observations that may allow the
operator to determine that damage
is accumulating without opening the
turbine.
Means of appraisal, without and with
opening the turbine are compiled in
each chapter of Volume 2. These
are called “indications that this dam-
age mechanism is active”. These
indicators thus provide a way to
anticipate that damage is accumu-
lating prior to a turbine overhaul.
1.5.4 What are unit “Precursors”
and why are they useful? The sec-
ond means of anticipating turbine
damage is by paying close attention
to unit “precursors”. Precursors are
events or conditions that have
occurred in some component or
system in the unit outside the tur-
bine which, although no damage is
known in the turbine, should act as
a signal to evaluate the potential for
future turbine damage. Section 1.4
in each major chapter of Volume 2
includes unit precursors relevant to
a specific damage mechanism.
Table 14-1 summarizes all “precur-
sors” and “indicators” that can be
used without opening the turbine to
detect damage. The purpose of
that table is to point the way to the
relevant chapter in Volume 2 where
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 1-5
specific actions to follow up on the
observation are detailed.
It may seem that the turbine condi-
tion assessment team (T-CAT) has
enough to be concerned with, with-
out anticipating damage. However,
there are valid economic reasons to
worry about indications of develop-
ing damage, and precursors in the
unit that may indicate the potential
for damage. These anticipatory
steps will become increasingly
important as utilities strive for longer
(up to 12 year) periods between
scheduled overhauls.
The T-CAT may find that the best
way to utilize Table 14-1 is to period-
ically work through each listed pre-
cursor and query: “Has this precur-
sor/ indicator occurred in our unit?”
If the answer to either is “yes”, then
a review of the mechanism(s) indi-
cated in the final column may be
needed to determine whether further
actions are required.
In compiling Table 14-1, an attempt
has been made to limit the “precur-
sor” and “indicator” list to those
which: (i) can be easily identified, (ii)
are important observations and will
be useful for indicating a potential
turbine blading problem, (iii) are not
direct observations of turbine dam-
age (e.g., an inspection that finds
cracks in the turbine blade is not
included in this table), and (iv) are
reasonably likely to lead to a failure
in the steam path based on histori-
cal evidence.
As a final note, Table 14-1 should
not preempt good engineering judg-
ment: if you have an indicator show-
ing turbine damage may be accu-
mulating, or if you have discovered
a condition elsewhere in the unit that
causes a concern that damage may
develop, then follow it up, even if it
is not in these particular lists. One
of the outcomes of every damage
assessment conducted in your units
should be the automatic addition to
these tables of an entry that can
1-6 Introduction and Background
answer the question: “How can we
detect this type of damage earlier
next time?”.
1.5.5 The investigation process:
using Volume 2. Figure 1-2 provides
a flowchart for the investigation of
turbine blading damage or failures.
As shown, there are three avenues
open to the investigator or T-CAT
depending on the status of the blad-
ing event:
• A: “Turbine Not Opened, Damage
Indicator Found”. The turbine is
unopened, but an “indicator” has
provided an alert that damage is
accumulating in the turbine.
Table 14-1 can be used to point
the investigator toward the cor-
rect mechanism.
• B: “Turbine Open, Damage Found
by Inspection”. The turbine is
open and damage has been
found. In this case, Table 14-2
which lists the key features of
damage for each mechanism can
be used to help identify the rele-
vant chapters to review.
• C: “Unit Precursor Observed”.
Table 14-1 can be used to deter-
mine which mechanism may
result from this precursor.
As shown in Figure 1-2, each of
these three paths is the first step in
a series of actions that will eventu-
ally work through confirmation of
mechanism, determination of root
cause, and taking short and long-
term actions to prevent or minimize
future damage by this mechanism.
1.6 Recent Developments in the
Identification, Correction and
Prevention of Steam Path Damage
• Advances in characterizing the
steam environment. There are
many turbine steam path damage
mechanisms that are directly
caused by, or significantly influ-
enced by, cycle chemistry, Table
1-2. Among those damage
mechanisms are some of the
leading causes of availability loss
in the industry today. Even a cur-
sory glance at the descriptions
for individual mechanisms in
Volume 2 will reveal that for much
of the potential damage done to
the steam path, the simplest, and
most cost effective means of pre-
vention lies in one of the cycle
chemistry control options.
It is interesting to plot the location
in the steam path where various
substances begin to deposit and
where selected damage mecha-
nisms occur. This has been
done in Figure 1-3 which shows a
schematic of the steam path
through an LP turbine starting at
the inlet. The points on the
Mollier (enthalpy-entropy) dia-
gram at which various damage
mechanisms occur are shown.
There have been a number of
recent advances in understand-
ing how impurities are trans-
ported by steam to the turbine,
how they concentration as a
result of numerous mechanisms,
and what their effects on the tur-
bine are (Chapter 8).
The formation of droplets them-
selves as steam flows through the
turbine has a significant effect on
the efficiency and economics of
turbine performance. The basic
processes of droplet formation
have also been undergoing a
substantial research effort; results
are discussed in Chapter 8.
• Development of techniques to
improve flows, reduce losses and
improve the efficiency of turbine
operation. There have been con-
tinuous innovations that have
improved turbine performance.17
Recent developments in three
dimensional computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) programs
(Chapter 5) have allowed for the
optimization of flow path compo-
nents using tools not available
when the majority of units were
designed. These tools include:
three dimensional flow analyses,
and analysis of condensing flows,
 A:
Turbine not opened,
damage indicator found
Review Table 14-1 of indicators to
tentatively identify active damage
mechanism. Review relevant
chapter in Volume 2.
Action 1a: Perform
Action to Confirm
This Indicator, located as Action
1a in each mechanism chapter.
Is damage indicator sufficiently
severe so as to indicate the
need for immediate or accelerated
turbine outage?
N N
Note need to check all susceptible
locations (see individual chapters)
for signs of damage during next
scheduled outage.
Figure 1-2. Turbine damage investigation flowchart.
presently two dimensional with
three dimensional programs in
development. Efficiency gains of
3-10% can be achieved.17
• Modifications to blading design.
Numerous efficiency improve-
ments to blades have been devel-
B: C:
Turbine open, Unit precursor
damage found by inspection observed
Review Table 14-2 of damage
appearance and location to Review Table 14-1
tentatively identify damage
mechanism
Action 1b: Review list of
precursors in chapters of
potential damage mechanism.
Action 2: Was precursor event or finding
Y Determine (confirm) Y sufficiently severe so as to indicate
mechanism. the need for immediate or
accelerated turbine outage?
Action 3: Note need to check all susceptible
Determine root locations (see individual chapters)
cause for signs of damage during next
scheduled outage.
Action 4: Determine
extent of damage or
Action 5: Implement
repairs, take immediate actions,
as needed.
Action 6: Implement
longterm solutions to prevent
or minimize damage.
Action 7: Determine possible
ramifications/ancillary unit
problems.
oped by all major manufacturers and (iii) improved moisture
worldwide. Examples include (i) removal techniques. Improve-
increasing the length of last stage ments in reliability include
blades, (ii) improved three dimen- increased use of long arc, contin-
sional design of blades, such as uous tie arrangements and inte-
by including leaned or bowed gral covered blading.18 Blade
(radial) variations in LP blades,
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 1-7
Table 1-2
Turbine Steam Path Mechanisms Influenced by Cycle Chemistry
Mechanism Role of Chemistry/Moisture Affected Affected Chapter
Units Turbine Sections

Localized corrosion Impurity transport from the condensate, transport, and volatilization of Nuclear LP 23
(pitting and crevice the impurity into steam and its condensation and concentration in liquid Fossil LP
corrosion) films on the blade & disc surfaces which during “moist” shutdown
conditions lead to localized corrosion and pitting.

Stress corrosion Impurity transport from the condensate, transport, and volatilization of Nuclear LP 25
cracking of disc the impurity into steam and its condensation and concentration in liquid Fossil LP
attachments films on the blade & disc surfaces. Pitting initiated during shutdown.

Stress corrosion Impurity transport from the condensate, transport, and volatilization of Nuclear LP 26
cracking/ corrosion the impurity into steam and its condensation and concentration in liquid Fossil LP
fatigue of blades films on the blade & disc surfaces. Pitting initiated during shutdown.

Deposition on LP Impurity transport from the condensate, transport, and volatilization of Mostly fossil LP
blades the impurity into steam and its condensation and concentration in liquid Some nuclear LP
films on the blade & disc surfaces

Copper deposition Feedwater corrosion of copper alloys, transport and volatility of copper Fossil HP; IP 19
and its oxides into steam.

Condensation Moisture nucleation is affected by impurity transport and the Nuclear LP

(moisture nucleation) condensation process heavily affects the formation of liquid films on Fossil LP
blades needed for various mechanisms.

Liquid droplet erosion Moisture formation and shedding of liquid films off blades & discs. Nuclear LP 27
Fossil LP

Moisture-related Moisture formation and shedding of liquid films off blades & discs. Nuclear HP, LP 30
(except damage liquid Fossil LP
droplet impact)

Flow-accelerated Acidification of moisture increases flow-accelerated corrosion. Nuclear LP 29

corrosion Fossil Exhaust
hoods

“Wet” turbines include LP in fossil units and HP or LP of nuclear units.

design and improvements are sure, velocity, and flow angles are 1.7 Some Challenges that Remain
covered extensively in Chapters now possible. Optical methods • Moving to longer intervals
4 and 5. can be used to measure steam between outages. A significant
wetness fraction and thus calcu- need in today’s competitive cli-
• Improved measurement tech-
late stage enthalpy drops in wet mate is to maximize the interval
niques and instrumentation.
turbine stages.17,19 This devel- between major turbine-generator
Measurement techniques and
opment allows for more accurate inspections and overhauls, while
instrumentation have also greatly
performance testing in LP tur- still operating safely and protect-
improved. For example, inter-
bines and is described in more ing these major plant assets. The
stage traverses to measure pres-
detail in Chapter 10.

1-8 Introduction and Background


Caustic
stress
corrosion
cracking
Salt zone
Cor
rosi
Enthalpy
on-e
rosi
on
Wa
ter
Ero d realized by better control over
sio roplet
n
Figure 1-3. Mollier diagram with regions of chemical and corrosion effects.
Source: O. Jonas and N.F. Rieger12
key questions inherent in such a
change are whether existing
damage can be detected, future
accumulation predicted and con-
trolled. This topic is discussed
in Chapter 12; it represents one
of the development areas that will
see significant attention in the
next five years.
• Methods to shorten outage peri-
ods. Continued development of
innovative maintenance and
inspection approaches will
enable utilities to reduce turbine-
generator outage time and cost.
Innovations required include: (i)
specific techniques to reduce the
duration of the sequence of out-
age actions, such as quick open-
ing/closure techniques, assem-
bly/disassembly techniques, or
advanced bolting and coupling
systems, (ii) identification and
assessment of innovative in-situ
turbine inspection technologies
and practices, and (iii) continued
Pitting, stress
LP corrosion cracking,
inlet
corrosion fatigue
Some disc surfaces
• Modification of the processes of
~30% NaCl
solution
Satu
ratio
n will be achieved if these basic
line
2%
Phase transition
zone
4% moisture
6%
8%
10%
• Improving flow path design, par-
12%
Entropy
development and verification of
“on deck” and factory rotor/blad-
ing weld repairs.
• Need for better understanding of
the economics needed to justify
changes in turbine design,
materials, and operating practice.
Throughout this book is it noted
that economic analysis is needed
in order to properly weigh
run/repair/ replace options when
steam path damage is found.
Ultimately, the constraints of a
particular economic analysis are
owner specific. However, there is
need for more comprehensive
models that can quickly perform
sensitivity studies to key vari-
ables. Tools such as the recently
developed TURBO-X20 will pro-
vide such capability.
• Need for better understanding of
the fundamentals of the deposition
process. Control of deposition
would lead to significant benefit,
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals
most notably improvements to the
efficiency in all turbine stages.
Control of deposition may be
achieved by several methods
including improved surface finish
and improvements to steam
chemistry.
nucleation, condensation, and
formation of liquid films and
deposition. Significant benefits
processes can be controlled.
Efficiency improvements will be
moisture levels (such as through
moisture removal techniques) and
changing the dynamics of droplet
formation.
ticularly of the last stage of the LP
and in exhaust hoods. It is ironic
that despite the recent advances
in three dimensional aerodynamic
analysis design, the last LP stage
in fossil fired units remains the
least thermodynamically efficient
row in the steam path, even
though it has the largest available
energy.21 Programs to use
advanced tools such as three
dimensional CFD programs to
optimize the design of the flow
path will continue to be devel-
oped and see an increasingly
larger role in the design and retro-
fitting of large steam turbines.
Improvements in hoods and/or
last row blade performance have
interactions. Reducing hood loss
will increase leaving loss and
may increase the loss in last
row exit turning because of jet
deflection. Only a fraction of the
reduced hood loss in the last
rotating row can be recovered.
Similarly, increased blading effi-
ciency also results in increased
exit jet velocity and consequently
higher hood loss.22 Neither of
these tradeoffs implies that there
is no improvement in turbine per-
formance.
1-9
• Moving to advanced steam condi-
tions. Challenges to the integrity
of the steam path will result from
the constant push toward more
aggressive operating conditions
such as higher temperatures
associated with advanced
steam plant. Such advanced
steam conditions may lead to
higher thermodynamic efficien-
cies (approaching 50% Rankine
cycle efficiencies). However,
moving toward advanced steam
conditions will tend to exacerbate
many of the damage types cur-
rently affecting the steam path,
thus imposing greater require-
ment for the evaluation and con-
trol of damage.

References
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Engineering, August, 1996, pp. 24-30.
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Company, New York, NY, 1945.
3. Parsons, C.A., “The Steam Turbine”, The Rede
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4. Storer, J.D., A Simple History of the Steam Engine,
John Baker, London, 1969.
5. Robinson, E.L, “The Steam Turbine in the United
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10. Dewey, R.P., T.H. McCloskey, and N.F. Rieger,
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Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1983.
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CS-1967, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, August, 1981.
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Plant Components, Topical Report GS-6724, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, March, 1990.
16. Steam Turbine Life Assessment, Final Report, TR-
103619, Volumes 1-5, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, March, 1994.
Volume 1: Task 1 - Thermal and Stress Analysis
of Rotors
Volume 2: Task 2 - NDE Characterization of Rotors.
Volume 3: Task 3 - Creep Life Prediction.
Volume 4: Task 4 - Fatigue Life Prediction.
Volume 5: Task 5 - MACH Inspection System User’s
Manual.
17. Main Turbine Performance Upgrade Task Group,
Main Turbine Performance Upgrade Guideline, Final
Report TR-106230, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, January, 1997.
18. Ortolano, R.J., “Recent Case Histories in the Inspec-
tion, Modification and Repair of Steam Turbine Blading”,
ASME Bk No. H00652, 1991 International Joint Power
Generation Conference, San Diego, CA, October, 1991.
19. Hesler, S., A. Liberson, R. Maurer, and T. McCloskey,
“Optical Probe for Measurement of Steam Wetness
Fraction in LP Turbines”, in EPRI Workshop on Nuclear
Performance (unpublished), held in San Antonio, TX,
August, 1997.
20. Dewey, R.P., M.J. Roemer, M.A. Pollard, and T.H.
McCloskey, “Optimization of Outage Interval for a Large
Steam Turbine Unit”, International Joint Power Generation
Conference, Baltimore, MD, August, 1998.
21. McCloskey, T., R. Dewey, S. Hesler, and M. Pollard,
“Low Pressure Steam Turbine Thermal Performance
Improvements”, Thirteenth Annual Plant Performance
Enhancement Program, held August 12-14, 1997 in San
Antonio, TX, Plant Support Engineering, EPRI, Charlotte,
NC, 1997.
22. Personal communication between G.J. Silvestri, Jr.
and T. McCloskey, October, 1998.

1-10 Introduction and Background

Chapter 2 • Volume 1
Thermodynamic
Principles and Power
Plant Steam Cycles
2.1 Introduction and Significance
of Challenges Facing Turbine
Components
A basic understanding of the ther-
modynamics of the steam turbine is
essential to understanding the root
causes of problems in the steam
path. There is a controlled and con-
tinual drop of both pressure and
temperature as the working steam
expands through the turbine flow
path. As the pressure is reduced,
the specific volume and volumetric
flow increase. The pressure, tem-
perature, and moisture content of
steam control the efficiency of the
process and impose severe perfor-
mance requirements on turbine
components. There already exist
many fundamental and more
advanced texts on thermo-
dynamics.1-5 This chapter is
designed to provide an overview of
the key concepts.
2.2 Review of Thermodynamic
Principles
2.2.1 Historical developments. The
importance of thermodynamics in
the history of technology cannot be
overstated. Bernal has said: “The
central and most far-reaching dis-
covery in the physical science of the
nineteenth century was that of the
conservation of energy—the first law
of thermodynamics.”6 The second
law of thermodynamics was discov-
ered by Sadi Carnot. In 1824, in
Réflexions sur la puissance motrice
du feu et sur les machines propre à
developper cette puissance, Carnot
outlined the second law as a theo-
retical limit on the efficiency of
reversible cycles. Carnot also dis-
covered the first law and a value for
the mechanical equivalence of heat
in 1830, but those were unpublished
and lost in his notes until rediscov-
ery in 1878.6
Rudolf Clausius generalized
Carnot’s work and by so doing
began formal thermodynamics.
Clausius pointed out in 1850 that: “It
is impossible to construct a device
which, when operating in a cycle,
will produce no effect other than the
transference of heat from a colder to
a hotter body”.7
“The final acceptance of the new
views was due to the work of two
academic scientists, William
Thompson (Lord Kelvin), in his
paper ‘On the Dynamical Equivalent
of Heat’ and Herman Ludwig
Ferdinand Helmholtz in his paper
‘On the Conservation of Force’, who
fitted them into the accepted
scheme of classical physics and
almost succeeded in obscuring the
fact that a great revolution in human
thought had been achieved.” 6
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-1
2.2.2 First law of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics or
the law of conservation of energy
states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. It describes
the change of energy between
forms (heat to work and work to
heat), and allows for accounting for
the transfer of energy to and from a
system and changes of energy
within a system. One typical form of
the first law is:
∆Q = W* + ∆U (2-1)
where:
∆Q = heat added
W* = work
∆U = increase in energy
storage
A useful property for flow processes,
such as in steam turbines, is the
concept of enthalpy. Enthalpy per
unit mass is defined as:
H* ≅ u+ Pν (2-2)
where:
H* = enthalpy
u = internal energy per unit
of mass
P = pressure
ν = volume per unit mass
In the case of an ideal flow system
with no heat exchange or change in
potential or kinetic energy, the work
done by the system is the change in
enthalpy between two states:
W* = ∆h (2-3)
2.2.3 Second law of thermo-
dynamics. Simply stated, the sec-
ond law of thermodynamics is that
not all of a given quantity of heat
can be converted to useful work.
The second law of thermodynamics
places strong limits on the available
performance of any heat engine
including a steam turbine. For
example, one of the implications of
the second law is that all real cycles
must reject heat. The second law is
typically discussed by considering
2-2 Thermodynamic Principles
the entropy of a thermodynamic
system. Entropy is defined as the
quantity of heat added divided by
the absolute temperature at which
the addition takes place,
2 dQ
∆S = ∫1 (2-4)
T
The second law of thermodynamics
is the postulate that the entropy of
an isolated system cannot decrease,
∆S ≥ 0 (2-5)
Processes which would decrease
entropy are therefore not possible;
processes that increase entropy are
possible.
2.3 Steam Properties
The state of steam (single phase)
can be completely defined by speci-
fying any two of six properties: tem-
perature, pressure, specific volume,
internal energy, enthalpy, and
entropy. The first three of these are
observable; the second three must
be calculated.
2.3.1 Steam tables and equations.
The properties of steam have been
historically, and continue to be, of
tremendous importance. Steam
tables provide compilations of key
steam properties derived from the
governing equations. The steam
tables contain such variables as
pressure, corresponding saturation
temperature, specific volume, heat
of the liquid, latent heat, and
internal energy.
The documentation of those proper-
ties continues under the auspices of
the International Association for the
Properties of Water and Steam
(IAPWS). The most recent official
compilation is the Release on the
IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997
for the Thermodynamic Properties of
Water and Steam (IAPWS-IF97).8
These tables have replaced the
1967 Formulation for Industrial Use
(IFC-67), which was the basis for the
ASME Steam Tables. The changes
have resulted in improved accuracy,
speed of calculation and internal
consistency. However, there are dif-
ferences between the two formula-
tions, which need to be considered
by users. There are differences of
up to 3.48 kJ/kg (1.5 Btu/lbm) in
some values for the latent heat of
vaporization, and there are enthalpy
differences at various points in the
superheat regions of up to 2.32
kJ/kg (1 Btu/lbm).9
The most important impact on the
power industry is on calculated heat
rates. If calculations are made for
the same power plant using the IFC-
67 and IAPWS-IF97 formulations dif-
ferent values will be obtained for the
heat input from the boiler and for
turbine section efficiencies, although
the amount of fuel burned and the
power output do not change. The
changes would make the boiler
appear to be more efficient (more
enthalpy added to the turbine cycle
for the same amount of fuel burned),
and decrease the apparent effi-
ciency of the turbine. The total
change for a typical 16.55 MPa
(2400 psig), 538°C/538°C
(1000°F/1000°F) unit could be on
the order of 21-26 kJ/kW-hr (~20-25
Btu/kW-hr). This amount could have
significant consequences to con-
tract performances for either new
plant or for changes to existing
plant. It is therefore recommended
that designers, vendors and pur-
chasers avoid mixing results calcu-
lated from the two formulations, and
explicitly state which formulation is
being used. Specifically, “a unit
tested with IAPWS-IF97 properties
cannot be expected to meet guar-
antees of specifications calculated
using IFC-67”.9
2.3.2 Process representations.
Process representations provide
information about key thermody-
namic variables during a cycle. Two
valuable process representations for
the analysis of thermodynamic
cycles in steam turbines are the
temperature-entropy diagram and quality) line and the saturated vapor defined by the critical pressure
the enthalpy-entropy (Mollier) (100% quality) lines. For steam con- 22.12 MPa (3208.2 psi) and temper-
diagram. ditions falling under the dome there ature 374.15°C (705.47°F). Two
will be a two phase system; in this other regions can be defined.
The temperature-entropy (T-s)
region pressure is fixed for a given Subcooled liquid is represented by
diagram for steam is shown in
temperature, independent of the region of the diagram to the
Figure 2-1. In the central part of the
quality.7 The point at the top of the left of the saturated liquid line and
figure is the “steam dome” which is
steam dome is the critical point below the critical pressures. At
formed by the saturated liquid (0%

Temperature, °F
1100
15
50

15
00
Enthalpy, Btu/lbm

145
1000

0
1400
900

1350
Superheat

1300
00
800 Pressure, psia 50

1250
00
40

1200
Steam dome
00
30
1100

00
700
20
00
0
15
100
800

600
500
600
300 0
40

500
200

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100

Quality, %
nt

50

400
rce
pey
alit

30
Qu

15

300 Enthalpy
Btu/lbm
10

200

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

32°F
100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
Entropy, s, Btu/lbm °R

Figure 2-1. Temperature-entropy diagram for steam. [(T °F - 32)/1.8 = °C; Btu/lbm °R x 4.1869 = kJ/kg °C].

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-3

 1 3 5

Economizer, Reheaters
boiler and
superheater 2 4
11
Feedwater
10 heating
9 Feedwater pump
Condensate
8 heating
Condensate pump
t 7 6
s
(a) Turbines operating predominantly
in the superheated steam region
with reheat

1 1 4
Steam Moisture Steam Moisture
generator separator generator separator 3 Reheaters
11 Feedwater 2 3 11 Feedwater 2
10 heating 10 heating
9 Feedwater pump 9 Feedwater pump

8 Condensate heating 8 Condensate heating

Condensate pump Condensate pump
t 7 6 t 7 6
s s
(b) Temperature-entropy diagram (c) Temperature-entropy diagram
without reheat with reheat

(b and c) Turbines operating predominantly in the wet-steam region

Figure 2-2. Typical turbine cycles plotted on temperature-entropy diagrams. Source: ASME PTC-610

temperatures above the critical
point only a single phase exists
independent of pressure; the vapor
is superheated and the temperature
elevation above the corresponding
saturation temperature is termed
the superheat.
Figure 2-2 shows schematically,
temperature-entropy diagrams for
three power plant cycles: (a) operat-
ing predominantly in the super- namic cycles; it will provide the
heated steam region, (b) without background for several discussions
reheat, and (c) with reheat. in this book. Lines of constant pres-
sure run diagonally across the dia-
The enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram
gram from the lower left to upper
or Mollier diagram for steam is
right. Along those lines of constant
shown in Figure 2-3. The Mollier
pressure, at any point, the values of
diagram, developed by Professor
the corresponding enthalpy and
Mollier at Dresden University circa
entropy can be read. Vertical dis-
189811, is used extensively as an
tances on the diagram (changes in
aid to understanding thermody-

2-4 Thermodynamic Principles

 Enthalpy, Btu/lbm
1600
1100
70
0
1550
1000
Temperature, °F 60
0
1500
900
50
0
1450
800
40
0
1400
700
30
0
1350
600

ere
20
Superheat, °F 0

ph
1300

os
500
0

atm
400

0
0

10
0

ard
200
150
0

0
100

300
0
550

nd
1250
50

200

400
0

Sta
300

Steam dome
50
10

30
1200 Sat 300

.69 20
ura

6
tion

10
line

5
14
200
1150

2.5

0
1.
400 psia superheat

1100
5
Constant
1050 moisture %
Initial pressure, 1500 psia

Initial pressure, 400 psia

10
1000

15
950

20
a
si
,p

900
re
su
es
Pr

25
850
35

30
800
40
50

750
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Entropy, s, Btu/lbm °R

Figure 2-3. Enthalpy-entropy (Mollier) diagram of steam. [Btu/lbm °R x 4.1869 = kJ/kg °C;
Btu/lbm x 2.326 = kJ/kg].

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-5

enthalpy) are proportional to the
energy transfer work for a turbine.
They would be identically equal to
the work of the turbine if the turbine
was 100% efficient. However, as
there are losses in real turbines, the
B C
actual work done will be somewhat
less than the difference in enthalpies
between two points. In fact, the def-
inition of the efficiency of a turbine is
the ratio of the work done divided by
the work available. Turbine losses

are also associated with an increase
in entropy. Turbine efficiency is dis-
cussed in more detail in the sections
on steam cycles below.
The saturation line drawn on the
Mollier diagram separates steam
conditions which are superheated
(above and to the right of the satura-
tion line) and “wet” steam (below
and to the left of the saturation
line). The cross-hatched area on
Figure 2-3 is the phase transition
zone (PTZ) which is the below the
saturation lines and at a point where
significant condensation will occur,
typically at a moisture level around
1-3%. The actual dynamic conden-
sation process in steam turbines will
be described in greater detail in
Chapter 8. The Mollier diagram is
an equilibrium or static diagram and
does not take into account the
actual dynamic process.
The Mollier diagram is quite useful
for diagnosing the influence of mois-
ture and impurities on various dam-
age mechanisms. A first step in the
evaluation of blade damage may
often be plotting the damage loca-
tion on the Mollier diagram to deter-
mine its relationship to the start of
the phase transition zone.
2.4 Steam Cycles – Theory
A power plant cycle is the paths and
processes through which a working
fluid passes, in a cyclic fashion, in
the production of power by a prime
mover.1 The efficiency of a power
plant depends on the type of cycle,
Temperature, T
A D
F E
Entropy, s
Figure 2-4. Carnot cycle.
temperatures and pressures in the
cycle, the distribution of the working
fluid and system losses. It is useful
in the analysis of real systems to
analyze so-called “ideal” cycles.
Such analyses provide insights
about the upper bounds on effi-
ciency, help characterize losses, and
provide suggestions for improve-
ments in real world equipment.
Here we examine three such cycles:
the Carnot Cycle, the simple or base
Rankine Cycle and the Regenerative
Cycle.
2.4.1 Carnot cycle. The Carnot
cycle is illustrative because it repre-
sents the upper limit for perfor-
mance in a real system. The Carnot
cycle is illustrated on a temperature-
entropy diagram in Figure 2-4. It
consists of two isothermal processes
and two isentropic processes. The
Carnot cycle is completely rever-
sible, has no losses nor increases in
entropy and therefore represents the
ideal condition.
The Carnot efficiency is equal to:
 T
ηCarnot = 1- TA
 (2-6)
B
where:
TA = temperature into steam
engine
TB = temperature of environment
Efficiency will be highest where the
temperature into the engine is at the
highest possible temperature and
the rejection is at the lowest possible
temperature. For example for
TA=1500°F (1960°R) and TB= 60°F

2-6 Thermodynamic Principles

(560°R), the maximum thermal effi-
ciency is approximately 73.5%. No
real world devices, which are all
inherently irreversible, operate at
efficiencies as high as the ideal
Carnot efficiency.
The expected efficiency of real
world energy conversion is also less
by an amount known as the isen-
tropic efficiency, that amount by
which an actual device output differs
because of adiabatic instead of
isentropic processes. This effi-
ciency differs by machinery type
from 60-80% for small, single stage
steam turbines up to about 90-95%
for modern, large steam turbines.
2.4.2 Rankine cycle. The basic
Rankine cycle was used in power
plants to early in the twentieth cen-
tury. It consists of a single heat
addition (from the boiler), expansion
of the steam through an engine and
condensation (heat rejection) of the
exhaust. The T-s diagram for the
basic Rankine cycle is shown in
Figure 2-5. Heating of the liquid
occurs along the segment AB, BC
is the evaporation to steam, CD the
expansion in the turbine and DA is
condensation. The efficiency of the

Temperature, °R
1200
L

°F
600

1000

B C
400

Sa
800

t. v
ap
or
id

200
iqu
t. l
Sa

600
Condenser pressure
A D
G
0

400

-200

200

-400
F H E
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Entropy, s, Btu/lbm °F

Figure 2-5. Theoretical Rankine cycle, temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram. [(T °F - 32)/1.8 = °C;
Btu/lbm °R x 4.1869 = kJ/kg °C].

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-7

Rankine cycle can be found by
dividing the work performed by the
heat added:
(h - h )
η= C D (2-7)
(hC - hA)
The Rankine cycle efficiency is a
function of the steam conditions in
the unit only, including pressure,
temperature and exhaust pressure.
The actual or thermal efficiency of a
power plant is the Rankine efficiency
multiplied by the efficiency of the
turbine. Because the overall unit
efficiency is a function of both the
thermodynamic and turbine efficien-
cies, an alternative performance cri-
terion has been established related
to heat rates. The heat rate is the
ratio of the heat supplied to the tur-
bine (or plant) divided by the output
of the generator (or plant).
The earliest plants used an open
thermodynamic steam cycle, thus a
primary problem was with contami-
nants in the water supply. Control
methods included water treatment
and boiler blowdown. Evolution to a
closed cycle lead to easier and bet-
ter control of water/steam purity.
There were two other considerable
problems with the basic Rankine
cycle. The moisture in the exhaust
was high, which decreased overall
efficiency and lead to significant
blade erosion. The second draw-
back was the low efficiencies
obtained which were caused by the
non-equilibrium heating of the com-
pressed liquid along AB. The solu-
tion to these problems was to evolve
to a regenerative (with reheat)
Rankine cycle.
2.4.3 Reheat. The efficiency of the
Rankine cycle is highest for the
highest inlet temperatures.
However, there are limitations to how
high a temperature can be used,
such as material capability. Further,
when pressures are raised to
increase the work that can be done,
2-8 Thermodynamic Principles
there is an increase in exhaust mois-
ture which lowers the efficiency and
increases the amount of liquid
droplet erosion damage. To over-
come these difficulties and also gen-
erate higher cycle efficiencies, the
reheat cycle is used. The steam
starts at a maximum temperature,
then it is partially expanded through
a turbine section, then is returned to
the reheater section of the boiler.
There may be one or more reheats,
the number being a matter of eco-
nomics and efficiency. The use of
reheat lead to an increase in operat-
ing pressures. This lead to
increased need for water and steam
purity, as described in detail in
Chapter 7.
In a typical steam turbine unit, going
to a single reheat Rankine cycle
increases the efficiency (decreases
the heat rate) by about 4-6 percent.1
Heat rate is a measure of fuel econ-
omy in a unit and can be defined as:
Plant heat rate =
Heat equivalent of fuel burned
Net useful kWhr generated
(2-8)
3412.14 BTU
η= kWhr
x 100%
Heat rate
(2-9)
Another advantage is that the steam
going through later stages of the tur-
bine is at a higher temperature and
thus lower moisture content (with the
double benefit of higher efficiencies
and less moisture induced damage).
Double reheating provides an addi-
tional improvement in efficiency, typi-
cally about one half of the improve-
ment seen in going from no reheat
to a single reheat.7 In order to avoid
superheated exhaust, it is necessary
to go to higher throttle pressures
and as a result in practice double
reheat has been used only in those
plants with supercritical throttle
pressure.7
2.4.4 The regenerative cycle.
Another improvement on the basic
Rankine cycle is the regenerative
cycle, a form of reheat in which
stream extracted from various
stages of the turbine is transferred to
feedwater heaters. Modern conven-
tional fossil fuel power plants use
regeneration to increase the effi-
ciency of the cycle. The larger the
number of feedwater heaters, the
greater the efficiency of the cycle,
although the overall economics of
the additional equipment and piping
limit the practical number of feedwa-
ter heaters used. In heat recovery
steam generators (HRSGs) there are
usually no feedwater heaters.
The manner in which the improve-
ment of efficiency is obtained, can
be seen by reference to Figure 2-6.
The figure is the temperature-
entropy plane. The Rankine cycle is
ABCDA made up of three reversible
processes: isothermals BC and DA
and the isentropic CD and the irre-
versible heating process, AB. If the
irreversible process AB could be
made reversible, then the cycle
would have Carnot efficiency.1
Regeneration allows part of the tur-
bine heat to be used to heat the
feedwater. As shown in Figure 2-6,
the steam at C is first partially
expanded through the turbine. An
extraction reduces the energy from
1 to 2 and that energy is used to
heat the feedwater from 11 to 12
(the temperature for points 1, 2).
Similarly, after the next incremental
expansion through turbine from 2 to
3, extraction can be used to heat
feedwater from 10 to 11. In the limit
of smallest steps, the heating
process is as small as possible
approaching a reversible process as
the temperature difference between
the extracted steam and fluid to be
heated is zero. In the limit, as lines
AB and EC become parallel, the effi-
ciency of this cycle becomes that of
the ideal Carnot cycle.
 538°C/538°C (1000°F/1000°F) for
single reheat and 23.13 MPa (3500
T
psi), 538°C/551°C/565°C
(1000°F/1025°F/1050°F) for double
B C
reheat units.
2 1
12
4 3 2.5 Turbine Efficiency and
11 Overview of Losses
6 5
10 Fundamental to understanding the
8 7 effect of many of the damage mech-
9
anisms described in Volume 2 is
E D understanding how the damage cre-
A
ates efficiency losses in the turbine.
At some stage in the analysis of
repair and prevention strategies, an
economic analysis will be required.
Being able to calculate the relevant
thermodynamic losses and to pre-
dict the likely magnitude of the
F J G H changes in those losses will be cen-
tral to such an economic analysis
Total Entropy, S and will help determine which
options are viable.

Figure 2-6. Diagram of a saturated steam regenerative cycle. Source: J.K. Salisbury1 As befits the central importance of
thermodynamic losses in turbine
design, maintenance, and operation,
2.4.5 Use of superheat. If super- mined by the properties of the boiler there are numerous references
heated steam is used, the thermal materials, specifically the creep and describing the contributions in great
and aerodynamic efficiencies of the thermal fatigue resistance of the detail.1,4,12,13
cycle are improved and the moisture superheater tube materials used.
content of the steam is reduced. Higher pressures that result with Three groups of losses can be con-
The improvement in the thermal effi- higher superheat temperatures also sidered: pressure drop losses that
ciency of the cycle by the use of result in thicker tube walls which occur with the passage of steam
superheating can be seen on Figure slows unit startup and load chang- through valves, piping and exhaust
2-5; the segment CL is the super- ing, and greatly affects the thermal between sections, turbine section
heated portion of the cycle. fatigue life of the component. losses, and individual turbine stage
losses. Tables 2-1, 2-2 and 2-3,
Limits to the level of superheating Typical supercritical unit conditions respectively, summarize the various
that can be used are primarily deter- are 23.13 MPa (3500 psi) and losses of each type.
Figure 2-7 shows that the relative
Table 2-1 mix and magnitude of losses varies
Pressure Drop Losses
by stage.14 The figure shows major
Source Pressure Drop Heat Rate Loss losses for a typical 700 MW single
reheat turbine. Note that adding up
Drop in throttle steam passing through stop and control 4% 0.4% the losses in individual stages, when
valves to HP turbine. varying the losses of only a single
stage at a time, overstates the
Reheat losses—in reheater and in piping to and from reheater. 7-10% 0.7-1.0% power loss as compared to when
two or more stages are evaluated
Return from reheater to IP through stop and intercept valve. 2% 0.2% simultaneously.15 This is because of
the reheat effect in the stages follow-
Crossover losses from IP to LP including IP exhaust hood loss, 3% 0.3% ing the degraded stages.15
crossover piping loss and loss on entrance to LP.

Adapted from K. Cotton 4

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-9

Table 2-2
Turbine Section Losses
Type Description

Nozzle end loss Small loss that occurs when partial arc admission is used. The steam entrapped in rotating blades as it passes by inactive
arcs must be accelerated from rest when the blade passes by an active arc.

Moisture (or wetness) loss Moisture results in an approximately 1% decrease in the LP efficiency for every 1% increase in moisture level. This
occurs because of both thermodynamic (a supersaturation effect) and mechanical effects as shown in Figure 2-16.
As droplets, liquid films and trailing edge turbulence increase, the moisture or wetness losses increase with a corre-
sponding decrease in efficiency. Chapter 8 describes these effects in more detail.

Exhaust loss Two components make up the exhaust loss:

• the leaving loss is the kinetic energy leaving the last stage as velocity in the steam
• the hood loss is the pressure drop of the steam through the exhaust hood.

Windage loss As the turbine rotates through steam, there is a loss due to windage (essentially friction with the steam) that is propor-
tional to the density of the steam and the cube of the velocity. Can occur by passage of blade or of the disc (in impulse
design) through the steam. A blade damage type caused by windage is overheating under conditions of low flow and
high backpressure and is described in Chapter 32.

2.5.1 Pressure drop losses.

Table 2-1 summarizes the pressure
drops that occur during the passage Total to Nozzle profile Nozzle leakage
of steam through valves, piping and total stage Nozzle secondary Miscellaneous
exhaust. The rule of thumb is that enthalpy Blade profile Partial admission
loss Blade secondary Moisture
every 1% pressure reduction results Tip leakage Leaving loss
in a reduced heat rate of about 0.1% 0.25
in a fossil unit and 0.15% in a
Loss Coefficient

nuclear unit.4 0.20 High Intermediate Low

pressure pressure pressure
section section section
2.5.2 Turbine section losses. 0.15
Typical turbine section losses are
summarized in Table 2-2. 0.10

2.5.3 Turbine stage losses. The 0.05

primary determination of overall
turbine-generator efficiency is the
efficiencies of the individual turbine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
stages. The ideal stage efficiency Stage Number
is the ratio of the energy of steam
converted into mechanical work to
the available energy in a given Figure 2-7. Losses by stage and section for a 700 MW single reheat turbine.
Source: Toshiba14
stage assuming all other losses are
zero. Table 2-3 provides a summary
of key stage losses (note that termi-
nology differs between various man-
ufacturers and authors).

2-10 Thermodynamic Principles

Table 2-3
Turbine Stage Losses
Type
Friction losses (also called profile losses) in
stationary and rotating blades.
Blade/bucket surface finish friction loss
Deviation from optimal velocity ratio
Secondary or endwall loss
Leakage losses
• rotating blade/bucket tip leakage
• diaphragm shaft packing leakage
(also called interstage packing leakage)
• rotating blade/bucket root leakage
• shaft end packing leakage
• leakage past sleeve (snout) rings
Tiewires (Lacing wires)
Description
Boundary layer losses caused by flow over blade surfaces. About 2% each for rotating and
stationary blades. There are also losses of profile, such as by erosion which change blade angles
and also have a detrimental effect on efficiency.
Roughening of blade surfaces can lead to significant losses. Figure 2-10 shows loss in stage
efficiency for rough surfaces.
This category includes a number of design or operating changes:
• tradeoffs in initial design
• changes in stage pressure from optimal. These can be caused by changes in blade areas as a
result of damage, or by operating changes such as feedwater heaters out of service, changes in
extractions, etc.
Losses caused by formation of vortices that form at inner and outer sidewalls of nozzles and blade
passages. It is a boundary layer effect similar to friction losses on the blade.
Leakage past the rotating blade/bucket between the blade and casing. Depends on steam conditions,
pressure drop across the tip of the blade, axial and radial clearances, and type of tip leakage control.
Partially overcome by the use of interstage seals.
Leakage that bypasses the stationary blade/nozzle by leaking between the diaphragm or nozzles and
rotor. Labyrinth packing is installed to reduce this leakage. There are two efficiency losses here—the
amount of flow that is diverted and the disturbance to the balance of the main flow when the leakage
flow reenters.
See Figures 2-8 and 2-9.
Leakage to gland condenser/atmosphere.
Clearance between inner and outer cylinders.
Tiewires used to stiffen LP blades block part of the flow passage and thus create a loss in the
affected stages.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-11
A survey of 31 steam path audits
indicated average section efficiency
deterioration was 12.5% for the HP,
9.1% for the IP, and 3% for the LP.16
Most of the total loss in these tur-
bines was caused by either leakage
(about 50% of the total) or surface
roughness (about 36% of the
total).16 The worst leakage losses
were from (i) radial spill strips, tip
seals or shroud seals, (ii) diaphragm
packing or interstage shaft packing,
(iii) end packing or shaft packing,
and (iv) miscellaneous leakages
such as mid-span balance hole
plugs, inner shell, and seal rings.
Figures 2-8 and 2-9 show typical
leakage paths in impulse and reac-
tion designs, respectively. Losses
from leakage steam reentry between
the stationary and rotating rows of a
low reaction stage will be higher
than on a conventional reaction
stage.15 Impulse style blading
have increased base section reac-
tions to prevent the reentry of leak-
age steam between the stationary
and rotating blades of a stage. 15
Typical stage reactions at the mean
diameter of low reaction blading in
intermediate pressure turbines are
about 30 to 35%.15
Surface roughening occurs as a
result of (i) deposits, (ii) solid parti-
cle erosion, and (iii) steam path
damage such as weld beads, tools,
thick deposits, and profile losses.
The calculated percent change in
turbine efficiency by stage as a
function of surface finish is shown
in Figure 2-10.

Bucket tip leakage

Bucket root
leakage

Bucket
dovetail
hole flow

Diaphragm packing leakage

Figure 2-8. Leakage losses - Impulse wheel and diaphragm construction. Source: P. Schofield12

2-12 Thermodynamic Principles

 Bucket tip
leakage

Bucket root
leakage

Diaphragm
packing leakage

Figure 2-9. Leakage losses - Reaction drum rotor construction. Source: P. Schofield12

2.5.4 Maximum load testing.
A maximum load test can be used
as a simple indicator of efficiency.
2.5.5 Measuring changes in stage
efficiency. An enthalpy drop test
can provide a simple check on the
condition of turbine nozzles and
blades. Plots of stage efficiency
and stage pressure ratio can reveal
nozzle and/or blade erosion or foul-
ing. Measurement of the turbine
section efficiency by an enthalpy
drop test is the most simple and
useful test of turbine stages operat-
ing in the superheated steam region;
for accurate results, one needs to
have accurate measurements of the
pressures and temperatures at the
inlet and outlet of the stage.
Enthalpy drops for the HP and IP
sections of the turbine are fixed by
known temperatures and pressures,
whereas that for the LP is not. Until
recently there has been no means to
measure the wetness of the inter-
stage and exhaust steam and thus
LP turbine power and efficiency
could only be inferred indirectly from
a heat balance calculation.
However, wetness probes have now
been developed that can measure
the distribution of wetness at the
interstage and turbine exhaust
planes. That data, when combined
with aerodynamic data can quantify
the LP discharge mass flow, flow-
weighted total/static pressure, and
turbine exhaust state point.17 From
the state point, the thermodynamic
efficiency of the last stage and/or
entire LP cylinder can be deter-
mined. This allows for baseline data
to be established in an efficiency or
flow path improvement project.
Stage efficiency testing is discussed
in more detail in Chapter 10.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-13

 2.6 Steam Cycles – Practice
2 Components of a power plant can
Reaction design be divided into heat sources (the
6.3 fs
1 Impulse design boiler or steam generator) and the
6.3 fs turbine cycle. The turbine cycle
includes the turbine, generator, con-
0 denser, pumps and feedwater
heaters.
Percent Change in Turgine Efficiency

-1 HP
2.6.1 Fossil power plant cycles –
illustrative example. Figure 2-11
-2 shows a typical turbine - heater
cycle in a fossil fuel power plant. In
-3 this example the turbine has high
pressure (HP), intermediate pressure
1
(IP) and low pressure (LP) sections.
Also shown are a typical feedwater
0 heater arrangement, the condenser,
and the auxiliary turbine. Figure
-1 2-12 shows the superposition of the
IP steam cycle for this unit on an out-
line of the Mollier diagram. A few
-2 pressure curves are shown as dot-
ted lines. The saturation line is
LP
-3 shown as a solid line and located
approximately in the middle of the
-4
0 100 200 300 400 500
Figure 2-10. Percent change in turbine
Surface Finish fs , µinch efficiency for HP, IP and LP turbines as a
function of surface finish. [ µ inch x 2.92
x 10 -8 = m]. Source: EPRI WO 8309-1

From reheater Feed pump

Auxiliary turbine
From boiler
To
condenser
2 flow L.P. turbine
H.P. I.P. Generator
turbine turbine
To air
Reheater preheater
Feedwater Makeup
heater Condenser
To (typical) Deaerator
boiler

Gland
steam
condenser

Figure 2-11. Typical fossil fuel power plant turbine-heater cycle.

2-14 Thermodynamic Principles

figure. The expansions through
various cycles are shown with solid
lines. The lines for expansion
through fossil fuel HP, IP and LP
turbines are in the upper part of the
figure. Typical efficiencies for each
of these turbine sections and
typical nuclear reheat and non-
reheat cycles are also shown on
Figure 2-12.
Note that unlike the idealized regen-
erative Rankine cycle, typical fossil
and nuclear unit cycles are not isen-
tropic. This is evidenced by the
slight slope toward increasing
entropy during the expansions
through the turbine stages (offset
from vertical lines on the Mollier dia-
gram). At the same time, no heat is
added to or rejected from the
overall cycle, indicating an
adiabatic process.
Typical fossil units operate with main
steam conditions of at 538-566°C
(1000-1050°F) and pressures typi-
cally in the range 16-20 MPa (2300
to 2900 psi) for subcritical units and
up to 24 MPa (3500 psi) for super-
critical units. Advanced steam con-
ditions in fossil fired units, of
increasing interest because of the
potential for greatly improved effi-
ciencies, are typically at 24 MPa
(~3500 psi or 240 bar) and above
with main and reheat temperatures
of 565°C (1050°F) and above.
Internationally, units are in operation
with steam conditions as high as 31
MPa (4500 psi or 310 bar)/565°C
(1050°F)/656°C (1212°F)/565°C
(1050°F).18 An example of the effi-
ciency improvement has been cited
by one manufacturer at about 8% for
a unit at 300 bar/600°C/600°C/600°C
compared to conventional technol-
ogy at 180 bar/540°C/540°C.18
Mass and flow diagrams are used
to summarize key information about
the fluid at each point in the cycle.
Typical mass flow diagrams can be
found in a number of references
(see for example, ref. 7). They
indicate flow rates, pressures,
enthalpy and temperature through-
out the cycle.
2415 psia 600
ηIP
psia
89-94%
ηHP
80-88%
Fossil
reheat
200
Enthalpy
1000 ηLP
psia
psia 90-91%
M.S.
90%
ηHP ηLP
82% 87%
Saturation
ηLP line
85%
Nuclear Nuclear
non-reheat steam
reheat
Entropy
Figure 2-12. Portion of the Mollier diagram illustrating typical
turbine expansion lines. Source: K. C. Cotton4
2.6.2 Nuclear power plant cycles – exit wetness ranges typically are
illustrative example. Typical nuclear 13-17%, with actual values some-
power plant cycles both pressurized what less because of moisture
water reactors (PWR) and boiling removal by drainage devices and
water reactors (BWR) differ consid- steam extraction.
erably from typical fossil unit cycles.
Peripheral (blade tip) speeds in the
This can be seen by reference to
HP turbines of nuclear units range
Figure 2-12 which shows the lower
from about 100 to 200 m/s (~ 325 to
pressures and enthalpies of the
650 ft/s) depending on unit size,
steam in both non-reheat and reheat
rotor speed, and type of blading
nuclear cycles when compared to
used. These tip speeds are signifi-
fossil units. Nuclear cycles have
cantly slower than in fossil units and
lower steam parameters, typically
as a result there are fewer problems
6-7 MPa (870-1015 psi or 60-70 bar)
with liquid droplet erosion than in
and (260-290°C 500-554°F), with
fossil unit LP turbines which have
around 0.25% moisture and very
approximately the same moisture
large flow rates (approximately 2
levels, but considerably higher
tons of steam per second in a 1200
blade tip speeds. Expansion in the
MW plant). In some PWR designs
HP is typically followed by a mois-
steam is produced at slight super-
ture separator; at the exit to the
heat. As a result of these steam
moisture separator, steam quality is
conditions, there is considerable
typically close to unity.
difference between the HP turbine of
nuclear and fossil units. Predicted
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-15
 P = Pressure, bar
T = Temperature, °C
273T •
582m h = Enthalpy, kJ/kg
0.25x
2774h
•
m = Mass flow, kg.s-1
Moisture x = Wetness, %
HP separator Reheaters
66.8P
953m

• 3 LP cylinders
cylinder
To no. 7 To live Generator
heater steam
Steam reheater
generator drains cooler
•
10.3m
5.9P
Condenser
953m 976h

LP glands

0.56P
227T

0.2P
26.8P

15.9P

10.3P

2.7P

1.3P
• Deaerator Polish- Gland
Drains ing steam 539m
201T 178T 156T cooler plant condenser 30t
224T 120T 104T 82T 59T

No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Condensate

Live 8 7 6 Feed 4 3 2 1 pump
steam pump
reheater Drain To condenser
drains HP heaters pump LP heaters
cooler

Figure 2-13. Schematic diagram of modern PWR secondary circuit and operating conditions for 100% MCR.

Flue gas
to stack

Once through heat recovery

steam generatior
LP steam
LP section
HP steam

HP section
Steam
turbine
Flue gas

Combustion
Condenser Electricity turbine and
generator

Condensate Makeup
storage system Air Fuel

HP boiler
feed pump
Bypass
Condensate
storage
LP boiler feed
pump

Figure 2-14. Cycle diagram for once-through combustion turbine combined cycle. Source: B. Dooley,
A. Ashoff, M. Ball, F. Pocock, and K.J. Shields20

2-16 Thermodynamic Principles

LP turbines in most nuclear cycles
operate under similar moisture con-
ditions to those in fossil units
because of reheating in the moisture
separator reheaters (MSR). Last
stage blades typically range from
about 900 to 1320 mm (35 to 52
inches). Continuing improvements
in materials and design will almost
certainly allow for progressively
longer blades in future machines.
A circuit diagram for a state-of-
the-art nuclear plant is shown in
Figure 2-13.
2.6.3 Co-generation cycles. In co-
generation cycles, steam is typically
generated at a higher temperature
and pressure than required for a
particular industrial process. The
steam is expanded through a tur-
bine to produce electricity and the
resulting extractions at the dis-
charge are at the temperature and
pressure required by the process.
Turbines can be condensing or non-
condensing design typically with
large mass flows and comparably
low output.7 Traditionally, pressures
were 6.21 MPa (900 psig) and below
with temperatures 441°C (825°F) or
lower, although the trend toward
higher levels of each continues.
There are now a considerable num-
ber of cogeneration steam turbines
with initial steam pressures in the
8.63-10 MPa (1250-1450 psig)
range and steam temperatures of
482-510°C (900-950°F).
2.6.4 Combined cycle plants.
Combined cycle plants use the
exhaust from advanced gas turbines
(which is typically in the range
560°C to 600°C (1040°F to 1110°F))
to feed a fired or unfired heat recov-
ery steam generator (HRSG) and
subsequently drive conventional
steam turbines with main and reheat
temperatures at 540°C (1000°F) and
590°C (1100°F), respectively. Flow
diagrams for two arrangements are
shown in Figures 2-14 and 2-15.
2.6.5 Geothermal plants. Steam
conditions (and as a result, efficien-
cies) in geothermal plants are usu-
ally low, typically below 7 MPa (1015
psi) and 170°C (340°F). The low
available enthalpy means that very
large flows are necessary. For
example in a typical 150 MW unit,
the flow is 952.6 tons/hour.13
2.7 Moisture Limitations
A practical limit on the usable tem-
peratures and pressures of steam is
also imposed by moisture. Severe
erosion, caused by excessive mois-
ture levels at the inlet to the last few
blade rows, was found in LP blades
in early turbine designs and lead to
a limitation of about 12% on exit wet-
ness.19
Further, the efficiency, η, of the LP
turbine decreases approximately 1%
for every 1% increase in wetness in
the wet stages. 21 The overall loss
caused by moisture consists of a
supersaturation loss and a moisture
loss as illustrated in Figure 2-16 for
results obtained from a development
laboratory LP turbine.4 The super-
saturation loss occurs because the
expansion in the turbine is more
rapid than indicated by equilibrium
expansion. Under these conditions,

Deaerator HP SH steam
IP SH steam IP SH steam
To process (if used)
LP SH steam
To steam injection
for combustion turbine
Chemical Chemical Chemical (if used)
feed feed feed

Flue gas LP IP HP Reheater HP IP LP

to stack drum drum drum Steam turbine

Heat Recovery
Steam Condenser
Generator (HRSG)

Flue gas
Pre- Low Intermediate High Supplemental
heater pressure pressure pressure firing (if used)
(LP) section (IP) section (HP) section
Air Fuel

Combustion Electricity
Deaerator LP IP HP Attemperation turbine and Condensate Makeup
pump blowdown blowdown blowdown feed generator storage system

Feedwater Steam injection Water

pump from IP steam injection
NOx control systems (if used)
Bypass
Condensate Condensate
polisher pump
Chemical (if used)
feed

Figure 2-15. Cycle diagram for combustion turbine/combined cycle with reheat. Source: B. Dooley, A. Ashoff, M. Ball, F. Pocock,
and K.J. Shields20

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-17

 Table 2-4
η Wet/η Dry Isentrope Estimated Stage MW Losses Caused by
1.00 the Effects of Moisture
Typical 500 MW Fossil Unit

0.98 Supersaturation loss

Stage Stage Loss (MW)

L-1 0.5
0.96 L-0 3.3
Moisture loss Total 3.8
0.76%/%
0.94 Typical 800 MW Nuclear Unit

Stage Stage Loss (MW)

0.92
HP-1 -
Wilson line HP-2 1.2
HP-3 2.0
0.90 HP-4 3.0
10 8 6 4 2 0
Weighted Average Moisture HP-5 3.2
HP-6 4.3
Note: “Wilson” line taken to be 3.2% moisture level, therefore HP-7 5.7
corresponding to weighted average of 1.6% (or 3.2%)
Total for HP 19.4

Stage Stage Loss (MW)

Figure 2-16. Test results from laboratory turbine. There is a
supersaturation loss with no moisture loss down to the “Wilson”
line; beyond that there is a moisture loss with no supersaturation LP-1 -
loss. Source: General Electric Company LP-2 -
LP-3 -
LP-4 1.1
the temperature drops much more a cycle that results in about 6-10% LP-5 2.9
rapidly, and there is less available wetness, well within the limits applic- LP-6 6.7
energy than in equilibrium. Beyond able to prevent LP blade erosion. LP-7 7.6
the “Wilson line”, condensation The concern over moisture level LP-8 10.0
occurs and the stage efficiency however continues as:19 Total for LP 28.3
drops by about 0.76% per 1% • Larger unit designs introduced in Source: W. Steltz 22
increase in moisture. The overall the 1960s lead to longer blades
loss introduced from zero moisture and higher blade tip speeds and
to about 8% weighted average mois-
therefore more potential for ero- level of about 5 bar (72.5 psi);
ture including supersaturation loss is sion damage straightforward expansion at the
about 1% per percent of average
moisture. Thus, there is a decrease • Single reheat systems which have vacuum end could raise the level
in the overall efficiency of the LP tur- optimal cycles with higher mois- to 20-25%. As a result, moisture
bine of about 8%. ture levels may be favored over separators are placed between
double reheat systems because the HP and LP, along with
The magnitude of these losses is reheaters to limit the moisture
of economic advantages related
considerable as indicated by Table content at the LP exit.
to the cost of additional equip-
2-4 which provides an estimate of ment, controls, and floor space. The process of condensation as
stage losses caused by the effects
of moisture for a typical 500 MW fos- • Light water reactor (LWR) nuclear steam expands through the turbine
sil unit and for a typical 800 MW units generate saturated, high is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.
nuclear unit. 22 pressure steam for use in the HP Blade erosion in the LP turbine from
turbine. Expansion of even liquid droplet impacts is discussed
Double reheat systems, introduced slightly wet steam results in mois- extensively in Chapter 27.
in the 1950s, operate optimally with ture content of 15% at a pressure

2-18 Thermodynamic Principles

References
1. Salisbury, J.K., Steam Turbines and Their Cycles,
1950 Reprinted by Krieger Publishing Company,
Malabar, FL, 1974.
2. Traupel, W., Thermische Turbomachinen, Springer-
Verlag, New York, NY, 1958.
3. Craig, H. and H. Cox, “Performance Estimation of
Axial Flow Turbines”, IMECHE Proceedings, Volume 185,
1970-1971, pp. 32-71.
4. Cotton, K.C., Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine
Performance, Cotton Fact, Inc., Rexford, NY, 1993.
5. Cohen, P., ed., The ASME Handbook on Water
Technology for Thermal Systems, The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1989.
6. Bernal, J.D., Science and Industry in the Nineteenth
Century, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1970.
7. Silvestri, G.J., “Steam Turbines”, Chapter 1 in P.
Cohen, ed., The ASME Handbook on Water Technology
for Thermal Systems, The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1989, pp. 1-40.
8. International Association for the Properties of Water
and Steam, IAPWS IF97 Industrial Formulation 1997 for
the Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam, pub-
lished by the International Association for the Properties
of Water and Steam, copies available from Dr. R.B.
Dooley, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA., 1997. See also Wagner, W.
and A. Kruse, Properties of Water and Steam: The
Industrial Standard IAPWS-IF97 for the Thermodynamic
Properties and Supplementary Equations for Other
Properties, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1998.
9. Parry, W.T., “New Steam Properties Now and for the
21st Century”, ASME Research Subcommittee for the
Properties of Water and Steam, presented at the
International Joint Power Conference, Baltimore, MD,
1998. Paper to be separately published in 1999.
10. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Performance Test Code 6 on Steam Turbines, ASME PTC
6-1996, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, NY, 1996.
11. Stodola, A., Steam Turbines with an Appendix on
Gas Turbines and the Future of Heat Engines, 1905 and
1927 editions, translated by L.C. Loewenstein, D. Van
Nostrand Company, New York, NY, 1945.
12. Schofield, P., “Steam Turbines”, Chapter 3 in P.
Cohen, ed., The ASME Handbook on Water Technology
for Thermal Systems, The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1989, pp. 113-177.
13. Leyzerovich, A., Large Power Steam Turbines,
Volume 1: Design and Operation, Volume 2: Operations,
PennWell Books, Tulsa OK, 1997.
14. Main Turbine Performance Upgrade Task Group,
Main Turbine Performance Upgrade Guideline, TR-
106239, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, January, 1997.
15. Personal communication between G.J. Silvestri, Jr.
and T. McCloskey, October, 1998.
16. Rice, C., J.C. Harris, S.F. Gibson, J.L. Ellis, N. E
Cowden, and D.H. Cioffi, “Steam Turbine Performance
Survey a Compiled from Steam Path Audits, Proceedings
of the 1992 EPRI Heat Rate Improvement Conference,
TR-102098, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, March, 1993.
17. McCloskey, T., R. Dewey, S. Hesler, and M. Pollard,
“Low Pressure Steam Turbine Thermal Performance
Improvements”, Thirteenth Annual Plant Performance
Enhancement Program, held August 12-14, 1997 in San
Antonio, TX, Plant Support Engineering, EPRI, Charlotte,
NC, 1997.
18. Paterson, A.N., G. Simonin and J.G. Neft, “Steam
Turbines for Advanced Steam Conditions”, in Symposium
on Steam Turbines and Generators, held in Monaco,
October 12-14, 1994, GEC Alsthom, 1994.
19. Gyarmathy, G., “Basic Notations”, Chapter 1 in M.J.
Moore and C.H. Sieverding, eds., Two-Phase Steam
Flow in Turbines and Separators: Theory, Instrumentation,
Engineering, Hemisphere Publishing Company,
Washington, 1976, pp. 1-57.
20. Dooley, B., A. Ashoff, M. Ball, A. Bursik, F. Popock
and K.J. Shields, Interim Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for
Combined Cycle HSRGs, TR-110051, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, October, 1998.
21. Baumann, K., “Some Recent Developments in Large
Steam Turbine Practice”, J. Inst. Elec. Eng., Volume 59,
1921, p. 565.
22. Personal communication from W. Steltz, August,
1998.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 2-19
2-20 Thermodynamic Principles
Chapter 3 • Volume 1
Turbine Design
and Construction
Fundamentals
3.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews some of the
design and construction fundamen-
tals of steam turbines relevant to
understanding steam path damage
mechanisms. The chapter begins
by looking at the overall design and
arrangement of steam turbines.
There is a plethora of differing
component terminology that has
evolved among the various turbine
designers and manufacturers.
Table 3-1 provides a summary of
some of the more common turbine
components and the various terms
applied to them.
Following the review of overall
design are brief sections on the
design, features, materials of con-
struction, and damage mechanisms
for major turbine components:
rotors, casings, valves, seals and
bypass systems. Blade design and
materials are covered in two sepa-
rate chapters: Chapter 4 on func-
tion, features and materials of con-
struction, and Chapter 5 on
stresses, evaluation of frequency
response and aerodynamics.
3.2 Overall Turbine Design
3.2.1 Steam flow orientation.
Steam flow can be radial or axial.
Axial is by far the most common for
large power plant steam turbines.
Figure 3-1 shows an axial flow LP
turbine. Figure 3-2 shows three
radial flow Ljöngstrom IP turbines.
In the radial flow turbines, steam
enters at the centerline and exits
radially outward, Figure 3-3.
3.2.2 Impulse versus reaction
design. A distinction is made
between “impulse” and “reaction”
turbine designs based on the rela-
tive pressure drop across the stage.
There are two measures for pressure
drop, the pressure ratio and the per-
cent reaction. Pressure ratio is the
pressure at the stage exit divided by
the pressure at the stage entrance.
Reaction is the percentage isen-
tropic enthalpy drop across the
rotating blade or bucket compared
to the total stage enthalpy drop;
some manufacturers utilize percent
pressure drop across stage to
define reaction.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-1
Table 3-1 In an impulse design most of the
Terminology Alternatives for Turbine Components pressure drop is across the station-
ary blade or nozzle. In a “pure”
Term Generally Used Some Alternatives impulse design, all the pressure
In This Book drop would occur across the nozzle;
Rotating Blades and Parts this would be termed 0% “reaction”.
In practice, there must be some
Rotating blades Buckets
pressure drop across the rotating
Blade root Serrations, attachments, fir trees, hooks, attachment base blades in order to generate flow.
Blade shank Blade tail For example, the control stage of the
Blade base Platform HP turbine is typically an “impulse”
stage by design but still has on
Blade airfoil Vane, partition, foil
average about 5% reaction at full
Pin and finger root Pinned finger; fork-shape fastening load. Note that a stage will pass
Fir-tree (attachment) Dovetail flow even if there is negative reac-
Pins Prongs tion; what is required is that the total
to static pressure drop across the
Tiewires Lacing wires, lashing wires, arch bands, snubber, connectors.
rotating row is greater than zero.1
Shrouds Covers, bands, coverbands, integral shrouds, spill strips
In the reaction design, work is done
Tuned blade packets Harmonic shrouding by a jet from stationary blades simi-
Tenons Rivets, pegs lar to the impulse design, however,
Tenon rivet Tenon upset, tenon head an additional reaction from the jet
Countersunk tenon rivet Foxholed tenon created by the moving blades also
occurs. For a symmetric reaction
Dovetail Steeple, roots and grooves design, equal pressure drop occurs
Blade group Blade packet across the stationary and rotating
Closing blade Notch piece/blade blades and thus reaction is equal to
Stationary Blades and Parts 50%. Figures 3-4 and 3-5 show per-
cent reaction versus stage number
Stationary blades Nozzles for fossil and nuclear units, respec-
Nozzle chests Nozzle boxes, nozzle plate, nozzle chamber/block tively, with both impulse and reaction
Diaphragms Partitions, blade ring/carrier, stationaries, rings turbine types plotted on each figure.
Stationary vanes Nozzle foils, nozzle vanes, nozzle partitions Note that the tip and root reaction
percentages are different to counter-
Other Components act the effect of centrifugal forces on
Inlet Bowl the steam flow. If this was not done,
Control stage First stage, governing stage, partial admission stage, inlet too much flow would migrate to the
stage. blade tips and reduce stage effi-
Rotor Shaft, wheel, spindles ciency. Bowed blades, for a given
mean diameter reaction, increase
Disc Wheel the base section reaction and
Keyways of discs Anti-rotation pin slots reduce the tip reaction.1
Disc-rim blade attachment Steeple
Blade entry slot Gate, notch
Seal Sealing labyrinth, labyrinth seal, sealing fin, packing ring,
packing, gland, sealing strip, spill strip
Turning gear Barring gear
Pedestal Standard
Turbine section Cylinder
Exhaust hood Exhaust port
Turbine casing Shell, cylinder
Sleeve rings Snout rings, piston rings, inlet rings
Attemperators Sprays

3-2 Turbine Design and Construction

 3.2.3 Flow through a stage (velocity
triangles). “Velocity triangles” for an
impulse stage are shown in Figure
3-6. This vector representation is an
important tool that is used to under-
stand the flow of steam through real
turbine stages. The stationary
blades (or nozzles) accelerate the
flow by altering the flow area and
turn the flow toward the rotating
blades. The velocity of steam leav-
ing the stationary blade, V1 is
approximately equal to the theoreti-
cal steam velocity V0 , which would
be the velocity of the steam
expanded from the pressure
upstream of a stage to the down-
stream pressure without losses.
The velocity of the rotating blades or
wheel speed, is designated W, and
Figure 3-1. Welded steam turbine rotor of a 1300 MW/3600 rpm cross-compound the vector result of V1 and W is the
machine after twenty months of operation. The L-1 row is equipped with titanium velocity of the entering steam rela-
blades. Photograph provided courtesy of R. Svoboda (ABB Power Generation, tive to the rotating blade, V2 . α is
Switzerland) the angle at which the steam leaves
the stationary blade relative to the
plane of rotation of the rotating
blade. α is sometimes referred to
as the “nozzle angle”, although it is
actually the steam angle and is
typically about 2° larger than the
nozzle passage angle.3
In an impulse design, there is little
pressure drop across the rotating
blades so that the relative velocity
leaving the rotating blade, V3 ,
(Figure 3-6) would be equal to the
entering velocity V2 if there were no
frictional losses. The absolute
velocity of the exiting steam is V4 ,
the vector sum of V3 and the wheel
speed, W. A goal of the stage
design process is to have the direc-
tion of the flow at exit be as close as
possible to axial for entry into the
next stage.2
Figure 3-2. Three radial flow Ljöngstrom IP rotors. Photograph provided courtesy of
B. Kooy (KEMA Nederland B.V.)

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-3

 The force on the blade is equivalent
to the change in tangential compo-
nents of the velocity, i.e., the enter-
ing tangential velocity, Va less the
exit tangential velocity, Vb.
The power output of the stage can
be determined from impulse-
momentum considerations.
Efficiency is shown to be3:

w Va Vb 

Steam in η=2 + (3-1)
Vo Vo Vo 


where w = the weight of steam flow-

ing per second.
Alternatively:

V12–V22+V32–V42
η= (3-2)
V02

The theoretical efficiency of stages

with reactions is shown in Figure
3-7. The parameter, X, indicates the
Steam out fraction of stage energy released in
the blades. As shown on the figure,
in a pure impulse stage, where
Figure 3-3. Radial flow or Ljöngstrom turbine. Source: P. Schofield9 X = 0, the optimum ratio of W/ V0 is
0.5. Optimum ratios for other per-
cent reactions are shown in Figure
Percent Reaction 3-7. Note that in reality, as the
velocity ratio, W/ V0 , changes, the
70
50 percent reaction type
fractional reaction will also change.
Tip
Impulse type Thus the change in efficiency of an
60 Tip actual turbine stage efficiency would
Tip cut across the velocity ratio curves
50 with changes in imposed reaction.
Root
Tip
40
3.2.4 Pressure or velocity
compounding. Multi-stage turbines
Root can use either pressure or velocity
30 Tip Root compounding. In pressure com-
Tip pounding, each blade row is pre-
20 ceded by a row of nozzles. In
velocity compounding, one row of
Root Root Root nozzles guide steam onto two or
10
more rows.
0 3.2.5 Condensing and non-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
condensing units. Condensing
HP IP LP
units allow for the steam to expand
Stage Number to the lowest possible pressure
before being condensed. The
exhaust steam pressure is termed
Figure 3-4. Approximate stage reactions – fossil fired turbines. Source: K.C. Cotton2

3-4 Turbine Design and Construction

the “backpressure” and is equal to
the pressure in the condenser plus a Percent Reaction
small incremental pressure that 80
results from pressure losses in the 50 percent reaction
exhaust hood. The condenser pres- 70 Impulse type
sure, and hence turbine backpres-
sure, depends on the flow amount Tip
and temperature of the cooling 60
water, contamination or fouling of Tip
the condenser tubes, and other 50 Tip
condenser factors. High backpres-
sures can result in large vibratory 40
blade stresses from flow recircula-
tion and in the overheating of last
stage blades by a mechanism 30
Tip Root
called windage which is the subject
of Chapter 32. 20
In non-condensing turbines, the
steam is exhausted before being 10
Root Root
fully expanded. The exhaust may
be used to supply steam to a con-
0
densing turbine or for process heat- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ing. A non-condensing turbine is HP LP
sometimes referred to as a “back-
Stage Number
pressure” turbine.
3.2.6 Number of sections (cylinders)
and stages. Although early Figure 3-5. Approximate stage reactions–nuclear cycle turbines. Source: K.C. Cotton2
machines were one section or cylin-
der (because of design and manu-
facturing limitations), most com-
monly, power plant turbines consist Va
of two or more sections designated
W
high pressure (HP), intermediate α ξ
pressure (IP) and low pressure (LP)
in order to improve overall efficiency. V1 V2
The optimum number of stages
depends on a number of factors Rotating blade
including2: (i) the amount of avail-
able energy from boiler conditions,
allowable discharge pressures, etc. W
and (ii) stage percent reaction, rotor
mean diameter, and rotor speed.
χ W
There are three basic types of shaft
γ
and casing arrangements: single
casing, tandem-compound, and V4
cross-compound. In turbines with a V3
single casing, all sections are con-
tained within one casing and the
steam path flows from throttle to Vb
exhaust through that single casing.

Figure 3-6. Velocity triangles showing steam flows through a turbine stage.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-5

 Typically several LP flows in parallel
η = Efficiency of Ideal Stage are required to handle the large vol-
1.20 ume of flow rates. Figure 3-8 shows
a typical tandem-compound turbine
1.00 X = 1.00 with two casings – one HP and IP,
X = 0.75
and the second, a two-flow LP.
0.80
A cross compound design typically
X = 0.50 has two or more casings, coupled
0.60
in series on two shafts, with each
X = 0.25
0.40 shaft connected to a generator. In
cross compound arrangements the
Energy released in bucket
0.20 2-row
2-row wheel X
x=0 XX==Energy released in bucket rotors can rotate at different speeds
Stageenergy
Stage energy
but cannot operate independently
0 as they are electrically coupled.
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 The cross compound design is
W/V0 inherently more expensive than
the tandem-compound design, but
has a better heat rate, so that the
Figure 3-7. Efficiency of an ideal stage as a function of velocity ratio for various values
choice between the two is one of
of bucket reaction. Source: J.K. Salisbury3
economics.
In the tandem-compound design, piping and on to one or more low 3.2.7 Schematics of common
there are two or more casings con- pressure turbines. LP turbines are arrangements. A variety of common
nected in series on a single shaft. typically characterized by the num- steam path arrangements are shown
In a common arrangement, the HP ber of parallel paths available to the schematically in Figure 3-9. Figure
and IP turbine are in one casing, steam. The steam path through the 3-9a shows a simple path where
with the HP exhaust returned for LP turbines is split into parallel flows steam enters a turbine and is
reheating before entering the IP tur- because of steam conditions and exhausted to the atmosphere or a
bine. The IP exhausts into crossover practical limitations on blade length. condenser. In Figure 3-9b, two

Crossover piping Low pressure

HP turbine stages
inlet
Nozzle
box
Thrust and High Journal
journal pressure bearing
bearings stages Journal
bearings

Rotor

Front Pedestal
Pedestal

To condenser
To Extractions Intermediate
reheater pressure stages
IP turbine
inlet

Figure 3-8. Typical tandem compound, single reheat, condensing turbine.

3-6 Turbine Design and Construction

 (a) HP LP

(b)
HP DFLP

(c)
R

HP IP
DFLP

(d)

R
DFLPs
HP IP

(e)

HP

DFIP
(f) DFLPs

HP

DFLPs

R
IP

(g)

Figure 3-9. Alternative arrangements of the turbine rotor, showing different configurations used to expand the steam in
multiple cylinders and parallel expansions. Source: W.P. Sanders4

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-7

sections are used, an HP and an LP
section. Figure 3-9c indicates a
condition where split steam is used
in a double flow, low pressure
(DFLP) section.
Figure 3-9d indicates a three section
turbine including the IP section,
along with reheating of steam exiting
the HP section (indicated by the
“R” in the figure). Figure 3-9e is a
similar configuration except that the
HP and IP sections share a common
shaft, and flow is to two DFLP sec-
tions. Figure 3-9f shows a double
flow IP (DFIP), followed by three
DFLP sections.
In arrangements shown in Figures
3-9a through 3-9f, all rotors are
coupled or contained on a common
shaft, a tandem-compound arrange-
ment. Figure 3-9g shows the cross
compound arrangement where the
units have more than one rotor.
3.2.8 Turbine inlet. Two stages in
particular have very specific design
considerations – the first (“inlet” or
“control”) stage, and the exhaust
stage. The inlet stage serves a con-
trol function and flow through it may
vary widely (for example during par-
tial arc admission). In this book we
referred interchangeably to the first,
inlet or control stage. More pre-
cisely, if the first stage is a full-arc
admission stage, either impulse or
reaction, the flow control is accom-
plished by control valve action. A
true control stage is a partial arc
admission stage where flow control
is achieved both by varying the
active steam admission arc as well
as by throttling on the control valves.
Consequently, a control stage is a
low reaction design with partial arc
admission. Because of the variable
admission, the stage pressure ratio
increases as load is reduced with an
accompanying increase in the steam
velocity leaving the nozzles.1
The space between the inlet stage
and the following stage allows for
3-8 Turbine Design and Construction
equalization of the flow. In most
turbines, even those with subse-
quent stages of the reaction design,
the first stage is typically an impulse
stage in order to achieve a large
temperature drop and thus control
the temperature of the steam to
the rotor.
The first stage of the HP is typically
divided into several arcs of admis-
sion fed by separate control valves,
allowing it to be operated with either
full arc or partial arc admission. In
partial arc admission, startup is
often accomplished by opening stop
valves wide open and controlling
throttle steam flow with the first con-
trol valve. This mode of operation,
however, can cause very high veloc-
ities in the 1st and 2nd arc of the 1st
stage nozzle. When combined with
high particle loadings which occur
during the early stages of unit star-
tups, this can result in rapid solid
particle erosion damage (Chapter
17). As a qualitative example, the
first valve can typically pass about
35% of the total flow, a level that
corresponds to the highest level of
particle production. If all four arcs
are opened in full arc admission, the
velocity is roughly 4 times lower.
3.2.9 Turbine exhaust - last stage
and exhaust hood. As it produces
about 10% of the total power output
of the turbine, the exhaust stage of
the LP is one of the most critical to
the economics of the entire turbine.
There is considerable economic
pressure to increase unit sizes by
increased mass flow rates. A key
limitation is the last LP stage, specif-
ically the allowable blade length,
annulus area, and tip speed.
Raising the annulus area increases
the turbine capacity and efficiency
but increases the turbine and blade
size. Increasing the last stage blade
length allows more power to be
extracted from the working fluid (or
alternatively a more compact
machine with fewer stages can be
built to extract the same amount of
energy). The disadvantage is the
increased centrifugal stress which
quickly limits the length of the
blades constructed of a particular
material.
From a damage viewpoint, the last
stage also sees a high proportion of
blade failures. This is due to the
dual effects of high stresses, caused
by the length of the blades, and
environmental conditions.
Even though designers make the
exhaust hood as large a possible,
because of the large volume of
steam, sonic velocities can be
reached at the steam exit. As a
result, losses accumulate similar to
flow through a pipe, and the exhaust
hood is potentially subject to flow-
accelerated corrosion (Chapter 29).
Exhaust hood redesign to optimize
flow paths is an area which is show-
ing considerable economic pay-
back.5 These redesigns are being
performed using recently developed
tools such as computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), a technique not
available to the original designers.
3.3 Fossil and Nuclear Turbine
Designs Compared
3.3.1 Fossil turbine designs. An
overall schematic of a typical fossil
turbine is shown in Figure 3-8.
Steam enters from the main steam
lines through stop and control valves
into the HP section or cylinder. As
noted above, the first or control
stage is spaced somewhat apart
from subsequent stages to allow for
stabilization of the flow.
After passing through the HP tur-
bine, cold reheat piping carries the
steam to the reheater and returns in
the hot reheat piping to the inte-
grated HP and IP cylinder to pass
through the IP turbine. The return to
the IP turbine typically passes
through a stop and intercept valve.
The flow exits the IP through the IP
exhaust hood and typically passes
back along the spacing between the
inner and outer casing of the com-
bined HP and IP turbine. The flow
then passes through crossover pip-
ing to the LP.
During its expansion through the LP
turbine(s), the steam crosses the
saturation line. As discussed
throughout Volume 2, where in a
given turbine many of the damage
mechanisms will occur is strongly
related to the locations at which con-
densation begins, termed the phase
transition zone (PTZ). Exit is through
the LP exhaust hood. The typical
modern steam turbine has a number
of extraction points throughout all
sections where the steam is used to
supply the feedwater heaters.
3.3.2 Nuclear turbine designs.
Nuclear steam supply is generally
at lower pressures and tempera-
tures than in fossil fuel units; as a
result considerably higher flow rates
are required to generate the same
output. There is generally an HP
section coupled with several LP
sections.
Nuclear HP turbines are typically of
a double flow design. Because the
steam supply has little or no super-
heat, expansion through the nuclear
HP turbine leads to high moisture
levels (typically 10-15%). If it were
exhausted directly to the LP turbine,
exit moisture from the LP would be
on the order of 20% which would
cause excessive erosion of the last
stages of the LP and large losses in
efficiency. As a result, a moisture
separator (in which the steam is
dried or separated mechanically)
and a one or two stage reheater is
used on steam exhausted from the
HP before returning it to the LP.
Piping from the HP turbine exhaust
to the moisture separator/reheater is
termed cold reheat or crossunder
piping; that from the reheater to the
LP turbine called hot reheat or
crossover piping. In nuclear non-
reheat units, there is typically a
moisture separator only between the
HP and LP turbines.
The LP turbines for water cooled
reactors are subject to nearly identi-
cal conditions as those in fossil units
which has lead to the use of the
designs that are often identical.
However as the volumetric flows are
60-70% larger, the exhaust annulus
must be increased or the number of
LP turbines increased to reduce
exhaust losses to a minimum.6
In the U.S., the use of larger sized
components needed to handle the
high flow rates has meant the use of
lower speeds, 1800 rpm for 60 Hz
units, compared to 3600 rpm for fos-
sil units. The stresses that result in
the turbine blades of fossil and
nuclear units are roughly the same
order of magnitude, as the allowable
blade lengths are longer in the
slower turning nuclear machines.
For 50 Hz systems, 1500 rpm and
3000 rpm machines have been used
in nuclear units.
3.4 Steam Turbines for Co-
Generation, Combined Cycle and
Geothermal Plants
3.4.1 Co-generation turbines.
Steam turbines for co-generation
may be of standard designs or incor-
porate specific features to improve
the delivery of district heating, such
as extra cylinders to allow more
freedom in automatic extraction.7
3.4.2 Combined cycle turbines.
Combined cycle units may consist
of a single gas turbine and single
steam turbine on a common shaft
with the generator, or multiple gas
turbines and a single steam turbine.
Depending on the steam conditions
and flow, the steam turbine for com-
bined cycle units may be a single
cylinder or multiple cylinders, such
as with an HP and a double flow LP
turbine. Combined cycle turbines
typically do not have regeneration
cycles employing feedwater heaters.
3.4.3 Geothermal unit turbines.
Because of the low enthalpy steam
conditions in most geothermal units,
very large flow rates are required
and as a result, such units may typi-
cally contain setups such as two,
double flow, low pressure cylinders.
3.5 Rotors
Rotors are coupled together, except
for cross compound designs where
there may be two shafts driving two
generators, coupled electrically.
The rotors rest in one, or more typi-
cally two, journal bearings. The
journal bearings help hold the rotor
in the proper radial position and pro-
vide support that will withstand the
reaction from the shaft rotation.
Thrust bearings are typically located
between the HP and IP and first LP
sections in fossil units. They take
axial thrust and hold the position of
the turbine rotor axially relative to the
stationary stages. Rotors are
equipped with a turning gear to
allow them to be turned during shut-
downs and startups to prevent ther-
mal bending or warping caused by
uneven cooling or warming.
This section briefly reviews the
design and features, materials of
construction and damage mecha-
nisms pertinent to steam turbine
rotors. References to additional
information are also provided, as,
with the exception of creep in the
blade attachment region of rotors
(Chapter 15) and stress corrosion
cracking of disc rim attachments
(Chapter 25), rotor damage mecha-
nisms are not covered in this book.
3.5.1 Overview of rotor design and
features Three general types of
rotor construction are shown
schematically in Figure 3-10.
In HP and IP turbines of fossil
plants, rotors are ordinarily of the
monoblock or welded construction.
In nuclear units, the earliest HP
rotors tended to be of monoblock
construction, followed for a period of
time by the use of shrunk-on con-
struction. Most recently the trend
has been back to monoblock con-
struction in these machines.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-9
 alloys include 26NiCrMo 11 5 (DIN
1.2726), 30NiCrMoV 5 11 (DIN,
a) Shrunk-on disc or “built-up” rotor
1.6946) or ~21CrMoV 5 11 (DIN,
1.8070).8 LP rotors are mostly typi-
cally constructed of NiMoV or
NiCrMoV materials, particularly 3.5
NiCrMoV. Shrunk-on discs, when
used, are made from forgings of
similar NiCrMoV materials, conform-
ing to ASTM A294 Grade B or C, or
ASTM 471, Classes 1 to 3.
Nuclear rotors. Nuclear HP rotors
are also typically manufactured out
b) Solid or “monoblock” rotor
of NiCrMoV materials.
Table 3-2 provides a list of some of
the conventional rotor steels. Table
3-3 provides illustrative chemical
composition and required mechani-
cal properties for three specific
alloys: (i) 3.5NiCrMoV (A470, Class
6), a typical LP rotor material, (ii)
3.5 NiCrMoV (A471, Class 3), a
typical disc material, and (iii)
c) Welded rotor 12CrMoV (A565, Gr. 616), a typical
HP rotor material. A compilation of
chemical compositions of some
European rotor materials is provided
in Table 3-4.

3.5.3 Rotor damage mechanisms

Fossil HP and IP rotors. Damage
mechanisms include: creep, low
cycle fatigue (thermal mechanical),
creep-fatigue interactions, fatigue
from rotating weight (“self-bending”),
Figure 3-10. Types of rotor construction. a.) Schematic of a built-up steam turbine and embrittlement. Key areas of
rotor with shrunk-on discs. b.) Schematic of a monoblock steam turbine rotor. concern in the HP rotors of fossil
c.) Schematic of a welded steam turbine rotor. The welds connect the discs.
fired units are the accumulation of
Source: R. Svoboda, ABB Power Generation, Switzerland
damage at the bore and in areas of
stress concentration resulting from
Most commonly, because of their prepared by air melting in open cyclic loading and elevated temper-
large size, LP turbines have tended hearth furnaces (“C” grade). In the ature operation. Stress concentra-
to be the built-up (shrunk-on) design late 1950s electric furnace steel tions of concern are bores, keyways,
with an integrally forged shaft onto making and vacuum deoxidation heat and seal grooves, locking slots,
which discs are shrunk and keyed. and degassing techniques lead to ventilation holes, fillets, and the
However, all three types of rotor con- improved quality and cleanliness blade attachments – tangential entry,
struction are in use in the LP rotors; (“D” grade). Some manufacturers triple pin and axial fir tree designs.
Figure 3-1 shows, for example a use a 12% Cr steel (typical compo-
welded LP rotor. sitional ranges 10 to 12.5% Cr, 0.8 Early development of rotor forgings
to 1.2% Mo and 0.15 to 0.35% V) concentrated on heat treating the
3.5.2 Rotor materials of construction for more highly stressed rotors. rotor to give maximum creep resis-
Fossil HP and IP rotors. Rotors in the tance. The material was austeni-
Fossil LP rotors. Fossil LP rotors are tized at 1010°C (1850°F). This high
1950s were made of 1CrMoV (typi-
typically constructed of forgings creep strength was accompanied by
cal composition is 0.9 to 1.5%Cr,
conforming to ASTM A293, Class 2 poor creep ductility and poor tough-
0.7 to 1.5% Mo and 0.2 to 0.35%V),
to 5 or ASTM A470, Class 2 to 7 ness, since as the creep rupture
materials. Corresponding European

3-10 Turbine Design and Construction

Table 3-2 Table 3-3
Typical Materials of Construction for Rotors Example Rotor and Disc Material Composition and Properties
Component Generic Name ASTM Alloy Designation Property/Composition LP Rotor LP Disc HP Rotor
3.5 NiCrMoV 3.5 NiCrMoV 12CrMoV
LP Rotor 2.0 NiMoV A293, Classes 2 & 3
(A470 Class 6)1 (A471, Class 3)2 (A565, Gr. 616)3
2.5 NiMoV A293, Classes 4 & 5 (Heat-treated)
2.5 NiMoV A470, Classes 2, 3 & 4 Composition
Carbon 0.28 max. 0.28 max 0.20 - 0.25
3.5 NiCrMoV A470, Classes 5 to 7
Manganese 0.20 - 0.60 0.70 max 0.5 - 1.0
20 Mn 5 None, (DIN, Wks. 1.1133) (0.40 max)4
24 Ni 4 None (DIN, Wks. 1.5613) Phosphorus 0.012 max. 0.012 max. 0.05 max.

24 Ni 12 None Sulfur 0.015 max. 0.015 max. 0.05 max.

Silicon 0.15 - 0.305 0.15 - 0.355 0.50 max.
22 NiCrMoV 12 None (0.10 max)4
LP Disc 2.8 NiMoV A294, Grades B & C Nickel 3.25 - 4.00 2.0 - 4.0 0.5 - 1.0
3.5 NiCrMoV A471, Classes 1 to 3 Chromium 1.25 - 2.00 0.75 - 2.0 11.0 - 12.5
Molybdenum 0.25 - 0.606 0.20 - 0.70 0.90 - 1.25
HP Rotor 1CrMoV A293, Class 6
(0.25 - 0.45)4
1CrMoV A470, Class 8 Vanadium 0.05 - 0.15 0.05 min. 0.20 - 0.30
12CrMoV A565, Gr. 616 Antimony Note 4 and 7 Note 7
12CrMoV A768, Class 1 Tin Note 4
Tungsten 0.90 - 1.25
~20CrMoV 12 1 None (DIN, 1.4922)
Mechanical Properties
~22 CrMoWV 12 1 None (DIN, 1.8212)
Tensile Strength, min, 725 - 860 760 965
30NiCrMoV 5 11 None (DIN, Wks. 1.6946) MPa (ksi) (105 - 125) (110) (140)

HP Disk 1CrMoV A471, Class 5 & 10 Yield strength, min, 620 690 - 8258 760
MPa (ksi), 0.2% offset (90) (100 - 120)8 (110)
26 NiCrMoV 11 5 None (DIN, Wks. 1.6948) Elongation in 50 mm 18 13
Source: D.W. Gandy, et al.8 or 2 in., min., %
• Longitudinal prolongation 18
• Radial body 17
Reduction in area, min., % 47 30
• Longitudinal prolongation 52
• Radial body 50
FATT 50 max. -7˚C (20 ˚F) -18˚C (0˚F)
Room temp. impact, min. 61.2 61.2 11
J (ft. lb) (45) (45) (8)
Brinell Hardness 302-352
Notes:
1 ASTM A470 Standard Specification for Vacuum-Treated Carbon and Alloy Steel Forgings
for Turbine Rotors and Shafts.
2 ASTM A471, Standard Specification for Vacuum-Treated Alloy Steel Forgings for Turbine
Rotor discs and Wheels.
3 ASTM A565, Standard Specification for Martensitic Stainless Steel Bars, Forgings, and
Forging Stock for High-Temperature Service.
4 Special composition requirements to minimize temper embrittlement.
5 May be vacuum-carbon deoxidized, silicon, 0.10 max.
6 If required due to operating temperatures, 0.40% Mo may be specified)
7 To be reported for information only.
8 0.02% offset.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-11

Table 3-4
Composition of Selected European Rotor Materials
Rotor Material DIN Wks. No. C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni V W
20 Mn 5 1.1133 0.17-0.23 0.30-0.60 1.00-1.30 0.035 0.035 — — — — —
24 Ni 12 — 0.25 nom. — 0.90 nom — — — — 3.0 nom — —
22 NiCrMoV 12 — 0.25 nom — 0.47 nom — — 1.50-2.00 0.40-0.60 2.80-3.20 0.11 —
26 NiCrMo 11 5 1.2726 0.22-0.30 0.30-0.50 0.20-0.40 0.03 0.03 0.60-0.90 0.20-0.40 1.30-1.60 0.15 0.20
X20 CrMoV 12 1 1.4922 0.17-0.23 0.50 1.00 0.030 0.030 10.0-12.5 0.80-1.20 0.30-0.80 0.25-0.35 —
X21 CrMoWV 12 1 1.4926 0.20-0.26 0.50 0.30-0.80 0.25 0.20 11.0-12.5 0.80-1.20 0.30-0.80 0.25-0.35 0.30
24 Ni 4 1.5613 0.20-0.28 0.15-0.35 0.60-0.80 0.035 0.035 0.30 — 1.00-1.30 — —
24 Ni 8 1.5633 0.20-0.28 0.15-0.35 0.60-0.80 0.035 0.035 0.30 — 1.90-2.20 — —
30 NiCrMoV 5 11 1.6946 0.28-0.32 0.30 0.15-0.40 0.015 0.018 1.20-1.80 0.25-0.45 2.4-3.1 0.05-0.15 —
26 NiCrMoV 14 5 1.6957 0.22-0.32 0.30 0.15-0.40 0.015 0.018 1.20-1.80 0.25-0.445 3.4-4.0 0.05-0.15 —
21 CrMoV 5 11 1.8070 0.17-0.25 0.30-0.60 0.30-0.60 0.035 0.035 1.20-1.50 1.00-1.20 0.60 0.25-0.35 —
Note: Single values are maximum. Compiled in: D.W. Gandy, et al.8

strength increases, so does the frac-
ture appearance transition tempera-
ture (FATT). More recently, tough-
ness has been improved through
changes in steel making practices,
alloy content, heat treatment and
increased steel purity. Maximizing
creep rupture strength has been
relaxed in favor of improving creep
ductility. However, creep cracking
at the blade attachment areas
(Chapter 15) continues to be a prob-
lem for many operators.
The range of service conditions of
rotors has changed over the years.
Under continuous service at temper-
atures up to 565°C (1050°F), creep
damage was the primary threat to
integrity, and considerable longterm
(100,000 hrs.) creep data have been
generated. However, as rotors have
become increasingly subject to
cyclic service conditions (load
cycling and full startup/shutdown
cycles), other potential damage
mechanisms such as low cycle
fatigue and creep-fatigue have been
introduced. Startup and shutdown
induce thermal stresses that are a
maximum at temperatures substan-
tially lower than those which occur
at steady state. Fracture toughness
becomes the dominant property in
the resistance of the steel to brittle
fracture.
Fossil and nuclear LP rotors. Typical
damage mechanisms for LP rotors
are (i) low cycle fatigue cracking in
the rotor bore, (ii) high cycle fatigue
cracking of the shaft, (iii) stress
corrosion cracking of discs in areas
of condensation, especially in
shrunk-on discs, and (iv) stress cor-
rosion cracking of the blade
attachment areas. The last of these
mechanisms is covered in detail in
Chapter 25.
Most of the potential problem areas
on the LP rotor are in regions where
stress concentrations are present.
These stress concentrations may be
further aggravated by erosion and/or
pitting. Pitting corrosion at the sur-
face of the rotor can lead to crack
initiation and subsequent propaga-
tion by rotating bending fatigue
(transverse cracking). High levels of
concentrated bending stress can
exist in the shaft beneath certain
discs, during conditions of journal
bearing misalignment.
The disc and shaft assembly of
large LP rotors include either keys or
locking pins at each shrink fit inter-
face to prevent rotation of the disc
relative to the shaft. Keyways are
stress concentrators and provide
interstices for deposition of chemical
contaminants from the steam. Both
of these factors are important in
assessing the problems with disc
cracking.
As with HP and IP rotors, the LP
bores are highly stressed largely by
thermal transients that can lead to
low cycle fatigue damage. Unlike
the high temperature rotors, creep is
not a factor because the maximum
temperature of operation is below the
creep regime, which simplifies evalu-
ation. However, the older NiMoV and
newer NiCrMoV steels are more
susceptible to temper embrittlement
during service, even at the lower
temperatures of operation.
3.6 Casings
3.6.1 Casing design and features.
Turbine casings (or shells) must
contain the steam pressure and
maintain support and alignment for
the internal stationary components.
Casings are designed to withstand
temperature and pressure up to the
maximum steam conditions.
Early designs of casings (prior to
about 1963) were classic pressure
vessel shapes with single walled
cylinders and hemispherical ends,
together with a horizontal, bolted,
flanged joint for access. The cas-
ings were designed to withstand
steady state pressure loads at high

3-12 Turbine Design and Construction

temperatures. Conservative design
led to thick sections. As technology
advanced, steam temperatures and
pressures increased and more
severe thermal transients were
imposed on casings during startup,
load changes and shutdown. This
led to the occurrence of fatigue,
creep and distortion.
Turbine casing design has evolved
over the years and casings are now
multiple pressure vessels (for exam-
ple, an inner and outer casing in the
HP and IP cylinder, or a triple cas-
ing) allowing smaller pressure drops
and realizing thinner wall thickness
and sections. These thinner sec-
tions allow for lower temperature
drop across the casing section and
thus lower thermal stresses. The
exhaust steam flows back along the
turbine axis through the space
between casings to allow for quicker
warming of the turbine during starts.
LP casings may also be of multiple
part design with the inner casing
containing the diaphragms supports
and the outer casing directing the
exhaust to the condensers.
Steam chests and valves were often
integral to older turbine casings.
Standard design practice is now to
separate these components, how-
ever, the materials of construction
and degradation of these compo-
nents is similar to casings and as a
result, the methods for condition
assessment of casings are also
appropriate to steam chests and
valves.
3.7.2 Casing materials of construc-
tion. In the 1940s casings were
manufactured from C-Mo steels;
about 1947 CrMo and CrMoV steels
were introduced to prevent graphiti-
zation. In the 1950s, the primary
emphasis was on creep strength
and these early materials had poor
creep rupture ductility (and high
notch sensitivity). High carbon lev-
els were typical, as were relatively
high contents of detrimental ele-
ments such as P, S, Sn, As, and Sb.
Modern materials have strict con-
trols on these “tramp” elements to
minimize temper embrittlement.
Lower carbon and sulfur levels
reduce the likelihood of hot tearing
during solidification of the castings.
Common materials for HP and IP
casings are 21/4Cr-1Mo, for tempera-
tures up to 538°C (1000°F), and
1/2Cr1/2Mo-1/4V, for temperatures up to
565°C (1050°F). For advanced
steam conditions, modern HP and IP
casings are often made of 9-12% Cr
materials. In addition to ferritic
steels, the Type 300 series stainless
steels have been used for high tem-
perature applications. Castings are
used in the higher temperature HP
and IP casings. In lower tempera-
ture applications such as the
nuclear HP shell, carbon steel cast-
ings may be used.
LP turbines casings which are signif-
icantly larger in size and operate at
lower temperatures are typically fab-
ricated or constructed of fabricated
and cast components. Materials
sufficient for lower temperatures
such as carbon steel plate may be
used.
3.6.3 Casing damage mechanisms.
Major casing damage mechanisms
include: (i) creep, (ii) thermal fatigue
(low cycle), (iii) creep-fatigue inter-
actions, (iv) embrittlement, and (v)
flow-accelerated corrosion. In the
majority of failures, there is evidence
of more than one damage mecha-
nism. Table 3-5 summarizes the
most common casing damage
mechanisms and the typical loca-
tions of occurrence.
3.7 Valves
3.7.1 Valve design and features
Valves control the flow of steam
through the turbine. Key valves
include:
• Main stop valves. These valves
primarily protect the turbine
against overspeed, but may also
regulate steam flow during
startup. Stop and control valves
regulate the flow of steam from the
steam leads into the HP turbine.
• Control or throttling valves. These
valves control steam flow during
operation. During startup, control
valves are used to govern turbine
speed and acceleration.
• Intercept valves. Intercept and
reheat stop valves are used
between the boiler reheater and
the IP turbine inlet. Intercept
valves are used to prevent the
overspeed from steam stored in
the reheater and connecting
lines in the event of a large load
reduction.9
3.7.2 Valving options for partial load
and startup. Partial load operation is
determined by the method of steam
control and the turbine exhaust loss.
There are three basic options for
steam control: throttle control (single
admission), nozzle control (partial
admission), and variable pressure.
In throttle control, the valves open
together and progressively as the
load increases.9 In contrast, under
nozzle control, valves are opened
sequentially to full pressure. In
variable pressure operation, control
is on steam pressure coming from
the boiler.
Partial admission has the benefit of
improved heat rate compared to
throttle control. Two HP turbine blade
damage mechanisms that may be
exacerbated by partial arc admission
are solid particle erosion (Chapter
17) and fatigue (Chapter 21).
Another consideration is the thermal
stress induced in the rotor as a
result of the unit ramp rate. This rate
is typically controlled by the change
in first stage shell temperature,
which will vary with the type of
admission used.
3.7.3 Valve materials of construc-
tion. Valve materials are similar to
those used for turbine casings. To
slow valve seat erosion, a wear
resistant material such as Stellite™
may be inlaid into the base material.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-13
Table 3-5
Damage Mechanisms in Turbine Casings
Damage Mechanism Typical Location(s) Cause Comments
Creep Girth weld of shell-mounted control Longterm steady state high Early materials had poor creep
valves. temperatures and stresses. rupture ductility.
Thermal fatigue Flange ligament; nozzle port Thermal stress during transient Fatigue mechanism can interact with
bridges; shell fits thick-to-thin operation. creep to accelerate rate of damage.
section locations.
High cycle fatigue HP inlets nozzle chambers; inlet Flow induced vibration inside HP
sleeves; flex plates; equilibrium inlet turbine due to density and
pipes and struts. velocity of steam.
Erosion Valve seats. High velocity impingement of solid Rate of damage predicted by
particles in steam. sequential inspection.
Flow-accelerated corrosion LP casings. High velocity steam flows. Worse in low chromium content
materials.
Graphitization Casing weld HAZs in C-Mo Prolonged exposure to temperatures Detected by replication or sample
material. above 454˚C (850˚F). removal.
Temper embrittlement Early casings manufactured by open Exposures at temperatures of 315 to Identification requires removal of a
hearth process without control on 537˚C (600 to 1000˚F) leading to test sample.
tramp elements. grain boundary segregation.
Distortion General. Creep in HP casing; rapid thermal Casing may require heat treatment
transients; and water induction. to restore its original shape/
dimension.
Wire drawing Between inner and outer casings. Leakage at small gaps or compo- See additional information in
nents joints lowers pressure and Chapter 30.
flashes to steam resulting in a
grooving type of erosion.

3.7.4 Valve damage mechanisms.
Damage to turbine valves includes
(i) breaking or jamming of the valve
stem, (ii) moisture erosion or wear,
such as between the valve body
and seat which can cause steam
leakage, and (iii) cracking of valve
casings or housings as a result of
thermal stresses. Turbine valves
may be particularly sensitive prob-
lem areas in cyclic plant.
3.8 Seals
Various seals are used to minimize
leakage losses. Seal leakage is
important as it is the largest single
cause of performance reduction in
HP turbines; IP and LP stages also
suffer significant losses because of
poor sealing.
3.8.1 Interstage seals. These
include seals to prevent leakage
around the rotating and stationary
stage. They are typically called
diaphragm seals in impulse stages
and undershroud/overshroud seals
in reaction stages. They are gener-
ally of a labyrinth design.
3.9.2 End seals. End seals or pack-
ing glands are used to minimize
leakage at the ends of cylinders.
They are intended to prevent air
injection into the LP and condenser,
and in the case of nuclear units to
prevent leaking of radioactive steam
from the cylinders to the atmos-
phere. End seals are of the
labyrinth design. There are typically
several sections of end seals at the
end of each cylinder.
3.9 Bypass Systems
Turbine bypass systems offer a vari-
ety of benefits including10 :
• Ability to match steam and metal
temperatures during startups. A
primary function of bypass sys-
tems is to permit sufficient firing
rates in the boiler to achieve
acceptable throttle temperatures
and pressure while minimizing
damage to ancillary systems
(such as overheating of tubes).
Bypasses are often considered in
conjunction with moving from
base load to two shift or cycling
operation as a means of reducing
thermal damage induced and to
improve startups.
• Use as relief valves during severe
load fluctuations.

3-14 Turbine Design and Construction

• Operation as overload or bypass
during turbine trips or when the
turbine is run back to house load.
• Operation as a boiler safety
valve. Note that the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code,
Section I limits such use to once-
through boilers with a minimum of
two spring loaded valves.
• Allows faster unit startups thereby
decreasing startup energy.
• Provides cooling of all boiler com-
ponents by providing fluid flow
during all firing conditions.
• Reduces solid particle erosion on
turbine valves and blading by
minimizing the carryover of oxide
particles during startups. This
topic is discussed in detail in
Chapter 17.
Extensive surveys of bypass
usage, operation, and design were
conducted in the mid 1980s.11,12
Some of the results of those studies
indicated:
• Bypass size is governed by tur-
bine rotor diameter and heat dis-
tribution in the boiler, as well as
startup, loading, unloading, and
shutdown practices.
• A large bypass system, one
capable of diverting at least 40%
of the boiler’s steam is necessary
to avoid boiler shutdown after a
turbine trip at full load.
• Systems diverting at least 15%
of the steam enhance startup
flexibility and load changing
capabilities. These systems, suf-
ficient to match turbine compo-
nent and steam temperatures,
can reduce average startup time
by 30 minutes.
3.9.1 Small bypass systems. The
simplest bypass systems consist of
a pipe and shutoff valve that can
exhaust steam from the boiler to the
condenser, bypassing the turbine.
Such bypasses originate from one
or more of the following locations12:
primary superheater inlet, primary
superheater outlet, secondary
superheater outlet or turbine inlet.
3.9.2 Small bypass systems with
division valves. A more complex
superheater bypass systems adds a
pressure reducing valve (division
valve) between the primary and sec-
ondary superheater, and secondary
superheater and reheater steam
attemperator valves. This permits
bottling up the drum at high pres-
sure during overnight outages while
providing throttle steam to the tur-
bine at reduced pressure. This con-
serves energy and supplies high
temperature steam at the turbine
rotor by avoiding large temperature
drops through the turbine inlet
valves and control stage.
3.9.3 Large turbine bypass
systems. European power plants
use large HP and IP/LP bypasses.
The HP bypass line takes steam
from the superheater outlet to the
reheater, bypassing the HP turbine.
The IP/LP bypass line takes steam
from the reheater to the condenser,
bypassing the IP and LP turbines.
These types of systems accomplish
the following objectives:
• Steam flows through the reheater
as well as the superheater, cool-
ing the tubes.
• Large bypass systems permit fir-
ing the boiler up to a minimum
stable load before opening the
turbine valves. Thus, the boiler
can be operated at stable condi-
tions and steam outlet tempera-
tures can be controlled with the
need to synchronize the turbine
startup with the boiler startup.
• Ability to sustain load rejections
without tripping the boiler.
• May allow for bypassing of exfoli-
ated oxide during startup periods
and thus reduce or eliminate solid
particle erosion damage to the
turbine.
• Allows complete feedwater
cleanup before admitting steam
to the turbine.
3.10 Drains
Condensate can form during startup
as steam contacts cool metal sur-
faces, or during operation when
steam and metal temperature differ-
ences occur such as with changes
in load or steam conditions. The
drain system removes the conden-
sate from critical areas of the tur-
bine, main and reheat piping, and
gland steam piping to prevent water
buildup and subsequent damage
such as by water induction (Chapter
28), as well as to prevent efficiency
losses which would otherwise occur.
Drains may be either continuous
operation (such as those that ensure
that condensate in the LP turbine is
continuously removed during opera-
tion) or intermittent (such as those
opened and closed automatically
during startup). Drains are located
at the low point of each piping sys-
tem or turbine location. Removed
condensate is returned into the
steam cycle.
Periodic inspection and continued
good maintenance of drains is
important; ASME recommenda-
tions13,14 for drainage system
design, operation, and maintenance
are included in Chapter 28 covering
the prevention of water induction.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 3-15
References
1. Personal communication between G.J. Silvestri, Jr.
and T. McCloskey, October, 1998.
2. Cotton, K.C., Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine
Performance, Cotton Fact, Inc., Rexford, NY, 1993.
3. Salisbury, J.K., Steam Turbines and Their Cycles,
1950 reprinted by Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar,
FL, 1974.
4. Sanders, W.P., Turbine Steam Path Engineering for
Operations and Maintenance Staff, Turbo-Technic
Services Incorporated, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
December, 1988.
5. McCloskey, T., R. Dewey, S. Hesler, and M. Pollard,
“Low Pressure Steam Turbine Thermal Performance
Improvements”, Thirteenth Annual Plant Performance
Enhancement Program, held August 12-14, 1997 in San
Antonio, TX, Plant Support Engineering, EPRI, Charlotte,
NC, 1997.
6. British Electricity International, Modern Power Station
Practice, Volume C: Turbine, Generators, and Associated
Plant, 3rd Edition, Pergamon, Press, Oxford, 1991.
7. Leyzerovich, A., Large Power Steam Turbines, Volume
1: Design and Operation, Volume 2: Operations,
PennWell Books, Tulsa OK, 1997.
8. Gandy, D.W., S.J. Findlan, R. Munson, W.F. Newell,
and J.T. Stover, State-of-the-Art Weld Repair Technology
for Rotating Components, Volume 1: Weld Repair of
Steam Turbine Discs and Rotors, Final Report TR-
107021, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA,
October, 1996.
3-16 Turbine Design and Construction
9. Schofield, P., “Steam Turbines”, Chapter 3 in P.
Cohen, ed., The ASME Handbook on Water Technology
for Thermal Systems, The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1989
10. Juntke, A., W.R. Sylvester, and M.J. Hargrove,
“Experience with Turbine Bypass Systems and Solid
Particle Erosion”, in S.R. Murphy, ed., Solid Particle
Erosion of Steam Turbine Components: 1989 Workshop,
held March 7-9, 1989 in New Orleans, LA, Proceedings
GS-6535, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, September, 1989, pp. 5-17
through 5-30.
11. Steltz, W.G., D.D. Rosard, O.W. Durrant, L.G. Crispin,
K.H. Haller, J. Price, R. Friedman, H. Termuehlen, G.
Gartner, P. Anderson, and A. Bose, Assessment of Fossil
Steam Bypass Systems, Final Report CS-3717, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA, October, 1984.
12. Rosard, D.D., W.G. Steltz, and R. Raghavan, Turbine
and Superheater Bypass Evaluation, Final Report CS-
4810, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, October, 1986.
13. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
“Recommended Practices for the Prevention of Water
Damage to Steam Turbines Used for Electric Power
Generation”, ASME Standard TDP-1-1980, Part 1 - Fossil
Fueled Plants, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York, NY, 1980.
14. ASME Turbine Water Damage Prevention Committee,
“Recommended Practices for the Prevention of Water
Damage to Steam Turbines Used for Electric Power
Generation - Part 1: Fossil-Fueled Plants”, ASME
Standard No. TWDPS-1, The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, July, 1972.
Chapter 4 • Volume 1
Turbine Blading Design I:
Overview of Function,
Features, and Materials
of Construction
4.1 Introduction
Steam enthalpy is converted into
rotational energy as it passes
through a turbine stage. A turbine
stage consists of a stationary blade
(or nozzle) and a rotating blade (or
bucket). Stationary blades convert
the potential energy of the steam
(temperature and pressure) into
kinetic energy (velocity) and direct
the flow onto the rotating blades.
The rotating blades convert the
kinetic energy into impulse and
reaction forces, caused by pressure
drop, which result in the rotation of
the turbine shaft or rotor.
This chapter reviews the basic fea-
tures and materials of construction
for both rotating and stationary tur-
bine blades to set the stage for the
discussion of specific failure mecha-
nisms provided in Volume 2. Two
additional major blading topics –
sources of blading stresses and
methods used for the analysis of
blading life are discussed in
Chapters 5 and 6, respectively.
Note that specific blade terminology
varies by manufacturer; see Table
3-1 for a brief overview of the termi-
nology differences for key turbine
components. Here we will use the
terms stationary and rotating
blades. There is an extensive litera-
ture on the design details of turbine
blades.1-9
4.2 Features and Structure of HP
and IP Blades
4.2.1 HP and IP rotating blades
The blades in the high pressure
(HP) turbine are small because of
the low volumetric flow. Basic fea-
tures of the short blades typical of
HP turbines are identified in Figure
4-1. Rotating HP blades are usually
straight, however, the use of leaned
and bowed blades has recently
introduced a three dimensional
aspect to designs. Shrouds (also
called covers or connecting bands)
provide a sealing surface for radial
steam seals and are used to mini-
mize losses due to leakage.
Shrouds also tie the blades together
structurally and allow for some con-
trol over the damping and natural
frequencies of the blades. The
shrouds are typically attached either
by peened tenons or are integral
with the blade airfoil (or vane).
Various methods of attaching both
HP and LP blades to the rotor are
used, depending upon the manu-
facturer. Figure 4-2 shows the most
common types of root attachments.
The choice of type of attachment
will depend upon a number of fac-
tors. For example, for one manufac-
turer, a side-entry fir tree root design
is used in the HP control stage for
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 4-1
 Steam flow Shroud
band/cover
Stationary
blade/nozzle
partition

Blades/
buckets

a) “Fir Tree” or b) Inverted Fir Tree

“Side or Axial Entry” Root, Circumferential
Serrated Root Tangential Entry

Rotor/wheel/shaft
Stationary
diaphram

Figure 4-1. Schematic arrangement of stationary and rotating

blades.

ease of replacement if required

because of solid particle erosion.8
For longer blades in the control c) Single-T Root d) Double-T Root
stage, however, a triple pin construc-
tion is sometimes used as the side-
entry design has too many modes
close to the nozzle wake frequency.8
A particular challenge in HP blading
design is the first (control) stage
where operation with partial arc
admission leads to high dynamic
stresses. Design factors such as
choice of leading edge configuration
and blade groupings are chosen to e) Straddle-T Root f) Multi-Finger Pinned Root
reduce vibratory stresses produced.
Loads caused by partial arc admis-
sion are more extensively discussed
in Chapter 5. Figure 4-2. Typical types of blade roots.
Blades in IP turbines are very similar
in design to those in the HP, with 4.2.2 HP and IP stationary blades web which extends down between
somewhat more twist (and most or nozzles. In HP and IP turbines, the rotor wheels and supports the
recently, bowing and leaning) to stationary blades (or nozzles) can shaft packing. Figure 4-3 indicates
account for greater radial variation in be classified into two general design the typical construction. Diaphragms
the flow. categories: a wheel and diaphragm in the HP and IP are typically of
construction is used for impulse welded construction. In the control
Design of HP turbine blades in
stages, the drum-rotor construction (first) stage, nozzles are divided into
nuclear units manifest similar design
for reaction stages. segments, arranged in separate noz-
features as those in fossil units, for
A diaphragm, used in impulse zle “chests” or “boxes” and each
example using the same root attach-
stages, consists of (i) nozzles or segment has an associated control
ment designs. HP blades in nuclear
stationary blades, (ii) a ring which valve or control valve group.
units are longer to handle the higher
volumetric flows. locates them in the casing and (iii) a

4-2 Turbine Blading Design I


Web
Labyrinth
Stationary seal
blades or (packing)
partitions
Figure 4-3. Construction of typical diaphragm.
In reaction stages, stationary blades
or nozzles are manufactured in a
manner similar to that for rotating
blades with a root attachment and in
some cases a sealing shroud.10 The
blades are fitted by the root attach-
ment on a blade carrier which is
located in the outer casing.
Nozzles and diaphragms are typi-
cally exposed to pressure differen-
tials which bend them in the plane
perpendicular to the turbine axis.
These pressure differentials are
highest in the HP, although the
shorter blade length limits the bend-
ing stresses that develop.
The relationship between the
stationary and rotating blades in
typical stages is shown in Figures
4-1 and 4-4.
4.3 Features and Structure of
LP Blades
Figure 4-5 shows the nomenclature
for a rotating LP blade. Rotating LP
turbine blades may be “free stand-
ing”, that is, not connected to each
other in any way; they may be con-
nected in “groups” or “packets”
each comprising several blades
Ring Direction of
(diaphragm) steam flow
Shell/cylinder
(inner casing)
Figure 4-4. Cross section through three stages showing the
relationship between components.
(generally between 2 and 8); or all
blades in the whole row may be
“continuously” connected. Table 4-1
lists some generic advantages and
disadvantages for grouping, contin-
uously connected, and free standing
blade configurations.
Free standing blades have the fol-
lowing characteristics compared to
grouped blades: (i) they have less
inherent damping at the blade tips,
(ii) their resonances are more easily
defined (i.e. no mechanical interac-
tions with neighboring blades), (iii)
they have more aerodynamic inter-
actions, and (iv) they are easier to
install and disassemble, as there are
no welds or rivets.
In connected blades, there are a
number of design choices. The
connections may consist of shrouds
(or bands) over the tips of the
blades, or of tiewires (or lashing or
lacing wires) located along the
blade height as illustrated in Figure
Seal strip
Blade/
bucket
Interstage
diaphragm
Blade/rotor
attachment
Labyrinth
seal
(packing)
Rotor
4-6. As with HP blades, connec-
tions made at the blade tip are
termed shrouding. Shrouds may be
inserted over tenons protruding
above the blade tips, and these
tenons then riveted down to secure
the shrouds, or they may consist of
integrally forged stubs in a welded
or brazed together assembly. Other
types of riveted connections are also
used. Tiewires may consist of either
integrally forged stubs welded or
brazed together, or cylindrical
“wires” or rods inserted through a
hole (usually in a forged boss) in
each blade foil.11
In order to add mechanical damp-
ing, some wire or rod-type lashing
wires are left loose in their holes,
and there are also some shroud-type
connections that merely abut each
other and are not permanently
attached. Continuous connections
must make some provision to
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 4-3
 accommodate thermal expansion of
Shroud/ the connection. Shrouds and lacing
cover band Rivet wires sometimes are introduced to
Integral cover decrease vibratory stresses, but can
Tenons/rivets act as “crud traps”.
Blades are connected at the root to
Erosion
the rotor or disc by several configu-
shield
rations as shown in Figure 4-2. The
Tiewire/ blade roots may be of the “serrated”
lacing/lashing or “fir tree” configuration, inserted
Airfoil leading into individual axial slots in the disc,
Steam
edge flow or a similar serrated or T-shape,
Airfoil trailing inserted into a continuous circumfer-
edge ential slot in the disc (this requires
a special insertion gap), or may
comprise one or several flat “fin-
gers” fitting into circumferential slots
in the disc and secured by axially
inserted pins. Serrated or T-roots,
furthermore, may be of male or
female type.
Platform
The airfoil of blades may be of
Blade root/
serrations or constant section for short blades,
attachment and constant width, but twisted for
longer ones. The longest blades
Disk root area for the last few rows of the LP are
twisted, to match the aerodynamics

Figure 4-5. Basic nomenclature for an LP turbine blade (bucket).

a) Riveted shroud d) Welded lashing wire

b) Integral shroud butting together e) Loosely fitted lacing wire

c) Continuous riveted shroud f) Loose damping pins

Figure 4-6. Typical types of inter-blade connections.

4-4 Turbine Blading Design I

Table 4-1
LP Turbine Blade Grouping Options: Generic Advantages and Disadvantages
Alternative Advantages Disadvantages

Grouping or packeting
• Permits tuned (harmonic) packets of blades without
changing modal frequencies.
• Increased rigidity and damping and thus inhibits flutter.
• Easier to construct than continuously coupled designs.
• Eliminates tangential mode response.
• Interaction of blade modes with wheel/disc modes. Use
of interference diagram or equivalent tool to sort out is
required.
• More difficult to analyze and construct than free
standing blades.

Continuously connected
(360˚ coupling)
• Greater stiffness and damping to resist bending and
vibration (compared to free standing or grouping).
• Eliminates tangential and torsional mode response.
• Load sharing can decrease cyclic stresses.
• Relatively simply calculated vibrational behavior.
• Difficulty in tuning without changing blade
configuration.
• Thermal expansion stresses.
• Somewhat difficult to install/maintain.

Free standing • Clean aerodynamic shape; less thermodynamic losses.
• Fewer stress concentrations.
• Fewer vibratory modes which are easier to calculate than
for grouped or continuously coupled blades.
• Higher strength levels are required to resist bending
loads.
• Tip flexibility increases tip vibration and flutter
susceptibility.
• May have less aerodynamic design (wide blade at root,
little material at tip) which can lead to less efficient
passages.
• Fewer blades per row means no overlap of flow area
which can lead to shock losses.
• Lack of covers (shrouds) or radial spill strips (seals)
for leakage control results in reduced stage efficiency.
• Lower mechanical damping.

Source: Adapted from R..C. Bates11 and K.C. Cotton1

at different radii and improve aero-
dynamic efficiency. Most recently
designs have also begun to be
leaned or bowed, thus introducing
radial variation as well.
Nozzles or stationary blades in LP
stages are typically arranged in
diaphragms like those for HP and IP
impulse stages. However, the con-
struction may be simpler than those
in the HP and IP, consisting, for
example of only fixed blades, con-
strained by inner and outer (hub and
rim) annular bands. Diaphragms in
the LP are of cast or welded con-
struction. In wet stages,
diaphragms may be made with hol-
low blade vanes or other design fea-
tures as a means of drawing off
moisture that would otherwise lead
to liquid droplet erosion. Such
designs are shown in more detail in
Chapter 27.
LP turbine blades in nuclear units
show similar design features and
materials of construction to those in
fossil units. Nuclear blades are
longer reflecting the low volumetric
flows and slower speeds. Typically
in fossil units, the maximum last
stage blades are on the order of 83
cm (33 in) for stainless steel and
101 cm (40 in.) for titanium. In
nuclear units, the corresponding
lengths are 111 cm (44 in.) for steel
blades and 135 cm (53 in.) for tita-
nium. Because nuclear units typi-
cally operate at half the speed of
fossil units (1800 or 1500 rpm ver-
sus 3600 or 3000 rpm in fossil units),
the developed blade centrifugal
stresses for both types of units are
roughly equivalent by design.
4.4 Required Material Properties
Choosing the optimum blade mater-
ial is an ongoing tradeoff between
desirable material properties. Table
4-2 shows that demands placed on
HP and LP blades emphasize differ-
ent material properties. In addition,
it is important that blading material
be weldable, particularly last stage
LP blading, as many designs require
that cover bands, tiewires and ero-
sion shields be attached by thermal
joining.12 Weldability is also impor-
tant for blade repairs. It is important

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 4-5

Table 4-2
Important Material Properties
HP and IP Turbines
Property
Creep strength and creep-fatigue resistance
Tensile strength
Corrosion resistance
Ductility, and impact strength
Fatigue strength
Corrosion fatigue resistance
Notch sensitivity
Material damping
(for partial admission)
Erosion resistance
(for solid particle erosion)
to note that up to about 1990 weld-
ing of blades and rotors was consid-
ered “impossible” by many major
manufacturers.
• Creep strength and creep-fatigue
resistance. Creep resistance is
important in the first two or three
rows of the HP and IP turbines to
resist elongation and accumula-
tion of strain at the higher operat-
ing temperatures, particularly at
stress concentrations such as at
the blade-to-rotor attachments.
• Tensile strength. Tensile strength
is required to withstand steady
centrifugal and steam bending
loads.
• Corrosion resistance. Corrosion
resistance is important to maintain
blade life in the turbine environ-
ment.
• Ductility and impact strength.
Ductility is required for three
reasons11:
– To allow localized plastic flow to
relieve stress peaks and con-
centrations, that can occur in
the local regions of complex
geometries, e.g., at the blade
4-6 Turbine Blading Design I
Nuclear Turbines, LP
in Fossil Units Turbines in Fossil Units
x concentration on fatigue strength.
x x
x
x x
x x
x strengths tend toward improved
x
x x
x x
(mostly for liquid
droplet erosion)
root, and inter-blade connec-
tions such as lashing wires and
shrouds.
– To allow for rivet formation from
blade tenons which is required
in many designs to attach
shrouds to blades.
– To provide for plastic deforma-
tion that can accommodate
stress from a rub or impact of a
foreign body and thus limit
damage to a localized region
instead of a brittle fracture fol-
lowed by multiple consequential
failures.
High impact strength will also help
resist failure from sudden contact by
foreign bodies such as a fragment
from a failed blade.
• Fatigue strength. Fatigue strength
is important to prevent failures
from the vibratory stresses
imposed by steam flow and sys-
tem resonances (see Chapters 5,
20, and 21).
• Corrosion fatigue resistance.
In LP blades, even more impor-
tant than simple fatigue strength
is the resistance of the material to
cyclic loads in aggressive or
corrosive environments in order
to avoid corrosion fatigue (see
Chapter 24).
• Notch sensitivity. Notch sensitiv-
ity describes the effect of stress
Since blades have a variety of
stress concentrations, low notch
sensitivity is a desirable charac-
teristic. There are, however,
tradeoffs. Higher tensile
fatigue strength, but unfortunately,
increasing tensile strength also
leads to increased notch sensitiv-
ity. The practical implication is
that the designer must balance
the benefits of selecting a
stronger material against the
reduction of fatigue strength.
The influence of notch sensitivity can
be determined from11 :
Se
Fs = (4-1)
[q (K t – 1) +1]σa
where:
Fs = factor of safety against
fatigue
Se= endurance limit of material
without stress concentration
(adjusted for steady stress)
q = notch sensitivity factor
(0 ≤ q ≤ 1) (compiled in stan-
dard references such as
Peterson13)
Kt = stress concentration factor
(> 1)
σa = nominal alternating stress,
disregarding stress
concentration
• Damping. Damping is a primary
consideration in blading design
and operation. Analysis of damp-
ing is complicated by the number
of factors to be considered
including (i) the inherent damping
of the blade material, (ii) the
effect of damping geometries
such as tiewires or shrouding,
and (iii) the problems associated
with defining the damping at the
 root attachment. At the root
attachment, small differences in
tolerances and clearances can
make large differences in the
actual damping capability.
There are three general means of
damping vibrations in LP blading:
material, mechanical and aero-
dynamic.
– Material damping. Material
damping occurs as a result of
crystal slip and distortion. It is
an inherent property of the
blade material depending on
the dynamic stress amplitude,
preload (steady stress), and to
a lesser extent on the tempera-
ture of operation and frequency.
Material damping is described
by Lazan’s law as:
D*= ∫v Do dV* (4-2)
where
D* = the damping energy dissi-
pated within volume V*
Do = the energy loss per unit
volume = J σ D n
J and n = materials constants
σ D = the vibratory stress
Data on J and n have been
obtained by many researchers
and were summarized by
Lazan.14 The validity of Lazan’s
law for turbine blade materials
has been demonstrated experi-
mentally by Wagner15, Gotoda16
and Rieger.17
– Mechanical or interface damp-
ing. Mechanical or interface
damping occurs by Coulomb
friction. Mechanical damping
arises from the relative motion
(slip) between contacting parts
such as damping pins, shrouds
and root cover sealing plates.18
Friction values must be estab-
lished from tests in actual tur-
bine or accurate experimental
simulations and not from simple
laboratory tests.18 Mechanical
damping is the most widely
applied form of damping and,
as a result, in the careful selec-
tion of blade root connection,
tiewires and shroud-tenon con-
nections.
– Aerodynamic or gas dynamic
damping. Aerodynamic damp-
ing in the turbine rotating stage
can be either positive or nega-
tive depending on the direction
of the energy transmitted
between the flow and the airfoil.
Aerodynamic damping occurs
as a result of work done on the
gas stream (positive blade
damping), or by the gas stream
(negative blade damping) as it
passes over the vibrating airfoil.
In most cases, in turbine
bladed discs, the aerodynamic
damping is positive and consti-
tutes a significant portion of the
total damping available in the
rotating stage, ranging from -
1% to +1%.19 In contrast, tests
have shown that material
damping is insignificant.19
Mechanical damping can be as
high as 2% if damping ele-
ments such as a “Z” shroud or
snubber are used.19 If the
aerodynamic damping
becomes negative and, if the
mechanical damping is low, the
bladed disc becomes
unstable.20
This aero-elastic phenomena is
dependent on the flow velocity
and the vibration mode of the
blade known as the “reduced
velocity”.18 Whitehead and Hall
have developed computer pro-
grams to evaluate aerodynamic
damping in the bladed disc.21
Using these computational fluid
dynamics programs, aerody-
namic damping can be evalu-
ated quite accurately.
• Erosion resistance. HP and IP
turbine blades can be subjected
to erosion by solid particles
(Chapter 17). The particles are
oxides exfoliated from super-
heater/reheater tubing and steam
leads. They grow as a natural
result of the material’s continued
exposure to high temperature
operation. For this reason,
although this problem can be
controlled, it typically cannot be
eliminated completely from most
units. This places a premium on
the use of materials (either for
complete blades or applied as
surface treatments) that have
good erosion resistance as a
means of limiting the time-to-
repair.
Similarly, LP turbine blades are
subjected to liquid droplet ero-
sion, especially in the last stages
of the turbine (Chapter 27).
For both solid particle and liquid
droplet erosion, there is a general
trend that increased hardness of
the target material (blade) within
a given class of materials, leads
to improved resistance to erosion.
Outside of these general guide-
lines, however, the development
of quantitative predictions of ero-
sion resistance from basic mater-
ial properties is still evolving.
These issues are discussed at
length in Chapters 17 (Solid
Particle Erosion) and 27 (Liquid
Droplet Erosion).
4.5 Materials of Construction for
HP and IP Blades
The most common material for HP
and IP rotating and stationary
blades and nozzles is 12Cr marten-
sitic stainless steel. Three generic
martensitic stainless steels are
widely used for turbine blading,
most commonly Type AISI 422 for
HP blading and Types AISI 403 and
AISI 410 in LP blading. There are
numerous specific application mate-
rials where turbine manufacturers
have customized the generic grade
by the addition or deletion of spe-
cific alloying elements, or by modifi-
cation of the production or heat
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 4-7
Table 4-3 A number of superalloys have been
Composition and Properties for HP Turbine Blading Materials investigated for use in blading, par-
ticularly for combustion turbines, pri-
Martensitic Stainless Steel Austenitic Stainless Steel
marily because of their high temper-
Element AISI Type 422 (Generic) (Bohler Turbotherm 17 13 W)
ature tensile and creep strength.
Carbon 0.22 ± 0.020 0.10 However, these materials have typi-
Manganese 0.69 ± 0.030 cally not been used in steam tur-
bines as a result of their higher
Phosphorus 0.02 ± 0.005 0.03 manufacturing costs.
Sulfur 0.03 ± 0.005 0.03
Silicon 0.50 ± 0.050 1.00 4.6 Materials of Construction for
Chromium 11.5 to 12.5 ± 0.150 16.0 LP blades
Molybdenum 0.93 ± 0.050 Early LP blade materials included
Nickel 0.76 ± 0.030 13.5 cartridge brass (72 Cu, 28 Zn),
nickel brass (50 Cu, 10 Ni, 40 Zn),
Tungsten 0.97 ± 0.050 2.80
and Monel (typically 66 Ni, 31 Cu,
Vanadium 0.21 ± 0.050 1.3 Fe).24 With the advent of larger
Thallium 0.50 turbines in the 1920s a 5% Ni steel
Martensitic Stainless Steel Austenitic Stainless Steel became commonly used.25 Since
Property AISI Type 422 (Generic) (Bohler Turbotherm 17 13 W) the 1930s, most LP turbine blades
have been manufactured from a
Tensile Strength, 967 538-732 (78 - 106) Quenched 12% Cr stainless steel26 ; typically
MPa (ksi) (140) 635-830 (92 - 120) Types AISI 403, 410, or 410-Cb
Hot & cold formed have been chosen depending on
0.2 % Yield Strength, 795 248 (36) Quenched the strength required. Types 403
MPa (ksi) (115) 442 (64) Hot & cold formed and 410 have better corrosion resis-
Elongation (%) 13 30% Quenched tance than Type 422, an important
25% Hot & cold formed characteristic for use in the wet
stages of the LP turbine.
Reduction of Area (%) 25
There are numerous specifically
Brinell Hardness 293 - 341
customized versions of these
Charpy V-Notch Impact at 2.14 - 2.34 generic materials, for example,
room temperature, (15.5 - 17) Carpenter H-46 and Jethete M152.
m-kg (ft-lb) Jethete M152 has higher hardness
and is thus more resistant to liquid
droplet erosion in the LP than Types
treating process. The final proper- thermal expansion coefficient differ- 403 and 410. So far it has only
ties of these steels are strongly influ- ence between martensitic and been used in LP turbines, but could
enced by tempering temperature. austenitic stainless steels so that be used in the HP and IP if needed.
The typical composition and proper- care is required when designing European designations for 12% Cr
ties of generic Type 422 are shown attachment clearances for fitting blading alloys include:
in Table 4-3. austenitic blades into martensitic X20CrMoV121 and X20Cr13.
The austenitic stainless steels (AISI discs. Also there is a potential for Table 4-4 shows the composition of
series 300) are used in some high stress corrosion cracking when 300 typical LP blading materials and
temperature applications.22 An series stainless steels are used in Table 4-5 some key mechanical
example is Bohler’s Turbotherm 17 wet steam conditions.23 properties.
13W (a 16 Cr - 13.5 Ni variety). The The rings and webs of HP and IP More recently the precipitation hard-
composition and properties of this nozzle diaphragms are commonly ened stainless steel designated 17-
material are shown in Table 4-3. The manufactured from stainless steels, 4 PH (AISI 630) was developed by
austenitic stainless steels have although if the working steam tem- one manufacturer for the last blades
excellent mechanical properties at perature does not exceed 350°C of the LP turbine in the largest 3600
elevated temperatures and are typi- (660°F), then welded diaphragms rpm machines. It has a nominal
cally readily weldable. There is a can be made from carbon steels.9 composition that is 17% Cr, and

4-8 Turbine Blading Design I

Table 4-4
Composition of LP Blading Materials
Titanium
Element 12% Cr Stainless Steels (Ti-6Al-4V)
AISI Type or AISI 403 AISI 410 X20CrMoV121 X20Cr13
European Designation (Generic) (Generic) (Example) (Example)
Carbon 0.15 ± 0.005 0.15 ± 0.005 0.22 0.19 0.020- 0.040
Manganese 1.00 ± 0.030 1.00 ± 0.030 0.40 0.53
Phosphorus 0.04 ± 0.005 0.04 ± 0.005 0.017 0.017
Sulfur 0.03 ± 0.005 0.03 ± 0.005 0.004 0.013
Silicon 0.50 ± 0.050 1.00 ± 0.050 0.38 0.24
Chromium 11.5 - 13.0 ± 0.150 11.5 - 13.0 ± 0.150 12.4 13.3
Molybdenum 0.49 0.03
Nickel 0.60 ± 0.030 0.96 0.43
Tungsten
Vanadium 0.28 4.1 - 4.5
Nitrogen 0.04 0.010 - 0.019
Copper 0.06
Aluminium 6.2 - 6.6
Oxygen 0.12 - 0.20
Hydrogen 0.002 - 0.006
Iron 0.100 - 0.008
Titanium Balance

Precipitation-Hardened Materials Duplex Steels

17-4 PH 15-5 PH 13-8 PH Ferralium 255
AISI Type or AISI 630 X5CrNiMoCu145 X3CrNiMoAl1382 AISI X3CrMnNiMoN2264
European Designation (Example) (Example) (A905) (Example)
Carbon 0.07 max. 0.04 0.03 0.04 max. 0.02
Manganese 1.00 max 0.42 0.03 0.80 5.6
Phosphorus 0.03 max 0.024 0.004 0.007
Sulfur 0.03 max. 0.010 0.003 0.002
Silicon 1.00 max. 0.42 0.04 0.45 0.38
Chromium 15 - 17.5 14.5 12.7 26 25.8
Molybdenum 0.50 max 1.75 2.22 3.0 2.1
Nickel 3-5 4.83 8.47 5.5 3.8
Niobium 0.32
Tungsten
Vanadium
Columbium
Columbium + tantalum 0.15 - 0.45 (or as
5X C; 0.45 max.)
Copper 3-5 1.52 0.01 1.7
Aluminium 1.04
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Nitrogen 0.17 0.33
Iron
Titanium

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 4-9

Table 4-5
Mechanical Properties of Materials Used for LP Turbine Blading
(Room Temperature)
AISI Type 403/410 Precipitation Titanium Duplex stainless steel
Property (Generic) Hardened 17-4 PH (Ti-6Al-4V) (Ferralium 255)
Condition Hardened and tempered Hardening temperature = Annealed Plate, heat treated at 1120˚C
at 648˚C (1200˚F) 496˚C (925˚F) (2050˚F), rapidly cooled
Specific weight, 7750 7750 4430 7806
kg/m3 (lb/in.3) (.28) (.28) (.16) (.282)
Modulus of elasticity, 200 195 114 210
GPa (106 psi) (29) (28.5) (16.5) (30.5)
Tensile Strength, 760 950 867
MPa (ksi) (110) (138) (125.8)
0.2% Yield strength 585 1070 88 674
MPa (ksi) (85) (155) (128) (97.8)
Elongation (%) 23 10 13 27
Reduction in Area (%) 60 41
Brinell hardness 225 375 - 438
Endurance limit, 275 550 520
MPa (ksi) (40) (80) (75)
Note: The mechanical properties for these materials are very dependent on manufacturing process, tempering temperature and composition. The values shown are “typical”
for the alloy and heat treatment shown. Any analysis of blading should use application-specific, as-measured properties.

4% Ni. The hardening temperature capability of LP turbines to pro-
can control a wide range of mechan- duce power is limited by the long
ical properties. Alloy 17-4 PH is last row of blading and the
somewhat difficult to weld and strength of the rotor to support
requires postweld heat treatment.12 the blades. The practical limita-
Other precipitation hardened steels tion for blades constructed of
that have been investigated for 12% Cr martensitic steel was
blade construction in Europe reached with 840 mm (33.5 in.)
include: 15-5 PH (European desig- blades operating in 3600 RPM
nation: X5CrNiMoCu145) and 13-8 machines and 1200 mm (48 in.)
PH (designation: X3CrNiMoAl1382). blades operating in 3000 RPM
machines.28 In contrast, titanium
Titanium alloys, chiefly Ti-6Al-4V (6%
offers an opportunity to go to
aluminum and 4% vanadium), have
1000 mm (40 in.) and 1350 mm
been used for turbine blades since
(54 in.) blades for 3600 RPM and
at least the early 1960s.27 The use
3000 RPM machines respectively.
of titanium in the last few rows of the
This represents a marked
LP offers a number of advantages
increase in power and makes
over other materials:
possible a new generation of LP
• Titanium has about half the den- steam turbines.29
sity of 12Cr steels which allows
• Titanium has particularly favor-
for longer last stage blades with-
able mechanical properties in
out an increase in centrifugal
applications involving high
stresses in the blade and thus an
stresses at low temperatures.
increase in annular area and
Because titanium has half the
improved turbine efficiency. The
density and about half the elastic
modulus of steel, the frequencies
and mode shapes of titanium
blades are very similar to those
made of steel. Note however, that
the elastic modulus is dependent
on the particular titanium compo-
sition.
• Titanium has greater corrosion
resistance and as a result may
have better performance in
dry/wet transition phase regions
of the LP.
• Titanium also has excellent resis-
tance to impact and water droplet
erosion damage and, in many
applications, can be used without
erosion shields.
The drawbacks to titanium include:
• Higher cost than steel, even
though titanium’s lower density
means that more blades can be
manufactured for a given mass of
material which somewhat offsets
the higher cost per pound of the
material.
• More difficult to machine.

4-10 Turbine Blading Design I

• More difficult to weld. Titanium
requires a high state of cleanli-
ness and an inert welding atmos-
phere.
• Poor resistance to sliding wear,
which can allow fretting corrosion
in some conditions, although fret-
ting has not been found to be as
much of a problem as was once
anticipated.
• Lower internal material damping
than stainless steel.
• Finally, a disadvantage of titanium
for blades is that recent high
cycle fatigue studies have shown
an endurance limit in air and in
steam smaller than for 12% Cr
stainless steels. Shot peening
has been used to restore the
fatigue life lost after machining,
production, or repair processes.
Duplex stainless steels are those strength can be achieved) and they
stainless steels that contain very do show some long time service
high levels of chromium and about embrittlement at temperatures
equal amounts of ferrite and austen- above 300°C (570°F).31
ite. They have been evaluated for
use for LP blading, primarily in
4.7 Surface Treatments
Europe.30 There are a variety of
Coatings or surface hardening are
types of duplex stainless steels with
frequently used to improve the sur-
ferrite contents ranging from about
face properties of turbine blades.
45-75%. The composition of an
Such protective schemes are most
alloy produced in the U.S.
commonly used to improve erosion
(Ferralium 255), and a European
resistance in susceptible locations.
alloy (X3CrMnNiMoN2264) are
Detail about commonly used HP
shown in Table 4-4. The duplex
blade coatings and their perfor-
stainless steels have excellent cor-
mance can be found in Chapter 17
rosion fatigue properties. Their pri-
on solid particle erosion; information
mary drawback for blading may be
about LP blade coatings and sur-
somewhat lower yield strength than
face treatments for improved perfor-
Type 403/410 (in general, although
mance against environmentally-
the specific properties for the
assisted mechanisms and liquid
Ferralium alloy shown in Table 4-5
droplet erosion can be found in
indicate that good yield and tensile
Chapters 23 and 27.

References
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Operations and Maintenance Staff, Turbo-Technic
Services Incorporated, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
December, 1988.
3. Trumpler, W.E. and H.M. Owens, “Turbine Blade
Vibration and Strength”, Trans. ASME, Volume 77, 1955,
pp. 337-341.
4. Craig, H.R.M. and D. Kalderon, “Research and
Development for Large Steam Turbines”, Proc. American
Power Conference, 1973.
5. Craig, H.R.M. and G. Hobson, “The Development of
Long Last-Stage Turbine Blades”, GEC J. of Science and
Technology, Vol. 40, No. 2, 1973, pp. 65-71.
8. Pigott, R. and R.E. Warner, “Steam Turbine Blade
Developments”, presented at the Joint ASME/IEEE Power
Generation Conference held in Portland, OR, October
19-23, 1986.
9. Leyzerovich, A., Large Power Steam Turbines, Volume
1: Design and Operation, Volume 2: Operations,
PennWell Books, Tulsa OK, 1997.
10. Schofield, P., “Steam Turbines”, Chapter 3 in P.
Cohen, ed., The ASME Handbook on Water Technology
for Thermal Systems, The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1989.
11. Bates, R.C., F.J. Heymann, V.P. Swaminathan, and
J.W. Cunningham, Steam Turbine Blades: Considerations
in Design and a Survey of Blade Failures, Final Report
CS-1967, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, August, 1981.

6. Weaver, F.L., “Turbine Bucket Design”, ASME Paper
No. 74-Pet-30, 1974.
7. Bates, R.C., J.W. Cunningham, N.E. Dowling, F.J.
Heymann, O. Jonas, L.D. Kunsman, A.R. Pebler, V.P.
Swaminathan, L.E. Willertz, and T.M Rust, Corrosion
Fatigue of Steam Turbine-Blading Alloys in Operational
Environments, Final Report CS-2932, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, September, 1984.
12. Gandy, D.W., S.J. Findlan, J.T. Stover, M. Breslin, S.
Allgood, E.V. Clark, State-of-the-Art Weld Repair
Technology for Rotating Components, Volume 2: Repair
of Steam Turbine Blading, Final Report TR-107021, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA, November, 1996.
13. Peterson, R.E., Stress Concentration Factors, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1974.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 4-11

14. Lazan, B.J., Damping of Materials and Members in
Structural Mechanics, Pergamon Press, New York, NY,
1968.
15. Wagner, J.T., “Blade Damping Tests”, Westinghouse
Engineering Report, ED-401, NOGS N00024-67-C-5494,
May, 1969.
16. Gotoda, H., “An Analysis on Resonant Stress and
Damping in Turbine Blades”, Turbine Designing
Department, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd., Kobe,
Japan, 1974.
17. Rieger, N.F., “Damping Properties of Steam Turbine
Blades”, Proceedings WPAFB Materials Laboratory:
Vibration Damping Workshop, Queen Mary Hilton, Long
Beach, CA, February, 1984.
18. Allen, J.M., “Characteristics of Nonsynchronous
Vibration of Turbine Blades”, in Stress Technology, Inc.,
Proceedings of the Steam and Combustion Turbine-
Blading Conference and Workshop—1992, held in
Orlando, FL, January, 29-31, 1992, Proceedings TR-
102061, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, April, 1993, pp. 4-45
through 4-81.
19. Personal communication between T. Lam (Turbine
Technology International) and T. McCloskey, December
10, 1998.
20. Namura, K., K. Ikeuchi, T. Tan, T. Lam, and E. Wan,
“Development of New 20.9-Inch Next-To-Last Stage
Blade for Improved Turbine Reliability and Efficiency”,
American Power Conference, 1998.
21. Whitehead, D.S., “A Finite Element Solution of
Unsteady Flow in Cascades”, International Journal of
Numerical Methods for Fluids, Volume 10, 1990, pp.
13-34.
22. Sanders, W.P., The Procurement of Replacement
Steam Turbine Blading, Forham Printing Company, Ltd.,
Toronto, Canada, 1993. Distributed by Turbomachinery
International, Norwich, CT.
4-12 Turbine Blading Design I
23. Personal communication between R. Ortolano
(Turbine RESCUE) and T. McCloskey, November, 1998.
24. Stodola, A., Steam Turbines with an Appendix on
Gas Turbines and the Future of Heat Engines, 1905 and
1927 editions, translated by L.C. Loewenstein, D. Van
Nostrand Company, New York, NY, 1945.
25. Ray, J.L., “Investigation of Materials to Reduce
Steam Turbine Blade Wear”, Power, May 26, 1931,
pp. 804-808.
26. Lloyd, W.H., “Avoid Blade Corrosion and Erosion”,
Power, April, 1952, pp. 94-97, 204.
27. Drahy, J., “Water Droplet Erosion of Titanium Alloy
Steam Turbine Blading”, in R.I. Jaffee, ed., Titanium
Steam Turbine Blading, held November 9-10, 1988, Palo
Alto, CA, Workshop Proceedings ER-6538, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, and Pergamon Press, 1990, pp. 405-426.
28. McCloskey, T.H. and N.F. Rieger, “Assessment
Technology for Turbine Blades”, in R. Viswanathan, and
R.W. Porter, eds. Life Assessment Technology for Fossil
Power Plants, Proceedings of the American Power
Conference, Volume 57, No. III, American Power
Conference, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL,
pp. 1965-1979.
29. Jaffee, R.I., “Foreword” in R.I. Jaffee, ed., Titanium
Steam Turbine Blading, held November 9-10, 1988, Palo
Alto, CA, Workshop Proceedings ER-6538, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, and Pergamon Press, 1990.
30. Speidel, M.O., “Corrosion-Fatigue of Steam Turbine
Blade Materials”, in R.I. Jaffee, ed., Corrosion Fatigue of
Steam Turbine Blade Materials, Workshop Proceedings
held in Palo Alto, CA, September 21-24, 1981, Pergamon
Press, New York, NY, 1983, pp. 1-1 through 1-23.
31. Roach, D.B., The Potential for Duplex Stainless
Steels for Utility Applications, Final Report RD-3401,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, January, 1984.
Chapter 5 • Volume 1
Turbine Blading Design II:
Stresses, Evaluation of
Frequency Response,
and Aerodynamics
5.1 Introduction
Figure 5-1 illustrates the primary
factors that affect blade life in both
fossil and nuclear units: stresses,
the environment, and the material
properties. Loading on rotating
blades includes both steady state
loads (centrifugal and steam pres-
sure loads) and dynamic loads
(non-steady steam forces, nozzle
wakes, recirculation, etc.). The
steady and dynamic stresses pro-
duced are determined by the nature
of the loads. The level of dynamic
stresses is also determined by the
structural stiffness, frictional damp-
ening, and mass properties of the
blade and blade groupings.
The steam environment imposed
on blades and connections can
have a major detrimental effect on
the blade life. This occurs through
the transport and concentration of
steam impurities as described in
Chapters 7 and 8. Similarly, as
described in Chapter 4, the choice
of material and key properties such
as fatigue strength, yield and ulti-
mate strength, and corrosion
fatigue strength, and material
damping characteristics, will affect
the expected lifetime of the blade
in service.
Many of the most serious damage
mechanisms in blades occur in the
phase transition zone (PTZ) where
the expansion and cooling of steam
leads to condensation. This region
typically starts in LP turbines around
the L-0 or L-1 rows in fossil units.
In addition to operating in the most
severe environment in the turbine,
blades in these rows are also typi-
cally subjected to the highest
stresses. As a result, significant
attention must be paid to under-
standing how these factors develop
and how their interactions lead to
steam path damage.
Analysis of the actual stress state in
a blade is complicated by a number
of factors. In fact, until about 20
years ago, turbine blades were
designed primarily by extrapolation
from prior field experience and
laboratory tests, and, as vibratory
stresses could not be accurately
determined, blade strength was
based primarily on calculated
steady stresses.2 Dynamic oscillat-
ing stresses are complex and
usually require verification by aero-
dynamic testing. The analysis of
blade stresses is complicated by
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-1

Steady
steam forces
Centrifugal Steady
forces stress
Blade
structure
Non-steady
steam
excitation Dynamic
stresses
Damping
Figure 5-1. Many parameters affect turbine blade life. Adapted from: T. McCloskey
and N.F. Rieger1
the geometric complexity
(tapered/twisted configurations and
asymmetric sections), and the inter-
actions of the various modes of
damping (material, frictional and
aerodynamic) in the blade.
Blade designs represent an on-
going compromise between aerody-
namic design, thermodynamic effi-
ciency, and structural reliability. A
primary concern is vibration which
can induce significant damage over
a short period; vibration can be
either synchronous or non-synchro-
nous. In the simplest terms, loads
are synchronous when the blades
are exposed to the same dynamic
forces with each rotation and the
excitation frequencies are integral
multiples of running speed.
Unsteady flows that cause excitation
forces that result in frequencies that
are not multiples of the running
speed are termed non-synchronous.
It is important to understand the
accuracy to which the various stress
contributions can be determined.
Centrifugal stresses are usually the
major load and are typically accu-
rately known as a function of speed
(within 1%). Aerodynamic (steam)
loads are often much smaller and
depend on stage power output; they
are typically known to within 2-5%.3
5-2 Turbine Blading Design II
Required
material
properties
Blade
Materials
life
Time to failure Environment
As a general rule, steady loads can
be defined to within 2-5% of actual
values.
Dynamic loads are much more
difficult to predict. Measurements
of blade excitation can be made in
the low pressure turbine directly
using strain gages, or indirectly by
measuring pressures with a pitot
tube. However, it is difficult to make
measurements on high tempera-
ture/pressure rotating blades at
operating conditions. As a result,
experimental determination in the
laboratory has been most commonly
performed using air turbine tests
and water table studies. 2,4-6 In
water table studies, the water flows
radially outward, passing first
through a stationary row, then
through a rotating row of blades.
The height of the water table flow is
proportional to the steam pressure
in an operating turbine and thus can
be related to the forces of excitation
on the rotating blades.
The probable accuracy with which
non-steady forces can be predicted
from laboratory tests is between
20-40%.3 Excitations arising from
nozzle wakes, diaphragm vane
spacing errors, and partial arc
admission have all been addressed
using the water table approach,
and in some cases, have been veri-
fied in the field.
These various estimates of accuracy
pertain to both fossil and nuclear
turbine blading.
The analyses of loading on blades
and the resultant stresses are thus
rather complex. The intent in the
balance of this chapter is not to
attempt to make the reader an
experienced blade designer, but to
provide an overview of the nature
of the static and dynamic stresses
imposed on blades and thus lay
the groundwork for subsequent
discussions of specific damage
mechanisms, their root causes, and
corrective actions.
5.2 Turbine Blade Stresses
There is a myriad of static and
dynamic stresses and loads on tur-
bine blades, particularly the longer
blades of the LP turbine. Table 5-1
provides a list of the most common
stresses/loads on LP blades and
their source or root cause; it is not
meant to be exhaustive. Table 5-1
also shows specific actions to evalu-
ate the severity of a particular stress
component along with options that
can be taken to reduce the level of
the particular source of stress.
Table 5-2 indicates the primary
sources of stress that are germane
to HP and IP blades.
Blades in nuclear and fossil tur-
bines are mostly affected by the
same types of stresses; further, the
magnitude of the stresses tend to
be about the same. Blades in
nuclear units are longer, but the
machines typically rotate at 1500 or
1800 rpm instead of 3000 or 3600
rpm and thus the magnitude of the
centrifugal stress (the highest mag-
nitude blade stress), by design, is
about the same.
5.2.1 Centrifugal stresses.
Centrifugal loads, caused by rota-
tion, are the primary source of stress
on blades. The centrifugal loads on
HP and IP blades are relatively
small as the blades are short, and
Table 5-1
Stress Types and Sources in LP Turbine Blades
Stress Type/Load Source/Root Cause
Centrifugal tensile Rotation of blade.
stresses
Geometric untwisting Centrifugal force induced
untwisting of blade.
Centrifugal bending A result of blade response to
stresses centrifugal forces because of
section centroids at different
height do not fall on the
same radial line.
Steam bending loads Consists of both steady and
dynamic components
induced by steam moving
within the blade path.
Synchronous Can be produced by a vari-
resonance ety of phenomena such as
of blades with a nozzle-wake interactions,
harmonic of the non-uniform pressures, flow
unit running speed. bending, and geometrically-
induced flow unsteadiness
(see main text).
Specific actions to evaluate severity
of stress/load Specific mitigation options (see note 1)
• Finite element analysis (FEA) and fatigue life • Reduce stresses in blade roots by enlarging
analysis. If cracking is occurring in the hook radii or other geometry change
hooks/serrations should also determine the to reduce stress concentration.
sensitivity of variations in hook clearances. • Improve hook-to-hook contact between
• Visual check of relative clearances of blade- the root and disc; decrease assembly
to-root hooks or serration. tolerances.
• Reduce weight such as by use of a lighter
shroud, cover or blade (titanium, for
example)
• Adopt freestanding design (eliminate
shroud) to reduce weight and thus hook
stresses.
• If cracking is occurring in shroud/coverband • None.
or tiewire areas may need a FEA analysis
to determine the extent of geometric
untwisting.
• This effect is typically used by designers to • Not usually practical.
offset some of the steam bending forces.
Thus, it typically helps prevent fatigue fail-
ures. Can check dimensions to make sure
that proper offsets have been used.
• FEA to determine magnitude and direction • Reduce stresses in blade roots by redesign
of steam loads. such as by enlarging the hook radii to
reduce stress concentration.
• Use FEA to compute frequencies, mode • Identify by analysis those blades that are
shapes, and stress distributions for each within approximately 10 Hz of the nearest
mode. harmonic.
• Plot resonant stresses on a Campbell dia- • Redesign to reduce resonant stresses such
gram to compare locations of crack initia- as by optimizing the blade profile, airfoil
tion with predicted regions of high stress. and width.
• Tuning strategies, such as:
– Add/reduce weight to alter frequencies
and resonances. Use Campbell diagram.
– Add structural material or Coulomb
damping to alter resonance and/or reduce
resonance stresses.
– Add/move tiewires or tenons to change
stiffness of blade or disc, thus altering
resonances and stresses.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-3
Table 5-1
Stress Types and Sources in LP Turbine Blades (continued)
Stress Type/Load Source/Root Cause
Non-uniform flows. Can be produced by a vari-
ety of phenomena such as
nozzle-wake interactions,
non-uniform pressures, flow
bending, and geometrically-
induced flow unsteadiness
(see main text).
Blade torsional A variety of causes including
vibration induced rotor torsional loading and
from rotor or disc various blade-disc interac-
tions. (See main text).
5-4 Turbine Blading Design II
Specific actions to evaluate severity
of stress/load Specific mitigation options (see note 1)
For synchronous vibration: For synchronous vibrations:
• Use FEA to compute frequencies, mode • Identify by analysis those blades which are
shapes, and stress distributions for each within 10 Hz of the nearest harmonic.
mode. • Redesign to reduce resonant stresses.
• Plot resonant stresses on a Campbell • Tuning strategies, such as:
diagram to compare locations of crack initi-
– Add/reduce weight to alter frequencies
ation with predicted regions of high stress.
and resonances. Use Campbell and or
• Directly measure blade vibration and/or interference diagram.
perform modal testing for blade-disc
– Add material or Coulomb damping to
combinations. See Chapter 10 for
reduce resonance stresses.
additional detail.
• May be able to match harmonics to source. – Add/move tiewires or tenons to change
See Table 5-3. stiffness of blade or disc.
• Redesign of steam admission and discharge
For non-synchronous vibrations: areas to reduce intensity of excitation.
• Can use a dynamic pressure probe to mea-
For non-synchronous vibrations:
sure local velocities.
• Will depend on the source.
• Use blade vibration monitor to determine
affected blades in a row and magnitude of
excitation. See Chapter 10.
• For per-revolution diaphragm harmonics.
– Analyze the Fourier spectrum of the nozzle
throat dimensions to identify principal
harmonics. (May not predict magnitudes).
– Use specialty flow codes to calculate the
magnitude of harmonics as a function of
geometry and flow parameters.
• Use FEA to analyze coupled vibrations • Change frequency of rotor by adding/
of blades and discs. Determine natural subtracting rotor or blade weight.
frequencies and response stresses. • Change frequency of blades by adding/
• Include the effects of blade dynamics, subtracting weight or changing the stiffness
particularly in those rows that interact near of the blades.
synchronous frequency and at two times • Provide appropriate controls to prohibit
the synchronous frequency. In fossil units operation outside recommended
this will typically be the last two stages and frequencies.
in nuclear units the last three stages.
• Use blade vibration monitor or perform
modal testing of blade-disc combination.
See Chapter 10.
• Strain gage rotor to detect torsional
movements.
• For retrofits, models can be calibrated using
stationary frequency impact testing.
• For retrofits can confirm through field
torsional testing using transient bump test-
ing and off-line single phase ramp test.
Table 5-1
Stress Types and Sources in LP Turbine Blades (continued)
Stress Type/Load Source/Root Cause
Self-excitation Includes stall flutter,
unstalled flutter and
unsteady condensation
shocks.
Start-stop transients Loading induced by various
and overspeeds. modes of turbine operation.
Manufacture and Includes a variety of effects
assembly stresses and sources such as
(i) bending induced by
shroud and lashing wire
loads, (ii) stress concentra-
tions caused by assembly
and attachment tolerances,
(iii) increased loads caused
by attachment constraints,
and (iv) residual stresses
from assembly such as cold
working or weld repair.
Note 1: Many of these options will require the utility to seek outside consulting or OEM assistance.
Specific actions to evaluate severity
of stress/load
• For flutter, confirm that damage appears in
groups of blades.
• Determine whether flutter is occurring in the
unit at low load and high backpressure
using a blade vibration monitoring system.
• Calculate aerodynamic damping coefficient
using FEA to calculate unsteady aerody-
namic loading.
• Examine regions of stress concentration,
particularly hook regions, for signs of
cracking.
• Plot number of unit start-stops versus blade
failures—may be able to detect a trend that
will indicate low cycle fatigue as caused by
start-stop transients.
• Use finite element analysis (FEA), fatigue
life, and fracture mechanics analysis to
evaluate the potential for short low cycle
fatigue lives.
• Visual or magnetic particle examination and
measurements to identify suspect features.
• FEA analysis of local stress concentrations.
Specific mitigation options (see note 1)
For stall flutter:
• Avoid operation of unit at extreme
off-design load conditions, specifically
increase minimum load and/or increase
backpressure.
• Redesign to use continuous tie strategies
to provide restraint at cover tips.
• Redesign blade sections to install various
damping devices such as “Z” cuts in
shrouds and loose tiewires.
For unstalled flutter (not as well under-
stood as stalled flutter):
• Establish aeroelastic properties of blades
to identify marginally stable modes.
• Use mixed-tuned blades (alternating blades
with natural frequencies sufficiently different
from one another) to decouple aerodynamic
forces.
• Apply damping devices between blade
groups.
• Consider derating unit to within load
conditions that do not cause excessive
stresses in the blades of the latter stages.
• As for centrifugal tensile stresses above.
• Depends on source, may require redesign.
• In the case of localized residual stresses
from weld repair heat treatment may be
useful.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-5
Table 5-2
Primary Stress Types and Sources Affecting the Fatigue of HP and IP Turbine Blades
Extent in HP and, if potentially severe,
Stress Type/Load Source/Root Cause actions to evaluate severity of stress/load

Steam bending loads
Consists of both steady and dynamic components.
Induced by steam moving within the blade path.
Can be significant when blades are subjected to partial
arc admission operation. See further discussion in
“non-uniform flows” below.
• Use finite element analysis (FEA) to calculate effect of
steam bending loads, particularly when using partial
or sequential arc operation.
• Calculate expected fatigue life using fatigue or fracture
mechanics methods. See Chapter 6.

Non-uniform flows
Can be produced by a variety of phenomena in the
HP and IP turbine such as nozzle-wake interactions,
non-uniform pressures, partial arc or sequential arc
admission, flow bending, geometrically-induced flow
unsteadiness, diaphragm harmonics.
For synchronous vibration:
• Use FEA to compute stress distributions.
• Calculate expected fatigue life using fatigue or fracture
mechanics methods. See Chapter 6 for detail.
For non-synchronous vibrations:
• As for synchronous vibration.
• For per-revolution diaphragm harmonics.
– Analyze the Fourier spectrum of the nozzle throat
dimensions to identify principal harmonics. (Will
not predict magnitudes).
– Use proprietary codes to calculate the magnitude
of harmonics as a function of geometry and flow
parameters.
• Will also depend on source, for example for partial
arc admission can change arcs of admission or valve
sequencing, switch to full arc or switch to sliding
pressure operation.

Manufacture and assembly
stresses
Includes a variety of effects and sources such as (i) bend- Could be a problem in HP and IP.
ing induced by shroud loads, (ii) stress concentrations • Visual or magnetic particle examination and measure-
caused by assembly and attachment tolerances, (iii) ment of suspect features.
increased loads caused by attachment constraints, and
• FEA analysis of local stress concentration.
(iv) residual stresses from assembly such as tenon cold
working.

the diameter small because of the
relatively low volumetric flows. In
contrast, as a rule of thumb, in typi-
cal last row LP turbine blades
(unshrouded), the steady stresses
will be roughly 0.5 Sy over about half
the blade airfoil length, and in
excess of 0.25Sy over about 80%
of that length8, where Sy is the yield
strength of the material. Figure 5-2
shows a typical distribution of
centrifugal stresses and the benefits
associated with the use of titanium
(because of its lower material
density).
Centrifugal stresses are generally
proportional to the square of the
speed, i.e., a 120% overspeed will
produce a 1.44 times increase in the
centrifugal load. As a result, during
overspeed tests, the centrifugal
stresses on a blade can increase to
as high as 75% of the material’s
yield strength.8
Centrifugal stresses can also have a
dramatic effect in those locations
where there are stress concentra-
tions such as in the root attachment9
and at tiewire holes.10 For example,
in the blade root, where stress con-
centrations are high, design steady
stresses are lower than the above

5-6 Turbine Blading Design II

maximum, perhaps in the range of
0.2 to 0.4 Sy .8 However during Stress, σ, (MPa)
startup, dynamic centrifugal 250
stresses, near to these stress con- Stress due to centrifugal forces
centrations can exceed the yield L-1 blade, 60 Hz
strength as described in Section
200
5.2.9. Also actual stresses are
strongly influenced in the local
geometry. For example, in those X 20 CrMoV121
designs where multiple hooks share 150 (12% Cr)
the load, variations in the gap
between blade and disc in the root
attachment can lead to a wide varia-
100
tion in actual stresses. This is dis- Ti6Al4V
cussed in more detail below in
Section 5.2.10 on manufacturing
and assembly stresses. 50
High mean stresses, such as those
induced by centrifugal loads, have a
pronounced detrimental effect on 0
0 0.5 1.0
the fatigue strength of high strength
Relative Blade Length
materials such as blading alloys. A
Goodman diagram, described in
more detail in Chapter 6 illustrates
Figure 5-2. Centrifugal stresses in a typical blade comparing two
dramatically the effect of mean and materials: X20CrMoV121 (12% Cr) and Ti-6Al-4V. Source: A.
cyclic stress levels. Atrens, H. Meyer, G. Faber, and K. Schneider7

5.2.2 Geometric untwisting.

Centrifugal forces can induce
Centrifugal Centrifugal
untwisting of the blade. Such a bending effect bending effect
shape change causes direct blade
CF CF
stresses, changes the blade’s natural
frequency, and causes flow geome- dX dY
V G G V
try distortion. This loading, and the
next, centrifugal bending, affect
longer blades of the LP much more
than blades in the HP or IP turbine.
Direction
of steam
5.2.3 Centrifugal bending stresses. flow
This stress component arises when
the section centroids at different Steam
bending
blade heights do not fall on the same effect Steam
radial line. Especially, in long blades, bending
designers typically use this effect to effect
help offset the steam bending
CF Is the centrifugal load of
stresses, as illustrated in Figure 5-3. the blade
G G
5.2.4 Steam bending loads. dY Is the displacement in the
tangential direction
Both steady state and dynamic
bending loads are induced on the dX Is the displacement in the
axial direction
blade as a result of the flow of steam
within the blade path. Steady steam GG Is a radial line passing
through the root section
center of gravity
GV Is a line through the profile
Figure 5-3. Origin of centrifugal bending centers of gravity of each
stresses in the tangential and axial section
directions. Source: W.P. Sanders16

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-7

bending loads are discussed here,
the effect of non-uniform flows in the
next section. Steam bending loads
are important in both HP/IP and LP
blade design.
Steady steam bending stresses in
the blade airfoil are typically low,
less than 10% of the centrifugal
stresses in rotating blades. In the
lashing wires, steady steam stresses
may be several times higher than in
the airfoil because of stress concen-
tration effects, but the centrifugal
stresses are lower.
A method for calculating steady
steam bending forces in rotating
blades has been reported by Hong,
et al.11 based on a streamline curva-
ture method.12,13 Values of the ther-
modynamic and aerodynamic prop-
erties of the steam as it moves
through a stage are calculated and
used to evaluate static pressure and
velocity distributions, which are in
turn used to determine the steam
bending forces in both axial and tan-
gential directions.11
Steady steam bending stresses can
significantly affect stationary blades
or diaphragms as the differential
pressure across the section tends to
try to bend them in the axial direc-
tion; this effect is greatest in the HP
turbine where interstage pressure
differentials are highest, particularly
in impulse designs. However,
because the blades are shorter, the
maximum stresses may not occur in
stages with the highest pressure dif-
ferentials.
5.2.5 Synchronous resonance of a
blade with a harmonic of the unit
running speed. A primary goal of
blade design is to tune the longer
turbine blades away from multiples
of unit running speed (harmonics).
Blades typically have a sharp fre-
quency response, typically on the
order of ± a few Hz, and thus virtu-
ally no vibrational amplitude unless
the exciting force is relatively close
to, or at, a resonance frequency.
Thus, even a nominal degree of
tuning off resonance (3 to 5 Hz) for
5-8 Turbine Blading Design II
lower modes (less than 300 Hz) can
dramatically reduce the dynamic
stresses that develop. If such tuning
is not performed, high cycle fatigue
failures caused by resonance can
occur within a relatively short period
(several weeks to less than a year).
A 3% margin is typically used in
tuned rows to allow for scatter from
installation, manufacturing and
materials.14
Case Study I in Chapter 20 offers an
excellent example of a harmonic
resonance in L-2 blade rows. In that
instance, the natural frequency of
the sixth axial mode resonance was
298.8 Hz, only 1.2 Hz away from the
sixth harmonic of the running speed
at 300 Hz. The result was a time-to-
failure of several months for the
coverband connecting blade
groups. In this case, a detuning
strategy was used and the blade
lifetime increased significantly.
5.2.6 Unsteady, non-uniform flows.
There are a variety of sources of
non-uniform flows which lead to
dynamic (and either synchronous or
non-synchronous) stresses on all tur-
bine blading. The following are a list
of some of the most common
sources of non-uniform flows:
(i) Nozzle-wake interactions and
other non-uniformities produced by
stationary blades. Nozzle-wake
interactions are the aerodynamic
force fluctuations seen by a rotating
blade as it passes each stationary
blade or traverses each stationary
blade pitch.8 They are among the
most pervasive sources of synchro-
nous excitation in steam turbines.
They occur at the nozzle passing
frequency and its harmonics.8 Key
contributors to nozzle-wake excita-
tions occur from15:
• Viscous wake caused by the
presence of a boundary layer.
• Trailing edge thickness. A turbu-
lent wake is formed by the pas-
sage of flow past a stationary
blade. There is a design tradeoff
pertaining to the thickness of the
blade’s trailing edge, too thick
leads to increased wake, too thin
will be difficult to manufacture and
have unacceptable strength levels.
• Separation wake caused by pre-
mature separation of the flow
before reaching the trailing edge.
These waves can be caused by
insufficient design or by operating
at off design conditions and can
lead to a larger wake with poten-
tially large flow fluctuations.
• Non-uniform deposits can trip
boundary layers.
• Shock waves and expansion
waves. Shock waves can be
formed when supersonic veloci-
ties are reached in the stationary
blade passages. Another flow
condition that can result in an
unsteady flow is the formation of a
choked, underexpanded jet. This
latter condition can cause excita-
tion in the passing rotating blade
as well as disturbing the flow
through the rotating blade rows.
• Wave reinforcement. It has been
proposed that reinforcement of
waves bouncing between rotating
and stationary blades in the same
row may occur leading to in-
creased wave amplitudes and
corresponding blade vibrations.17
• Moisture impingement. The
impingement of moisture coming
off stationary blades and hitting
the rotating blades can result
in forces on LP blades (as well
as erosion) and thus induce
vibration.
Of these sources the first three (vis-
cous wakes, trailing edge thickness
and separation wakes) affect HP, IP
and LP turbine blades. The last
three (shock waves, wave reinforce-
ment and moisture impingement)
occur in LP turbines.
Figure 5-4 shows one example of
these types of non-uniform flows.
The figure illustrates the variation of
the steam force across the dis-
charge from a fixed blade row that
will result in non-uniform loading on
the passing rotating blades.
(ii) Spatially non-uniform flows
caused by geometric asymmetries.
This category includes non-uniform
pressures, velocities or angles of
flow onto the rotating blade. These
can be caused by asymmetry of
major geometrical features such as8:
• Partial admission or sequential
arc operation. Partial arc admis-
sion is utilized to minimize throt-
tling losses in the HP control
valves and thus improve heat rate
at low load operation. The blades
experience asymmetric (stepwise)
load transients as they move in
and out of admission arcs.
Details of such loadings were first
obtained by Kroon.19 This prob-
lem is typically a major source of
excitation in some small turbines
and in the high pressure control
stage of large turbines.
Figure 5-5 illustrates the effect as
determined from water table test-
ing. The stationary row was set
up to allow flow through a limited
number of open arcs (shown by
the shaded arcs in the left side of
the figure). The water table blade
response curve (right side of
Figure 5-5) is indicative of the
response of the rotating blade of
an operating turbine under partial
admission conditions. The key
observation is the periodic stimu-
lus applied to the blade as it
passes the open arc.
Pigott and Warner2 found that the
effect of partial admission could
be divided into shock and a
nozzle-wake component and the
separate effects superimposed to
determine the combined vibration
response.
The pressure differences across
the first (control) stage between
areas of open and closed arcs
can be as high as 100-200%.
The results of a finite element
based numerical analysis found
that operating in the 1-2 mode
(valves 1 and 2 were open) lead
to steady steam bending stresses
that were approximately 2-4 times
higher than in the 1-2-3 or full
Flow
Stationary
blades
Figure 5-4. The variation of steam pressure/force across the dis-
charge from a stationary blade row. Arrows indicate the magni-
tude of the steam force. Source: W.P. Sanders18
Transient Load
3
Water table blade response
0° 2
1
270° 90° 0
-1
180° -2
0° 90° 180° 270°
Angle, Degrees
Figure 5-5. Results of water table testing to simulate the response of a high pressure
blade as it passes in front of an open arc in partial admission operation. The water
table was set up with 4 open arcs spaced around the circumference of the stationary
stage (left). The response on a rotating blade (right) indicates that a stimulus is
applied each time the blade passes by an open arc. Source: N.F. Rieger and T.H.
McCloskey3
admission mode; as a result, in and exhaust of steam at a turbine
this instance, a recommendation element require bending of the
was made to minimize the amount flow and thus can cause circum-
of operating time in the 1-2 ferential pressure or velocity
mode.20 It should be noted that non-uniformities.
this was a precautionary measure, • Steam extraction paths.
as it was also indicated that the
(iii) Unsteadiness in the flow pas-
stress increase was probably not
sages. Flow perturbations can be
sufficient by itself to cause crack
introduced by unsteadiness in the
initiation by high cycle fatigue.
stationary flow passages including8:
Sanders18 has suggested that the
stress effects of partial arc admis- • Acoustical resonances in inlet
sion are applicable for any active passages, extraction lines or
arc less than 96% of full arc. other cavities excited by flow
past them.
• Flow bending at radial inlet and
exhaust of steam. Radial inlet
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-9
• Vortex shedding from staybars,
etc.21
• Unsteady flow separation from
stationary blades, etc.
• Unsteady shocks in choked sta-
tionary blade passages.
• Surface pressure fluctuations
caused by impingement of turbu-
lent flow onto rotating blade
shrouds, discs, etc.
• “Edge tones” or other acoustical
noise generation phenomena.
(iv) Flow over rotating blades can
also induce unsteadiness such
as by8:
• Boundary layer pressure fluctua-
tions.
• Vortex shedding from blade trail-
ing edges causing unsteady
aerodynamic force.
(v) Per revolution diaphragm har-
monics can result from dimensional
imperfections in the flow passage
geometry, particularly from variations
in nozzle throat dimensions.3
(vi) Other structural features. Flow
disturbances can also be caused
from structural features (other than
from stationary blades) such as: (i)
staybars (struts) in the inlet chamber
and in the exhaust hood, (ii) mois-
ture removal slots, and (iii) axial or
radial spacing between seal ends or
stationary blade shroud ends.8
The term “stimulus” is used to
describe unsteady blade loading.
Stimulus is the ratio of the blade
unsteady loading amplitude at a
given harmonic to the steady com-
ponent level.
5.2.7 Blade vibration induced from
rotor or disc torsional vibrations.
Several potential sources of blade
vibration can be induced through
attachment to the rotor or disc. The
vibrational modes created by the
interaction of the disc mass/stiffness
and blades must be taken into
account to clearly identify all poten-
tial resonance modes, particularly
for shrunk-on or flexible disc con-
5-10 Turbine Blading Design II
structions.14 The lower frequency
torsional resonances in the shaft do
not generally interact with blades;
however the higher frequencies, par-
ticularly the frequency at two times
the power system frequency, can be
a significant problem. These loads
are typically in the range that inter-
act with the natural frequencies of
the longer (tuned) blades of the
LP turbine.
• Blade-disc interactions. Blade
and disc interactions may be
strongly coupled. If this occurs,
resonance conditions are not
well predicted by the traditional
methods of plotting blade
frequencies versus machine fre-
quencies, e.g., Campbell dia-
gram.22 Lam, et al.23 provide a
procedure for analyzing blade-
disc response and a case study
comparing the results of an analy-
sis of a blade group versus a
blade-disc analysis. The most
important results of that analysis
were that significant differences
did exist between the blade-
group and blade-disc models,
particularly when predicting axial
and torsional modes of vibration.
• System disruptions leading to
rotor torsional modes. Rotor tor-
sional vibrations can be excited
by electrical faults in the distribu-
tion system. These torsional
vibrations can lead to consider-
able damage to the rotor and
blading, and have lead to a num-
ber of blade failures in the power
industry.24 The turbine generator
system may respond to subsyn-
chronous, synchronous or super-
synchronous (typically two times
the running speed, e.g., 120 Hz
for 60 Hz turbines) frequencies.
Design of pre-1975 machines
typically evaluated the potential
for synchronous vibrations, but
were not designed for frequency
resonances equal to two times
the running speed.24 These reso-
nances occur as a result of load
imbalance on the three phases
which can induce secondary
currents in the generator stator.
These stator currents, termed
“negative sequence currents”,
cause an alternating torque to act
on the rotor system at twice the
transmission grid frequency of
60 Hz.14 Sources of such load
imbalance can include: cutoff of
load, line accidents, subsynchro-
nous resonance or a short in the
generator terminals.25
Torsional modes near this fre-
quency tend to be highly coupled
to disc-blade modes and as a
result considerable high cycle
fatigue damage can be imparted
to LP blades, particularly in the
last stages from the phenomenon
illustrated schematically in Figure
5-6. Failures caused by this
mechanism have been reported
in fossil units24,26 and in nuclear
units.27
A number of researchers have
reported on the analysis of disc-
blade interactions, specifically
related to avoiding unwanted res-
onances (see for example, refs.
24, 25, 28-31). The aims of such
analyses are to evaluate blade
and disc dynamics and to avoid
resonances with the electrical
grid frequency. Two examples
illustrate the typical methodology.
Higuchi and Tsuda29 performed a
torsional vibration analysis of the
LP turbine in a 1160 MW nuclear
unit; of particular concern were
frequencies near 120 Hz. They
found as many as 45 torsional
natural modes in the frequency
range below 180 Hz. The natural
modes included fundamental
modes, higher modes of the shaft,
and blade-shaft interactions.29
Torsional modes above 70 Hz
were mostly caused by coupled
effects between the blade, shaft
and disc. Field tests measured
the blade induced vibrations
caused by short circuits induced
at the generator terminals and
concluded that, in this case, the
blades of the L-0 row were well
tuned away from 120 Hz.

Figure 5-6. Schematic of rotor-blade coupled torsional vibra-
tion. Source: E. Tsunoda, H. Mimuro, S. Hisa, H. Sakakida, and
S. Mori25
Reid24 provided a detailed case
study that evaluated coupled
blade-rotor torsional vibration in
anticipation of a major low pres-
sure blade retrofit. That analysis
analyzed the natural frequencies
and response stresses for a sys-
tem that included a combined HP,
IP and two LP turbines along with
a generator and exciter. Bladed
discs were modeled as branch
elements. The model developed
was confirmed using stationary
frequency impact or “bump” test-
ing on the rotor with and without
blades. It was important that
impact test data be obtained for
all blades with interactions in the
frequency range of interest. For
fossil units this is typically the L-0
stage only; in nuclear units, the
last three rows are typically
required. Following a redesign
and retrofit of the L-0 row, field
torsional testing was done using a
system transient bump test. The
test was used to detect torsional
modes around 60 and 120 HZ.
The test was performed by manu-
ally synchronizing and tripping
the machine and measuring the
resulting noise spikes. A single
phase ramp test was also used to
excite the system at double line
frequency.24
There are considerable differ-
ences in torsional stiffness of the
Frequency in Hz
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
0.001
Figure 5-7. Steam turbine partial or full load operating limita-
tions during abnormal frequency, representing composite worst-
case limitations of five manufacturers. Source: ANSI32
various rotor disc designs, such
as monoblock, shrunk-on discs,
and welded construction, and as
a result of these differences, in the
torsional response characteristics
of each, particularly in the higher
torsional modes.31
• Over- and underfrequency opera-
tion. Prolonged operation at small
variations from 60 Hz (islanding)
can cause increased dynamic
loading on tuned blades. Figure
5-7 shows a composite of the lim-
its on frequency operation from
five manufacturers. The figure
shows that operation in the range
59.5 - 60.5 Hz would not affect
blade life, while outside this range
blade life will be affected.33 Note
that this figure indicates worst
case allowable times at particular
operating levels; specific turbines
may not have such restrictive
values.33
5.2.8 Self-excitation. Three primary
types of self excited turbine blade
vibration phenomena have been
defined: stall flutter, unstalled flutter,
and unsteady condensation shocks.
• Stall flutter. Stall flutter is similar
to the well known “stall” of an air-
plane wing. In steam turbines, it
occurs in the last row of LP tur-
Continuous operation
(unrestricted)
Restricted time
operating frequency limits
Prohibited operation
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Time in Minutes
bines at low load and high back-
pressures when the blades expe-
rience a negative angle of attack
at least over the upper portion of
their length. This condition is
illustrated in Figure 5-8 where the
angle of attack approaching the
rotating blade is shown for normal
operation (velocity vector labeled
V2 ) and, in contrast, for off design
or low load conditions (velocity
vector labeled V2 , off ). A region of
stall can form on the trailing side
of the blade as shown in the figure
and will result in a form of unsta-
ble vibration termed stall flutter.
Stall flutter is a serious potential
cause of blade damage as a con-
siderable number of cycles can
accumulate in a very short period
of time leading to blade failure by
high cycle fatigue.
Investigation of stall flutter has a
long history including fundamen-
tal work by Sisto in the early
1950s.34 Flutter is an aeroelastic
instability that occurs when
energy is ex-changed between
the fluid and the structure in a
manner that creates self excita-
tion. Flutter is limited only by
the damping capability of the
blade material and the structural
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-11

V2, off
Stall
Rotating blades
Figure 5-8. Stall flutter of LP blades during low load/high exhaust
pressure operation. Stall develops when the angle of attack is as
shown for V2 , off instead of normal V2 .
damping. Stable flutter can occur
only when the aerodynamic
power flow to the blade is equal
to or greater than the dissipative
power of the blade and structure.
As it is difficult to measure or cal-
culate structural damping, a con-
servative analysis ignores that
component. An extensive study
of the potential for flutter was con-
ducted by Omprakash, et al.35 for
last stage blading in a 3600 RPM
machine. The model developed
is described along with the results
of a particular analysis. They
concluded that the bladed disc
under analysis was not suscepti-
ble to flutter at loads of 50, 75
or 100% the design condenser
backpressure of 5.08 kPa (1.5 in.
Hg). However, at a higher back-
pressure of 10.16 kPa (3.0 in. Hg)
the first tangential mode became
aerodynamically unstable. A
further increase in back pressure
would make all the modes aero-
dynamically unstable.
Flutter stability can be determined
by the net power flow to the
bladed disc at various amplitudes
of vibration.35 Normal modes of
vibration are calculated by a
bladed disc modal analysis at the
5-12 Turbine Blading Design II
Stationary blading
V2 V1
V1
V2
W Influence Coefficient Method
W = Wheel speed
V1 = Outlet steam
velocity
V2 = Inlet steam
velocity (normal)
V2, off = Inlet steam
velocity
(off-design)
operating speed. Aerodynamic
forces can be calculated from the
pressure distribution derived from
a separate two dimensional cas-
cade analysis using compressible
inviscid flow for a range of flow
angles corresponding to different
operating conditions.35
Considerable effort has been
spent analyzing and developing
design methods to avoid stall flut-
ter. Common testing methods
include cascade, model and/or
full scale testing.36 An alternative
approach is to make the blade
strong enough to resist the
dynamic stresses resulting from
stall flutter.
• Unstalled flutter. Unstalled flutter
occurs without stall conditions,
particularly in low pressure tur-
bines that operate at relatively
high flow rates. In unstalled flut-
ter there is generally no actual
flow separation (the flow remains
attached to the airfoil at all times),
and the flow is not obstructed due
to a high backpressure.14 Unstal-
led flutter is more likely to affect
free standing blades which lack
frictional damping. Unstalled
flutter was first detected in the
field after the development and
application of a Blade Vibration
Monitor (BVM). 37
Some of the methods available for
the analysis of unstalled flutter are
reviewed by Evans37 and include:
(i) the FINSUP computer code38,39
which calculates work for a
vibrating blade as determined by
modal analysis, and (ii) the
which determines unstalled flutter
boundaries from experimental
data. Whitehead’s method deter-
mines the unsteady forces acting
on the blade. It also determines
work coefficients which when cou-
pled with steam density and blade
stiffness can then be converted to
aerodynamic damping.39 If the
aerodynamic damping is negative,
the aerodynamic forces reinforce
blade motion and the blade
becomes unstable.
An Aeroelastic Stability Index
(ASI) has been defined which
combines calculation of aerody-
namic damping, mechanical
damping based on blade vibration
test data, and a moisture effect
deduced from BVM tests.37
Blade response rises rapidly as
a function of increase in steam
density, indicating that unsteady
aerodynamic forces required for
unstalled flutter are more likely at
maximum load conditions.
In one case, cracking occurred in
groups of free standing titanium
blades of an L-1 row.41 An
analysis showed that for certain
inter-blade phase angles, the
aerodynamic damping was signif-
icantly negative: the condition
was worse at high load than low
load operation.
A potential solution to minimize
unstalled flutter is the mixed tun-
ing of blades.41,42
• Unsteady condensation shocks.
When steam expands through a
diverging passage, condensation
will be delayed as the saturation
line is crossed. This time delay is
caused by non-equilibrium in the
high velocity steam. A certain
amount of supersaturation of the
fluid will occur and then a rela-
 tively large amount of moisture
will condense in a small region.
This phenomenon can cause
shock as the fluid condenses.
Such a phenomenon has been
proposed as an additional load-
ing on blades that should be
incorporated into the design of LP
turbine blades.43 Condensation
shock may also lead to a pres-
sure recovery that can give a vari-
able loading problem. It has also
been suggested that the shock
may move back and forth in the
flow passage interacting with the
boundary layer in low pressure
steam turbines producing a self
sustained, non-synchronous
vibration.8
5.2.9 Start-stop transients/over-
speeds. Large cyclic stresses on
blades can occur during turbine run
ups and during overspeeds. The
effect is shown schematically in
Figure 5-9. Blades will experience a
half stress cycle from zero centrifu-
gal load to full centrifugal load as
the unit starts up. During operation,
vibratory stresses are imposed on
the high mean centrifugal stresses
as indicated schematically by the
numerous vibratory stress cycles
shown in Figure 5-9. With unit shut-
down the centrifugal stress cycle is
completed.
These large cyclic stresses are most
prominent on those blades subject
to the highest centrifugal stresses,
e.g., the longest blades in the last
few stages of the LP turbine.
Distribution of blade loads can
occur leading to stresses which
exceed local yield level and lead
subsequently to low cycle fatigue
failures. The problem is particularly
acute in locations of high stress con-
centration such as blade root hooks
and tiewire holes. It is less common
in the disc rim attachment hooks
where design stress levels are typi-
cally lower.
Rotating blade failure can occur in a
relatively few number of cycles. For
example, crack initiation has been
Unit
shutdown
Operating
Stress σ
p
rt
Unit sto
Unit sta
Time, t
Figure 5-9. Typical stress modes during start-stop and operation.
experienced in L-0 blades in 200-
1,000 start-stop cycles depending
on steam environmental condi-
tions.10,14 Clearly, for units which
are cycled on a regular basis, a
design low cycle fatigue life of less
than 500 start-stop cycles is mar-
ginal, particularly given the potential
for adverse environmental effects or
the added stresses that result from
stress concentration in the gaps
between the blade root and disc
hooks.
A case study describing the analysis
of start-stop stresses in cracking
around tiewire holes is presented in
Chapter 20.
5.2.10 Manufacture and assembly
stresses. There are a number of
sources of added static and
dynamic stresses from abnormal
manufacture, assembly tolerance,
and techniques. Some sources of
these stresses and their effects are:
• Assembly and attachment toler-
ances. The attachment between
blade and disc presents a com-
plicated stress analysis problem.
Not only are there stress concen-
tration effects in the typical inter-
locking geometries, but there are
often gaps in the contact loca-
tions.44 The distribution of load
Vibratory
Operating
stress
Centrifugal
stress
among the disc and blade hooks
can significantly influence the low
cycle fatigue life of the localized
area. Computation of peak
stresses in the blade roots is vital
for evaluation of the structural
integrity and life assessment of
turbine blades. Two examples of
this type of analysis are pre-
sented below.
Srivastav, et al.44 performed a
displacement based finite ele-
ment analysis procedure to
address the contact/friction prob-
lem between blades and discs
including an axial entry blade
with three hooks in which four
cases of varying gaps sizes were
examined. The analysis showed
that as the gap size on the lower
two hooks grew larger (up to a
maximum of 1.0 mil) the stress
overload on the top hook grew
significantly. A 23% increase in
the value of the peak effective
stress and a 25% increase of the
peak principal tensile stress was
calculated. The conclusion from
that work was that careful consid-
eration of relative clearances and
contact areas is needed to avoid
significant underestimation of the
blade attachment stresses.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-13
 stage of a 300 MW unit is dis-
) cussed in (ref. 45).
o de
m
rd • Dynamic stresses can also result
l (3
na from manufacturing imperfections
o
rsi such as (i) inexact matching of
To
stationary blade geometry at hori-
zontal joints, (ii) leakage through
(2 Ax
nd ia gaps in stationary blade shrouds
l m l
tia od and diaphragm discs at horizontal
n e) e
e d )
g
n mo joints, (iii) eccentricity (“run out”)
Tast of rotating blade assembly with
(1
respect to stationary seals, end
walls, or nozzle diaphragms, (iv)
ellipiticity, such as caused by
thermal distortion of stationary
parts such as end walls, seals,
and nozzle diaphragms, and (v)
non-uniform spacing, gauging or
thickness of stationary blades.8

5.3 Frequency Response and

-a
Y typical first three modes of vibration
Figure 5-10. Schematic of typical first three modes of blade
vibration.
Sarlashkar, et al.9 performed a
study of gap sizes (defined as the
clearance between the root and
disc groove bearing lands when
• Residual stresses induced by
at least one bearing land was in
contact between the root and
disc steeple). The stress results
showed a potential for low cycle
fatigue failures where stress
concentrations in this region
were excessive.
• Attachment constraints. This
blade stress component can arise
from shroud and lashing wire
Fl
ow
X-
s ax
xi is
loads on the blade and the resul-
tant bending stresses and defor-
mations.
assembly such as by tenon cold
working. Cracks can also be
induced when riveting is over-
done.16 A case study indicating
that microcracks in tenons grew
during operation by a combina-
tion of steady state and dynamic
stresses in the first tangential
mode of vibration leading to
considerable losses in the L-1
the Campbell Diagram
Natural modes of vibration for tur-
bine blades can be divided into
three basic categories: (i) tangential
modes where blades vibrate per-
pendicular to the axis of the turbine
in the plane of maximum blade
flexibility, (ii) axial modes, and (iii)
torsional (twisting) vibration. Figure
5-10 shows a schematic of the
of a single blade. These are tan-
gential (1st mode), axial (2nd mode)
and torsional (3rd mode). In prac-
tice, actual blade vibration modes
will typically be a combination of
these simple cases, and thus field
vibration will be considerably more
complex even for single blades and
for grouped blades. Because of
the complexity in the shape of blade
vibrations, a number of names for
the higher modes have been devel-
oped and can lead to significant
confusion unless specifically defined
for the particular problem being ana-
lyzed. The use of computer gener-
ated mode shape diagrams, visually
identifying the displacements and
shapes, can be of significant benefit
in understanding how the actual
deformations are occurring.

5-14 Turbine Blading Design II

High cycle fatigue of LP turbine
blades usually occurs because of
structural resonances at frequencies
synchronous with harmonics of the
running speed. The tuning of longer
blades so that no structural reso-
nances occur with the first several
harmonics of rotational frequency
has been standard design practice
since the principle was introduced
by W. Campbell in 1924.22 Parallel
work was done by D. Smith.46
Subsequent refinement was intro-
duced by M. Prohl.47 Blades are
also tuned to avoid frequencies
close to harmonics to allow a margin
to account for slight differences in
manufacturing and assembly toler-
ances. If these goals are achieved,
only aerodynamic flow excitations
should remain as considerations for
dynamic stresses.
The Campbell diagram provides a
representation of blade natural
frequencies against rotational speed
and machine harmonics as shown in
Figure 5-11. Note that at the rated
speed, the blades are tuned such
that none of the blade natural
frequencies (horizontal bands in
the figure) intersects a machine
harmonic (or multiple of operating
speed), H. The width of the hori-
zontal bands indicate expected
scatter from manufacturing and
assembly tolerances. The rise in
blade frequencies from zero to rated
speed is caused by “speed” or
“spin” stiffening.
If the machine speed is above or
below the rated level, there can be
an intersection of the two lines
leading to a condition of resonance.
Turbines being brought up to speed
will undergo multiple resonances,
but the flows are typically low and
thus the magnitude of the stress,
even amplified by the resonance
behavior, tends to be low.
Manufacturers generally tune
through the first three families of
modes (tangential, axial, torsional)
to avoid resonance up through the
3rd natural frequency
Frequency - f, Hz
2nd natural frequency
(tangential)
1st natural frequency
Turbine Speed, rpm
Figure 5-11. Typical Campbell diagram for a 60 Hz low pressure blade.
7th or 8th harmonic (420-480 Hz) of
running speed.14 This is generally
sufficient as the lower modes have
higher associated energies.
However, tenon fatigue failures have
occurred in the fourth mode (second
bending mode) excited by 12th or
13th order harmonics.
There is a limitation on the number
of modes that can be tuned which
is a function of off frequency require-
ments and manufacturing capabil-
ity48, illustrated schematically by
example in Figure 5-12. If, for
example, the requirement is that the
blade should be off of a resonant
frequency by ± 1.5 Hz and the man-
ufacturer can produce blades of a
population that fits within a 40 Hz
band, then it is only possible to tune
modes with frequencies below the
seventh harmonic:
60– 40 1

H≈ ≈7
2  1.5

6
Rated
speed
5
4
3
2
H=1
The frequency response of blades is
typically verified as part of the man-
ufacturing and quality control
process and compared to the per-
missible frequencies evaluated
using a Campbell diagram. Then all
other effects such as blade fixation
and rotor-blade coupling are added
to the frequency calculation and
compared to the permissible fre-
quency window.
At higher modes, the frequencies
are more difficult to calculate and
test. Also, factors such as manu-
facturing tolerances, material prop-
erties, root attachment or disc
effects, and the effects of deposits
or erosion on the blade vane leading
edge, tend to cause the individual
blade frequencies to scatter about
the calculated frequency.49
Fortunately, at the higher harmonics
the dynamic forces generated are
(5-1) typically lower.50
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-15

Off-frequency
requirement
Frequency, Hz
40 Hz
H-1
Speed, RPM
Figure 5-12. Schematic of limitations on blade tuning imposed by manufacturing
capability and tuning requirements. Source: R. Pigott, L.D. Kramer, R.J. Ortolano, and
R.I. Jaffee48
Further, in practice each manufac-
tured and assembled blade has a
slightly different natural frequency,
which complicates the analysis for a
row of blades, but does reduce the
aerodynamic coupling between
blades and therefore makes the row
less unstable than if all blades were
perfectly matched. In fact, it is pos-
sible to stabilize an aerodynamically
unstable row by deliberately mistun-
ing if the average self-damping of a
single fixed blade is positive, but not
if it is negative.42 The variation in
individual blade natural frequencies
also explains why, in a potentially
unstable row, some blades fail while
others do not: adjacent blades
which are not aerodynamically cou-
pled will vibrate independently of
one another.
The implication to blade design is
that blade rows should be aerody-
namically stable with the use of
deliberate mistuning (or mixing) of
actual blade natural frequencies to
5-16 Turbine Blading Design II
-1.5 Hz
H
Manufacturing
frequency
distribution
Manufacturing
capabililty
Design
achieve stability if necessary.42
Mechanical damping, primarily a
result of mechanical friction,
decreases with increasing amplitude
and should not be relied upon
unless specifically confirmed in
rotating tests under worst case
operating conditions.42 Monitoring
of all blades in a suspect row is
necessary and tests should be run
under worst case flow conditions.
In situ blade vibration can also be
measured by non-contacting meth-
ods using strain gage, telemetry,
electromagnetic, eddy current, or
optical devices. Use of such meth-
ods are the preferred means of
measurement of non-synchronous
vibration. Chapter 10 contains
additional information about blade
vibration monitoring.
Vibration stresses can also arise
from variation in the geometry of the
steam inlet passages in the station-
ary blades.8 There is no practical
way to tune the blade against these
per-rev very high harmonics. The
deflections and stresses that result
are fortunately generally low; how-
ever, poor environmental conditions
can lower the life of the blade under
such loadings. Table 5-3 provides a
diagnostic that allows the operator
to identify what the underlying exci-
tation source may be from the nature
of a particular harmonic.
Asymmetries in the flow that are
both temporally and spatially peri-
odic result in flow induced vibrations
in the blade by buffeting from ran-
dom fluctuations in the flow, by aero-
dynamic instability (which can lead
to blade flutter) or by a combination
of the two.42 Such excitations are
the result of random fluctuations in
the flow and as a result the fre-
quency spectrum is continuous or
broad band and the Campbell type
plot and methods thus cannot be
used to guard against failure.
The Campbell diagram can, how-
ever, be used to predict the frequen-
cies of individual blades, or some
groups of blades. Where the blade
groups are attached to rigid drum-
type rotors, finite element models
and a plot of the Campbell diagram
are sufficient to detect potential con-
ditions of resonance. However, in
those turbines with more flexible
discs, there may be structural inter-
action between the blades and the
discs which is not easily detected
using only the Campbell diagram.23
The dominant shapes of the defor-
mation of the disc tend to be sinu-
soidal waves around the circumfer-
ence of the disc, although a variety
of other shapes are possible.
Figure 5-13 illustrates these domi-
nant sinusoidal shapes. The one
nodal diameter figure shows the
simplest of these modes. In this
mode there are two zero points or
nodes (indicated by the solid points
on the circle) and a displacement
around the disc equal to one sine
wave. That displacement reaches a
maximum positive displacement on
the right side of the drawing and a
minimum displacement 180° around
the disc from that point.
The interference diagram has been Table 5-3
developed to calculate the effect of Steam Path Exciting Forces in the LP Turbine
nodal disc vibrations on blade vibra-
Harmonic Typical Sources
tions. The interference diagram
plots the disc-blade modal shapes
One per rev Displacement (such as bending) of a blade.
(using nodal diameters) against
frequency. An example of the inter-
Two per rev. Diaphragm joints.
ference diagram is shown in Figure
5-14 for an analysis of a six blade
Multiple per rev. Structural supports in flow path.
group. The basic premise of the
interference diagram is that reso-
Medium/rev. • Diaphragm harmonics.
nance cannot occur unless the
• Aeroelastic disturbances.
nodal diameter of the mode in ques-
• Nozzle turbulence harmonics
tion coincides with the per-rev exci-
tation, i.e., four per-rev interfering
High/rev. • Upstream wake degeneration.
with the fourth nodal diameter. The
• Structural turbulence.
nodal diameter concept is used to
describe the mode shapes in terms Source: W. Sanders16
of the number of nodes (locations of
zero motion) that are observed in a
given mode. Thus, Figure 5-14
shows the relationship between the
blade group natural frequency, the
blade-disc mode shape (expressed
in terms of nodal diameters), and
per-rev excitation. The closed
symbols represent single modes. Zero Nodal Diameter Four Nodal Diameter
The data used on the interference
diagram are from a finite element
analysis.
A constant speed line (1800 rpm in
Figure 5-14) is drawn on the interfer-
ence diagram. Wherever the speed
line crosses a set of nodal diameter One Nodal Diameter Five Nodal Diameter
modes, a resonant condition is pos-
sible.51 In this example, the speed
line passes near the fourth nodal
diameter of the first tangential mode
set, indicating a possible resonance.
The advantage of the interference
diagram over the Campbell diagram Two Nodal Diameter Six Nodal Diameter
is that the latter would not have
identified this potential resonance
since it does not include the disc
modal effects.
Examples of both Campbell and
interference diagrams and their
Three Nodal Diameter Seven Nodal Diameter
interpretation can be found in some
of the case studies of Chapter 20. A
tool has been developed to extend
the Campbell diagram into three Figure 5-13. Sample results from a modal test of a blade-disc structure that show
dimensions, it is termed the SAFE the distribution of node points around the disc circumference, identifying the diametral
lines and characterizing the disc mode shapes. Source: T. Lam, R. Dewey, and A.
diagram (Singh’s Advanced Sarlashkar23
Frequency Evaluation).52

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 5-17

 5.4 Aerodynamic Analysis and
Frequency, Hz Flow Analysis of Blades
400
Aerodynamic and flow analysis has
Tangential modes always been important in the design
360 and analysis of turbines. However,
Axial modes
recent developments in computa-
320 tional fluid dynamic (CFD) programs
have allowed significantly better
analysis than was available even in
280 the recent past. Such tools were not
1800 rpm
available to the turbine manufactur-
240 ers when most units were originally
designed.
200 Turbine heat rate and output
improvements of 2-6% have been
reportedly achieved in turbines from
160
several manufacturers as a result of
optimizing the aerodynamics of the
120 original turbine flow paths.53-57
Complex three dimensional CFD
80 programs have been increasingly
used to evaluate the redesign of tur-
bine components such as exhaust
40 hoods and/or blading modifications,
and have been used to assess the
0 potential payback for such changes.
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 In a number of cases, the need to
Nodal Diameter replace worn or eroded airfoils and
the nature of the replacement has
Figure 5-14. Interference diagram for the analysis of a six blade been established by the use of three
group. Source: W. Burton and R. Ortolano51 dimensional CFD studies.58
Prior to the early 1990s flow analysis
was performed primarily with
Rotating blade Rotating blade axisymmetric flow field computer
programs (one dimensional and later
two dimensional models). However,
Stationary blade Stationary blade in the final stages of the LP turbine
flow is undergoing a phase change
because of the expanding steam
and is significantly three dimen-
sional, Figure 5-15. Further, this
non-equilibrium phase change pro-
duces vapor subcooling, which can
locally alter the velocity triangles in
the critical area near the leading
edges of fixed and rotating blades.
Flow Flow

a) Traditional Design b) Three Dimensional Design

Figure 5-15. Last stage flow is highly three dimensional. New blade designs (see
Figure 5-16) that incorporate lean and sweep are being designed by using computa-
tional fluid dynamics programs. Such programs can determine the shape of stream-
lines and allow for optimizing blade profiles. Source: A.P. Weiss60

5-18 Turbine Blading Design II

 Earlier programs could not take into
account these radial flows because
of the lack of computational tools.
The state of the art for analysis of
flows is that three dimensional flows
within blade rows can be calculated
and two dimensional calculations of
condensing flows can be calcu-
lated. The next step is three dimen-
sional condensing flows59 and to
combine the effects of vapor sub-
cooling, shock wave development,
spontaneous condensation and
three dimensional flow on overall
stage losses.58
The results of three dimensional
CFD are used to improve blade
designs that optimize the shape of
the concave and convex sides of
the blade and produce optimized
passage profiles that can reduce
shock induced losses. An example
of such a blade in commercial pro-
duction is shown in Figure 5-16.
It is ironic that despite the recent
advances in three dimensional aero-
dynamic analysis design, that the
last LP stage remains the least ther-
modynamically efficient row in the
steam path, even though it has the
largest available energy.58 This
should be a challenge to future
design engineers.

Figure 5-16. Example of an advanced

stationary blade designed by consider-
ing the three dimensional nature of the
expanding flow. Source: A.P. Weiss60

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Chapter 6 • Volume 1
Life Assessment
Methods
6.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of
life assessment technologies. The
intent is to introduce some basic
considerations that are applicable to
the evaluation of the variety of dam-
age mechanisms in Volume 2: stress
analysis (Section 6.3), fatigue analy-
sis (Section 6.4), fracture mechanics
analysis (Section 6.5), creep and
creep-fatigue (Sections 6.7 and 6.8).
Section 6.6 discusses some of the
differences between deterministic
and probabilistic methods as
applied to fatigue and fracture
mechanics analyses.
The chapter begins with a generic
procedure for the assessment of
blades which illustrates how the vari-
ous analysis types (stress analysis,
fatigue, and fracture mechanics) are
combined.
6.2 A Generic Procedure for
Blade and Blade Attachment Life
Assessment
Blade analysis is performed for a
variety of reasons: (i) determining
the root cause of damage, (ii) com-
paring alternative fixes to a problem,
and (iii) estimating future reliability
by determining life. Although identi-
fication of the damage cause is the
first major step toward prescribing
an effective solution, it is often a
secondary objective in the period
immediately after the damage is
found to getting the unit running.
Typically some interim measure such
as re-blading with available replace-
ments or removal of a damaged row
is implemented. However, if the
underlying cause is not corrected,
the damage will typically reoccur.
Approximately 50% of blade failures
will re-occur when identical replace-
ments are used without corrective
engineering analysis.1
A further trap that should be assidu-
ously avoided is assuming that if a
blade lasted a set number of years
that a simple, direct replacement will
realize the same life. This is particu-
larly important to remember where
there have been obvious changes in
the operation of the unit (for exam-
ple recent changes to cycling from
base load, recent changes in the
quality of the water chemistry, etc.).
A direct replacement for a blade that
had experienced 19 years of base
loaded life and one year of cycling
life may result in only one additional
year of life, not 20.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-1
A generic procedure for assessment
of blade life when subjected to
Step 1
fatigue, corrosion fatigue or stress Compile inspection,
corrosion cracking is shown in metallurgical and unit data
Figure 6-1. For these damage
types, blading life analysis will typi-
cally include: (i) finite element mod- Step 2
Preliminary identification of
eling, (ii) calculating natural frequen-
failure mechanism
cies and stresses, and (iii) a means
of determining life, such as fatigue
analysis or fracture mechanics. Step 3
Note that this procedure is not Evaluate industry-wide
required for a wide variety of other data
damage mechanisms, such as fret-
ting, solid particle erosion, copper Step 4 Execute repair/replace
Is detailed analysis No
deposition, liquid droplet erosion, strategy
and water induction. See the indi- required?
vidual chapters of Volume 2 pertain- Yes
ing to these mechanisms for details
of how they are individually Step 7
assessed. Also note that in blading, Define geometry
an initiated crack essentially signals
end of life and therefore fracture
mechanics is not typically utilized, Step 6 Step 8
however, for the disc rim attachment Review design Generate finite
area, a significant portion of life can information element model
occur in the propagation stage of
flaw growth and thus the use of
Step 9 Step 10 Step 12
fracture mechanics is indicated.
Calculate steady Calculate natural Calculate dynamic
Even if fatigue, stress corrosion state stresses frequencies and stresses
cracking or corrosion fatigue are mode shapes
confirmed, there may be some
situations in which it is appropriate Step 11
to forego stress, fatigue and fracture Confirm with modal
analysis (Step 4 on Figure 6-1). test, if possible
Such situations would have all of the
following characteristics: (i) the fail- Step 5 Step 13
ure is isolated to a single blade or Define material Estimate time to
only a few blades, (ii) the root cause properties failure using fatigue
can be clearly identified, (iii) the fix and fracture
mechanics analyses
is straightforward (such as a simple
replacement or weld repair), and (iv)
it is clear the fix will achieve the Step 4
Iterate evaluation of
operator’s goals for blade life or will
proposed solutions
clearly allow operation until the next
scheduled outage. Such a set of
circumstances might occur for ex-
ample where there was an isolated Figure 6-1. Generic flowchart for blade assessment.
blade manufacturing defect, or if a
foreign object was left in the turbine underlying root cause, and to con- generic procedure, the reader
during a maintenance outage and firm that the solution addresses should pick the appropriate steps
caused impact damage to blades. that cause. depending on the nature and extent
In the vast majority of cases how- of the damage to customize the
The following sections describe the
ever, the steps illustrated in Figure requirements pertinent to the spe-
step-by-step blade assessment out-
6-1 will be required to identify the cific situation.
lined in Figure 6-1. As it describes a

6-2 Life Assessment Methods

6.2.1 Compile inspection data, met-
allurgical results and unit data (Step
1, Figure 6-1). Where the damage
is occurring can be valuable in
determining which specific modes of
vibration are inducing damage.
Inspection results should include
answers to such questions as:
• What is the general nature of the
damage (rubbing, fretting, crack-
ing, deformation, over tempera-
ture operation)?
• What are the locations of dam-
age?
• Which rows are affected?
• Where in the row is the damage?
• Are groups of blades affected?
Which blades in the group are
damaged (only leading blades,
only trailing blades, both leading
and trailing blades, all blades
equally, etc.)
• Where on the damaged blades is
the damage occurring?
• What can be learned from the
geometry of the blade and
attachments near the damage?
Are there measurable gaps
between the blade root and disc
rim attachment? Are tiewire,
tiewire hole, tenon or shroud
tolerances or geometries impli-
cated in the failure?
A damage report, similar to that
described in Chapter 12 should be
completed and the information
about each outbreak of damage
stored in a central database for use
in future analyses. NDE methods for
inspecting turbine blades are dis-
cussed in Chapter 11.
Information from metallurgical exam-
inations should be gathered. Table
6-1 provides a list of typical informa-
tion that should be obtained.
Significantly more detail about met-
allurgical examinations is provided
in Chapter 9.
Unit information will also be
required, including load history and
chemical history of steam. The load
Table 6-1
Metallurgical Aspects of a Failure Examination
Technique
Optical Microscopy
Metallography
Scanning electron microscopy
Chemical analysis on
representative material
removed from component
Adapted from: J.D Parker, et al.2
history of the unit may include such
information as: (i) unit load/speed
cycling (a key determinant of low
cycle fatigue), (ii) load changes
(which can help account for thermal
fatigue), (iii) number of over-
speeds/governor trips that have
occurred, (iv) period of time that
blades were at overspeed condi-
tions, and (v) conditions that may
have lead to sub-synchronous or
supersynchronous operation.
The period over which the damage
has occurred will be an important
clue and help identify for example
whether a source of stress consistent
with low cycle fatigue or high cycle
fatigue is appropriate, or whether the
damage has been longer term, such
as the result of creep.
6.2.2 Preliminary identification of
the damage mechanism (Step 2,
Figure 6-1). From the inspection
and metallurgical data it should be
possible to identify the general fail-
ure mechanism. Guidance on
Requirements
• Sketches noting extent, color area and texture of corrosion
products.
• Description of corrosion, form and extent, e.g., general attack
or mild pitting.
• Crack locations, number and distribution.
• Record/sketch orientation and location of samples.
• Photomicrographs of unetched and etched sample.
• Record microstructure and nature of cracks.
• Determine crack morphology, i.e., intergranular or transgranular,
straight/branched, etc.
• Photo-fractographs of fracture surfaces to document failure
mode.
• Analysis of fracture surface deposits by in-situ energy
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
• Compare material composition to specifications.
• Record levels of impurities in deposits or scales.
mechanism confirmation can be
obtained from the actions outlined in
the second half of each chapter of
Volume 2.
6.2.3 Evaluate available information
on similar damage from unit, sister
unit or industry experience (Step 3,
Figure 6-1). In some cases, it may
be possible to gain considerable
insight about the problem and likely
fixes from past failures. An evalua-
tion of past unit records along with
available information from similar
units may help in this regard.
6.2.4 Determine whether a detailed
analysis is required (Step 4, Figure
6-1). If fatigue, stress corrosion
cracking or corrosion fatigue are
suspected or confirmed, then it is
likely that a detailed analysis is
required. Only very special cir-
cumstances, outlined at the begin-
ning of Section 6.2, would change
this decision.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-3
6.2.5 Define the material properties
(Step 5, Figure 6-1). These may
come from historical records, or
open literature values, preferably
with confirmation of critical proper-
ties by testing. One of the difficul-
ties in any detailed assessment is
dealing with the scatter in material
properties that will occur in any real
situation. Judgment will be required
to balance the amount of data col-
lected against the cost to do so.
Material properties of interest will
depend on the damage type being
evaluated but will typically include
(i) strength, (ii) fatigue crack growth
rate, (iii) SCC and corrosion fatigue
crack growth rates (preferably in
environments reflecting that seen by
the damaged blades), (iv) fracture
toughness (for discs), and (v) mater-
ial hardness.
6.2.6 Gather and evaluate design
information (Step 6, Figure 6-1).
This includes answering such
questions as: Is a Campbell diagram
available? Are there obvious blade
modes which are more likely to
have had resonance with per-rev
excitation?
6.2.7 Define the geometry of the
blade, attachments, and damage
(Step 7, Figure 6-1). Dimensions
should be specified from field
measurements.
6.2.8 Generate a finite element
model of the blade (Step 8, Figure
6-1). This step will model key
geometries such as actual dimen-
sions of all relevant stress concen-
trations, nature of blade groups
(free standing or grouped, integral
or riveted covers, tiewires, etc.) and
detail of attachments. If damage
appears to be a disc-blade interac-
tion, the investigator will need to
expand the model to include the
disc; entire rotor modeling may
also need to be included if rotor
torsional modes are suspected to
be an underlying root cause of the
damage.
6-4 Life Assessment Methods
6.2.9 Calculate steady state
stresses (Step 9, Figure 6-1). This
should include an analysis of such
stresses as centrifugal stress, steam
bending, and any steady state ther-
mal stresses. This analysis should
identify locations of maximum stress
and their distribution throughout the
blade. The effect of stress concen-
trations such as at the root attach-
ment and in tiewires or shrouding
should be included in this analysis.
Three dimensional analysis is typi-
cally required to identify potential
high stress areas; a two dimensional
analysis may be sufficient to focus
on key locations for more detailed
evaluation.
6.2.10 Calculate natural frequencies
and mode shapes (Step 10, Figure
6-1). Plot a Campbell diagram or
interference diagram to illustrate the
relationship of mode frequencies to
rotor speed. Suspect a resonance
problem if blade frequencies are
close to per-revolution harmonics.
Plot the modal shapes. This work
can be done experimentally by
using strain gages to measure reso-
nances, or analytically. In the latter
case, some finite element analysis
packages (such as the BLADE-ST
code8,11,12) provide automatic plot-
ting of Campbell diagrams. Chapter
5 discusses vibration analysis,
Campbell plots, and interference
diagrams in more detail. Typical
examples of field application to the
diagnosis of damage are given in
the case studies of Chapter 20.
Changes in blade frequencies
caused by corrosion, erosion, or
deposit buildup may need to be
included in the analysis. Further,
effects that occur at operating
speed but do not show up in a
static model of the blade, such as
stress stiffening (causing running
speed blade frequencies to be
higher than would be measured at
zero rpm) or spin softening may
also need to be included.
6.2.11 Confirm with modal test
where possible or necessary (Step
11, Figure 6-1). Blade frequencies
and modal shapes can be docu-
mented at zero rpm and compared
with the finite element results at zero
speed. If they compare well it is
reasonable to assume that the
dynamic behavior of the blade is
also well represented.
6.2.12 Calculate the dynamic
stresses in response to unsteady
forces using an appropriate forcing
function (Step 12, Figure 6-1).
These might include such sources
as partial arc admission, nozzle-
wake interactions, flutter or other
unsteady forces such as described
in detail in Chapter 5.
6.2.13 Estimate time to failure
using fatigue and fracture mechanics
analysis (Step 13, Figure 6-1).
A typical fatigue analysis will use a
local strain approach that allows for
the cumulative effect of multiple
strain sources such as modal reso-
nance and mean strains from cen-
trifugal loading. Input to the fatigue
analysis will include the blade
material properties, unit history
(start/stops) and operating tempera-
ture. Steady stress amplitude,
dynamic frequency and stress
amplitude determined from prior
calculations are also used in the
fatigue analysis. The effect of envi-
ronment should also be included.
Fracture mechanics will be used to
determine lifetime after the formation
of a crack in the disc rim attachment
area. Also note that a considerable
amount of work has been conducted
modeling pit initiation and propaga-
tion for corrosion fatigue.3
6.2.14 Iterate the analysis to
evaluate alternative solutions (Step
14, Figure 6-1). Options need to be
compared to demonstrate that supe-
rior performance in fatigue, SCC or
corrosion fatigue can be expected.
This step is critical if geometry or
material changes are being sug-
gested such as the introduction of
longer (or shorter) shrouding,
changing to or from free standing
blades, or changing root attachment
geometry. Where operating prac-
tices or cycle chemistry can be
modified to reduce the rate of dam-
age accumulation, these effects
should also be quantified.
6.2.15 Uncertainties in the stress
and fatigue analyses. Unfortunately
there are a number of uncertainties
or shortcomings no matter which
particular analysis method is em-
ployed. Some of these are identified
in Table 6-2.
Given the various uncertainties in
material properties, excitation,
damping, and cumulative damage
estimates, blade life estimates are
typically only within a factor of 3-4
of measured life values.6 For this
reason, the BLADE-ST code and
similar calculations are typically
used primarily for relative indicators
of performance, not for absolute
predictions of life. Estimates of
the accuracy of various fatigue
parameters described are shown
in Table 6-3.
6.2.16 Case studies showing the
application of blade assessment.
Case studies illustrating the assess-
ment of field failures can be found in
Chapters 20 (Fatigue), 24 (Corrosion
Fatigue), and 25 (SCC in Disc Rim
Attachments).
6.3 Stress Analysis
6.3.1 Basic principles. Stress
analysis methods are often required
to evaluate or confirm the root cause
of such damage mechanisms as
fatigue, stress corrosion cracking
and corrosion fatigue. The total
stress, σt at any location is the com-
bination of the steady mean stress,
σm , and dynamic, or alternating
stress, σa . During operation where
a single harmonic response domi-
nates, the total stress is given by:
σt = σm + σa cos ω t
(6-1)
where ω is the circular frequency of
the predominant alternating stress.
The steady state mean stresses
are a combination of the centrifugal
and steady state steam bending
Table 6-2
Sources of Uncertainties in Blading Analysis
Loads
• Although steady loads are well defined, deterministic dynamic loads are typically poorly
defined and only a fair definition of stochastic loads is possible.
• Poorly defined contact stresses (attachment tenon, tiewires, etc.).
Geometry
• Well defined Kt values for stresses.
• Poorly defined kf as kf is a function of both Kt and notch geometry.
Material
• Strength and dynamic properties must be statistically defined.
• Batch properties subject to variation in heat treatment.
• It is difficult to accurately define damping coefficients as function of rotor speed, amplitude
and blade material
• There is a large scatter in fatigue properties under a variety of operating environments.
Load history
• Not well known. Past operating conditions may be unavailable and future operating
conditions undefined.
Problems with calculations and algorithms
• Miner’s law summation influenced by loading sequence.
• Rainflow (range pair) cycle counting appears reliable.
• Residual stresses can introduce complications.
• HCF life influenced by environment, notably corrosion.
• Details of corrosive event history may not be available.
• Specifics of erosion damage, which will influence fatigue and environmentally-assisted
fatigue life may not be available.
Sources include: N.F. Rieger4 and J.S. Rao5
stresses (see Chapter 5 for a more Table 6-3
detailed discussion of these individ- Estimates of Accuracy to Which Various
ual stress components and how Fatigue Parameters are Known
they arise):
Parameter Estimate of Accuracy
σmo = σco + σbo (6-2)
Steady stress 1.01 - 1.05
where
Damping log. dec. 1.10 - 1.50
σmo = nominal (no effect of stress
concentration) mean stress Excitation 1.30 - 1.70
σco = nominal centrifugal stress
Dynamic magnifier 1.02 - 1.05
σbo = nominal bending stress
Assembly tolerance 1.05 - 1.25
Mean stresses remain constant in
a given location in any blade part Strain life 1.05 - 1.15
(airfoil, root, cover, tenon, etc.) at a
Miners law sum 1.10 - 1.15
specified speed and power output.
Alternating stresses can arise from Load history 1.00 - 1.50
a number of causes (see Chapter 5
Life estimate variation 1.80 - 9.00
for more detail). Such resonant
stresses are related to the stimulus Source: N.F. Rieger and T.H. McCloskey 6
(S), damping (δ), and a resonance
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-5
response factor, FR by the
expression:
σao = (π/δ )FR S σbo (6-3)
where
σao = nominal alternating stress
Practical combinations of blade
damping, stimulus, and dynamic
response factor can lead to alternat-
ing stresses that equal or exceed
the nominal mean bending stress at
the section.7
6.3.2 Finite element analysis.
The most common method used for
calculating the complex patterns of
stress in steam path components is
the use of the finite element method.
Application of specific finite element
programs begins with modeling the
geometry of interest. They then
allow calculation of natural frequen-
cies, steady and dynamic stresses,
and thermal stresses given input of
loading conditions. These stress
components, along with high- and
low cycle fatigue properties of the
material, are used to predict the time
to fatigue crack initiation by a
fatigue cycle counting algorithm
such as the local strain approach
(described in the following section).
General purpose finite element
codes, such as ANSYS™ or special-
ized codes such as BLADE-ST™
(Blade Life Algorithm for Dynamic
Evaluation – Steam Turbine)8,9 can
be used for the analysis of blades.
The latter contains preset geome-
tries, blade material properties, or
damping and excitation functions.
When identical models are devel-
oped, however, the results obtained
for natural frequencies and stresses
are the same between ANSYS and
BLADE.10 Examples of how finite
element analysis can be applied to
find the root cause of blade failures
and confirm the solutions taken can
be found in the case studies of
Chapter 20 on Fatigue or in the
open literature.6-8,11-13
6-6 Life Assessment Methods
Se
Gerber parabola
σa Goodman line
Soderberg line
Sy Su
σm
Figure 6-2. Fatigue life predictions can be made by plotting locations of mean ( σm ),
and alternating stress ( σa ), and comparing to failure “lines”. On this figure the
Goodman and Soderberg lines are shown, along with a failure parabola by Gerber.
Plotted points of σm and σa that fall above and to the right of the appropriate “line” indi-
cate conditions that will lead to failure by fatigue.
6.4 Fatigue Analysis dition for a given condition is plotted
Methods for predicting fatigue life- on a graph on which the magnitude
times of structural members are well of the mean stress is plotted on the
documented.14 Two of the most abscissa and alternating stress level
common techniques are the use of is plotted on the ordinate. Three
the Goodman diagram or a variant points are known. If the load is sta-
(Figure 6-2), and elastic-plastic tic, that is σa = 0 , a mean stress
(local strain) analysis. Although tra- equal to yield, Sy , will initiate yield-
ditionally most component analyses ing and a mean stress equal to the
have been performed using these ultimate strength of the material, S u ,
deterministic methods, there are will cause failure (fracture). On the
some valid reasons to move toward ordinate, if the mean stress is zero,
probabilistic analysis of fatigue con- then failure occurs at the endurance
ditions. Fatigue analysis can include limit, Se , which is found from
the calculation of both initiation time laboratory testing.
and propagation of a crack. In con- The Goodman diagram is a straight
trast, fracture mechanics methodolo- line connecting Su and Se. Failure in
gies, described in the next section, fatigue will occur whenever the com-
assume the existence of a crack and bination of mean and alternating
calculate the lifetime for that crack to stresses calculated for a particular
grow to a critical size. condition is above the Goodman
line. Stress amplitudes for notched
6.4.1 Goodman diagram and members are estimated from those
modified Goodman diagram. The for unnotched members by invoking
Goodman diagram, proposed by J.
a fatigue strength reduction factor,
Goodman of London in 1899 (see,
k f . Likewise a stress concentration
for example reference 15), is used to
factor for the mean stress, k fm , is
represent the effect of mean and
also estimated.
cyclic stress levels. The stress con-
As indicated in Figure 6-2, there
have been a number of non-linear
theories which attempt to overcome
the conservatism in the linear
Goodman theory. The most widely
used is probably the Gerber para-
bolic relation, proposed by W.
Gerber of Germany in 1874.
The Goodman diagram can in prin-
cipal be used to evaluate the com-
bined effects of steady and dynamic
stress. However, given the com-
plexity of load variations typical of
turbine blading, an analysis of cyclic
stress-strain and a damage summa-
tion method is more widely employ-
ed for fatigue analysis of blades.
6.4.2 Elastic-plastic (local strain)
analysis. As noted above, it is tra-
ditional to separate the total fatigue
life of a notched member into a
crack initiation life, which is spent in
developing small cracks, and a
crack propagation life, which is
spent in growing cracks to failure.
During the initiation stage the dam-
age process is controlled by the
cyclic plastic strain at the notch
root. Nominal stress, reflected in
the stress intensity factor, K, controls
the growth of cracks during the later
stages. The local strain approach
analyzes plasticity and mean stress
effects in a rational and fairly rigor-
ous manner, thereby avoiding most
of the empiricism of the nominal
stress methods such as the
Goodman diagram.
Strain-life relations were shown by
Manson and Hirschberg16 to be the
sum of the elastic and plastic strain
resistance:
εt = (σf’/E ) (2Nƒ)b + εƒ’ (2Nƒ)c
(6-4)
where:
εt = total strain
σf’ = fatigue strength coefficient
E = Young’s modulus
2Nƒ = number of complete strain
reversals to failure
b = fatigue strength exponent
εƒ’ = fatigue ductility coefficient
c = fatigue ductility exponent
The parameters, σƒ’, E, b, εƒ’, and c
are material properties which can
be obtained from handbooks of
such properties.17 This leaves the
total strain and corresponding num-
ber of cycles (strain reversals) as
unknowns. Given a strain such as
the result of a finite element analysis
in a failure analysis, the number of
cycles to failure can be calculated.
Conversely, in a design situation,
limitations on the allowable total
strain can be placed on a blading
design for a desired lifetime (num-
ber of cycles). As an indication of
the typical values for each variable,
for Type 403 stainless steel at 335°C
(635°F): E=28,000 ksi, σƒ’=131 ksi,
b=-0.083, εƒ’=0.381, and c=-0.58.18
From the cyclic strain-life relation-
ship measured in the high strain
(low cycle fatigue regime) for 12Cr
blading material, the number of
cycles to failure can be calculated,
given a knowledge of cyclic strains
either measured or calculated by
finite element methods, or the dam-
age per cycle can be calculated
from the reciprocal of the number of
cycles to failure. To calculate the
time to failure for a spectrum of
loads more typical of the dynamic
and vibratory loads that blades are
subjected to, it is necessary to add
the incremental damage per cycle.
In the case of the BLADE-ST code,
for example, this is done with a
modified Miner’s rule19:
Total damage per a given group of
M
n
blades = ∑ Ni (6-5)
i=1 i
where:
Ni = number of cycles to failure for
cycle i
ni = number of applied stress-strain
loops of this amplitude
M = number of stress-strain loops
of various amplitudes within the
load block
6.4.3 Probabilistic methods for
fatigue analyses. The use of proba-
bilistic methods for fatigue analysis
is logical given the range of uncer-
tainties in key variables such as
material properties, stress concen-
trations (for example, root radii and
gaps) and loads. The use of proba-
bilistic methods can remove overly
conservative assumptions, or at
least provide an indication of the
true safety factor implied in worst
case analysis of blades. A detailed
case study of the application of
probabilistic methods to analysis of
fatigue failures can be found in the
case studies of Chapter 20.
6.5 Fracture Mechanics Analysis
Failure can be predicted for struc-
tures containing cracks through the
use of fracture mechanics. Fracture
mechanics assumes that there is
no initiation, i.e., the analysis begins
with the assumption of a sharp
crack in the part and determines
the time for that crack to grow to a
critical size.
In fracture mechanics analyses, a
stress intensity is calculated that
specifies the stress state at the tip
of a crack. In general, the stress
intensity is a function of the applied
and residual stress fields, the exist-
ing crack size and a factor that
accounts for crack and specimen
geometry:
K = A σ a1/2
1
(6-6)
where:
K = stress intensity
A1 = crack and specimen geometry
factor
σ = stress
a = crack size
For cyclic stresses, the same equa-
tion is applicable and provides the
cyclic stress intensity factor, ∆K.
Crack growth can be expressed as
a Paris relationship, as a function of
applied stress intensity:
da = C (∆K )n (6-7)
dN
where C, n are empirical constants.
Growth rates used are found from
laboratory test data.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-7
For the analysis of damage accumu-
lation by fatigue, cracks are
assumed to begin to grow when the
stress intensity reaches a threshold
value, ∆KTH ; below this threshold
crack growth is no longer observed.
Crack growth rates are typically
determined in laboratory tests, then
used to predict service performance
for various geometries. Note that
the rate at which the crack will grow
is directly proportional to the applied
stress and to the square root of the
crack size.
Failure by rapid fracture is taken to
occur at a critical stress intensity
value, the fracture toughness, KIC .
Using fracture mechanics analyses,
combinations of total stress state
and flaw size that lead to failure can
be calculated.
For damage that accumulates by
stress corrosion cracking, cracks
are assumed to grow when the
stress intensity reaches a similar
threshold value, termed KISCC ,
below which crack growth rates are
unmeasurably small. The value of
KISCC is environment dependent. It
should be noted that there are those
who believe that there is no true
“threshold” below which incremental
crack growth does not occur, only
that the value is small. It has been
said the detection and specification
of KISCC in the laboratory is depen-
dent upon the patience of the inves-
tigator. Suffice it to say for practical
engineering considerations, such
low growth rates that might occur
below established threshold values
would imply very long component
lives and therefore the issue is
somewhat moot.
There are several commercially
available fracture mechanics codes
which can be used to evaluate the
accumulation of damage by the
“crack-like” mechanisms – fatigue,
stress corrosion cracking, and corro-
sion fatigue. International standards
such as the R6 procedure20,21
developed by the former Central
6-8 Life Assessment Methods
Electricity Generating Board provide
methods to analyze structures con-
taining flaws.
6.6 Deterministic and
Probabilistic Methods
Unfortunately, there are a number of
uncertainties present in fracture
mechanics analyses. Some of these
factors include:
• Knowledge of actual operating
stresses in the component.
• Knowledge of the local chemical
environment.
• Uncertainty in defect size due to
limits on sensitivity of the NDE
methods, sampling scheme cho-
sen or limits on the accessibility
of the location.
• Simplifications introduced by the
analysis methods themselves,
such as assumptions about resid-
ual stress magnitude and distribu-
tion, and of flaw shape.
• Actual material properties includ-
ing fracture toughness, strength,
and the appropriate crack growth
rate (including consideration of
the material/ environment combi-
nation). Even if there is informa-
tion about the original material
properties, they may have
changed over time.
These uncertainties have lead to the
use of probabilistic methods of frac-
ture mechanics and the use of tech-
niques such as Monte Carlo simula-
tion that can take the appropriate
ranges of variables and calculate
probabilities of failure. An example
of a probabilistic analysis of low
cycle fatigue is given in the case
studies of Chapter 20.
Table 6-4 highlights some of the dis-
tinctions between probabilistic and
deterministic models/methods. The
use of probabilistic methods reflects
the reality that most physical para-
meters have a range of values and
that there is an underlying uncer-
tainty in their measurement. The
equations which govern a proba-
bilistic condition assessment are
identical to those used in a deter-
ministic analysis; the difference is
that input parameters can be ran-
domly chosen according to their sta-
tistical distribution. The Monte Carlo
simulation technique is commonly
applied. It allows using multiple
variables with widely different statis-
tical distributions. Probabilistic cal-
culations have become more wide-
spread as computational power has
expanded. Some care should be
taken when applying Monte Carlo
simulations:
• The result of a Monte Carlo simu-
lation is a statistical variable.
Several Monte Carlo runs using
the same input distributions
should be performed, particularly
if the number of failures predicted
is small, to ensure that result is
reliable. It has been recom-
mended that the number of Monte
Carlo simulations be in the range
of 100 to 1000 divided by the
expected or allowed probability.23
• The quality of a probabilistic
analysis depends on the availabil-
ity of a “sufficiently large” number
of relevant samples. In most
engineering situations, there are a
limited number of data points
available, which can lead to esti-
mates or engineering judgment to
determine the appropriate distrib-
utions of parameters, and thus to
uncertainties in the results.
• Care must be taken to determine
which, if any, of the input parame-
ters have the most effect on the
outcome. In many situations, one
or a few input parameters have a
large influence on the output of
the Monte Carlo model. An input
verification and sensitivity study is
recommended to characterize
where attention should be paid to
the modeling.
• The role of deterministic analysis
should not be overlooked and it
should be combined with proba-
bilistic analysis where possible.
Table 6-4
Comparison of Probabilistic and Deterministic Methods
Probabilistic Methods/Models
Model of a blade population
Stochastic model for uncertainty
Study phenomena with statistical regularities
Based on distribution of test data
Estimate the chance of failure
Source: T. Lam 22
Alternatively, the use of simple
probabilistic calculations should
be used where possible.23
6.7 Creep and Creep-Fatigue
In many respects, approaches to the
analysis of creep are analogous to
those for fatigue. However, the rate
of accumulation of creep damage
and its development into propagat-
ing cracks in the field is not as well
understood.
There are many complexities in
involved in creep and creep-fatigue
assessment, reference to overviews
such as references24,25, or applica-
ble international standards26 is use-
ful. For example, the Standard R526
provides extremely useful guidance
for high temperature defect-free and
defect assessment. It has use for
inspection management, remaining
life assessment and design assess-
ment. The procedures focus on
cyclic plasticity and creep and are
therefore primarily applicable in the
turbine to rotors, in the steam path,
and inlet locations in steam chests
and HP and IP inner casings.
Traditionally, in blades, replacement
as a result of another damage
mechanism (such as solid particle
erosion) has meant that creep has
not been the life-limiting damage
mechanism. As solid particle ero-
sion is better controlled, and blade
operating lifetimes are extended,
creep will become more widely rec-
ognized in blades. Even then, when
creep damage has become promi-
nent, the most economic response
Deterministic Methods/Models
Model of a specific case of blade design
Scientific model with simplified assumptions
Investigate worst case scenario
Based on lower bound experimental data
Determine the cause of failure
will often be replacement, thus pre-
cluding the need for extensive
analysis of creep life. These issues
are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 16.
Creep and creep-fatigue damage is
a significant problem at blade
attachments in the disc rim (Chapter
15). However, in practice, the pri-
mary strategy has been to repair the
affected area once significant dam-
age is detected rather than subject
the area to extensive calculation of
remaining life. This is in part due to
the difficulty in determining the
extent of damage in the disc rim
area and inability to take samples
that can be used for accelerated
rupture testing.
The following few sections briefly
review some of the basics of creep
and creep-fatigue analysis to serve
as background to the discussions of
Chapter 15 and 16 and to anticipate
future developments that will allow
more direct application of creep and
creep-fatigue analysis to blading
and/or the disc rim attachment area.
6.7.1 General expressions for creep;
creep rupture curves. The most
common accelerated test for creep
is the creep-to-failure test in which
engineering stress (load normalized
by initial specimen dimensions) is
plotted against the logarithm of time
to rupture, tr . The result is a series
of curves similar to the S-N curve for
fatigue. For steady state conditions,
the stress rupture curves provide
reliable design lifetimes.
For CrMoV rotor steels as for a vari-
ety of other alloys, there is a simple
relationship between minimum creep
•
rate, ε , and time to rupture, tr ,
termed the Monkman-Grant correla-
tion27:
•
εtr = constant (6-8)
Estimates of rupture life can be
obtained using the equation in com-
ponents removed from service given
creep rate from dimensional mea-
surements, or from short term labo-
ratory tests (“isostress” tests) to give
estimates of rupture life. Extrapola-
tion to determine the probable time
to rupture at service temperatures is
then typically performed. Because
it is difficult to remove samples of
the necessary size from the disc rim
attachment region, these methods
are typically limited to use in the
turbine outside the steam path
(such as at the rotor bore).
There are several alternative para-
metric extrapolations that allow short
term creep test results to be extrapo-
lated to long exposure times typical
of power plant applications. These
include the Larson-Miller parameter,
Orr-Sherby-Dorn parameter, Manson-
Haferd parameter, Manson-Brown
parameter, and the minimum com-
mitment method. The Larson-Miller
parameter28 is the most commonly
used, is easy to understand and use,
and has been proven to be at least
as accurate as, if not more accurate
than, any of the other parameters.24
The Larson-Miller parameter, LMP,
can be derived from the stress and
temperature dependence of the
creep rate or time to rupture. The
resulting equation is:
LMP = ƒ(σ ) = T (log tr +C1) (6-9)
where
LMP = the Larson-Miller parameter
T = temperature in absolute units
tr = time to rupture, at temperature,
hours
C1 = a constant that ranges from
10-40 depending on the
material
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-9
A plot of log tr versus 1/T results in
straight lines where the intercept is a
constant and whose slope is a func-
Remaining life, t, @ service temperature, Ts
tion of stress level. The Larson-
and service stress, σ*= 10
[p*/t– constant]
Miller parameter can also be used to
estimate remaining life at a given
service temperature and stress,
Figure 6-3. It is critical that the
appropriate material curve be used
for such evaluations.
Curve for material in a Virgin material

6.7.2 Damage accumulation by
creep. In field applications, creep
damage is a strong function of the
local stresses and temperatures.
Since significant variation will occur
in these factors because of steady
state operation, startup, shutdown
and other unit conditions, there will
be significant variation in the rate at
which creep damage accumulates.
For example, in some materials,
changes as small as 6-8°C (~10-
15°F) can double the creep rate of
the material. As a result, damage
“rules” have been developed to cal-
culate the amount of life expended.
The two most common rules sum
time fractions (the Robinson life frac-
tion rule)29:
t
∑ ti =1 (6-10)
ri
where t i = the time spent under
condition i , and tri = the time to rupture
under condition i ,
and strains, the strain fraction rule30:
ε contrast, subsequent problems de-
∑ εiri =1 (6-11)
where εi = the strain accumulated under
condition i , an εri = the strain to rupture
under condition i .
The Robinson life fraction rule is
analogous to the Palmgren-Miller
rule in fatigue analysis. As with
fatigue, the Robinson rule assumes
that each fractional expenditure of
life is independent of all others. It is
frequently called, incorrectly, a linear
damage rule; there is no require-
ment for linearity, only for unique-
ness of damage to life fraction. The
Log σ
given damaged state
Service stress
σ*
Parameter = T [Constant + log t]
Figure 6-3. Schematic illustrating use of a parametric method to estimate remaining
life at service temperature and stress.
original formulation was for tempera-
ture changes only. Damage
induced by variable temperature,
but constant stress is uniquely
related to life fraction. Temperature
changes do not result in sequence
effects, and therefore life expendi-
tures in each segment of time at
temperature are simply additive. In
veloped with Robinson’s rule when it
was applied assuming that stress
changes were uniquely related to life
fraction; they are not.31
Both Robinson’s rule and the
Monkman-Grant relationship have
been successfully applied to analyz-
ing power plant components.25
However, for the disc rim attachment
region, the failures are by notch
creep rupture and both methods
have shortcomings. Robinson’s rule
may predict very short lives
because of its consideration of very
high unrelaxed stresses early in life,
and the Monkman-Grant relationship
Service
Parameter
may predict that failure will never
occur.25 Refinements to both rela-
tionships to more accurately model
real damage accumulation continue
to be developed.
The analysis at the blade attachment
region is also complicated by the
need to consider triaxial stresses,
particularly for tangential entry blade
attachments that are subjected to
high hoop stresses in addition to
the plane strain stress field around
the notch.25
6.7.3 Creep cracking. The methods
discussed above, are analogous to
the analysis of fatigue crack initia-
tion. There are also analogous
methods for creep that pertain to
crack growth (propagation).
Remaining life assessment of crack-
ing (in the creep regime as well as
at lower temperatures) requires two
relationship: (i) a means to relate the
crack driving force to nominal
stress, crack size, geometry and

6-10 Life Assessment Methods

material constants, and (ii) a way to
correlate the calculated driving force
to the resultant crack growth rate for
the material of interest. A variety of
expressions have been developed
to indicate the effects at a crack tip
including the stress intensity factor,
K, and the integral, J, along with
three parameters which are been
successfully correlated to creep
crack growth: C*, Ct 32 and C(t) 33.
Unfortunately, there is a lack of J
integral formulations in the strain
gradient of a notch.25 This requires
an approximation of crack growth by
a sequence of growth intervals
under constant stress.
Example analyses have shown that
the majority of life is expended in
crack growth in the disc rim attach-
ment region25, in contrast to the con-
dition in blades where the dominant
life is that to initiation.
6.7.4 Damage accumulation by
creep-fatigue. Cyclic thermal stres-
sing under startup/shutdown cycles
can lead to initiation and propaga-
tion of cracks by low cycle fatigue.
Under low frequency (<10 -3 Hz)
load cycling in air at 538-565°C
(1000-1050°F), creep-fatigue
cracks in CrMoV steels propagate
along intergranular paths; at high
frequencies, the cracks are trans-
granular.34,35
If dwell periods at maximum load
are introduced into the load cycle,
crack growth occurs predominately
during these dwells, intergranular
cavitation occurs ahead of the crack
tip, and the crack propagation per
cycle is substantially increased.34-36
Stress controlled cyclic loading of
smooth specimens of 1CrMoV steel
has revealed a transition from duc-
tile fracture at stress ranges greater
than ± 245-260 MPa (~36 to 38 ksi)
to creep-brittle, intergranular fracture
at lower stress levels.52 This stress
level matches the transition stress in
creep-rupture experiments from
ductile rupture to brittle failure by
intergranular cavitation.37,38
The combination of creep and
fatigue damage mechanisms is com-
plicated and is far from understood.
As with simple fatigue, only inelastic
strains are damaging in the com-
bined creep and fatigue.31 The
complexity arises in that the rate of
damage accumulation is dependent
on waveform and frequency of
cycling. There are at least four
general approaches to estimating
creep-fatigue damage: (i) damage
summation, (ii) a frequency-modified
Coffin-Manson relationship, (iii) strain
range partitioning method, and (iv)
ductility exhaustion method.24
The various damage rules for
creep-fatigue have been compared
by many investigators and there is a
wide divergence of opinion about
which provides the most accurate
life prediction. One consistent find-
ing is that even the most accurate is
only useful to within a factor of 2 or 3
on remaining life prediction.
6.8 Life Assessment for Creep
Damage
There are several generic methods
that can be used for assessing
remaining life of components which
have experienced creep damage:
6.8.1 Calculate from plant operating
history. Plant records of time and
temperature can be used to calcu-
late the creep-life fraction consumed
using lower bound materials data
and a life fraction rule. This method
provides only gross estimates of
creep damage as a result of inaccu-
racies in assumed history, material
properties, and the life fraction rule.
Such calculations are most useful in
determining key locations to be
evaluated more rigorously, for
scheduling maintenance outages,
and screening for when inspections
for damage should occur.
6.8.2 Accelerated rupture testing
can be conducted on samples
removed from the component. Tests
run at accelerated (higher) tempera-
tures, but the same stresses as the
service condition are conducted,
then an extrapolation is made to
determine remaining service life.
Full scale specimen creep rupture
testing is performed according to
ASTM Standard E139-95.39 For
component assessment, however,
subsized specimens (as small as
2.5 mm (0.1 in) in diameter, 10 mm
(0.4 in) gage length, and 40.6 mm
(1.6 in) overall length) have been
used with good success.40,41
Although reasonably accurate, there
are several problems with acceler-
ated rupture testing. The location
for the sample must be chosen so
that it reflects the damage state and
general microstructural characteris-
tics that can predict the remaining
life of the component. The destruc-
tive nature of the sampling process
means that repairs will be required,
increasing the cost, and making it
so that post service rupture testing
is not generally a feasible routine
sampling scheme. There are also
testing accuracy questions such as
the correlation of uniaxial tests to
multi-axial conditions, effects of oxi-
dation and effects of specimen size.
Such tests are not currently used in
the disc rim attachment region
because of the difficulty in taking
samples.
6.8.3 Change in hardness.
CrMoV rotor material will soften as a
result of high temperature exposure,
with the effect exacerbated by the
presence of stress as shown by the
marked decrease in material hard-
ness with increasing Larson-Miller
parameter, Figure 6-4. HP and IP
rotors show a decline in creep-rup-
ture strength as the softening
occurs. Therefore, if changes in
hardness can be measured, the
most highly damaged areas may be
identified, and correlations between
softening and remaining creep life
can help life prediction. However,
there are several difficulties. One is
that the original distribution of hard-
ness in the rotor is seldom known;
as a result, current measures of
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-11

Hardness Ratio = Hv/Hvo
1.0
0.9
Hvo = Hardness before service
T = Service temperature, °C
t = Service time, hours
σ = Stress, Kg/mm2
0.8
4.20 4.25
G = log T(20 + log t) + 0.00217 (σ - 11)
Figure 6-4. Hardness change of CrMoV rotor steel during exposure at elevated tem-
perature and applied stress. Source: T. Endo, T. Goto, and H. Fujii42
hardness may identify the softest
material, but that may not be the
most creep damaged material as it
may have been a location of softer
material initially. Secondly, access
can be a problem, particularly in the
rotor bore and blade attachment,
although special equipment has
been developed to perform remote
hardness measures in the bore.43
At this time, quantitative application
of hardness to predictions of life is
not practical, however, continued
work on this assessment means may
result in more accurate formulations
in the future.
6.8.4 Microstructural evaluation.
There are a number of methods
which have been pursued that relate
measurable changes in the material
microstructure to remaining creep
life. Such methods include:
cavitation measurement, carbide
6-12 Life Assessment Methods
4.30 4.35
coarsening, lattice parameter, ferrite
chemistry analysis, and hardness
monitoring. These methods offer
considerable promise as they are
non-destructive and can be used on
a routine basis to monitor creep
damage accumulation. As more
development work is completed, a
current shortcoming, the lack of
quantitative relationships with
remaining life will be overcome. As
with any sampling method, there is
always the issue of whether the
sampled location is appropriate.
6.8.4.1 Qualitative use of metallo-
graphic replicas. Creep damage in
rotors is routinely evaluated by sur-
face replication, and various meth-
ods for both qualitative and quantita-
tive evaluation of the results have
been developed. Replication offers a
means to sample non-destructively
critical locations for estimates of the
state of creep cavities, linkage and
cracking. Prediction of cavitation is
particularly important in the disc rim
blade attachment region.25
A relationship between cavity classi-
fication and fractional life expended
has been developed by Kadoya and
Goto44 and Tanemura45 and is
shown in Figure 6-5. A remote repli-
cation technique has been devel-
oped for replicating dovetail
regions.46
The identification of creep cavitation
damage at the surface generally
requires removal of surface material
and re-replication to determine the
gradient of damage. In fact, although
replication appears to be a useful
technique for determining creep
damage (and fretting) in blade
attachments, it is not considered a
reliable means to predict remaining
life in the absence of data on the dis-
tribution of cavity density with depth
below the surface.25
6.8.4.2 Quantitative use of metallo-
graphic replicas - “A” parameter.
A qualitative method of relating
creep damage features to remaining
creep life is the use of the “A” para-
meter.47,48 It has been applied to
assessment of the disc rim attach-
ment area.43 It has been observed
that under uniaxial creep test condi-
tions, the number and size of creep
cavities increases with test time, fol-
lowed by linking of the cavities and
the formation of microcracks. As a
result, the “A” parameter is simply
the ratio of number of grain bound-
aries which have a crack or cavity,
no , to number of grain boundaries
observed, nT ,:
n
A = no (6-12)
T
The method is executed as illus-
trated in Figure 6-6. A traverse line
is drawn on the microstructure paral-
lel to the loading direction. A dam-
aged grain boundary is one which
 has a creep cavity or crack. The
Damage Rating microstructure is obtained using a
replica and typically examined at
Forging Creep Test Condition 400X, and a minimum of 400 bound-
T (°C) σ (MPa) tr (h) Mark aries are counted. Rules for count-
5 550 210 12800 ing are:
A
575 160 11700 • The grain boundary crossing the
550 232 6000 reference line should be
4 B 550 173 26464 observed from the triple point until
575 173 5305 the other triple point. Point “F” in
Figure 6-6 is a triple point, where
3 three grain boundaries converge.
• A grain boundary having at least
Rating one cavity or one crack is
2 1 = Undamaged counted as a damaged one.
2 = Isolated cavities Cavities or cracks at the triple
3 = Oriented cavities
4 = Microcracks point are included. Other bound-
1 aries without cavities and/or
5 = Macrocracks
cracks are counted as undam-
aged boundaries.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 • For grain boundaries crossing the
Creep Life Fraction, t/tr reference line more than one time,
the crossing times become the
number of boundaries observed.
Figure 6-5. Creep cavitation damage observed in 1 CrMoV rotor steel as a function of • For cases where the reference
expended life. Source: T. Godo, et al.44
line crosses at the triple point, the
number of boundaries observed
is counted as one. When more
no = 4 nv = 6 than two of the grain boundaries,
no of which the triple point consists,
A = –––––– = 0.4
no + nv are damaged, the triple point is
counted as a damaged boundary.
Traverse When more than two of the grain
A B C D E F G H I J line boundaries are undamaged, the
triple point is counted as an
undamaged boundary.
A correspondence has been
developed between “A” parameter
and creep life fraction as shown in
Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-6. Illustration of the “A” parameter evaluation method. Damage boundaries
are A, B, C, and E. Undamaged boundaries are D, F, G, H, I, and J. Source: M.C.
Askins49

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-13

 Number Fraction of Cavitated Analysis of Creep Crack Initiation
Grain Boundaries “A”
0.5
Break analysis into time
increments.
0.4
A B C
Calculate average stress in
0.3 blade attachment hook region over
time increment.

0.2
Compute rupture time from stress and
temperature, at each point in geometry
0.1 of interest over time increment.

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Calculate an increment of damage
by Robinson’s rule.
Creep Life Fraction t/tr

Crack initiation taken to occur

Figure 6-7. Relationship between the “A” parameter and creep life fraction.
The relationship was developed for CrMoV rotor steel. Source: T. Goto, T. Konishi,
and J. Kumura43
The “A” parameter has also been
used in a modified form by incorpo-
rating a “Y” factor50 that accounts
for differences in material composi-
tion. The “A” parameter provides a
quantitative measure of the change
in creep damage, and correlations
with remaining creep life have been
established. As with correlations
with cavity density classification, a
problem in practical application is
the absence of data with depth
below the surface
6.8.5 Combined assessment of
creep crack initiation and propaga-
tion. An example of how the vari-
ous methods might be combined
into an analysis of creep life (initia-
tion plus propagation) is shown in
Figure 6-8. At the present time, this
methodology has not been applied
to blades or the disc rim attachment
region, although it forms the basis of
the approach used for analysis of
other areas of the rotor.51
Figure 6-8. Sample of assessment of
creep crack growth initiation and propa-
gation. Adapted from S.A. Rau51
when damage sum equals 1.
Crack size (depth) set to 0.51 mm
(0.020 in.) for surface crack and to
xi + 0.25 mm (xi + 0.010 in.) for
subsurface crack at depth xi .
Analysis of Creep Crack Propagation
Assume an increment of crack
growth; Calculate crack driving
force from use of C(t) or Ct .
Calculate time to propagate a
crack the incremental amount.
Redistribute stresses; Add
increments until the crack is equal
in size to thickness of component–
taken to be failure.

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June, 1983.
19. Miner, MA., “Cumulative Damage in Fatigue”, Trans.
ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, Series E, 67,
1945, pp. A159-164.
20. Milne, I., R.A. Ainsworth, A.R. Dowling, and A.T.
Stewart, “Assessment of the Integrity of Structures
Containing Defects”, Report R/H/R6-Rev. 3, CEGB,
London, 1986. Also, International Journal of Pressure
Vessels and Piping, Volume 32, 1988, p. 196.
21. Chell, G.G., “Application of the CEGB Failure
Assessment Procedure, R6, to Surface Flaws”, ASTM
STP 1074-1990, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1990.
22. Lam, T., “Application of Probabilistic Techniques to
Estimate Risk of Blade Failure”, notes in EPRI/Stress
Technology Incorporated, Management of Steam and
Combustion Turbine Blade Problems – Prevention,
Diagnosis, and Repair, Joint EPRI/STI Seminar Notes,
presented in Rochester, NY, June 18-20, 1996.
23. Zhang, J., H.R. Jhansale, and D.R. McCann,
“Probabilistic Condition Assessment of Turbine/Generator
Components”, in Fifth EPRI Steam Turbine/Generator
Workshop, held in Lake Buena Vista, FL, July 29-August
1, 1997, EPRI, Charlotte, N.C.
24. Viswanathan, R., Damage Mechanisms and Life
Assessment of High-Temperature Components, ASM
International, Metals Park, OH., 1989.
25. Viswanathan, R. and C.H. Wells, “Life Prediction of
Turbine Generator Rotors”, Technology for the Nineties,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
NY, 1993.
26. Ainsworth, R.A., eds. “Assessment Procedure for the
High Temperature Response of Structures”, Nuclear
Electric, UK, 1995. R5 was originally developed by the
CEGB and is widely used by successor companies.
Nuclear Electric now provide the main driving force for
continuing development.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 6-15
27. Monkman, F.C. and N.J. Grant, Proc ASME, Volume
56, 1956, p. 595.
28. Larson, F.R. and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, Volume 74,
1952, p. 765.
29. Robinson, E.L, “Effect of Temperature Variation on
the Creep Strength of Steels”, Trans. ASME, Volume 160,
1938, pp. 253-259.
30. Lieberman, Y., ”Relaxation, Tensile Strength, and
Failure of E1 512 and Kh1 F-L, Steels”, Metalloved Term
Obrabodke Metal, Volume 4, 1962, pp. 6-13.
31. Richman, R.H. and W.P. McNaughton, An Analysis of
Accelerated Life Testing, Final Report, Research Project
2812-4, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, May, 1988. Unpublished.
32. Saxena, A., in Fracture Mechanics: Seventeenth
Volume, Special Technical Publication 905, American
Society for Testing and materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1986,
pp. 185-201.
33. Riedel, H., Fracture at High Temperatures, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, 1987.
34. Haigh, J.R., Eng. Fract. Mech., Volume 7, 1975,
p. 271.
35. Neate, G.J., “Crack Growth in Bainitic CrMoV Steel
at Elevated Temperature Under Cyclic Loading
Conditions”, International Conference on Advances in
Life Prediction Methods, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 1983, pp. 123-129.
36. Haigh, J.R., “The Mechanisms of Microscopic High
Temperature Crack Growth”, Mat. Sci. Eng., Volume 20,
1979, pp. 225-235.
37. Ellison, E.G. and A.J.F. Patterson, “Creep-Fatigue
Interactions in a 1 CrMoV Steel”, Proceedings of the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 190, 1976,
pp. 321-350.
38. Miller, D.A., W.J. Plumbridge, and R.A. Bartlett,
Metal. Sci., Volume 15, 1981, p. 413.
39. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Standard E139-95, “Standard Practice for Conducting
Creep, Creep-Rupture and Stress-Rupture Tests of
Metallic Materials”, 1995 Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Volume 03.01, American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1995.
40. Grunloh, H. and R. Ryder, Life Assessment of Boiler
Pressure Parts - Volume 7: Superheater/Reheater Tubes,
Final Report TR-103377, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1993.
41. Viswanathan, R. and J.R. Foulds, Accelerated Stress
Rupture Testing Guidelines for Remaining Creep Life
Prediction, Final Report TR-106171, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
February, 1997.
6-16 Life Assessment Methods
42. Endo, T., T. Goto, and H. Fujii, “Life Prediction of
Steam Turbine Components”, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
Report MHI-7, 1981.
43. Steam Turbine Life Assessment, Final Report,
Volumes 1-5, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, March, 1994.
Ando, K., Y. Hanaue, and M. Kurosawa, Volume 1:
Task 1 - Thermal and Stress Analysis of Rotors.
Goto, T., T. Konishi, and J. Kimura, Volume 2: Task 2 –
NDE Characterization of Rotors.
Kadoya, Y., Volume 3: Task 3 - Creep Life Prediction.
Goto, T., Volume 4: Task 4 - Fatigue Life Prediction.
Goto, T., Volume 5: Task 5 - MACH Inspection System
User’s Manual.
44. Goto, T., et al., “NDE Technique for Crack Initiation
Life of High Temperature Rotors”, International Joint
Power Generation Conference, October, 1992.
45. Tanemura, K., et al., “Material Degradation of Long
Term Service Rotor”, International Conference on Life
Assessment and Extension, The Hague, Netherlands,
June 13-15, 1988, Paper 1.8.4, Volume I, pp., 172-178.
46. Goto, T., “Techniques for Crack Initiation Life of High
Temperature Rotors”, International Joint Power
Generation Conference, October, 1992.
47. Cane, B.J. and M.S. Shammas, “A Method for
Remanent Life Estimation by Quantitative Assessment of
Creep Cavitation on Plant”, Report TPRD/L/2645/N84,
Central Electricity Generating Board, Leatherhead,
Laboratories, U.K., June, 1984.
48. Shammas, M.S., “Remanent Life Assessment of
Ferritic Weld Heat Affected Zone by a Metallographic
Measurement of Cavitation Damage - the “A” Parameter”,
International Conference on Refurbishment and Life
Extension of Steam Plant, I Mech E., 1987, p. 289.
49. Askins, M.C., Remaining Life Estimation of Boiler
Pressure Parts, Volume 3: Base Metal Mode, Final Report
CS-5588, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, November, 1989.
50. Kadoya, Y. and T. Goto, “Metallurgical Factors
Affecting Creep Cavitation Behavior and Rupture Ductility
of Cr-Mo-V Steel Forgings”, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 78, 1992,
p. 1736.
51. Rau, S.A., SAFER-PC Users Guide and Technical
Reference, worked performed under Research Project
2481-06, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, March, 1997.
52. Krempl, E., and C.D. Walker, Fatigue at High
Temperature, ASTM STP 459, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1969, p. 75.
 Drum Pressure (psia) Chapter 7 • Volume 1

00

28 0
2400
00

16 0
12 0
10 0
00
0

0
0
0

0
0

0
32

30

20

60
40

20
100

Steam Chemistry
Concentration in Vapor/Concentration in Liquid

10-1 Fe3O4
Al2 O
3

and the Turbine

10-2 B2O3
NH
4 Cl NiO
, (N
H CuO
-3 4) SO
10 2
CaSO4 4

Cu2O SiO2
10-4
BaO
CaCl2
10-5
Na

MgO
lC

-6 LiCl
Na 3

10
Na

Na
O
P
2
SO

O4

H
4

10-7
220 200 160 120 80 60 40 30 20 10
Drum Pressure (atm)

1 2 6 10 20 60 100
Density of Liquid/Density of Steam

7.1. Introduction problems that affect both high pres-

Superheated steam entering a tur-
bine typically contains low levels of
impurities. As the steam expands
through a turbine, the subsequent
precipitation of impurities onto the
surfaces of steam path components
leads to a variety of problems in the
HP, IP or LP turbine. Thus, the
purity of boiler water, feedwater and
steam are some of the most impor-
tant criteria for ensuring the avail-
ability and reliability of components
in fossil and nuclear power plants.
This chapter examines the origin,
solubility and transport of impurities
to the turbine and their volatility in
the turbine (Section 7.2).
Consideration of these events leads
to the development of steam purity
guidelines. The resulting cycle
chemistry guidelines for fossil and
nuclear units are discussed in
Sections 7.3 and 7.4 respectively.
The specific application to operating
units is briefly reviewed in Section
7.5. Chapter 8 then examines what
happens to impurities as they move
through the turbine. Chapters 7 and
8 are vital to understanding some
of the most common and serious
sure and, most notably, the low
pressure turbine.
The phase transition zone (PTZ) in
the LP turbine, where the expansion
and cooling of the steam leads to
condensation, is particularly sus-
ceptible. A number of processes
that take place in this zone such as
precipitation of chemical com-
pounds from superheated steam,
deposition, evaporation, and drying
of liquid films on hot surfaces, lead
to the formation of potentially corro-
sive surface deposits.
Understanding the processes of
transport, nucleation of droplets, for-
mation of liquid films on blade sur-
faces, and concentration of impuri-
ties is vital in understanding how to
prevent the damage mechanisms
that result. These topics are
addressed in Chapter 8.
There have been numerous studies,
experimental and survey, of steam
and deposit chemistry in turbines.
An overview of some of the major
research that has been completed is
provided in Table 7-1.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-1

Table 7-1
Overview of Key Historical Research Into Steam Impurities
Decade Researcher(s) or Agency Topic(s) References a

1930s • Straub • Steam turbine deposits, boiler carryover, field survey and laboratory data. •1
• Faulk and Ulmer • Steam separation. •2
• Baker • Steam separation. •3
• Powell • Steam contamination. •4

1940s • Fuchs and Rudoff • Carryover and deposition of silica by its volatility. • 5–7
• GE • Effects of deposits on turbine capacity and efficiency.
• Straub • Measured boiler carryover and solubilities in superheated steam. •8

1950s • Morey, Coulter, Kennedy and others • Measurements and discussion of steam solubilities of silica. • 9, 10
• Styrikovich, Martynova and others • Experimental and theoretical work. • 11, 12
• Various researchers • Extensive studies of condensation, separation, and mist formation.
• USSR • Guidelines for cycle chemistry. • 75

1960s • USSR researchers • Solubility in steam and steam-water distribution. • 13

• Various researchers • Boiling, condensation and impurity behavior in boiler tubes. • 14, 15
• Heitmann • Silica solubility diagram for a wide range of steam and water conditions. • 16
• Kirsch • Deposits. • 17
• Pocock • Study of solubility of copper in steam. • 18
• Cohen • Comprehensive treatment of water and steam chemistry for U.S. nuclear plants. • 19

1970s • ASME Research Committee • Intensified work in steam chemistry. • 18, 20–22
on Water in Thermal Power
Systems (Steam Purity Task Group)
• IAPS (now IAPWS–International
Association for Properties of Steam
and Water)
• Turbine and boiler manufacturers.
• First U.S. steam chemistry limits. • 21, 23
• Many field measurements of carryover, steam composition, and turbine deposits. • 12, 20, 24, 25
• Lindsay, Martynova, and others. • Improved theoretical understanding of steam chemistry. • 26, 27
• EPRI • Corrosion fatigue of turbine blades. • 28, 29
• Stress corrosion of disks. • 30, 31
• CRIEPI • Guidelines for cycle chemistry. • 74

1980s • EPRI, CEGB, VGB • Comprehensive plant-wide guidelines for cycle chemistry. • 32–35, 72, 73
• EPRI • Guidelines for monitoring, and international practice.
• Effect of phosphate treatment on steam and deposits. • 36
• Steam impurity interactions with magnetite and metal surfaces. • 37
• Concern of high carryover of chlorides and sulfates. • 38
• Research on solubilities (NaOH, NaCl, NH4Cl). • 39, 40
• Modeling volatility. • 41
• Experimental work on volatility of boric acid and amines. • 42
• Pitzer • Thermodynamics of NaCl solutions in steam. • 43
• Gallagher and Sengers • Modeling of steam chemistry near critical region. • 44
• First attempt to verify concentrated impurities in “salt zone” of running turbine. • 45
• Lindsay and Lee • Thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of precipitation/condensation of low volatility • 46
impurities in turbines.
• ABB/Svoboda • Composition of “first condensate” and steam moisture. • 47–49
• First laboratory study of deposition under dynamic and expanding steam • 50
conditions.

7-2 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine

Table 7-1
Overview of Key Historical Research Into Steam Impurities (continued)
Decade Researcher(s) or Agency
1980s • ASME and EPRI
(cont.)
• Hill; Moses and Stein; Kantola;
1990s • EPRI
Notes:
a Reference to original work or to source that describes the research.
Adapted from: O. Jonas and N.F. Rieger58
7.2. Developing Guidelines for
Cycle Chemistry: Origin and
Transport of Impurities; Solubility
and Volatility
Of the highest importance for power
plant operators is determining the
allowable concentrations of molecu-
lar species and ions often present in
turbine steam, moisture, and
deposits, particularly NaCl, NH4Cl,
NaOH, Na2SO4, and SiO2. Until
recently, the data and theory used
to determine steam purity limits and
to troubleshoot corrosion and depo-
sition problems, provide for moisture
control, and design wet steam tur-
bine stages were over 40 years
old.59 Further, current operating lim-
its for steam and boiler water are
derived from the equilibrium solubili-
ties and volatilities of single com-
pounds while multicomponent mix-
tures and rapid boiling and steam
expansion exist in the steam cycle.
These shortcomings are gradually
being addressed by research of the
type described below, starting with
the origin and transport of chemicals
in steam.
7.2.1 Origin and transport of chemi-
cals in steam. Prior to about 1940,
it was not believed that high pres-
sure steam could act as a solvent
for inorganic compounds such as
salts and hydroxides. This belief
was dispelled by the experiments of
Fuchs5,6 and others, and by obser-
vation of the problems that occurred
Topic(s) References a
• Water Technology Handbook published in 1989. • 51
• Development of practical multi-stage through-flow analyses.
• Computer prediction of condensate phenomena (without effect of impurities).
• Influence of impurities in condensing steam. • 52–55
• Volatility of impurities, salts, organics and oxides in steam. • 56, 57
HP
turbine IP LP
Feed turbine turbine
Condenser
Attemperation Makeup
Deaerator
Boiler
Condensate
polisher
Feed
HP heaters
Impurity ingress Corrosion Deposition
Figure 7-1. Major unit components and locations of impurity ingress, corrosion, and
deposition in drum cycles. Source: R.B. Dooley and A. Bursik60
process cycle include: (i) condenser
in conjunction with turbine deposits.
cooling water inleakage, or (ii)
The concepts of boiler carryover,
makeup demineralizer, evaporator or
mechanical and volatile carryover,
condensate polisher effluent conta-
and volatility under high pressure
mination. Corrosion products are
boiler conditions were introduced in
the 1930s and 1940s.1,8 generated in feedwater heaters and
piping, and condensers, and subse-
Figure 7-1 shows typical locations
quently flow into the boiler and tur-
for impurity ingress, corrosion and
bine where they can deposit.
deposition in fossil fired drum boil-
ers. Contaminants such as chloride, Unit transients can cause increased
sulfate, organics, and carbon diox- ingress of impurities, hideout, and
ide, enter the condensate part of the washing of impurities by wet steam.
cycle, but do their damage in the Such transients include: load
boiler (tube failures) or in the turbine changes, condensate polisher
(blade and disc failures, and depo- exhaustion, introduction of a regen-
sition). Sources for such impurity erated polisher, condenser leakage,
ingress into the steam and/or water
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-3
 and ethanolamine.27,64,65,66 Studies
Drum Pressure (psia) on the effect of ammonia on carry-
over of chloride were also per-

00
00

28 0
24 0

16 0
00
10 0
00
0
0

0
0

0
32

30

20

12

60
40

20
formed at the Moscow Power
100 Institute.63
Discrepancies between field data

Concentration in Vapor/Concentration in Liquid

and the expected carryover were
10-1 Fe3O4
first reported by Jonas.67 The mea-
Al2 O
3 sured distribution coefficients for
10 -2 B2O3 NaCl and Na2SO4 were orders of
NH
4 Cl
, (N
NiO magnitude higher than predicted by
H
4) S
CuO the ray diagram. Other shortcomings
10-3 2 O
that have subsequently been identi-
CaSO4 4

Cu2O SiO2 fied in using distribution coefficients

10 -4 based on the ray diagram
BaO include58,68:
CaCl2 • They were measured at high con-
10-5 centrations of a single species
Na MgO and as a result do not represent
Cl
LiCl the mixtures, or low concentra-
10-6
Na 3
Na

Na tions of impurity typically encoun-

OH
PO 4
2
SO

tered today.
4

10-7 • They do not include some impor-

220 200 160 120 80 60 40 30
Drum Pressure (atm)
1 2 6 10 20 60 100
Density of Liquid/Density of Steam
Figure 7-2. Distribution ratios for common boiler water contami-
nants. Source: M.A. Styrikovich, et al. 11
batch addition of water treatment pressure. The “rays” begin at the
chemicals and makeup water, inter- critical point of water where the ratio
mittent boiler blowdown, valve and is unity. The steepest slopes are for
pump testing, pH changes, shut- substances that ionize strongly in
down, and startup. water; conversely, less steep slopes
reflect substances that do not ionize
The current knowledge of the distrib-
readily in water. The ray diagram
ution of boiler water impurities and
provides a semi-empirical summary
the volatilities of various species has
for a range of conditions and has
been gained from measurements by
been used to develop cycle chem-
numerous investigators (see for
istry guideline levels. However,
example, refs. 2, 11, 27, 61-63).
because it has been found to be
Traditionally, field and laboratory less accurate for conditions typical
carryover and volatility data have of high pressure boilers, it is recom-
been compared to the Styrikovich- mended that the actual carryover of
Martynova ray diagram11,27 as all major chemical species be peri-
shown in Figure 7-2. The ray dia- odically measured beginning during
gram has been the most widely the commissioning of a new unit and
known representation of the ratio periodically during its life.58
of concentration-in-vapor to concen-
Work has been done on the distribu-
tration-in-liquid as a function of
tion of volatile compounds such as
ammonia, morpholine, hydrazine,
20 10
tant species such as ammonium
salts, lower ratio phosphates,
borates, salts of organic acids,
and other acids such as HCl and
H2SO4.
• They do not reflect reactions in
the liquid phase (ionization, hide-
out, reactions with boiler oxides)
and in the steam phase (dissocia-
tion, hydrolysis interaction with
suspended oxides).
• The changes which occur in
superheaters and reheaters, such
as reactions, adsorption, deposi-
tion, washing, are not often con-
sidered when using the data.
Recently an improved understand-
ing of volatility of salts in steam
cycles has been gained by examin-
ing the partitioning (the ratio of the
concentration of the neutral mole-
cule in the vapor phase to the activi-
ties of the component ions in the liq-
uid phase) of common boiler water
salts, acids and bases. For exam-
ple, in looking at the partitioning of
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in labo-
ratory-scale experiments from 120°C
(248°F) to 350°C (662°F), it has
been found that while the dominant
chloride species for NH4Cl solutions

7-4 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine

in both high and low temperature
liquid are NH4+ and Cl–, the species Temperature (°C)
transported to the equilibrated Tc 300 200 150
20
vapor are predominately HCl and
NH3.56,57 An approximately similar Partitioning constants
picture exists for the partitioning
from sulfate solutions in the pres-
ence of sodium and ammonium 10
cations, with H2SO4 being the pre-
dominant species transported,
although the hydrolysis reactions of
the sulfate ion complicate the 0
speciation.69,70

Log KD
The key conclusion from these stud-
ies is that the chemistry is signifi-
cantly more complex than can be -10 NH3
predicted from the simple ray dia- HCl
gram68, particularly with the addition H2SO4
of more potentially volatile species. NH4Cl
For example, for all-volatile treat- NH4HSO4
ment (AVT), carryover of chloride to -20 NaCl
steam is most probably by NaOH
hydrochloric acid, and not ammo- Na2SO4
nium chloride; carryover of sulfate is NaHSO4
probably predominantly as sulfuric -30
acid, although ammonium and 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
sodium bisulfate are also likely to 1000° K/T
contribute to carryover.
The most recent partitioning con-
stants, KD, for common boiler water Figure 7-3. Partitioning constants, KD , for common boiler water
salts, acids, and bases represented by mathematical functions of
salts and bases are shown in Figure
the reciprocal of temperature in degrees Kelvin up to the critical
7-3. This work shows promise that a temperature of water, TC. Source: R.B. Dooley, A.F. Aschoff, and
fully predictive model will soon be P.J. Pocock70
available to calculate steam compo-
sition from boiler water composition
and to predict the early condensate
and liquid film composition from LP Fe3O4 SiO2
steam chemistry.
Solubility in Steam

7.2.2 Solubility of impurities in Cu(CuO)

steam and their volatilities in the
turbine. Chemical compounds are
soluble in superheated steam, and
their solubility sharply decreases as Mg(OH2) NaCl
the steam expands. Figure 7-4
shows the solubilities of the major
Reheat
steam impurities plotted for steam
conditions through a fossil steam 0 2 4 6 8 10 11 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
cycle from the HP to the LP turbine.
The figure emphasizes the impor- High-Pressure Turbine Intermediate- Low-
tance of the solubility of salts and Pressure Pressure
Turbine Turbine
hydroxide. In fact, the objective in Turbine Blade Rows
setting purity limits is to avoid devel-
oping a problem in those regions
where the solubility drops sharply Figure 7-4. Trends in the solubility of substances passing through a turbine operating
at supercritical pressure. Source: M.A. Styrikovich, O.I. Martynova, and L.S. Kurtova13

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-5

 expansion from the IP turbine inlet to
Enthalpy (Btu/lb) the conden-ser.58 Flow velocities are
1350 subsonic through supersonic and
Non-reheat
steam expansion rates (1/p • dp/dt)
can be up to 3000 s–1. Thus, the
1300

s u nt
issue of applicable dynamic solubili-

es ta
Co

re
pr ons
nst
an ties, effects of flow and surface

C
t su Reheat
pe
rhe roughness, and state of oxidation
1250 at
(°F
) continue to be important points of
Sat investigation.
ura
1200 tion
line
(ppb
) Non-reheat The key observation, confirmed in
bility SiO2 = 20 ppb
Solu many field studies is that the higher
NaCl = 10 ppb
1150 NaOH = 10 ppb the level of impurities entering the
ppb) Reheat
b ility ( turbine, the more pronounced they
Solu SiO2 = 10 ppb
NaCl = 5 ppb
appear in deposits (Chapter 8), and
1110
NaOH = 5 ppb for key contaminants, the more likely
High lo

Low loa
that significant damage will occur in
e
1050 er ad
the turbine.
hp
os

d
m
at
d
dar 7.3 Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry
1000 an
St Guidelines
Starting with turbine steam composi-
950
Entropy tion and considering both mechani-
cal and vaporous carryover, the
allowable impurity concentrations in
boiler water can be determined. The
Figure 7-5. Derivation of turbine steam chemistry target values. development of unit cycle chemistry
[Btu/lbm x 2.326 = kJ/kg].
guidelines is vital to the availability
of the unit and the reliability of
(for instance for copper in the HP ubility limits for SiO2, NaOH and equipment throughout the unit.
turbine or for SiO2 in the LP). NaCl have been superimposed on Such guidelines can help control
the Mollier diagram. The rule cycle corrosion and deposition and
To date the basis for deriving cycle
applied is that the concentration of a the resultant damage to components
chemistry guidelines has been:
molecular impurity in superheated in the turbine steam path.
“Limiting the concentration of
steam should not exceed its solubil-
ionic contaminants throughout 7.3.1 Historical developments of
ity anywhere in the turbine.
the plant cycle to levels consis- cycle chemistry guidelines.
tent with steam impurity levels The actual temperatures and pres- Introduction of unified cycle chem-
tolerable in the turbine will ade- sures at which condensation occurs istry guidelines such as those by
quately protect the boiler and are the local conditions and require the former Central Electricity
other cycle components.” The consideration of a complex set of Generating Board (CEGB) in the
equilibrium solubilities under LP tur- factors such as heat transfer, surface
United Kingdom72, the Vereinigung
bine conditions are extremely low, a cleanliness, crevices, and surface
der Grosskraftwerks Betreiber (VGB)
fraction of a ppb, and it would not flow stagnation conditions.33 Further,
in Germany73, the Central Research
be practical to operate turbines with estimating the solubilities of common Institute of Electric Power Industry
steam containing these low levels chemical compounds that apply in (CRIEPI) in Japan74, in the former
merely to avoid deposition. the turbine environment, so called USSR75 and by EPRI in the U.S.33,
Fortunately, it has been found that “dynamic” solubilities continues to all resulted in significant reductions
operation at 1 to 10 ppb levels in have some uncertainties. Static, in cycle corrosion related failures
steam for most impurities has not equilibrium solubilities, for example and improvements in unit
generally resulted in significant of NaOH and NaCl are orders of availabilities.
buildup of deposits or corrosion.58 magnitude lower than dynamic solu-
bilities.50,71 A primary problem is the In the U.S., the 1986 “interim” guide-
Figure 7-5 illustrates the derivation
rapidly changing conditions. It takes lines for fossil units33 covered the
of turbine steam limits for reheat and
only about 0.2 seconds for steam most common chemistry control
non-reheat fossil units where the sol-

7-6 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine

Table 7-2
Comparison of Normal Steam Limits in Fossil Plants
Oxygenated Treatment (OT),
All-Volatile Treatment (AVT)
Parameter Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment (EPT) Phosphate Treatment (PT) Caustic Treatment (CT)

Na, ppb 3 5 2
Cl, ppb 3 3 2
SO4, ppb 3 3 2
Cation conductivity, µS/cm < 0.15 < 0.3 < 0.3
SiO2, ppb 10 10 10
TOC, ppb 100 100 100
Source: R.B. Dooley 81

practices as of the early 1980s, Table 7-3

especially congruent phosphate Summary of Feedwater Chemistry Limits for Fossil Plant All-Ferrous and Mixed
treatment and all-volatile treatment Metallurgy Feedwater Systems
with deoxygenated
Cycle Chemistry AVT AVT Oxygenated Treatment
condensate/feedwater as treated by
Parameter (mixed metallurgy) (all-ferrous) (OT)
ammonium hydroxide and
hydrazine. The guidelines included pH25˚C 8.8 - 9.1 9.2 - 9.6 8.0 - 8.51
target values and action levels for 9.0 - 9.52
significant contaminants at critical Ammonia, ppm 0.15 - 0.4 0.50 - 2.00 0.02 - 0.071
sample points. These guidelines fol- 0.3 - 1.52
lowed the basic rule that if the over- Cation conductivity < 0.2 < 0.2 (< 0.15)
all cycle chemistry limits were set to (µS/cm) < 0.15 (< 0.1)
protect the turbine then they would
Fe, ppb < 10 <5 <5
also protect the boiler and other
(< 5) (< 2) (< 1)
cycle components.
Cu, ppb <2 < 23 < 23
The guidelines (i) differentiated (< 2) (< 1) (< 1)
between reheat and non-reheat
Oxygen, ppb <5 1 - 10 30 - 1501
cycle designs, (ii) suggested target
values and action levels for all key (< 2) 30 - 502
cycle contaminants in drum boilers Oxidizing-reducing < 06 >0 > 100
as a continuum over a broad range potential (ORP)5, mV
of operating pressure, 4.14 MPa
Source: R.B. Dooley 81 Notes: 1 For once-through units.
(600 psia) to 19.65 MPa (2850 2 For drum units.
psia), (iii) summarized all sample 3 Applicable if copper alloys in condenser.
points, monitoring and control para- 4 Values in parenthesis represent the achievable and desirable levels.
meters, target values, and action 5 ORP throughout this book refers to platinum versus Ag/AgCl2.
6 Usually less than -300 mV will be monitored when a reducing agent is
levels on a single cycle diagram for
present.
each of the major cycles and chemi-
cal treatments, and (iv) featured a
consistent rationale that related all ments have been developed to • Once-through fossil units using
sample points, target values, and supersede the interim U.S. guide- all-volatile treatment70 and oxy-
action levels for each parameter to lines. Guidelines have now been genated treatment76,77.
the component(s) most affected by established for boiler water, feedwa- Table 7-2 provides a comparison of
that parameter. ter, and steam impurity levels for: the normal steam limits for each of
As a result of much research and • Fossil drum units using all-volatile these chemistry types; Table 7-3
analysis of the international experi- treatment70, oxygenated treat- shows the feedwater limits for fossil
ence base, additional guidelines for ment76,77, caustic treatment78 and plants.
specific boiler and feedwater treat- phosphate treatments79.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-7

 7.3.2 Fossil unit boiler water
a) Operating Range of Boiler Water on Coordinated Phosphate treatment. The primary purposes of
Treatment boiler water treatment are to ensure
4.0 10.0 that (i) the steam has minimum
3.0 impurities to protect the turbine and
(ii) that the treatment can neutralize
2.0 Na/PO43.0 (TSP)
any contaminant ingress to prevent
Concentration (ppm)
Equivalent NaOH

9.5
concentration and resultant boiler
1.0 pH at 25C tube failures. There are currently
five choices for boiler water treat-
ment for drum cycles80:
0.4 9.0 • Equilibrium phosphate treatment
0.3 (EPT)
0.2 • Phosphate treatment (PT)
• All-volatile treatment (AVT)
8.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 • Caustic treatment (CT)
ppm PO4
• Oxygenated treatment (OT)
b) Operating Range of Boiler Water on Congruent Phosphate
Treatment (CPT) For once-through units the boiler
4.0 10.0 water is controlled by the feedwater
3.0 Na/PO43.0 (TSP) treatment and thus reference should
be made to Section 7.3.3 and
2.0 Table 7-3.
Concentration (ppm)

Na/PO42.6
Equivalent NaOH

9.5
7.3.2.1 Phosphate treatments.
pH at 25C

1.0
The use of phosphate chemicals for
CPT internal boiler water treatment is
more than 70 years old. Phosphate
0.4 9.0 provides good buffering of acids
0.3
and hydroxides and precipitates
0.2 residual hardness, forming remov-
able sludge (hydroxyapatite).
8.5 Figure 7-6 shows the development
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ppm PO4
of phosphate treatments. Coordi-
nated pH-phosphate control, Figure
c) Operating Ranges of Boiler Water on Equilibrium Phosphate 7-6a, was introduced in 1942 to pro-
Treatment (EPT) Used in Ontario Hydro and Congruent Phosphate
tect boiler tubes from “caustic
Treatment (CPT)
Na/PO43.0 (TSP) embrittlement” as well as the effects
4.0 10.0 of condenser inleakage of water
3.0 TSP + 1 ppm NaOH
Na/PO42.6 hardness contaminants. The use of
2.0 coordinated treatment led to a num-
Concentration (ppm)

ber of boiler tube failures believed to

Equivalent NaOH

9.5 be caustic gouging83 and, as a

1.0
pH at 25C

EPT CPT
result, the move to the use of con-
gruent phosphate treatment with an
operating range below the curve of
0.4 9.0 molar ratio Na:PO4 of 2.6 as shown
0.3 in Figure 7-6b.
0.2

8.5 Figure 7-6. Historical development of

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 pH-phosphate control ranges in the
ppm PO4 absence of ammonia. TSP is trisodium
phosphate. Source: S.F. Whirl and T.E.
Purcell82; J. Stodola85

7-8 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine

Many turbine owners have experi-
enced phosphate hideout in the
boiler, (a decrease in phosphate and
an increase in pH with increasing
load), and hideout return (when the
unit load is decreased, an increase
of phosphate occurs with a pH
depression). As a result of the
increasing awareness that phos-
phate hideout was symptomatic of
an underlying control problem, sev-
eral investigations into root cause
and correction have been initiated
(see, for example, ref. 84).
Two phosphate treatments have
evolved as approaches to the previ-
ous problems: (i) phosphate treat-
ment (PT) broadens the control
range above the sodium-to-phos-
phate 2.8 molar ratio curve and
allows operation with up to 1 ppm of
free hydroxide; (ii) equilibrium phos-
phate treatment (EPT) operates at a
lower level of phosphate along with
up to 1 ppm free hydroxide. Figure
7-6c shows the range for EPT (as
used by Ontario Hydro).85 A com-
parison of all three (CPT, PT and
EPT) treatment ranges is shown in
Figure 7-7. It should be noted that
CPT (congruent phosphate treat-
ment) is applicable over the Na:PO4
molar ratio range of 2.1-2.8; the ver-
sion shown in Figure 7-7 shows the
most frequently used range below a
molar ratio of 2.6.
Under equilibrium phosphate treat-
ment, high pH excursions are con-
trolled with boiler water blowdown
and/or by reducing boiler pressure;
low pH excursions are counteracted
with adequate doses of tri-sodium
phosphate and sodium hydroxide, or
with pressure reductions.79
PT can be regarded as an exten-
sion of EPT up to higher levels of
phosphate (above 3 ppm) and
maybe for lower pressure units. PT
has more tolerance if a unit is more
susceptible to the ingress of conta-
minants.
With phosphate treatments, as with
all options for boiler chemistry con-
pH at 25°C
10.0 TSP + 1 ppm
NaOH
PT
9.5
EPT
9.0
Na: PO4 3.0
Na: PO4 2.8
Na: PO4 2.6
8.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
ppm PO4
Figure 7-7. Schematic of operating ranges of boiler water on
equilibrium phosphate treatment (EPT), phosphate treatment (PT),
and congruent phosphate treatment (CPT). TSP is trisodium
phosphate. Source: R.B. Dooley, A. Aschoff, and F. Pocock79
trol, choices will depend upon unit
specific issues. The key objectives
from a boiler perspective are to mini-
mize or eliminate phosphate hideout
and to use only tri-sodium phos-
phate as the phosphate addition.
The treatments allow for the addition
of NaOH to correct for low pH on
startup, and to increase pH if a
small contaminant enters. They also
allow up to 1 ppm of free NaOH.
When operating in the free hydrox-
ide range, there is a possibility for
getting NaOH into the steam. Thus
the key objective from a turbine per-
spective is to monitor steam sodium
levels (see Table 7-2) making sure to
keep sodium levels < 3 ppb for EPT
treatment and < 5 ppb when operat-
ing with PT.
7.3.2.2 All-volatile treatment (AVT).
Under AVT there are generally no
solid additions to boiler water,
although the addition of NaOH or
Na3PO4 is allowed to correct for pH
on startup, or as a response to cont-
amination. The chemistry is set by
the feedwater chemistry as dis-
cussed in Section 7.3.3. Operation
with a condensate polisher is gener-
ally required although some drum
units using AVT do so without one.
The steam purity needs to meet the
Equivalent NaOH
Concentration (ppm)
4.0
3.0
CPT 1.0
0.4
0.3
0.2
7 8 9 10
requirements shown in Table 7-2.
Specifically, levels for sodium, chlo-
ride and sulfate should all be less
than 3 ppb. Particular importance
should be given to impurity levels
during unit startup, especially if
NaOH is added.
7.3.2.3 Caustic treatment (CT).
Historically, there has been justified
concern over the operation of units
under high levels of sodium hydrox-
ide (> 10 ppm) and sodium phos-
phate (> 10 ppm) as was standard
in the 1950s and 1960s. As units
began to operate at higher pres-
sures, caustic gouging of boiler
waterwalls became a serious prob-
lem in U.S. units operating with
sodium hydroxide. NaOH is also the
most frequently identified chemical
species in LP turbine blade
deposits. As a result, a number of
variations on phosphate treatment
discussed above became the pre-
dominant chemistries.
After many early problems, there
has been considerable refinement in
the application of sodium hydroxide
and it is now estimated that it is
used successfully in over 50,000
MW of plant worldwide.78
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-9
The key to successful use of caustic
treatment lies in limiting the concen-
tration of anionic impurities, particu-
larly chloride and in the strict control
of sodium hydroxide; there needs to
be a minimum NaOH concentration
to prevent acid conditions and
achieve the required benefits, but
the maximum level must be strictly
controlled to prevent caustic goug-
ing in the boiler, carryover into the
steam, and damage to austenitic
superheaters and turbines. This
control is achieved through continu-
ous monitoring of the feedwater,
boiler water and steam, particularly
for chloride, sodium, and alkalinity
concentrations. If satisfactory values
cannot be obtained, the reasons for
the high values should be investi-
gated and, if necessary, the concen-
tration of impurities and conditioning
chemicals in the boiler water should
be reduced.
Ideally to prevent deposition, the
steam from high pressure boilers
should contain no more than 2 ppb
sodium; well operated units achieve
less than 1 ppb.
7.3.3 Fossil unit feedwater treat-
ment. The primary purpose of
feedwater treatment is to deliver
feedwater to the economizer inlet
with the minimum impurities and
corrosion products for all operating
regimes. This latter point is key for
steam chemistry as many of the
mechanisms occurring in the steam
path are influenced or initiated
by deposits caused by iron- or
copper-based feedwater corrosion
products.
For both all-ferrous and mixed met-
allurgy feedwater systems, the feed-
water treatment needs to be all-
volatile which means that ammonia
can be used by itself or combined
with the use of hydrazine or an alter-
nate reducing agent (oxygen scav-
enger). A summary of feedwater
chemistry limits for all-ferrous and
mixed metallurgy systems in fossil
units is shown in Table 7-3. Also
7-10 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine
shown on the table are the desirable
and achievable feedwater corrosion
product levels, the goals of any opti-
mization program. For mixed metal-
lurgy systems, it is clear that reduc-
ing conditions (oxidizing-reducing
potential (ORP) << 0 mV) are
required for all periods of operation
including shutdown, whereas for all-
ferrous systems, an oxidizing envi-
ronment (ORP > 0 mV) or a regime
without a reducing agent is pre-
ferred for high purity water.80 This
topic is discussed in considerably
more detail in Chapter 19 which
addresses the problem of copper
deposition in the HP turbine.
The historical approach to feedwater
treatment in the U.S. and many other
countries has consisted of adjusting
pH with ammonia to 8.8 - 9.1 for
mixed copper/iron systems and to
9.2 - 9.6 for all-ferrous systems, to
deoxygenate the feedwater mechan-
ically in the condenser and deaera-
tor, and to “deoxygenate” chemically
by the addition of a reducing agent.
The belief was that all oxygen
should be eliminated to control cor-
rosion.
This was the basic approach taken
for all-volatile treatment, and until
1969 was the only feedwater treat-
ment applied worldwide in plant
cycles with subcritical and supercrit-
ical once-through boilers; in the U.S.
this was the case until November,
1991.76 AVT can be applied to all
units, and is still the method of
choice for plants with mixed metal-
lurgy (copper and iron) in the feed-
water train and/or for units without
condensate polishers.
In deoxygenated feedwater systems,
very low levels of oxygen (<< 1 ppb)
in conjunction with high levels of a
reducing agent (such as hydrazine,
N2H4) result in conditions reducing
to the materials in the feedwater
train.86 Under such conditions,
either the normal oxide (Fe3O4) is
not protective on the ferrous alloys in
the feedwater train, or they break
down, either event leading to an
excessive production and transport
of corrosion products, or to flow-
accelerated corrosion.87
A brief review of reducing agents is
useful to set the stage for the current
use of hydrazine. Until the 1950s
sodium sulfite was used to deoxy-
genate feedwater. Hydrazine was
introduced in Germany prior to 1950
to remove oxygen from boiler feed-
water and to overcome the possibil-
ity of acidic steam and condensate,
first in locomotives and tug boats,
then in power plants.88-90 The first
introduction of hydrazine into U.S.
units was at Duke Power in 1951.91
Until this time, and in fact through
the late 1950s, feedwater trains all
contained copper-based alloys.92
In the interim period, many alterna-
tives to hydrazine have been devel-
oped and applied independent of
feedwater metallurgy. Unfortunately,
none have the most important char-
acteristic of hydrazine, which is no
reaction or decomposition products
to affect the total plant cycle chem-
istry.93 For steam chemistry this is
particularly important because many
of the newer organic alternatives
breakdown in the high temperature
part of the cycle and give high lev-
els of organic acids such as acetic
and formic acids in the steam.
These can have a major effect on
steam conductivity with levels as
high as 0.4 µS/cm not being
unusual. This is in contrast the
desirable levels of < 0.15-0.2 µS/cm
as shown in Table 7-2.
Just as for boiler water, the feedwa-
ter must be optimized. The vari-
ables of importance are metallurgy,
pH, cation conductivity, oxygen, and
oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP).
ORP is also called oxidation-reduc-
tion potential, oxygen-reduction
potential, redox or electrochemical
potential. It provides an indication
of the relative corrosion potential of
feedwater. There are several,
slightly different ways of measuring
ORP.94 In this book, values cited
refer to measurements made with a
Ag/AgCl reference electrode and a
platinum measuring electrode. ORP
is measured at ambient tempera-
tures similar to measurements of pH
and dissolved oxygen.
The following sections look at feed-
water control in all-ferrous and in
mixed metallurgy systems.
7.3.3.1 Feedwater treatment for
all-ferrous feedwater systems.
In all-ferrous feedwater trains, the
major choices are deoxygenated
AVT or oxygenated treatment (OT).
Figure 7-8 shows the major differ-
ences between AVT, which attempts
to minimize corrosion and flow-
accelerated corrosion using deaer-
ated feedwater with an elevated pH,
and OT which relies on oxygenated,
high purity water to minimize corro-
sion and flow-accelerated corrosion
in the feedwater train up to the
economizer inlet.
For AVT, the condensate is deaer-
ated in two locations in the plant
cycle: the condenser and the deaer-
ator. Hydrazine is used as an addi-
tional feedwater conditioner because
it is difficult to reach an oxygen level
of 5 ppb through the plant cycle
using only thermal deaeration.77
The selected level for pH with AVT
ranges between 9.2 and 9.6. For
oxygenated treatment, an oxygen
level of 30-150 ppb is maintained
across the whole plant. 76,77
Reduced pH levels (8.0 to 8.5) are
possible because of the use of oxy-
All volatile treatment (AVT)
• Ferrous
• Cation conductivity <0.2 µS/cm
• pH 9.2-9.6
Fe <10 ppb
O2 <5 ppb
HP
Boiler BFP DA
Heaters
Fe <2 ppb O2
Oxygenated treatment (OT)
• All-ferrous feedwater train
• Cation conductivity <0.15 µS/cm
• pH 8.0-8.5
Figure 7-8. Schematic comparison of all-volatile treatment (AVT) versus oxygenated
treatment (OT) feedwater chemistries. Source: R.B. Dooley, A. Bursik, O. Jonas, F.
Pocock, and J. Rice95
mainly magnetite into the boiler and
turbine. Thus the addition of reduc-
ing agents has had the opposite of
the desired effect: there has been
an increase in flow-accelerated cor-
rosion of iron-based materials with a
concomitant increase of transported
feedwater corrosion products and
associated problems.
Most units operating under AVT con-
trol can meet the guideline require-
ments and action levels, and have
800
N2H4 (>3 x O2)
NH3
LP
CP CEP Condenser
Heaters
O2 (>30 ppb)
NH3
good availability. However, over the
years many problems emerged in
these units on AVT.95 Under AVT,
even if properly applied, the trans-
port of corrosion products can be
substantial (100s to 1000s ppb),
particularly during transients and
startups as shown in Figure 7-9.
The subsequent deposition of feed-
water corrosion products is a con-
tributor to a variety of turbine dam-
age, as well as influencing boiler
80
Copper Concentration (ppb)

700 Iron 70
Iron Concentration (ppb)

gen as the corrosion inhibitor.

600 60
The trend throughout the 1980s and
early 1990s was toward lower oxy- 500 50
gen levels and if mechanical/thermal 400 40
deaeration was insufficient, then
300 30
large amounts of a reducing agent
were applied (sometimes between 200 20
Copper
50-100 ppb). This causes the feed- 100 10
water to become more reducing
0 0
electrochemically (oxidizing-reduc- 0 1 2 3 4 5
ing potential (ORP) < -300 mV). Time, hours
As noted above, under such condi-
tions the oxide scales in the feedwa-
ter train become nonprotective, Figure 7-9. Feedwater total iron and copper concentrations dur-
ing startup. Source: J. Brown and R.E. Massey96
leading to an excessive production
and transport of corrosion products,

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-11

 once-through and drum units have
No current been outstanding with very large
Step 1 problems reductions of feedwater corrosion
Review normal or
products (usually iron < 1 ppb at the
Continue use of economizer inlet) as a result of the
current feedwater current treatment
treatment more oxidizing environment (ORP >
No problems.
BUT possible
+ 120 mV) and the change of the
Step 2
economic savings Low level of surface layers from magnetite to
Monitoring corrosion products FeOOH. This reduction of corrosion
baseline products has been responsible for
the observation that the turbine
blade path is much cleaner. It
Step 3 should be noted that OT provides
the safest phase transition zone
Reduce oxygen Eliminate oxygen environment compared to phos-
scavenger scavenger
in steps
phate and all-volatile treatments.
This is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 8 in the sections dealing
with moisture, early condensate,
and deposits in the turbine.
Monitor
(as in Step 2) Figure 7-10 shows the overall
approach to developing optimized
feedwater treatment in all-ferrous
systems. The key parts are monitor-
Step 5 ing of iron, pH, oxygen, and the oxi-
dizing-reducing potential (ORP) at
Yes Can unit No
convert to OT? the economizer inlet as a minimum,
Step 7 Step 6 for all types of operating regimes
Convert to OT. Optimize feedwater (full and partial load, shutdown and
Drum and once- with minimum O2 startup). Not all units with all-ferrous
through units scavenger metallurgy may be suitable for con-
version to OT. Some may not have a
condensate polisher or be able to
produce feedwater with cation con-
Figure 7-10. Roadmap for optimizing feedwater treatment for all-ferrous systems. ductivities of better than 0.15 µS/cm.
Source: R.B. Dooley and A. Bursik60 These systems should, however,
still be optimized and made less
tube failures and an increased fre- hydrate (FeOOH) forms which reducing.86 Advantages of running
quency of chemical cleaning. As a blocks the pores of the original without an oxygen scavenger have
consequence of these problems, a Fe3O4 and reduces the transport of been realized in both drum and
change to oxygenated treatment for oxygen and iron ions through the once-through units.86 This is very
appropriate units has become the layer.76 These surface layers of important as there are large cost
recommended practice. FeOOH also have a much lower sol- savings in eliminating or reducing
ubility in flowing feedwater than the amount of reducing agent.
It is now clear that the addition of
magnetite.
even small levels of oxygen (> 5 7.3.3.2 Mixed metallurgy feedwater
ppb) to high purity water (cation Oxygenated treatment was intro- systems. Copper alloy corrosion in
conductivity < 0.15 µS/cm) provides duced in Germany in 1969 and in condensate and feedwater systems
a substantial reduction of trans- the former Soviet Union in 1970; is a function of oxygen, carbon diox-
ported feedwater products.97 This subsequent introduction into the ide, and ammonia. Mixed metal-
occurs because protective or pas- U.S. occurred in 1991 and over 110 lurgy feedwater systems (those con-
sive oxide layers form in the pres- once-through units have subse- taining copper-based alloys) gener-
ence of a limited amount of oxy- quently been converted.76,77 In
ally need a reducing environment
gen.86 Specifically, ferric oxide 1994, the first U.S. drum unit was (ORP<< 0 mV) and thus hydrazine
converted. The results for both or an alternate reducing agents

7-12 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine

will be required. The feedwater At the present time it is not known used to modify or influence the
chemistry should be optimized over how these additions affect many of crevice pH in nuclear steam
the complete operating spectrum for the topics of Chapter 8: moisture for- generators.98
the unit. The transport of copper mation rates, nucleation, early con- If there are no copper alloys, a pH of
and its deposition in the HP turbine densate, liquid film formation and up to 10 at 25°C (~77°F) is typically
is covered extensively in Chapter 19. deposition in the turbine. used. If copper alloys are present,
Other additives, such as titanium ammonia corrosion and the forma-
7.4 Nuclear Plant Cycle Chemistry oxide and/or boric acid, are also tion of volatile copper-ammonia
Guidelines
Typical limits for steam and feed-
Table 7-4
water purity for nuclear units are
Typical Steam Limits in Nuclear Plants
provided in Tables 7-4 and 7-5
respectively. Parameter PWR BWR1
RSG2 OTSG3
7.4.1 Pressurized water reactors.
In PWRs, secondary side chemistry Na, ppb < 0.05 <3 (see note 4)
is typically alkaline and oxygen Cl, ppb < 0.1 <5 < 0.05
free.98 At least four different water SO4, ppb < 0.1 <3 < 0.05
treatments have been used world- Silica, ppb NL < 10 NL
wide: all-volatile treatment, coordi-
nated phosphate, oxygenated treat- Cation conductivity, µS/cm < 0.25 < 0.25 —
ment, and octadecylamine (ODA). Conductivity, µS/cm — — < 0.0656
Of these the optimum treatment is Notes:
all-volatile treatment where pH and RSG—recirculating steam generator
chemistry control are achieved by OTSG—once-through steam generator
the addition of a slightly alkaline NL—no limit established
reagent to the demineralized water, 1 Steam values are not typically measured. Values in this table are taken as nominally 1% of reactor water
in combination with oxygen free limits.
conditions. The alkaline control is 2 Steam values are not routinely measured. Values in this table are taken as nominally 1% of steam generator
blowdown limits.
most commonly achieved by using 3 Steam values are not normally measured. Values in this table are based on feedwater values. Steam will
ammonia, morpholine or ethanola- always be less than the feedwater values.
mine which can give rise to high 4 Sodium limit can be estimated from conductivity limit.
conductivities in steam (0.4– 0.5 5 Typical values can be substantially higher for plants using alternative amines as a result of organic acid
µS/cm). This is a major difference partitioning from breakdown of amines.
6 Steam value is not normally measured. Value in this table is based on feedwater limit. Steam values will be
with fossil treatments. These volatile less than feedwater values.
additions do not concentrate in the
steam generator in contrast to non-
volatile additions such as phosphate Table 7-5
that would. Typical Feedwater Limits in Nuclear Plants
Oxygen free conditions are achieved Parameter PWR BWR
by a reducing agent, most often
RSG OTSG
hydrazine (50–600 ppb), added to
reduce free stream oxygen and to pH25˚C a a
ensure that iron flows in a reduced Ammonia, ppm a a
oxide form into the steam generator. Cation conductivity, µS/cm < 0.2 < 0. 2
This level of hydrazine is also used
Specific conductivity, µS/cm < 0.065
to prevent the occurrence of inter-
granular attack and stress corrosion Fe, ppb <5 <5 <5
cracking of Inconel 600 tubing Cu, ppb <1 <1 < 0.5
which has been a severe corrosion O2, ppb <5 <3 15 - 200
problem. Hydrazine is not normally
H2, ppm
used to guard against abnormal
oxygen such as excessive air leak- Notes:
age into the condenser. RSG—recirculating steam generator
OTSG—once-through steam generator
a—based on site-specific program

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-13

complexes are a concern. As a
result, a room temperature pH of 9.2
should not be exceeded and control
of excessive oxygen inflow by air
ejectors or mechanical means (e.g.,
reducing condenser in-leakage) is
required.
The selection of pH level and amine
type is primarily a compromise
between the acceptable corrosion of
various materials present in the
steam-water system, operation of
the demineralizer, and the cost of
disposal of demineralizer wastes.
Choice of the proper amine will also
be dependent intimately upon an
understanding of the partitioning of
the compound between the steam
and liquid phases. If the amine is
volatile, it will tend to stay with the
vapor phase and leave liquid-rich
areas downstream unprotected. For
example, ammonia which is volatile
will not protect the moisture separa-
tor drains well because it tends to
stay with the vapor phase going to
the low pressure turbine.
As shown in Table 7-4, the break-
down of amines can lead to organic
acid partitioning and can result in
steam cation conductivities in
excess of 0.3 µS/cm.
7.4.2 Boiling water reactors. In
BWRs conditions are typically neu-
tral and oxygenated, with as clean a
cycle as possible; in some units,
conditions have been changed to
neutral and reducing (hydrogen
injection) because of material
integrity problems.98
In BWRs all feedwater goes through
the reactor core. Radiolysis caused
by the neutron and gamma fields
decompose even the most stable
compounds. As a result, BWR
plants do not inject treatment agents
(other than possibly oxygen) such
as ammonia into the feedwater. It is
believed that the presence of
decomposition byproducts might
pose unacceptable risks to the fuel
cladding, the reactor vessel, and
7-14 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine
internals. Therefore, BWRs use pure
water with only minimal contami-
nants. The water can be treated as
neutral (pH25 = 7).
Two approaches to water chemistry
are used in BWRs: “normal water
chemistry” and “hydrogen water
chemistry” which is used by most
plants in the U.S. and many others
worldwide. A third approach, being
tested at a U.S. unit, is noble metals
chemical addition (NMCA).
Normal water chemistry (NWC) was
the original approach to BWR water
chemistry. In NWC, the final feed-
water oxygen is specified to be
between 15-50 ppb; the oxygen
content of the main steam line is on
the order of 18,000 ppb. The thou-
sand-fold increase is caused by
radiolysis of the water in the reactor
core. The high levels of oxygen are
beneficial in protecting the high
pressure portions of the BWR
extraction system. However, oxygen
at these high levels can lead to
intergranular stress corrosion crack-
ing (IGSCC) of austenitic recircula-
tion piping. There is also a concern
that reactor vessel internals may also
be damaged by IGSCC and by irra-
diation-assisted stress corrosion
cracking. The problems with high
oxygen levels have lead to a move to
the second approach to water chem-
istry–hydrogen water chemistry.
Under hydrogen water chemistry
(HWC), hydrogen is injected into
the final feedwater. This lowers the
equilibrium concentration of oxygen
throughout the reactor vessel and
recirculation loop. Additionally, the
injected hydrogen (~ 1-2 ppm) will
lower the main steam line oxygen
to about 5 ppm (from 18 ppm for
NWC). Two disadvantages of HWC
are (i) the possibility of increased
flow-accelerated corrosion in areas
of the steam system that were previ-
ously protected by the high oxygen
levels and (ii) there is a large
increase in the radioactive dose
rate in the area surrounding the
steam piping which limits personnel
and increases the cost of plant
maintenance.
Noble metal chemical addition
(NMCA) has been tested at one
plant. In this method, low concen-
trations of platinum or rhodium are
introduced into the reactor vessel
during a refueling outage for 24-48
hours at 120°C (~250°F). The com-
pounds decompose and plate out in
a thin layer of noble metal onto the
vessel and internals to protect com-
ponents from IGSCC at low feed-
water hydrogen concentrations.
7.5 Specific Application of Cycle
Chemistry Guidelines
The prevention of several of the
most common failures in the turbine
steam path requires a cycle chem-
istry that is specifically designed
and adopted for the particular unit.
The chemistry of the cycle is so
important when dealing with the tur-
bine steam path that, as a minimum,
the following features must be an
integral part:
1. The optimum choice of boiler
water chemistry, equilibrium
phosphate treatment (EPT), phos-
phate treatment (PT), all-volatile
treatment (AVT) or caustic treat-
ment (CT), is made for fossil
drum units.
2. The optimum choice of feed-
water chemistry is made for each
nuclear and fossil unit to minimize
the transport of feedwater corro-
sion products. For once-through
fossil units the key choice is
between oxygenated treatment
(OT) and all-volatile treatment
(AVT). For nuclear units the
primary concern is to protect the
steam generator as indicated
above.
3. Specific operating guideline limits
are derived for each unit with par-
ticular attention being given to
the steam purity limits especially
when new/organic feedwater
treatments are used.
4. Proper procedures and strict con- Table 7-6a
trols of impurities be established “Core” Monitoring Parameters for Fossil Plants (Minimum level of instruments for all plants/units)
for operating procedures such as
unit layup and unit startup. Usage, Measurement
5. A minimum “core” level of instru- Parameter Measurement Locations On-line/ Grab Frequency
mentation is provided for every
Cation conductivity • Condensate pump discharge (CPD) O C
unit. Table 7-6a shows this for
fossil plants. Cation conductivity • Polisher outlet or economizer inlet O C
6. Each operator should have a set
Cation conductivity • Hot reheat steam or main steam O C
of cycle chemistry goals for
• Downcomer1 O C
every unit. Table 7-7 provides
an example for fossil plants. pH (Drum Boilers) • Blowdown or downcomers O C
A primary goal is to eliminate all tur-
bine damage that is related to cycle Dissolved oxygen • CPD O O
chemistry; this is currently achiev- • Economizer inlet O O
able by optimizing boiler and feed- • Downcomer1 O O
water chemistry which ultimately Sodium • CPD O C
control the steam chemistry. Such
optimization includes requirements Sodium • Polisher outlet or economizer inlet O C
for the highest quality condensate
and feedwater, an emphasis on Sodium • Hot reheat steam or main steam O C
cleaning up the overall cycle, and
eliminating excessive deposition.
The key feature involves a detailed Table 7-6b
knowledge of the steam chemistry Additional Monitoring or Diagnostic Parameters for Fossil Plants
for all types of operation. For once-
through, most fossil drum and Usage, Measurement
cycling units, and all nuclear units, Parameter Measurement Locations On-line/ Grab Frequency
condensate polishers will be the key pH • Economizer inlet O C
means to achieve this.
The need for frequent fossil boiler Specific conductivity • Economizer inlet O C
chemical cleaning is a major indica- • Treated makeup O C
tor of non-optimized feedwater
Oxidizing-reducing • Economizer inlet O C
chemistry. It also implies a dirty
potential (ORP)
boiler that is more susceptible to
contaminant excursions. Another Cation conductivity2 • Blowdown or downcomer O C
target therefore is to clean up the
cycle so as to eliminate chemical Silica • Treated makeup O C
cleaning in once-through units and
put it on at least a 10 year cycle for Phosphate2 • Blowdown or downcomer O or G C or S
drum units.
Chloride3 • Blowdown or downcomer O or G C or D
7.5.1 Unit layup and effect on Iron • Economizer inlet O W
impurities transported to the turbine.
During shutdown, a moist, oxy- Copper • Economizer inlet O W
genated environment comes in
contact with the deposits and evap- Total Organic Carbon • Condensate pump discharge O W
orated liquid films that form on
steam path surfaces during unit Air Inleakage • Air removal system O or G C or D
operation. The resulting aggressive 1 Drum boilers on oxygenated treatment
local environment can lead to rapid 2 Drum boilers on phosphate treatment
3 Drum boilers with all-volatile treatment or caustic treatment
pitting (see Figure 23-19 and corre-
sponding discussion in Chapter 23).
O—On-LIne G—Grab C—Continuous or Semi-Continuous
S—Grab, Once/Shift D—Grab, Once/Day W—Grab, Once/Week

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-15

Table 7-7
Goals for a Cycle Chemistry Improvement Step 1 Step 2
Program No Intermediate and
Short term shutdown
• To eliminate boiler tube failures influenced long term
by cycle chemistry. Yes Yes
• To eliminate turbine chemical problems
such as LP blade and disk cracking, and Maintain condenser Evacuate reheater
deposits. vacuum and turbine with condenser
• To eliminate the need for boiler chemical seals vacuum
cleaning for units with all-ferrous feedwater
systems.
• To extend the period between chemical Inert the deaerator Break reheater
cleans to over 10 years for units with mixed and heater shells vacuum with
metallurgy feedwater systems.
Nitrogen purge
• To install simple, reliable cycle chemistry
instrumentation which operate, on-line and
in-situ.
• To shorten the startup period as a result of Inert the boiler with Drain condenser
automatic system under Nitrogen
• Optimization of shutdown, layup and
startup chemistry.
• The elimination of chemical holds in the
startup sequence. Maintain chemical
Dry layup
• To develop operational guidelines with limits per guidelines
action levels for all units.
• To identify the optimal managerial
approach.

It is also a key root cause to Yes No

environmentally-assisted cracking:
corrosion fatigue and stress corro-
Step 3 Step 4
sion cracking. Unfortunately, very No Drain system to
few turbines (less than 1%) are Dry air
remove all water
protected during unit shutdown.
This section reviews unit shutdown Yes
and layup procedures. An overall
roadmap to developing shutdown Drain system to Pressurize with N2 all
and layup procedures for most remove all water wetted parts
units is shown in Figure 7-11.
Customization will be required for
specific units, and guidance about
issues specific to various chemis- Customize for specific Maintain small
tries is available.99 chemistry Nitrogen flow through
condenser, turbine
and deaerator

Figure 7-11. Roadmap to develop shut-
down and layup guidelines common to
most units. Source: R.B. Dooley, A.
Aschoff, M. Ball, A. Bursik, O. Jonas,
and F. Pocock99
Notes: *No Hydrazine for OT units
**Limit pH to 9.0 to 9.2 if units
have copper alloys in cycle;
maintain Hydrazine at
40-50 ppm

7-16 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine

 No
Wet layup

Yes
Step 5 Step 6

Traditional Low O2 scavenger

Back fill superheater
No 200 ppm Hydrazine*
Yes Yes
10 ppm ammonia.
Nitrogen cap
Fill boiler with 10 ppm Add 5-10 ppm
Ammonia; and up to Hydrazine when boiler Step 8
200 ppm Hydrazine* pressure decays
Very long term
to 200 psi (1.4 MPa)
storage

Yes
Add Nitrogen cap
Fill feedwater system
when boiler pressure Isolate reheater
with 200 Hydrazine*
decays to 5 psi
10 ppm Ammonia**
(0.03 MPa)

Establish boiler Maintain feed water Backfill reheater and

Nitrogen cap of 5 psi without change superheater with 200
(0.03 MPa) ppm Hydrazine*
10 ppm Ammonia
Nitrogen cap
Step 7
Step 9
Add Nitrogen to condenser
while turbine spins down. For maintenance:
Maintain slow N2 flow. purge with air all N2
from equipment to be
maintained.
Test to ensure safe
Add Nitrogen to deaerator environment.
and storage tank while still
hot.
Maintain slow N2 flow

Maintain Nitrogen cap

on shell side of
feedwater heaters

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-17


Boiler
S.H. drain
XO HP
Process air discharge
Process air return
Figure 7-12. Steamside dehumidifcation flow. Source: D.B. Griffin and H.D. Thomas102
Wet layup. Unit layup procedures
can be generally divided into wet
and dry procedures. In general, wet
layup requires filling most of the sys-
tem with an alkaline reducing solu-
tion (with an excess of a reducing
agent) and preventing air ingress by
pressurization with an inert gas.99
Note that this procedure does not
apply to units utilizing oxygenated
treatment. During wet layup, the
reducing agent concentration is
monitored. Also the boiler and
economizer are circulated routinely.
Wet layup is often used when a
boiler might have to be returned to
service on relatively short notice.100
Wet layup is generally recom-
mended for relatively short periods
but may extend up to six months
and longer. Extensive use of nitro-
gen blanketing is recommended in
conjunction with wet storage. The
use of a nitrogen cap improves
7-18 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine
HP turbine IP turbine
Feedwater
heaters
Steam side
D.H. unit
BFP
BFP
IP LIP LP#3
startup chemistry, reduces layup
corrosion, reduces boiler tube
deposits, and lengthens the time
between chemical cleanings. Safety
issues are very important when
using a nitrogen cap.
Recently layup guidelines have
been introduced in Russia with the
filming amines (ODA).101
Dry layup. Dry layup requires
drainage while hot, and removal of
all water followed by pressurization
with a moisture free inert gas or by
use of dehumidified air to maintain a
low moisture environment.99 Dry
layup is practiced routinely interna-
tionally and is gaining popularity in
the U.S. for both longterm and short
term layup. Corrosion can be miti-
gated by maintaining air of relative
humidity of 60% of less in contact
with corrosion prone surfaces.
LP turbine
Cond
pumps
Hot
well
Gland
LP#2 LP#1
cond
Figure 7-12 shows one flow path
arrangement.102 Dry air from the
dehumidifier is discharged into the
hotwell and then flows through the
LP turbine and subsequent turbine
sections back to the boiler. Dry air
flows through the feedwater side of
the heaters and is discharged out of
the system, back to the dehumidifier.
Condensate pumps receive dry air
from the hotwell and discharge it
back to the dehumidifier from the
discharge check valves. Extractions
are left open so dry air can reach
the feedwater heaters, from which
air is returned to the dehumidifier.
Drip pumps and crossover heaters
are protected in the same manner.
Dry air is extracted from each water-
wall header and returned to the
dehumidifier.
Air moisture levels should be
checked as the air enters and exits
the reheat section. Two humidistats
Table 7-8
Generic Layup Alternatives
Method Advantages
Wet storage with ammonia/
hydrazine solution
(requires nitrogen blanket)
Nitrogen
Dry air
Source: R.B. Dooley, A. Aschoff, M. Ball, A. Bursik, O. Jonas, and F. Pocock 99
control the dehumidifier heaters
and blower to maintain the returning
air humidity to between 15% and
25%.99 The percentage of time that
the heaters stay on is a function of
ambient humidity, but is typically
around 40%.99
Note that unless special facilities are
available, during shutdown the tur-
bine, condenser (steam side), and
reheater are generally considered
together as there is no practical way
to isolate them. With special facili-
ties incorporated, the reheater can
be isolated from the turbine and may
Disadvantages
1. No concern about humidity.
2. Easily maintained.
3. Easily tested.
4. With proper installation, leaks can be easily
detected.
5. Superheaters and reheaters may be stored safely.
6. If facilities are installed, solution may be reused.
10.
1. System need not be completely dry.
2. Completely independent of climatic conditions.
3. May be used as a capping of normal operating fluid
during outages.
1. Readily available basis constituent.
2. Maintenance on plant can be performed without
problems.
3. Easy monitoring.
4. No risk to personnel.
5. Whole plant may be stored dry if drainable or dryable.
6. Independent of ambient temperature if air dry enough.
7. Residual heat in boiler steelwork utilized for drying.
be stored wet, but is not recom-
mended. The turbine, however,
can only be laid up dry.
Table 7-8 shows the advantages and
disadvantages for layup alternatives
for a complete fossil plant.
Length of unit layup. As indicated
by the roadmap in Figure 7-11, the
length of unit layup will determine
the proper procedures to be
applied, although there should not
be any difference in the degree of
corrosion protection provided.99 The
most significant differences between
layup periods are in the cost of
1. Possible pollution when draining.
2. Need to recirculate regularly.
3. Hydrazine possible carcinogen.
4. High water consumption prior to startup; solution
must be drained and possible rinsed.
5. Regular monitoring.
6. Ammonia must not be added if copper or copper
alloys are present in the system.
7. Tight isolations are prerequisite.
8. Not recommended if freezing may occur.
9. Draining if work is to be carried out.
Pure water (demineralized) must be used.
1. Very dangerous: asphyxiation of workers if not
properly vented.
2. Preferably carried out while system is being drained.
1. Drying equipment and blowers required.
2. Climatic conditions may cause rapid deterioration in
storage conditions.
3. Hermetically sealing may be required to prevent
#2 above.
4. System must be completely dry.
5. Sediment may cause corrosion if hygroscopic.
6. SO2 and dust must be excluded from the air used.
7. If work to be carried out on part of dried system,
that part of system must be isolated and redried
afterwards.
8. Even draining hot and under pressure does not
ensure complete water removal.
layup chemicals, layup preparation
and maintenance. Layup periods
are defined as99:
• Short term shutdown (wet)–
overnight through a weekend.
The chemistry conditions for
boiler water and pre-boiler sys-
tems are usually kept in the nor-
mal operating range. The boiler
should be full and under pres-
sure. The unit is protected from
air ingress. The condenser vac-
uum and turbine seals are main-
tained; the deaerator, heater
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-19
 shells, and boiler are inerted with
nitrogen or steam; and the feed-
water chemistry is maintained
according to the requirements for
the treatment philosophy (phos-
phate, caustic, AVT or oxy-
genated treatments) employed.
• Intermediate shutdown (wet and
dry) longer than a weekend and
up to one week. Under wet con-
ditions chemistry is maintained in
the normal operating range and
the boiler is allowed to cool.
Positive nitrogen pressure is
applied and maintained to pre-
vent air ingress as pressure
decays below positive pressure.
Under dry conditions, the hot
boiler and associated systems
are drained hot and purged with
nitrogen to remove all traces of
moisture. Air ingress is controlled
by maintaining a positive nitrogen
blanket on the boiler, superheater,
and associated steam spaces
until moisture is removed and the
metal cools. If dehumidification
equipment is installed, then this
can be applied to the turbine.
• Longterm shutdown (wet and dry)
–longer than a week. In general,
under wet conditions, hydrazine
concentrations are elevated, pH
is maintained above 9.0 (25°C
7-20 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine
(77°F)), and a positive nitrogen
pressure is maintained to exclude
air from unflooded spaces. Note
that the use of hydrazine is not
recommended for units on oxy-
genated treatment. A wet layup
can also be conducted with
treated good quality boiler water
of the same chemical composition
as that used during operation.
Under dry conditions the hot
boiler is drained and purged of all
moisture with nitrogen and a posi-
tive pressure of nitrogen is main-
tained. Alternatively, the unit may
be stored under properly con-
trolled dry dehumidified condi-
tions. For longterm shutdowns,
the turbine layup should involve
dehumidification.
Monitoring during layup. All layup
conditions, dry or wet should be
either continuously or periodically
monitored. The level of moisture
should be monitored on a frequent
basis to ensure that dehumidification
is adequate to protect turbine com-
ponents.
7.5.2 Instrumentation and monitor-
ing for unit cycle chemistry. All units
should have a set of reliable, simple
instruments to optimize the cycle
chemistry and as a means to imple-
ment and verify the required unit-
specific guidelines. Table 7-6a pro-
vides a “core” list of instrumentation
which represents the minimum level
for every fossil plant. Table 7-6b
provides a list of additional monitor-
ing or diagnostic parameters and
instruments that may be required to
verify the chosen chemistry or for
troubleshooting.
The use of monitoring and diagnos-
tic results of chemical species plays
an important role in (i) confirming
the mechanism, (ii) identifying root
cause(s), (iii) specifying optimal cor-
rective action, and (iv) ensuring the
longterm effectiveness of the chosen
preventative action.
For fossil plants, it is preferable to
monitor reheat steam chemistry to
ensure that contaminants introduced
through attemperation and from
deabsorption in the
superheat/reheat circuits are moni-
tored. This has shown to be the
most reliable steam monitoring loca-
tion. Alternatives are main steam
and saturated steam (on drum
units). It is particularly important to
monitor saturated steam on drum
units with caustic or phosphate
treatments to immediately detect any
sodium carryover (as NaOH). Main
steam would be the choice for
nuclear units.
References
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Turbine Blade Deposits”, University of Illinois Bulletin, No.
36, May 5, 1936.
2. Faulk and Ulmer, “Foaming of Boiler Water”, Ind. and
Eng.Chem., Volume 31, 1939, p. 158.
3. Baker, “Mechanical Purification of Steam within the
Drum Boiler”, ASME Trans., Volume 61, p. 711.
4. Powell, S.T., “Steam Contamination: II”, Combustion,
October, 1937, p. 27.
5. Fuchs, O., Z. Elektrochem. u. Angewandte
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8. Straub, F.G., “Steam Turbine Blade Deposits”,
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9. Morey, G.W. and J.M. Hasselgesser, “The Solubility of
Quartz and Some Other Substances in Superheated
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Steam”, Trans. ASME, Volume 78, 1956, p. 869.
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Carryover of Sodium Chloride from Boiler Water into
Steam” Teploenergetika, Volume 12, No. 9, 1965,
pp. 86-80.
12. Jonas, O., A. Pebler, and R.C. Bates, Characteriza-
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Blading Alloys, Topical Report CS-2931, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, August, 1984. See also Jonas, O., “Characterization
of Steam Turbine Environment and Selection of Test
Environments”, in R.I. Jaffee, ed., Corrosion Fatigue of
Steam Turbine Blade Materials, Workshop Proceedings
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Press, New York, NY, 1983, pp. 3-35 through 3-74.
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“The Behavior of Feedwater Impurities in the Circuits of
Supercritical Units”, Teploenergetika, Volume 13, No. 7,
1966.
14. Gyarmathy, G., et al., “Spontaneous Condensation of
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15. Rohsenov, W.M. and H.Y. Choi, Heat, Mass and
Momentum Transfer, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
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16. Heitmann, H.G., “Die Loslichkeit von Kieselsaure in
Wasser und Wasserdampf Sourie ein Einfulss auf
Turbinenrerkiesselungen”, Siemens Schubertwerke AG,
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17. Kirsch, H. and S. Pollan, “Deposition of Corrosion
Products in the Water-Steam Cycle of Steam Generating
Plants”, Chemie-Engenieur Technik, Volume 40, 1968,
pp. 897-903.
18. Pocock, F.J. and J.F. Stewart, ”The Solubility
of Copper and Its Oxides in Supercritical Steam”,
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19. Cohen, P., Water Coolant Technology of Power
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20. Bussert, B.W., R.M. Curran and G.C. Gold, “The
Effect of Water Chemistry on the Reliability of Modern
Large Steam Turbines”, ASME/IEEE Joint Power
Generation Conference, Dallas, Texas, September, 1978.
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Electric Exchange, Washington, D.C., April, 1978. See
also Combustion, Volume 50, No. 6, 1978, pp. 11-27.
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78, 1978, p. 179.
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Division, “Boiler Water Requirements for Steam Purity
Guarantees, for Drum Type Utility Boilers”, 2AC 2A511,
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24. Jonas, O., “Identification and Behavior of Turbine
Steam Impurities”, Paper No. 124, International Corrosion
Forum, National Association of Corrosion Engineers,
Houston, TX, 1977.
25. Peterson, S.H., et al., “Steam Purity Monitoring
for Turbine Corrosion Control: A Total Plant Survey”,
40th International Water Conference, Pittsburgh, PA,
October, 1979.
26. Lindsay, W.T., “Behavior of Impurities in Steam
Turbines”, Power Engineering, May, 1979, pp. 68-72.
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Processes of Steam and Water Impurities in Steam
Generating Systems”, in J. Straub and K. Scheffler, eds.,
Water and Steam: Their Properties and Current Industrial
Applications, Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on the Properties of Steam, held in Munich,
Germany, September 10-14, 1979, Pergamon Press, New
York, NY, 1980, p. 547.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-21
28. Jaffee, R.I., ed., Corrosion Fatigue of Steam Turbine
Blade Materials, Workshop Proceedings held in Palo
Alto, CA, September 21-24, 1981, Pergamon Press, New
York, NY, 1983.
29. Bates, R.C., J.W. Cunningham, N.E. Dowling, F.J.
Heymann, O. Jonas, L.D. Kunsman, A.R. Pebler, V.P.
Swaminathan, L.E. Willertz, and T.M Rust, Corrosion
Fatigue of Steam Turbine-Blading Alloys in Operational
Environments, Final Report CS-2932, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, September, 1984.
30. Lyle, F.F. and H.C. Burghard, Jr., Steam Turbine
Disc Cracking Experience, Volumes 1-7, Final Report
NP-2429-LD, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, June, 1982.
Volume 1: Literature and Field Survey
Volume 2: Data Summaries and Discussion
Volume 3: Stress Corrosion Cracking of Low-Alloy
Steels
Volume 4: Factors Determining Chemical Composition
of Low-Pressure Turbine Environments.
Volume 5: Characteristics and Operating Histories of
U.S. Power Plants
Volume 6: Description of Turbine Rotor Models
Volume 7: Metallurgical Analysis of Cracked Discs
From 10 U.S. Power Plants
31. Jonas, O., Turbine Chemical Monitoring at ANO-1,
Final Report NP-2404, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, May, 1982.
32. Hopkins, R.D., E.H. Hull, K.J. Shields, and S.
Yorgiadis, Guideline Manual on Instrumentation and
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CS-5164, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, April, 1987.
33. Aschoff, A.F., Y.H. Lee, D.M Sopocy, and O. Jonas,
Interim Consensus Guidelines on Fossil Plant Cycle
Chemistry, Final Report CS-4629, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
June, 1986.
34. Cycle Water Chemistry in Fossil Plants, 3 Volumes,
Final Report CS-7556, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA.
Aschoff, A., D.M. Sopocy, D.T. Eglar, O. Jonas, J.K.
Rice, C.C. Stauffer, and W.E. Allmon, Volume 1:
Monitoring Results, October, 1991.
Aschoff, A.F. and O. Jonas, Volume 2: International
Cycle Water Chemistry Practices, December, 1992.
Aschoff, A., D.M. Sopocy, D.T. Eglar, O. Jonas, J.K.
Rice, C.C. Stauffer, and W.E. Allmon, Volume 3:
Project Conclusions and Recommendations,
October, 1991.
35. Jonas, O. and R.B. Dooley, “International Water
Treatment Practices and Experiences”, Proceedings of
the International Water Conference, Volume 51, 1990.
7-22 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine
36. Jonas, O., F. Blood, B. Connick, K. Lehner, and W.R.
Homan, Water, Steam, and Turbine Deposit Chemistries
in Phosphate-Treated Drum Boiler Units, Final Report
CS-5275, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, August, 1987.
37. Jonas, O., R.K. Mathur, J.K. Rice, E. Coulter, and R.
Freeman, Development of a Steam Sampling System,
Final Report TR-100196, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, December,
1991.
38. Jonas, O., “Transport of Ionic Impurities in Fossil
and PWR Cycles - New Observations”, Int. Water Conf.,
No. IWC-81-40, Volume 42, 1981.
39. Rogers, L.B, Solubility of Corrosive Salts in Dry
Steam, Final Report NP-3559, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
June, 1984.
40. Allmon, W.E., et al., Deposition of Corrosive Salts
from Steam, Final Report NP-3002, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
April, 1983.
41. Leibovitz, J., Model of Vaporous Carryover, Topical
Report NP-1787, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, April, 1981.
42. Cobble, J.W. and P.J. Turner, PWR Advanced All-
Volatile Treatment Additives, By-Products, and Boric
Acid, Final Report TR-100755, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
July, 1992.
43. Pitzer, K.S., “Thermodynamics of Sodium Chloride
Solutions in Steam”, J. Phys. Chem., Volume 87, 1983.
44. Gallagher, J.S. and J.M. Levelt Sengers, “Modeling
the Thermodynamic Properties of Sodium Chloride in
Steam Through Extended Corresponding States”,
International Journal of Thermodynamics, Volume 9,
Number 5, 1988.
45. Steltz, W.G., et al., “The Verification of Concentrated
Impurities in Low Pressure Steam Turbines”, J. of Eng.
for Power, Volume 105, 1983, pp. 192-198.
46. Lindsay, W.T. and P.K. Lee, “Condensation of Low
Volatility Impurities in Steam Turbines”, Westinghouse
R&D Center Report 81-1B1-DEPMO-P1, September,
1981.
47. Svoboda, R., et al., “Volatility of Anions in Steam-
Water System of Power Plants”, BNES International
Conference on Water Chemistry of Nuclear Reactor
Systems 5, Bournemouth, UK, October, 1989.
48. Rottoli, M. and F. Sigon, “Low Pressure Steam Purity:
Behavior of the Chemical Species in Condensing
Steam”, Proceedings of the 49th International Water
Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, October, 1988.
49. Vasilenko, G.V., et al., “Dependence of Turbine
Operational Reliability on Quality of the Initial
Condensate”, Thermal Engineering, Volume 31, Number
4, 1984, pp. 54-56.
50. Jonas, O., M. Roidt, and A.S. Manocha, “Dynamic
Deposition and Solubility of Sodium Chloride in
Superheated Steam”, Proceedings of the International
Water Conference, Volume 44, 1983, pp. 174-193.
51. Cohen, P., ed., The ASME Handbook on Water
Technology for Thermal Systems, The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1989.
52. Hill, P.G., “Condensation of Water Vapour During
Supersonic Expansion in Nozzles”, Journal of Fluid
Mechanics, Volume 25, Part 3, 1966, pp. 593-620.
53. Moses, C.A., G.D. Stein, “On the Growth of Steam
Droplets Formed in a Laval Nozzle Using Both Static
Pressure and Light Scattering Measurements”, Journal of
Fluids Engineering, Volume 100, September, 1978, pp.
311-322.
54. Kantola, R.A., Condensation in Steam Turbines, Final
Report CS-2528, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, August, 1982.
55. Dibelius, G.H., K. Mertens, R.U. Pitt, and E. Strauf,
“Investigation of Wet Steam Flow in Turbines”, IMechE
C271/87, 1987, pp. 135-143.
56. Simonson, J.M. and D.A. Palmer, “Distribution of
Ammonium Salts Between Liquid and Steam at High
Temperatures”, ”, in B. Dooley and A. Bursik, eds.,
Interaction of Iron-Based Materials with Water and Steam,
Proceedings of an International Conference held in
Heidelberg, Germany, June 3-5, 1992, Report TR-
102101, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1992, pp. 4-1 through 4-15.
57. Palmer, D.A. and J.M. Simonson, Behavior of
Ammonium Salts in Steam Cycles, Final Report TR-
102377, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, December, 1993.
58. Jonas, O. and N.F. Rieger, Turbine Steam, Chemistry,
and Corrosion, Final Report TR-103738, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, August, 1994.
59. Jonas, Inc., et al., Turbine Steam, Chemistry, and
Corrosion Volume 1: Key Results, Summary, and
Interpretation; Volume 2: Individual Contributions of
Participants, Final Report TR-108184, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, 1999.
60. Dooley, R.B. and A. Bursik, “State of the Art in Fossil
Plant Cycle Chemistry”, 12th International Conference on
Water and Steam, held in Orlando, FL, September, 1994,
Begel House, “Physical Chemistry of Aqueous Systems”.
61. Ulmer, R.C. and H.A. Klein, “Impurities in Steam
from High Pressure Boilers”, Proceedings ASTM,
Volume 61, 1961.
62. Goodstine, S.L., “Vaporous Carryover of Sodium
Salts in High Pressure Steam”, Proceedings of the
American Power Conference, Illinois Institute of Tech-
nology, Volume 36 Chicago, IL, April, 1974, pp. 784-789.
63. Gadzhiev, K.G., O.I. Martynova, Yu. F. Samoilov, and
T.I. Petrova, “Pickup of Sodium Chloride from Boiling
Water to Steam at a Pressure of 16 MPa Under Con-
ditions of Hydrazine-Ammonia Water Treatment”, Thermal
Engineering, Volume 37, No. 12, 1990, pp. 666-667.
64. Straub, J and K. Scheffler, eds., Water and Steam:
Their Properties and Current Industrial Applications,
Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on the
Properties of Steam, held in Munich, Germany, Septem-
ber 10-14, 1979, Pergamon Press, New York, NY, 1980.
65. Pocock, F.J., “Understanding the Turbine Steam
Environment”, in J. Straub and K. Scheffler, eds., Water
and Steam: Their Properties and Current Industrial
Applications, Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on the Properties of Steam, held in Munich,
Germany, September 10-14, 1979, Pergamon Press, New
York, NY, 1980, p. 563.
66. Heitmann, H.G., “Fundamental Research in the Field
of Water Chemistry in Power Plants During the Last Years
and Its Demands”, J. Straub and K. Scheffler, eds.,
Water and Steam: Their Properties and Current Industrial
Applications, Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on the Properties of Steam, held in Munich,
Germany, September 10-14, 1979, Pergamon Press, New
York, NY, 1980, p. 533.
67. Jonas, O., “Characterization of Steam Turbine
Environment and Selection of Test Environments”, in R.I.
Jaffee, ed., Corrosion Fatigue of Steam Turbine Blade
Materials, Workshop Proceedings held in Palo Alto, CA,
September 21-24, 1981, Pergamon Press, New York, NY,
1983, pp. 3-35 through 3-74.
68. Palmer, D.A. and J.M. Simonson, Assessment of the
Ray Diagram, Final Report TR-106017, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, August, 1996.
69. Dooley, R.B., M. Ball, A. Bursik, O. Jonas, F.J.
Pocock, and J.K. Rice, Selection and Optimization of
Boiler Water and Feedwater Treatments for Fossil Plants,
Final Report TR-105040, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, April, 1996.
70. Dooley, R.B., A.F. Aschoff, and F. J. Pocock, Cycle
Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All-Volatile
Treatment, Final Report TR-105041, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
April, 1996.
71. Hicks, J.A., N.J. Mravich, and F.J. Pocock, “Nuclear
Steam Supply System Water Chemistry Research”,
Proceedings of the American Power Conference, Volume
33, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, 1971.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-23
72. Central Electricity Generating Board, Generation
Operation Memorandum (GOM) 72: Part 1 - Introduction
and General Aspects of Chemical Control of the Steam
Water Circuit, Issue 5, April, 1983. Part 2 - Chemical
Control of the Steam Water Circuit of Drum-Type Boilers,
Issue 6, September 1985. Part 4 - Sampling, Analysis,
Instrumentation and Chemical Dosing, Issue 5,
September, 1983.
73. VGB, “VGB Guidelines for Boiler Feedwater, Boiler
Water, and Steam of Generators Exceeding 68 bar
Tolerated Operating Pressure” (in German) VGB
Technische Vereinigung der Grosskraftwerksbetreiber,
e.V. VGB-R 450 L, Essen, 1988. See also A. Bursik,
“VGB Guidelines on Boiler Feedwater, Boiler Water and
Steam of Water-Tube Boilers”, IWC-84, #116, presented
at the 45th Annual Meeting of the International Water
Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, October 22-24, 1984.
74. Japanese Industrial Standard JIS B 8223-1977,
Water Conditioning for Boiler Feed Water and Boiler
Water, Japanese Standards Association, 1977.
75. Technical Guidelines for Operation of Power Plants
and Networks. One of the first editions dates back to
1950; the most recent, the 15th was issued in 1995.
76. Dooley, R.B., B. Larkin, L. Webb, A. Bursik, I. Oliker,
and F. Pocock, “Oxygenated Treatment for Fossil Plants”,
Paper IWC-92-16, Proceedings of the 53rd International
Water Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, October, 1992.
77. Bursik, A., B. Dooley, and B. Larkin, Guidelines for
Oxygenated Treatment for Fossil Plants, Final Report TR-
102285, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, December, 1994.
78. Ball, M., Sodium Hydroxide for Conditioning the
Boiler Water of Drum-Type Boilers, Research Project
9000-20, Final Report TR-104007, EPRI, Palo Alto,
California, January, 1995. See also Ball, M., “Caustic
Treatment for Drum Boilers”, Fourth International
Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Boilers, held in
Atlanta, Georgia, September 7-9, 1994.
79. Dooley, R.B., A. Aschoff, and F. Pocock, Cycle
Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate
Treatment for Drum Units, Final Report TR-103665, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA, December, 1994.
80. Dooley, B., “Developing the Optimum Boiler Water
and Feedwater Treatment for Fossil Plants”, International
Conference on Power Plant Chemical Technology, held in
Kolding, Denmark, September 4-6, 1996.
81. Dooley, R.B., “The Cutting Edge of Cycle Chemistry
for Fossil Plants”, IWC-96-37, 1996.
7-24 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine
82. Whirl, S.F. and T.E. Purcell, “Protection Against
Caustic Embrittlement by Coordinated Phosphate-pH
Control”, Proceedings of the Water Conference,
Pittsburgh, PA, 1942.
83. Klein, H.A., J.A. Lux, W.L. Riedal, D.E. Noll, and H.
Phillips, “A Field Survey of Internal Boiler Tube Corrosion
in High Pressure Boilers”, American Power Conference,
Chicago, Illinois, April, 1971.
84. Tremaine, P.R., L.G.S. Gray, B. B. Wiwchar, and J.
Stodola, Sodium Phosphate Chemistry Under High
Pressure Utility Drum-Boiler Conditions, Volumes 1
through 3, Project 913 G730, Canadian Electric
Association, October, 1992.
85. Stodola, J., “Review of Boiler Water Alkalinity
Control”, International Water Conference, 47th Annual
Meeting, held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, October 27-
29, 1986.
86. Dooley, R.B., J. Mathews, R. Pate, and J. Taylor,
“Optimum Chemistry for ‘All-Ferrous’ Feedwater
Systems: Why Use an Oxygen Scavenger?”,
Proceedings of the 55th International Water Conference,
Pittsburgh, PA, October 31-November 2, 1994.
87. Chexal, B., J. Horowitz, B. Dooley, R. Jones, C.
Wood, M. Bouchacourt, F. Remy, F. Nordmann, and P. St.
Paul, Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Power Plants, Final
Report TR-106611R1, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1998.
88. Zimmermann, M., “A New Technique for Chemically
Degassing Boiler Feedwater”, Mitteilungen der VGB, No.
2/3, 1948, pp. 70-73.
89. Zimmermann, M., “Practical Works Experience
Concerning the Deoxygenation of Boiler Feedwater and
Hydrazine”, in Hydrazine and Water Treatment:
Proceedings of an International Conference, held at
Bournemouth, England, May, 1957, Whiffen and Sons,
January, 1958.
90. Hydrazine and Water Treatment: Proceedings of an
International Conference, held at Bournemouth, England,
May, 1957, Whiffen and Sons, January, 1958.
91. Fiss, E.C., “Experience with the Use of Hydrazine
as an Oxygen Scavenger in High Pressure Boilers”,
Proceedings of the American Power Conference,
Volume XVI, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL.,
March 24-26, 1954.
92. Stones, W.F., “Experiences with Hydrazine as a
Chemical Deoxidant in High Pressure Boilers”, in
Hydrazine and Water Treatment: Proceedings of an
International Conference, held at Bournemouth, England,
May, 1957, Whiffen and Sons, January, 1958, pp. 77-97.
93. “Organic Conditioning Agents and Oxygen
Scavengers”, VGB Conference at Lahnstein, March, 1994.
94. Filer, S., “Plant Chemistry Measurement
Advancements: Oxidation Reduction Potential”, Ultrapure
Water, November, 1998, pp. 53-62.
95. Dooley, R.B., A. Bursik, O. Jonas, F. Pocock, and J.
Rice, “Perspective and Vision of Cycle Chemistry for
Fossil Plants”, in R.B. Dooley, ed., Proceedings
International Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry,
held in Baltimore, Maryland, June 4-6, 1991, Report TR-
100195, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, December, 1991, pp. I-1
through I-22.
96. Brown, J., and R.E. Massey, “Condensate,
Feedwater, Steam Sampling, and Analysis in Ontario
Hydro Thermal Generating Stations”, 41st International
Water Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, 1980, pp. 151-155.
97. Bates, A.J., G.J. Bignold, K. Garbett, W.R.
Middleton, D. Penfold, K. Tittle and I.S. Woolsey, “The
Central Electricity Generating Board Single-Phase
Erosion-Corrosion Research Programme”, Nuclear
Energy, No. 6, December, 1986, pp. 361-370.
98. Riess, R., and P. Millett, “State of the Art in Nuclear
Plant Cycle Chemistry” in H.J. White, Jr., J.V. Sengers,
D.B. Neumann, and J.C. Bellows, ed., Physical
Chemistry of Aqueous Systems: Meeting the Needs of
Industry, Proceedings of the 12th International
Conference on the Properties of Water and Steam, Begell
House, New York, NY, 1995, pp. 48-65.
99. Dooley, R.B., A. Aschoff, M. Ball, A. Bursik, O.
Jonas, and F. Pocock, Cycling, Startup, Shutdown, and
Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for
Operators and Chemists, Final Report TR-107754, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA, October, 1998.
100. Twigg, R.J., “Mothballing - The Impossible
Solution?”, in Proceedings: Fossil Plant Layup and
Reactivation Conference, held in New Orleans, LA, April
14-15, 1992, TR-101250, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1992, pp.
1-5 through 1-23.
101. Procedure Instructions on Layup of Power
Generating Equipment with Filming Amines, Amendment
to RD 43.20.521-97, Moscow, 1998.
102. Griffin, D.B. and H.D. Thomas, “Fossil Plant Layup
and Unanticipated Reactivation”, in Proceedings: Fossil
Plant Layup and Reactivation Conference, held in New
Orleans, LA, April 14-15, 1992, TR-101250, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, 1992, pp. 3-43 through 3-54.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 7-25
7-26 Steam Chemistry and the Turbine
Chapter 8 • Volume 1
Impurities in the Turbine:
Condensation, Droplet
and Liquid Film Formation,
and Deposition
8.1. Introduction
This chapter examines what hap-
pens to impurities that are trans-
ported to the turbine including phe-
nomena such as the nucleation of
droplets, formation of liquid films,
and concentration of impurities as
deposits. Understanding these
processes, illustrated schematically
in Figure 8-1, is central to prevent-
ing many of the most serious turbine
damage mechanisms.
Even though the basic principles of
operation and the environmental
constraints on turbines have been
known for decades, it is only
recently that the local environment
in working turbines has begun to be
fully characterized. Although all of
the needed theoretical underpin-
nings are not yet in place, signifi-
cant experimental progress has
been recently made. It is now pos-
sible, for example, to determine and
monitor (as a function of inlet steam
composition): (i) the moisture and
droplet size between turbine stages,
(ii) the composition of these droplets
(“first” or “early” condensate), (iii)
the thickness, composition, and
charge (potential) of liquid films on
blades, and (iv) the composition of
deposits formed.
The formation of droplets is impor-
tant as they can have a significant
effect on unit performance. The
droplet size of condensate is one of
the basic parameters that deter-
mines the energy loss in a turbine
(wetness/braking loss). An increase
in loss with wet steam flow is due to
(i) an increase in the friction loss in
the liquid film and boundary layer
consisting of steam and droplets,
(ii) the energy loss of the steam flow
caused by the acceleration of liquid
droplets, and (iii) breakup of the film
which separates from the blade trail-
ing edges with vortices. All these
result in high energy loss; the larger
the droplet size, the greater the loss.
Significant financial benefits could
be achieved if nucleation and the
location of the phase transition zone
(PTZ) could be delayed in the tur-
bine, or alternatively if a means to
decrease droplet size and/or film
thickness could be found. There
are additional motivations for under-
standing nucleation and the subse-
quent formation of moisture droplets
and of liquid films. Even “pure”
steam in the form of moisture has
two detrimental effects: it can
decrease overall thermal efficiency
through mechanical and thermody-
namic losses, and can lead to
erosion of LP blades.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-1

a) Volatility/Partitioning of Impurities in the Cycle
Boiler
water
Steam
b) Steam Turbine Phase Transition Zone
LP Steam +
Nucleation
impurities
Figure 8-1. a). Impurities go through three phase transitions as they proceed around
the cycle. b). The process of condensation, liquid film formation and deposition occur
in the phase transition zone.
This chapter follows the flow outlined
in Figure 8-1. It begins with discus-
sions of moisture nucleation (Section
8.2), the effect of chemistry on
nucleation (Section 8.3), the forma-
tion and composition of early con-
densate (Section 8.4), and liquid film
formation (Section 8.5). These
events eventually lead to deposition
on blade surfaces (Section 8.6), and
subsequently to various blade dam-
age mechanisms. Section 8.7 dis-
cusses the effect of electrostatic
charges in the turbine. Section 8.8
summarizes impurity concentration
and deposition. The chapter ends
ation seeds can be provided by the
precipitation and condensation of
steam impurities or the oxides trans-
Condensation. Evaporation. ported to the turbine from other
Steam Liquid films
parts of the cycle. Table 8-1 shows
Liquid droplets Deposits characteristic sources for nucleation
seeds in a 16.55 MPa (2400 psi)
fossil drum boiler cycle. Results
from recent research have shown
the presence of particles even in
Liquid Deposit units with very clean steam. Particle
Early
films on formation. sizes range from 300 angstroms to
condensate
blades Evaporation
100 microns with a typical particle
density over 107 per mm2. 3
The resulting droplets are of wide
ranging interest in the analysis of
turbine damage, particularly for cor-
rosion, flow-accelerated corrosion
and moisture effects. Steam impuri-
ties concentrate in the initial droplets
with a discussion of methods to col-
that form. Further concentration
lect and analyze turbine deposits
occurs when the droplets form thin
(Section 8.8), knowledge that may
liquid films on steam path surfaces.
be useful for diagnosing a variety of
Final concentration occurs via the
damage mechanisms.
interaction of the liquid films formed
and surface oxides, and most
8.2 Moisture Nucleation importantly by evaporation on
The condensation of water vapor drying surfaces.
has been under active investigation In the PTZ, steam condensation
since work by Wilson in 1897.1 occurs simultaneously and interac-
Water droplets form around nucle- tively by four alternative mecha-
ation centers during the continued nisms: (i) spontaneous condensation
expansion of steam through the dry- in the flow core and slanting shear,
wet transition. There is no lack of (ii) turbulent condensation in local
potential nucleation seeds; nucle- zones, (iii) condensation in vortices

Table 8-1
Sources of Nucleation Seeds in a 16.55 MPa (2400 psi) Fossil Drum Boiler Cycle
Chemical Characteristics Size Range1 Number of Seeds Range of Concentrations1
Source of Nucleation Seed (µm) per kg of Steam1 (ppb)

Boiler Carry-over Na2PO4, NaCl, Na2SO4,

Mechanical 0.1% SiO2, NH3, HCl, NaOH, 0.05 - 0.5 108 - 109 10 - 200
Vaporous Fe3O4, (CuO), etc. 10-3 - 10-1 1011 - 1013 10 - 200

Attemperation/Feedwater NH3, Fe(II), Fe(III), 10-3 - 0.5 1010 - 1011 10 - 100

resin fines, (Cu2O)

Exfoliation in SH and RH Fe3O4, (Cu2O) 0.1 - 1000 105 - 109 10 - 104

1In steam
Source: O. Jonas 2

8-2 Impurities in the Turbine

downstream of blade trailing edges,
and (iv) heterogeneous condensa-
tion on impurities and salts. This
makes the steam expansion process
in the turbine through the saturation
line close to equilibrium.
The initial condensation can be
homogenous or heterogeneous.
Homogeneous condensation or
nucleation involves a single, liquid
phase; heterogeneous condensation
or nucleation occurs when a solid
phase oxide or salt particle is
involved.
Much of the literature involves
homogeneous condensation and is
derived from such disciplines as
cloud physics and chemical engi-
neering. There are somewhat fewer
studies of homogeneous condensa-
tion specifically in turbine stages,
and of even more interest, of hetero-
geneous condensation in steam tur-
bines. Nevertheless, there have
been some studies pertinent to
steam turbines. For example an
acknowledgment of the effects of
heterogeneous condensation in
steam turbines, but without chem-
istry specifics was provided in early
work by Hill4 and by Dibelius, et al. 5
Only recently6 has a model of steam
flow through an LP turbine cascade
incorporating steam chemistry con-
siderations been able to identify
such factors as: (i) the range of
changing salt solubility, (ii) areas of
bulk flows, and (iii) the surfaces
where salts, acids, and hydroxides
can form highly concentrated aque-
ous solutions. The results of that
modeling effort provide good corre-
lation with field observations of
blade deposits and corrosion, and
with the results of converging-
diverging nozzle studies.
In homogeneous condensation, sub-
critical nuclei are considered to be
constantly forming and dispersing.
However, once the critical size is
achieved the nuclei can have stable
existence and grow by accretion.
The critical size, as determined
from classical nucleation theory is
a function of temperature (T ), the
amount of supersaturation, the
surface tension (ϕT ), and molecular
volume (υ) of the condensed phase
according to 7:
p  2 2ϕT1/2 ν

IF = a* exp
kbT √2 π m* 
 

 16π ϕT  3 ν  2
   After the formation of a critically
 3 k T lnS 
   (8-1)
 b s sized droplet, subsequent growth is
where:
IF = the Frenkel8 rate of formation
of critical size nuclei, number
per sec-cm3
a* = condensation coefficient,
assumed to be unity without
information to the contrary
p = partial pressure in the gas
phase
T = temperature, °K
kb = Boltzman constant
ϕT = surface energy per unit area
or surface tension of the
condensed material
m* = molecular mass of the
condensed material
Ss = supersaturation (ratio of
pressure to saturation partial
pressure at a given steam
condition)
One means of determining the sig-
nificance of such calculations is to
look at what they imply about the
precipitation of various impurities
from steam. Jonas and Rieger9
provide an example comparing the
effects of contamination by sodium
hydroxide with that by sodium chlo-
ride, each to a level of 100 ppb Na.
Equation 8-1 indicates a nucleation
rate of 1.3 x 1015 sec-1cm-3 for the
NaOH solution and 6.3 x 107
sec-1cm-3 for crystalline NaCl. The
high nucleation rate of NaOH means
an avalanche of precipitation will
occur immediately at crossover pipe
conditions (if it has not already
occurred in the IP turbine); that is,
supersaturation will be completely
eliminated and NaOH will deposit on
the cross-over piping and on the LP
turbine internal surfaces near the
inlet. In contrast, the low nucleation
rate for solid NaCl will not produce
precipitation in the LP despite
increasing supersaturation because
of the very short transit times.
governed by the difference between
the competing effects of the contin-
ued addition of mass and the evap-
oration of vapor. Droplet growth
curves from condensation in two
types of “pure” water and deminer-
alized water are shown in Figures
8-2a-c.10 Superheat of 11.1°C
(20°F) was used with a variety of
initial pressures. Droplet size
increased with decreasing pressure,
trending toward a plateau in the
case of the demineralized water
(Figure 8-2c).
The growth rate of nuclei from criti-
cal size to larger droplets can be
estimated from:
a*pν
r= (8-2)
(2πm*kbT )1/2
where:
r = radius of the spherical droplet
a* = condensation coefficient,
assumed to be unity without
information to the contrary
p = partial pressure in the gas
phase
ν = molecular volume
m* = molecular mass of the
condensed material
kb = Boltzman constant
T = temperature, °K
The equation presumes linear
growth that proceeds by accretion.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-3
 Equations 8-1 and 8-2 can be used
P0 = 26.5 psia Initial to model various contamination sce-
T0 = 265°F }
condition narios using a knowledge of temper-
λ2 = 632.8 nm ature, pressure, and time for a par-
λ1 = 457.9 nm
. }
Attenuation
ticular turbine.9
P0 = 35.7 psia
} Initial
1.4
p/p = 332 s-1
{
P = 11.1 psia At onset
x = 3.75%
T0 = 285°F
λ2 = 632.8 nm
conditions

} Attenuation
Heterogeneous condensation is
entirely different. In this case, nucle-
Average of 50 samples λ1 = 457.9 nm ation sites abound on oxidized sur-
1.2 Average of 100 samples Average of 100 points faces, salt surfaces, and other parti-
cles, and exposure times are very
large (steady state exposure of
1.0
Diameter (µm)

these surfaces) in contrast to the

time available in homogeneous con-
0.8
densation (the steam transit time). It
has been suggested that heteroge-
0.6 neous condensation processes are
Triple distilled water Triple distilled water
probably diffusion controlled.9
0.4 2 laser setup 2 laser setup
`A´ `B´ The challenge in evaluating hetero-
0.2 geneous condensation is to calcu-
Onset
Onset late the rate of growth of deposits
which, it is assumed, nucleate with-
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 out difficulty.9 A rule of thumb esti-
Time (µs) Time (µs) mate of such growth rates can be
obtained from:
50 samples P0 = 23.5 psia Initial
25 samples T0 = 250°F condition} •
m1 =1/2 Cƒ V (Sc)-2/3 (C∞– Cο)
12 1.2
.Pp/p= =11.1
10 1.0
Pressure psia
410 s-1

x = 3.35% wetness
{ Onset
conditions
where:
(8-3)

•
Droplet diameter m1 = the mass flux of impurity
Droplet Diameter (µm)

8 0.8 toward the surface

Pressure (psia)

Cƒ = skin friction coefficient

Equilibrium Wetness (%)

V = velocity
6 0.6 5 Sc = Schmidt number
dr/dt = 1.8 mm/s Wetness
C∞ = the impurity concentration in
4 0.4 the bulk fluid
4
Cο = the impurity concentration in
gas that is in equilibrium with
2 0.2 Demineralized water the condensed phase at the
2 laser setup 3
`C´ surface.
0 0 As an example, at a velocity of 305
0 200 400 600 m/sec (1000 ft/sec) and a concen-
Time (µs) tration difference corresponding to
10 ppb NaCl, the growth rate would
be about 0.4 µg/cm2 – hr or about
Figure 8-2. Results of condensation tests with two types of pure water. 200 Å/hr increase of film thickness,
[(T °F - 32)/1.8 = °C; psi x 6.895 = kPa]. Source: R.A. Kantola10 a rate consistent with indirect mea-
surements (via conductance) of film
thickness in operating turbines.9

8-4 Impurities in the Turbine

 ing turbines, although it can be and
Moisture, % has been observed in Laval and
1.60 other nozzle tests. As a result it is
suggested that in operating tur-
1.40 bines, this region should be
renamed the Phase Transition Zone
1.20
(PTZ) and that it encompass the
1.00 region from before the saturation line
to about 4-5% moisture on the
0.80 Mollier diagram.

0.60 Nucleation and droplet formation is

still a topic of active investigation.
0.40 Key questions currently being
Droplet Radius, µm
addressed include:
0.13 • Does nucleation follow from het-
erogeneous causes?
0.11 • Are impurities negligible in rela-
tion to homogeneous nucleation?

0.09
• What is the effect of expansion
rate on nucleation in steam? As
the expansion rate decreases,
0.07 there are fewer larger droplets.11
Further as the expansion rate
increases there are a large num-
0.05 ber of small droplets in the region
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative Blade Length up to about 4% moisture. Note
Root Tip that the gross expansion rate in
fossil units (650-900/sec) is
greater than in nuclear units (400-
Figure 8-3. Moisture and droplet radius measurements along the length of the blade 600/sec), thus smaller droplets
in a model turbine as a function of different inlet steam conditions. Symbols represent tend to be formed. Finally, as the
different chemistries. Source: R.B. Dooley, L.A. Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I. pressure at points within the PTZ
Martynova, A. Yu Petrov, T.I. Petrova, S.A. Popov, V.N. Semenov, and A.N. Troitsky12
increases the droplet density
increases. Despite these qualita-
It is generally felt that both types of Figure 8-3 show measurements in a tive observations, there remains a
nucleation are simultaneously occur- model turbine indicating that both significant challenge to fully char-
ring and that particular circum- moisture percentage and droplet acterize the effect of expansion
stances determine which type of size decrease from the root to the tip on nucleation.
nucleation dominates. For example, along a given blade. Droplet sizes • What is the electrical charge on
heterogeneous nucleation is more and moisture level were measured individual droplets and the
predominant during unit startup.9 using the laser probe shown in charge density of the “fog” (see
Figure 8-4. Using this instrument,
Droplet size and moisture levels Section 8.7)?
light scattering is used for droplet
have now been extensively mea-
size; light attenuation is used for • What are the effects of major
sured. Under operating conditions
determining moisture levels. chemical additions and impurities
in turbines, droplets of moisture along the flowpath on droplet
have now been measured below Spontaneous condensation to size, nucleation concentration,
average moisture levels of 1%. The relieve supersaturation (historically charge and charge density of the
droplets that form range in size from referred to as the Wilson line or
droplets?
0.05 to 0.13 µm. The examples in zone) has not been seen in operat-

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-5

 • In model turbine tests increased
droplet radii were observed with
Laser
1000 V higher ammonia levels in phos-
J0 phate treatment compared with
Power supply Power supply lower ammonia levels in oxy-
220 V 220 V
unit of laser unit of PM
genated treatment (OT). The
800 V droplet radius decreased slightly
(0.12 - 0.11 mm) with addition of
Photoelectron
multiplier (PM) 2.5 ppm of octadecylamine
(ODA). No effect was observed
J J1 J2 J3
on the droplet size with small
I I1 I2 I3
additions of NaCl and Na2SO4
for the phosphate or OT treat-
J3 ments.12
Digitizer
• Droplet nucleation in steam with
volatile impurities is expected to
Droplet path be a homogeneous process; with
Interface low volatility impurities, a mixed
heterogeneous-homogeneous
J J1 J2 process is expected to
dominate.13 Thus, it may be that
IBM PC homogeneous condensation of
impurities is important only in
major steam contamination events
such as caustic carryover from
condensate polisher malfunction9,
or major condenser leakage.
Heterogeneous condensation,
however, is probably significant
for a range of impurity levels as
these processes can produce
wetted solid deposits and films of
impurity concentrates either of
which produce corrosive surface
environments.9
Figure 8-4. Laser probe for droplet and moisture measurement using light scattering
and attenuation. Source: R.B. Dooley, L.A. Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I. Martynova,
A. Yu Petrov, T.I. Petrova, S.A. Popov, V.N. Semenov, and A.N. Troitsky12

8.3 Effect of Chemistry on 2.0 x 103 sec-1) in a converging-

Nucleation
The effect of specific chemical
species on droplet nucleation has
recently been investigated and has
indicated:
• The effect of chemical additives
and impurities at two rates of
steam expansion, (p = 1/p •
dp/dt) = 4.5 x 103 sec-1 and
diverging nozzle indicated that
the droplet size is increased by
additions of trisodium phosphate,
sodium chloride, and ammonium
chloride compared to pure steam.
Ammonium hydroxide, morpho-
line, ethanolamine (ETA), helium,
oxygen, and nitrogen appear to
have no effect.3

8-6 Impurities in the Turbine

8.4 The Early Condensate concentrate in the early concentrate, level higher than sulfate, and that
As discussed above, first condensa- and how they increase with decreas- the level of NH3 remains fairly con-
tion in actual turbines occurs just ing moisture. These effects are illus- stant across the moisture range
after the saturation line. Between trated in Figure 8-7 for chloride, sul- because of its high volatility; that is
blade surfaces, very fine droplets fate, and ammonia. It should be the ammonia stays in steam and
(< 0.1 µm) have formed by about noted that chloride concentrates to a does not concentrate in the liquid.
the 1% moisture line. In bulk flow,
larger droplets (5 µm) have formed
by about the 2% moisture line.9
The composition of these droplets,
known as “early” or “first” conden- Turbine case
sate, can be measured internally,
Figure 8-5, or externally, Figure 8-6,
to the turbine steam path. The
internal measurement is taken
between rotating and stationary
rows. The external method extracts
superheated steam as it enters the
LP turbine.14 Both methods have
recently been found to show
remarkable agreement.3
Impurity levels in early condensate
have been measured by a number Separator
of investigators14-23 Svoboda14 was
the first to show how the impurities Early condensate Turbine Turbine
probe flowpath

Steam
outlet
Early condensate
sampling vessel
To
condenser

Figure 8-5. Internal early condensate sampling system. Source: R.B. Dooley, L.A.
Moisture Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I. Martynova, A. Yu Petrov, T.I. Petrova, S.A. Popov, V.N.
separator Semenov, and A.N. Troitsky12

ppb Cl/SO4 ppb NH3

30 120

25 Cl 100

20 80

15 60
SO4 NH3
10 40
Steam
inlet 5 20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40
Sample Moisture (%)
Injection water

Figure 8-7. Comparison of chemical species in early conden-

Figure 8-6. External early condensate sate versus moisture. Source: R. Svoboda, H. Sandmann, S.
sampler. Source: R. Svoboda14 Romanelli, and M. Bodmer14

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-7

Table 8-2 Impurity levels in early condensate,
Typical Early Condensate specifically the differences in the
concentration ratios of chloride and
Parameter Inlet Steam Blade End Blade Middle Blade Root
sulfate, have been measured for a
pH 9.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 number of units using both oxy-
genated treatment and all-volatile
Conductivity (µS/cm) 0.2 2.3 1.7 1.6
treatment.18,22,23 Typical results pro-
SiO2 (ppb) 10 275 70 65 duced in a model turbine are shown
NH3 (ppb) 590 550 460 450 in Figure 8-8 for chloride. A similar
Cl (ppb) 6 41 40 34 result has been obtained for sulfate.
This figure indicates that AVT (data
Source: G. V. Vasilenko and G.P. Sutotsky 22 coincident with phosphate results)
and phosphate treatments produce
the highest concentration ratios for
Cl in the EC, ppb chloride in the early condensate.
There is essentially no difference
200 Na: PO4 3:1
between treating the boiler with
Na3PO4 (Na:PO4 molar ratio of 3.0)
160
Na: PO4 3:1+ ODA or Na2HPO4 (Na:PO4 molar ratio of
120 2.6). The feedwater pH for the
Na: PO4 3:1 phosphate and AVT tests was
80 Na: PO4 3:1+ ODA around 9.2.
OT
40 Oxygenated treatment (at oxygen
NA
0 levels around 150 ppb with feedwa-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ter and steam pHs of around 8.0)
Cl in the Turbine Inlet Steam, ppb however, produces a much lower
concentration ratio for both species.
The addition of octadecylamine
Figure 8-8. Chloride content in the early condensate versus (ODA) to the steam from a boiler
level of chloride in the turbine inlet steam. Samples were treated with phosphate (feedwater
taken at the mid-section of the blade height. NA means no
addition to the cycle chemistry. Source: R.B. Dooley, L.A. pH of around 9.2) also produces a
Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I. Martynova, A. Yu Petrov, T.I. lower concentration of chloride in
Petrova, S.A. Popov, V.N. Semenov, and A.N. Troitsky12 the early condensate, but not as low
as with OT.
All measurements show increased One of the most important observa- Finally, in all conditions (and all
concentration of steam impurities in tions is that oxygen does not con- chemistries) meeting the applicable
the condensate formed. The con- centrate in the early condensate: steam purity guidelines for fossil
centration ratio of impurities in the levels in the early condensate are plants (see Table 7-2), impurities in
early condensate compared to the < 1 ppb for turbine steam inlet levels the early condensate are not, by
inlet steam for sodium, chloride and of oxygen in the range of 30-250 themselves, at a level that would
sulfate ranges from 2-150 times. ppb. It is also known from BWR cause corrosion. This clearly sug-
The moisture is typically found to be plants with 20,000 ppb of oxygen in gests that the reduction of reliability
acidified, with pH decreasing by at the steam that only 2-3 ppb are in of LP rotating blades and discs is
least a unit and cation conductivity the moisture separator drains. With caused by the formation of liquid
increasing by an order of magni- falling pressure in the LP turbine, films with corrosive impurities and
tude. Typical early condensate even smaller oxygen concentrations their subsequent evaporation, and/or
data, measured by Vasilenko, shown are to be expected in the early con- by deposition of concentrated salts
in Table 8-2 illustrates these trends. densate.24 as a result of precipitation.

8-8 Impurities in the Turbine

8.5 Liquid Film Formation
Liquid films start to form on the sta-
tionary and rotating blade surfaces
in the steam expansion region where
there are fine droplets (< 1 µm). Film
formation is thought to occur mostly
by diffusion and by the action of tur-
bulent pulsations because these fine
droplets should follow the stream
lines. Larger droplets (> 1 µm) have
trajectories that do not follow stream
lines and as a result liquid films are
formed by inertial forces and
impaction. The film flows have a
major influence on energy losses,
and their release on the erosion of
the rotating blades (Chapter 27).
Liquid films have been observed
prior to the saturation line which may
be related to the “salt zone”.25-27
For example, unstable liquid films
up to 20 µm thick can be detected
even in regions where there is 10°K
of superheat, and at initial moisture
content of around 1% or less. In
these regions, the films formed
are incomplete and often have a
“streaked” appearance. Stable films
up to 90 µm thick can be formed on
the surfaces where the moisture is
above 1%.
Liquid films that form on blades as
a result of any of these mechanisms
are of considerable interest for sev-
eral reasons:
• The liquid films are responsible
for supplying the dynamic envi-
ronment for corrosion fatigue and
stress corrosion cracking mecha-
nisms (Chapters 24, 25, and 26).
• The films act to further concen-
trate impurities over and above
the concentration levels in the
early condensate. Thin films have
the highest level of concentration,
thicker films are more dilute.
Concentration levels in liquid films
have been measured using a
model turbine.28 Figure 8-9
Chloride in EC and LF, ppb
10000
1000
100
10 EC-PT
EC-OT
Power fit (EC-PT)
Power fit (EC-OT)
1
0 10
Chloride inTurbine Inlet Steam, ppb
Figure 8-9. Comparison of chloride levels in early condensate (EC) and liquid films at
two locations (LF-II, LF-III) for oxygenated treatment (OT) and phosphate treatment
(PT). Source: T.I. Petrova28
shows the measured level of chlo-
ride in the early condensate for
oxygenated and phosphate treat-
ment (similar to the results shown
in Figure 8-8). It also shows the
concentrations of chloride for two
sampling locations for the liquid
films, designated LF-II and LF-III.
The results show that28:
(i) The concentration of core fac-
tors such as chloride in the liquid
films is at least ten times greater
than in the early condensate.
(ii) There is a non-linear relation-
ship between the level of chloride
in the turbine inlet steam and in
the liquid films.
(iii) Oxygenated treatment
produces lower concentrations
of chloride in the liquid films
when compared to phosphate
treatment.
It was also found that the pH of
the liquid films (typically found to
be in the range 6.1-6.4 in the
liquid films depending on the
chemistry evaluated) is lower
than the pH of the inlet steam
LF-II - PT LF-III - PT
LF-II - OT LF-III - OT
Power fit (LF-II - PT) Power fit (LF-III - PT)
Power fit (LF-II - OT) Power fit (LF-III - OT)
20 30 40 50
(typically 8.5-9.3 depending on
the chemistry).
Liquid films have been identified
prior to the saturation line but
have not yet been analyzed.29
They are expected to be even
more concentrated.
• The flow of films off the blade
trailing edges result in large
droplets (around 100 µm); these
are involved with liquid droplet
erosion or flow-accelerated corro-
sion (Chapters 27 and 29).
• The presence of liquid films on
the blades (as with droplet pres-
ence), and particularly the flow
off the blade, results in significant
loss of turbine efficiency.
• The liquid films have an electrical
charge (potential). See Section
8.7.
Improved understanding of the
mechanics of film formation will
enable these deleterious effects to
be mitigated.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-9
Film flow patterns are complex.
Liquid films of various shapes
(lenses, jets, liquid spots, and con-
tinuous films) are formed on the sur-
face of rotating and stationary
blades in the phase transition region
at moisture levels below 1%. The
thicknesses can vary from 0 up to
100-120 µm depending on blade
location. The shape and thickness
of the liquid film is determined by a
number of parameters: wetting
angle, heat flux (evaporation),
droplet precipitation, saturation tem-
perature, and impurity concentra-
tion. As the film changes composi-
tion by the addition of droplets and
by evaporation, the surface tension
of the liquid changes. When the film
becomes thinner as a result of evap-
oration, the concentration of salts
increases.
There is also an effect of steam
chemistry. Figure 8-10 shows the
effect of three chemistries and vari-
ous impurities on relative film thick-
ness for a constant blade location.
The film thickness formed from
steam from a phosphate treated
boiler with feedwater of around pH
9.2 is around 100 µm. The same
result is observed for AVT. Without
any addition of ammonia to the feed-
water (pH 7.4) or any addition to the
steam (NA), the film thickness
decreases by around 80%. The
addition of oxygen to the steam (150
ppb), with feedwater pH of around
8.0, makes very little difference to
this reduced film thickness. It is
interesting to note that the addition
to the steam of a surface active
agent such as ODA increases the
relative film thickness on blade sur-
faces, Figure 8-11, compared to
those shown in Figure 8-10.
Finally, as with the studies of oxygen
in the early condensate, liquid films
have also been found to contain
very low levels (< 1 ppb) of oxygen
in model turbine tests using oxy-
genated treatment.
8-10 Impurities in the Turbine
Relative Film Thickness
1.0
Film Thickness No impurities
0.8 NaCl
Na2SO4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
PT NA OT
Figure 8-10. Relative film thickness on the nozzle blade versus
chemistry and level of impurities. Source: R.B. Dooley, L.A.
Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I. Martynova, A. Yu Petrov, T.I. Petrova,
S.A. Popov, V.N. Semenov, and A.N. Troitsky12
Relative Film Thickness
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
<30 ppb Cl
1.0 80-100 ppb Cl
0.9
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
ODA Content, ppm
Figure 8-11. Relative film thickness versus initial ODA level in
steam. Source: R.B. Dooley, L.A. Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I.
Martynova, A. Yu Petrov, T.I. Petrova, S.A. Popov, V.N. Semenov,
and A.N. Troitsky12
8.6 Deposition on Blade Surfaces Historically the method for illustrat-
There is a long and extensive history ing the zones in which precipitation
in the evaluation of turbine deposi- of particular impurities will occur is
tion beginning as early as the through the use of the Mollier dia-
1930s.30,31 Many studies and sur- gram (Figure 2-3). Lines showing
veys have recognized the direct the location of stable condensed
relation between high levels of and vaporous phases of a particular
steam impurities, the concentration impurity are plotted along with state
of impurities in blade deposits and lines for the power cycle. These dia-
subsequent blade damage or fail- grams provide a large amount of
ures. Deposition is faster for those information including (i) which com-
conditions where the steam contains ponents in the cycle and what parts
higher concentration of impurities.
of the turbine could be exposed to
potentially corrosive liquid concen-
trates of impurities, (ii) locations in
the cycle where condensed phase
precipitation is possible for a given
steam impurity level, (iii) the rela-
tions between vapor phase concen-
tration and condensed phase con-
centration, and (iv) the effects of
load, variations in the cycle and the
nature of different impurities on all of
the above.9
Preparing such a plot for two major
contaminants of interest, NaCl-H2O
and NaOH-H2O, shows that for
sodium chloride, the limitation on
boiling point elevation restricts the
formation of potentially corrosive liq-
uid concentrates to the final stages
of the LP turbine. In contrast, no
such limitation exists for sodium
hydroxide in the path of the expan-
sion line. Sodium sulfate and
sodium phosphates have even more
limited zones of liquid
concentrates.15
An interesting summary of the trends
of concentration of major deposits is
shown in Figure 8-12 from a field
study of 42 units and 105 turbines.
That figure also shows the locations
where related chemical compounds
are most frequently found (the verti-
cal lines on the figure).
As noted in the guidelines for both
fossil and nuclear units (Chapter 7),
the levels of impurities in inlet steam
should be small, on the order of
ppb. However, because of various
concentration mechanisms even
such low levels of particularly harm-
ful impurities such as chloride and
sulfate can result in harmful deposits
and serious turbine damage. The
following impurity concentration
mechanisms associated with and
leading to deposition on blade sur-
faces apply:
• Precipitation from superheated
steam.
• Evaporation of liquid films on hot
surfaces and in the blade path.
Concentration, Wt %
102
Na2SIO3
Na2HPO4
Na3PO4
Na2SO4
Amorph, silica
CuO
Cu2O
NaCl
Na2CO3
101
SiO2
Si
SO4
Cu
10 0 Na
CO3
PO4
Ca
10-1
Cl
HP IP LP
-2
10
10-1 100 101 102 10-3
3
Specific Volume, Ft /lb
Figure 8-12. Summary of deposit compositions versus specific
volume of steam. Curve indicate distribution of average concen-
trations. Vertical lines indicate correct average and maximum
concentration and the related compound found most frequently.
[Ft3/lb x 0.0128 = m3/kg] Source: O. Jonas, A. Pebler, and R.C.
Bates32
• Concentration in condensed solubility limits are reached at
phases (the “first” condensate as which point the deposition of
described in Section 8.4). mineral particles, acid and caustic
droplets occur.
• Concentration in oxides.
Table 8-3 summarizes these impurity 8.6.2 Evaporation of moisture on
concentration mechanisms, typical surfaces which are elevated above
locations where they are assumed to the saturation temperature and
occur in the turbine and means of retention of the mineral residue
control. In the “wet” zone, after the (from liquid films). Some blade and
rotor surfaces in the wet steam sec-
saturation line, deposition in the
tions of turbines are heated by heat
steam flow path (rotating and sta-
transfer and/or by the effects of flow
tionary blades, blade seals, piping)
stagnation. When moisture droplets
is mostly due to the first mechanism,
containing impurities contact these
precipitation. In the “dry” zone,
surfaces, they partially or totally
prior to the saturation line, deposi-
evaporate leaving on the surface a
tion of salts, oxides and other conta-
concentrated chemical solution.
minants can occur as a result of the
Example locations where such heat
salt zone or by impaction-type
mechanisms. transfer leads to evaporation and
drying are (i) the last row discs of
8.6.1 Precipitation from super- fossil LP turbines heated from the
rotor gland section and (ii) the
heated steam. One of the most
downstream side of first discs in
frequent mechanisms for impurity
concentration is the precipitation of nuclear turbines heated from the
impurities from steam once their
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-11
Table 8-3
Impurity Concentration Mechanisms in Steam Turbines
Description of Mechanism
Precipitation and deposition from
superheated steam
Formation of droplets
Evaporation and drying of wet steam
on hot surfaces
Concentration in surface oxides
(processes such as ion exchange,
chemisorption, capillary condensation,
capillary boiling, etc.)
Distribution of solubles from steam to
moisture.
Source: Adapted from O. Jonas and N.F. Rieger 9
inlet side. Obviously there is no level
of steam impurity in which concen-
tration does not occur by drying.
Particularly prone to damage via
corrosion mechanisms are surfaces
which frequently alternate between
wet and dry conditions.
A historical reminder of the impor-
tance of this mechanism is provided
by the Hinkley Point turbine disc
burst.33 The failure was caused by
stress corrosion cracking of a key-
way in an LP turbine disc. Figure
8-13 shows a plot of the metal tem-
perature for four keyways along with
the corresponding steam tempera-
tures. Only in “Disc 4”, where the
metal temperature was significantly
above the steam temperature was
stress corrosion cracking avoided.
In tests using a converging-diverg-
ing nozzle and a drying probe, it
has been shown that moisture evap-
oration results in a relatively high
quantity of deposit just after the sat-
uration region, and accumulation of
8-12 Impurities in the Turbine
Can Problem
Locations Likely to be Affected be Avoided?
Depends on impurity, can occur in HP, IP, Yes
or LP although most common in phase
transition zone of LP.
LP starting in phase transition zone. Yes
• Surfaces above saturation because of No
heat transfer through metal.
• Locations of flow stagnation.
Depends on impurity, can occur in HP, IP, No,
or LP although most common In phase but can be
transition zone of LP. controlled.
As above. Yes
sodium, chloride, sulfate, silicon,
and iron can be observed after as
little as one hour exposure.3 The
average deposition rates calculated
at two power stations from ion
chromatography analysis of the
probes are shown in Table 8-4. It
should be noted that the deposition
rates for units operating with oxy-
genated treatment were much lower;
this result confirms previous
observations that blade surfaces
in OT units have been found to be
much cleaner.
Evaporation is the second most fre-
quent mechanism for impurity con-
centration in turbines; and suffi-
ciently important that large improve-
ments could be achieved if it was
anticipated in design codes for
discs, rotors, and blades.
8.6.3 Deposition of metal oxides
and absorption of impurities.
These mechanisms include the
deposition of metal oxides, with or
without absorbed impurities, formed
at other locations in the cycle (boiler
Control by
Steam purity—the higher the steam purity
the fewer problems that will be encountered.
As above.
• Design
• Design and operation (moving of the
phase transition zone).
Keeping surfaces clean by reduced
deposition of oxides, control of water
chemistry, and design.
Steam purity and design so as to avoid
stagnant liquid.
carryover, exfoliation from the super-
heater and reheater) and the
adsorption of impurities dissolved in
superheated and wet steam on oxi-
dized surfaces and particles.
At least twenty-five different oxides
have been identified in turbine
deposits.32 Iron oxides, notably
magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite
(α-Fe2O3) are the most commonly
found compounds in turbine
deposits for all types of units.32
It is known from many studies of
surface science that water and
impurities are strongly attracted to
oxidized and non-oxidized surfaces.
Deposition studies have shown that
particles such as salts and oxides
are a significant part of every
turbine deposit.3
As an example, in one experiment,
freshly prepared magnetite (oxidized
steel shot) was exposed to the flow
of superheated turbine steam from a
drum unit operating under phos-
phate water treatment.34 After expo-
sure (total steam flow about 99 lb
(50 kg) at a rate of about 0.5 gallons
per hour), deposited chloride, silica,
and copper were found by EDAX.34
Leachable deposits found included
sodium, chloride, silica and sulfate.
Deposition of oxides can be con-
trolled by controlling the inventory of
oxides in the cycle by actions such
as chemical cleaning of super-
heaters and reheaters. The absorp-
tion of impurities can be slowed
down by control of steam purity.
8.7 Observations of Electrically
Charged Droplets and Liquid
Films
A final aspect of the PTZ which is
just beginning to see significant
research attention is the formation
and effect of electrostatic charges.
Droplets in the steam flow have a
positive charge; they hit turbine sur-
faces to form a positively charged
liquid film which can be greater than
100 µm thick. Experimental mea-
surements have indicated that this
charged liquid film may significantly
change the corrosion potential at the
surface by 50 mV at room tempera-
ture and by as much as 1 V at
127°C (260°F).35 This change in
corrosion potential resulting from the
presence of electrostatic charges
has not been incorporated into
modeling or experimental studies of
deposition and corrosion processes
in the turbine. If confirmed in
operating turbines, this effect would
change the manner in which experi-
mental measurements of corrosion
fatigue and stress corrosion crack-
ing are performed.
There is a second electrostatic effect
presently under investigation using
the charges in the droplets to effect
operating efficiency improvements.36
Large positively charged droplets
(>100 µm) leave the trailing edges
of blades with a charge density of
around 10-9 coul/cm3. In recent
investigations, the flow is directed
through a charged grid to break up
the droplets into smaller diameters.
Temperature °C
110
100
Ts
90 Tm
Tm
80 Ts
70
60
Ts
50
Ts
40
20
Disc 1 Disc 2 Disc 3 Disc 4
10
Figure 8-13. Temperature profiles along disc keyways of an LP
turbine at full load (Tm is metal temperature; Ts is saturation
temperature of steam.). Source: J.L Gray33
Table 8-4
Measured Rates of Deposition for Typical Salts
Average deposition rate, ng/cm2/hr
Unit Type
Chloride Sulfate Sodium
Drum boiler on NaOH 4.7 - 25.0 1.8 - 15.2
Once-through boiler on OT 0.4 - 3.0 0.5 - 5.4 0.24 - 3.3
Source: International Collaboration on Steam, Chemistry, and Corrosion in the Phase
Transition Zone.
In doing so, the grid acts as a cone assisted cracking, it should be
to disperse droplets and make the remembered that deposits, per se
flow more uniform. In experiments can have a significant effect on tur-
on a 40 MW test turbine, unit capac- bine performance (Chapter 18).
ity increases of 1-1.5% have been
The following summarize the major
observed. As of early 1999, evalua-
observations pertaining to impurity
tion of this process is continuing,
concentration and deposition:
including whether early experimental
• The same ionic species are iden-
results can be extended to larger,
tified in the inlet steam and in
more efficient turbines.
deposits; the molar ratios of
sodium to major anions change,
8.8 Summary of Impurity
indicating the presence of differ-
Concentration and Deposition
ent molecular species in steam
Although deposits in turbine are very versus those in deposits.
significant because of their role in
corrosion and environmentally-
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-13
• All deposition tests have shown
the presence of particles; the
particle sizes range from 300
angstroms to 100 µm with a
particle density of over 107
particles/mm2.
• The amount of deposit depends
on exposure time and is: (i)
dependent on surface finish (for
example, deposition is higher for
rough, oxidized surfaces), (ii)
dependent on material (it is
higher for carbon steel than 12 Cr
stainless steel by ratios ranging
from 1 to 4 times), and (iii) a
maximum in the moisture drying
zone as a result of stagnation
temperature.3
• Microscratches and surface
irregularities significantly increase
local deposition. The desirability
of better surface finishes to avoid
deposition and corrosion should
be considered in blade manufac-
ture and during abrasive cleaning
of turbine surfaces.3 The precise
distribution of deposition in an
operating turbine will be influ-
enced by a number of local flow
conditions such as influenced
by surface obstacles to flow,
microscopic and macroscopic
roughness, flow turbulence, and
shock waves.9
• There seems to be a limit for
common steam impurities below
which there is no measurable
harmful deposition. This limit for
sodium, chloride, and sulfate is
between 0.3 and 1 ppb.3 From
a practical viewpoint, these limits
are significantly below those
which have been set as achiev-
able targets (Chapter 7), however
the better operated units around
the world are already achieving
these levels.
8-14 Impurities in the Turbine
Table 8-5
Methods/Instrumentation for the Analysis of Steam Samples, Condensate and Deposits
For Analysis of
Solubility in steam
Nucleation seeds
Moisture/droplet sizes
First condensate
Concentrated solution
Deposits—collection
Deposits—analysis methods
*Discussed in this chapter.
Adapted from O. Jonas and N.F. Rieger 9
8.9 Instrumentation for Analysis
of Steam Samples, Condensate,
and Deposits
A variety of instrumentation and
techniques are available for the
analysis of steam samples, droplet
formation, nucleation seeds, con-
densate and deposits. A general list
is provided in Table 8-5; several of
these have been covered previously
in this chapter. Most of these are
primarily for research applications.
There are several techniques which
Technique
Static autoclaves.
Expansion of steam through a capillary.
Converging-diverging nozzle.
Radioactive tracers.
Optical light scattering.*
Laser-excited fluorescence of levitated droplets.
Raman and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy.
Particle flow monitors.
Surface conductivity probes.*
Target probes combined with steam filtration.
External deposit collector.
Laser probes.*
In-situ conductivity probes.
Internal samplers.*
External samplers.*
Sampling moisture separator drains in PWRs and BWRs and
condensate in steam pipes.
Surface conductivity sensors.*
Converging-diverging nozzle.
External deposit collector.
Internal deposit collector.
Surface analytical methods.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)—EDAX.
Electron spectroscopy (ESCA).
Electron probe X-ray analysis (EPA).
Atomic/scanning force microscopy.
Friction force microscopy.
may be of direct interest to opera-
tors seeking to confirm the nature of
deposits occurring in low pressure
turbines, notably for the diagnosis of
mechanisms such as corrosion
fatigue and stress corrosion crack-
ing. In anticipation of those needs,
the balance of this chapter looks
briefly at some of the available
methods for collecting and analyz-
ing deposits.
8.9.1 Methods for collection of
turbine deposits. As shown in Table
8-5, there are three primary methods
for collecting turbine deposits
dynamically: (i) converging-diverg-
ing nozzle, (ii) an external deposit
collector, and (iii) an internal
(retractable) deposit collector.
A schematic of the converging-
diverging nozzle for the collection of
deposit samples is shown in Figure
8-14. Steam, extracted from the tur-
bine, enters the nozzle and expands
isentropically from the superheated
state through saturated and wet
conditions at temperatures and
pressures and steam expansion
rates that are similar to those in the
turbine. This reproduces the depo-
sition seen in the turbine and allows
for a determination of the chemical
composition of deposits and their
location along steam expansion
lines. The rate of deposit accumula-
tion can be determined for different
operating conditions, steam
chemistries, material conditions
(such as clean or oxidized) and sur-
face finishes (machined or pol-
ished). Exhaust from the nozzle is
returned, typically to the main con-
denser shell. Removable test strips
contain the deposits and can be
examined analytically.
A turbine deposit collector can be
used to externally monitor deposition
occurring in the turbine. This collec-
tor is a filter-like device that can be
installed anywhere on the turbine or
Steam
2.5 cm
120 cm
Test strip
Steam
Figure 8-14. Converging diverging nozzle for field simulation of turbine deposition.
Source: International Collaboration on Steam, Chemistry, and Corrosion in the Phase
Transition Zone.
dispersive x-ray (EDAX) devices.
piping to collect exfoliated oxides
The elements present, their concen-
and mineral deposits typical of the
deposition in the turbine.9 Super- trations, and distribution can be
assessed by EDAX. Where fine res-
heated steam is run through the
olution of composition is required,
collector at a rate of about 18 kg/hr
there are a number of special tech-
(40 lb/hr), for a period of 1 to 14
niques for compositional analysis
days, depending on the concentra-
such as electron microprobes, auger
tion of the impurities in the steam.
electron spectroscopy, backscatter-
8.9.2 Analysis methods. There are
ing spectrometry, electron spec-
a variety of methods that can be
troscopy for chemical analysis
used to determine the chemical
(ESCA), ion scattering spectrometry
analysis of surface deposits. Table
(ISS), and secondary ion mass
8-5 provides a list of some of those.
spectrometry (SIMS) can be used.37
Bulk compositions can be deter-
mined by wet chemical or spectro- 8.9.3 Experimental procedures and
graphic methods if a sufficient standards for the collection and
amount of material is available. analysis of turbine deposits. There
X-ray diffraction can serve to identify are a number of ASTM standards
that are applicable to the collection
the crystalline compounds. For
and analysis of turbine deposits.
trace amounts of deposits, the con-
ASTM Standard D 2186 provides a
stituent elements can be identified
“Test for Deposit Forming Impurities
using a variety of methods, for
in Steam”.
example scanning electron
microscopy equipped with energy
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-15
References
1. Wilson, C.T.R., “Condensation of Water Vapor in the
Presence of Dust-Free Air and Other Gases”, Royal
Society Phil. Trans., 189, 1897, p. 265.
2. Jonas, O., “Effects of Steam Chemistry on Moisture
Nucleation”, presented at the EPRI Workshop on
Moisture Nucleation in Steam Turbines”, held October
24-26, 1995, Rochester, NY.
3. Jonas, O., et al., Turbine Steam, Chemistry, and
Corrosion Volume 1: Key Results, Summary, and
Interpretation; Volume 2: Individual Contributions of
Participants, Final Report TR-108184, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, February, 1999.
4. Hill, P.G., “Condensation of Water Vapour During
Supersonic Expansion in Nozzles”, Journal of Fluid
Mechanics, Volume 25, Part 3, 1966, pp. 593-620.
5. Dibelius, G.H., K. Mertens, R.U. Pitt, and E. Strauf,
“Investigation of Wet Steam Flow in Turbines”, IMechE
C271/87, 1987, pp. 135-143.
6. Stastny, M., O. Jonas, and M. Sejna, “Numerical
Analysis of the Flow with Condensation and Chemicals in
Steam in a Turbine Cascade”, in Jonas, Inc., et al.,
Turbine Steam, Chemistry, and Corrosion Volume 2:
Individual Contributions of Participants, Final Report
TR-108184, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, February, 1998.
7. Springer, G.S., “Homogeneous Nucleation”, in
Advances in Heat Transfer, Volume 14, 1978, p. 281.
8. Frenkel, J., Kinetic Theory of Liquids, Dover,
New York, 1955.
9. Jonas, O. and N.F. Rieger, Turbine Steam, Chemistry,
and Corrosion, Final Report TR-103738, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, August, 1994.
10. Kantola, R.A., Condensation in Steam Turbines, Final
Report CS-2528, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, August, 1982.
11. Gyarmathy, G., et al., “Spontaneous Condensation of
Steam at High Pressure: First Experimental Results”,
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Volume 187, 1973, p. 1992.
12. Dooley, R.B., L.A. Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I.
Martynova, A. Yu. Petrov, T.I. Petrova, S.A. Popov, O.A.
Povarov, V.N. Semenov, and A.N. Troitsky, authors; O.A.
Povarov and T.I. Petrova, principal investigators, Turbine
Steam, Chemistry and Corrosion: Experimental Turbine
Tests, Final Report TR-108185, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
September, 1997.
8-16 Impurities in the Turbine
13. Petr, V., M. Kolovratník, I. Jirícek, and O. Jonas,
“Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Steam
Chemistry on Droplet Nucleation”, in Jonas, Inc., et al.,
Turbine Steam, Chemistry, and Corrosion, Volume 2:
Individual Contributions of Participants, Final Report TR-
108184, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, February, 1998.
14. Svoboda, R., H. Sandmann, S. Romanelli, and M.
Bodmer, “Early Condensate in Steam Turbines”, in B.
Dooley and A. Bursik, eds., Interaction of Iron-Based
Materials with Water and Steam, Proceedings of an
International Conference held in Heidelberg, Germany,
June 3-5, 1992, Report TR-102101, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
1992, pp. 32-1 through 32-16.
15. Lindsay, W.T. and P.K. Lee, “Condensation of
Low Volatility Impurities in Steam Turbines”,
Westinghouse R&D Center Report 81-1B1-DEPMO-P1,
September, 1981.
16. Steltz, W.G., et al., “The Verification of Concentrated
Impurities in Low Pressure Steam Turbines”, J. of Eng. for
Power, Volume 105, 1983, pp. 192-198.
17. Vasilenko, G.V., et al., “Early Condensate Purity
Influences on Turbine Operational Reliability”,
Teploenergetika, No. 4, 1984, pp. 54-56.
18. Martynova, O.I., et al., “Formation of Corrosive
Solutions in K-300-240 LP Turbine Flowpath”,
Teploenergetika, No. 1, 1988, pp. 45-48.
19. Martynova, O.I., “Mechanism of ‘Early Condensate’
Formation in the L.P. Turbines”, in B. Dooley and A.
Bursik, eds., Interaction of Iron-Based Materials with
Water and Steam, Proceedings of an International
Conference held in Heidelberg, Germany, June 3-5,
1992, Report TR-102101, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1992, pp.
31-1 through 31-21.
20. Pinacci, P., M. Cociani, and F. Sigon, “Low Pressure
Steam Early Condensate Evaluation”, in B. Dooley and A.
Bursik, eds., Interaction of Iron-Based Materials with
Water and Steam, Proceedings of an International
Conference held in Heidelberg, Germany, June 3-5,
1992, Report TR-102101, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1992, pp.
33-1 through 33-15.
21. Servida, A., M. Morbidelli, and F. Sigon, “Models
for Assessing the Behavior of Chemical Species in
Steam Nucleation”, in B. Dooley and A. Bursik, eds.,
Interaction of Iron-Based Materials with Water and
Steam, Proceedings of an International Conference held
in Heidelberg, Germany, June 3-5, 1992, Report
TR-102101, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1992, pp. 34-1 through
34-19.
22. Vasilenko, G.V. and G. P. Sutotsky, “Interphase
Distribution Coefficients of Chemical Compounds in
Process of Steam Generation and Condensation”, in B.
Dooley and A. Bursik, eds., Interaction of Iron-Based
Materials with Water and Steam, Proceedings of an
International Conference held in Heidelberg, Germany,
June 3-5, 1992, Report TR-102101, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
1992, pp. 35-1 through 35-19.
23. Petrova, T.I., et al., “Influence of Feed of Surface-
Active Substance Octadecylamine on Content of
Impurities in Early Condensate”, Vestnik MEI, No. 3,
1995, pp. 61-64.
24. Personal communication from R. Svoboda (ABB
Power Generation) to B. Dooley, October, 1998.
25. Filippov, G.A. and O.A. Povarov, “Moisture
Separation in NPP Turbines”, Energiya, Moscow,
USSR, 1980.
26. Rabenko, V.S., “Precipitation of Fine Droplets and
Generation of Liquid Films in Turbines”, PhD Thesis, MEI,
Moscow, USSR, 1982.
27. Semenov, V.N., “Determination of Basic Regularities
of the Effect of Corrosive Environments on Reliability of
Steam Turbines”, PhD Thesis, MEI, Moscow, USSR, 1985.
28. Petrova, T.I., “Early Condensation of Steam and Early
Liquid Films in Turbines”, Specialist Workshop held
February 9-11, 1998 in Palo Alto, CA, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, 1998.
29. Povarov, O.A, T.I. Petrova, V.N. Semenov, A.N.
Troitsky, A. Yu. Petrov, and R.B. Dooley, “Early
Condensation of Steam and Early Liquid Films in
Turbines”, Proceedings: Workshop on Corrosion of Steam
Turbine Blading and Disks in the Phase Transition Zone,
Draft Report TR-111340, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1998.
30. Straub, F.G., “The Cause and Prevention of Steam
Turbine Blade Deposits”, University of Illinois Bulletin, No.
36, May 5, 1936.
31. Straub, F.G., “Steam Turbine Blade Deposits”,
University of Illinois Bulletin, No. 59, June, 1946.
32. Jonas, O., A. Pebler, and R.C. Bates,
Characterization of Operational Environment for Steam
Turbine-Blading Alloys, Topical Report CS-2931, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA, August, 1984. See also Jonas, O.,
“Characterization of Steam Turbine Environment and
Selection of Test Environments”, in R.I. Jaffee, ed.,
Corrosion Fatigue of Steam Turbine Blade Materials,
Workshop Proceedings held in Palo Alto, CA, September
21-24, 1981, Pergamon Press, New York, NY, 1983, pp.
3-35 through 3-74.
33. Gray, J.L., “Investigation into the Consequences
of the Failure of a Turbine-Generator at Hinkley Point ‘A’
Power Station”, Proceedings of the Institute of
Mechanical Engineering, Volume 186, 32/72, pp.
378-390.
34. Jonas, O., R.K. Mathur, J.K. Rice, E. Coulter, and
R. Freeman, Development of a Steam Sampling System,
Final Report TR-100196, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
December, 1991.
35. Rzad, S.J., F.P. Ford, R.W.L. Snaddon, P.W. Emigh,
N.A. Johnson, and G.W. Walker, Charged Droplet
Transport and Corrosion in Two-Phase Aqueous Systems,
Draft Final Report, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, October, 1984.
36. Tarelin, A.O., V.P. Skliarov, Yu. I. Serhienko, and O.
Weres, “Electrical Method to Increase Power Output by
Improving Condensation and Flow of Steam Within the
Turbine Neck and Condenser of a Steam Turbine”,
Sonoma Research Company Report, SRC-021, Napa,
CA, January, 1996.
37. Richman, R.H., S.R. Paterson, and W.P.
McNaughton, “Investigative Techniques”, in P. Cohen,
ed., The ASME Handbook on Water Technology for
Thermal Systems, The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York, NY, 1989, pp. 1643-1704
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 8-17
8-18 Impurities in the Turbine
Chapter 9 • Volume 1
Metallurgical and
Chemical Analysis;
Mechanical Testing
9.1 Introduction
Dealing with steam path damage
consists of three primary steps:
identifying the active mechanism,
identifying the relevant root cause,
and implementing the appropriate
solutions. Metallurgical analysis,
chemical analysis, fractography, and
mechanical properties testing, the
subjects of this chapter, are a vital
part in the first two of these steps.
Key objectives of the analysis of
steam path damage include:
• To identify properly the damage
and underlying mechanism.
• To identify life limiting attributes of
non-failed steam path compo-
nents so that life prediction can
be made and the appropriate
risk-based inspection intervals
can be calculated.
• To detect early signs of steam
path damage or decreased life
expectancy.
• To characterize active degrada-
tion modes so that actions can be
taken to forestall damage.
• To use the metallurgical charac-
teristics of inservice components
to characterize the local environ-
ment, temperature, and other key
factors, so that optimized operat-
ing strategies, cycle chemistry
controls, monitoring systems, or
component redesign can be
implemented.
• To help develop databases of like
damage and aid in forecasting
damage rates.
Figure 9-1 provides an overall flow
chart for the investigation of a dam-
aged steam path component.
9.2 Identify Damaged Locations
(Step 1, Figure 9-1)
Damaged locations will be identified
using the inspection techniques
described in detail in Chapter 11.
To guide the damage assessment
effort, nearby locations should also
be examined and documented to
provide any relevant clues as to the
underlying cause of damage.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 9-1

Step 1. Identify damaged location(s)
using inspection methods. Perform
examination of nearby areas.
Step 2. Complete blade or rotor
damage report form (Figure 12-2)
and enter location(s) of damage into
databases.
Step 3. Identify specific location(s)
for sample removal; mark and
photo-document prior to removal;
remove sample and package for
shipment to the laboratory.
Step 4. Prepare background
information package including such
information as inspection results,
material specifications, operating
hours, and starts.
Step 5. Prepare metallurgical
evaluation plan.
Step 6. Visual and other
non-destructive examinations and
photography of as-received condition.
Step 7. Perform metallographic
and fractographic analyses.
Step 8. Alloy verification and
deposit evaluation. Perform
chemical analysis.
Step 9. Perform mechanical
properties testing if needed.
Step 10. Prepare damage analysis
report and use of results by the
T-CAT team.
Figure 9-1. Steps in analysis of dam-
aged steam path components.
9-2 Metallurgical and Chemical Analysis
9.3 Complete Damage Report
(Step 2, Figure 9-1)
This action is a critical part of the
overall program to improve turbine
steam path availability as discussed
in Chapter 12. A form, such as
shown in Figure 12-2 should be
completed for each outbreak of
damage and entered into a data-
base of damage. This information
will be useful for determining the
cause of damage (particularly
repeat failures), will help evaluate
the efficacy of repair strategies and
will be useful for setting risk-based
inspection intervals (Chapter 12).
9.4 Sample Identification,
Documentation and Removal
(Step 3, Figure 9-1)
It may be necessary to remove sam-
ples from damaged components in
order to complete the work of con-
firming the mechanism and underly-
ing root cause. Specific damage
locations should be identified for
sample removal. Factors that will
influence the choice of location(s)
include how representative the sam-
ple is, and the ease of repair and/or
replacement. Prior to removal, the
damage area should be photodocu-
mented with important information
clearly marked (such as stage, flow
directions, etc.). The sample(s)
should then be removed, packaged
protectively and send to the labora-
tory for analysis.
9.4.1 Sampling options.
Conventional sampling techniques
such as “boat” sampling, plug
removal or component sectioning
provide a relatively large amount of
material for metallurgical examina-
tion and mechanical testing.
However, they may not be useable
in all locations (such as rotor bores),
and may require excessive repairs.
As a result of these drawbacks,
several miniature sampling methods
have been developed such as small
punch testing1 which require either
nominal or no repairs to the sampled
location, and yet provide sufficient
material to conduct the mechanical,
metallurgical and chemical tests of
interest. Even small samples have
the inherent drawback of all sam-
pling schemes; it is necessary to
determine whether the properties of
area sampled are representative of
those of the critical locations of inter-
est. Often sampling is performed on
the locations that are the easiest to
access and may therefore not be
representative.
9.4.2 Replication. An alternative to
physical removal of material is repli-
cation. There are two generic types
of replication used to assess and
record field damage. Silicon rubber
or acetate castings (replicas) can be
used to preserve such information
as the dimensions and morphology
of cracking, erosion, corrosion or
dimensional changes.
The second form of replication is
metallurgical replication and is
widely used. Portable grinding and
polishing equipment is used to
prepare the surface to be sampled
in-situ. The surface is then etched
with an appropriate etchant to
highlight the desired microstructural
features. A thin acetate film is moist-
ened, applied to the surface, allowed
to dry, and removed. The film will
duplicate the surface features and it
can be mounted on a slide and sub-
jected to standard metallographic
examination. Replicas can be pro-
duced that allow interpretation using
optical microscopes up to 1000X or
scanning electron microscopes up
to 5000X.2
Table 9-1 lists the features that can
be identified using replicas.
A primary advantage of replication
is that it avoids the need to remove
samples and repair the affected
areas. Surface access is required.
9.5 Prepare Background
Information Package
(Step 4, Figure 9-1)
Information that will be required
during the failure analysis should be
accumulated (if not already available
by pre-outage planning). Such infor-
mation might include such items as:
• Inspection results–current and
past results.
• Material specifications.
• Drawings of the turbine showing
damaged locations.
• Operating hours and total starts
(hot, cold and warm).
• Relevant operating parameters–
load levels, backpressures, etc.
• Records of past damage/failures
in the same or nearby rows.
• Available failure analysis or
damage reports from past
assessments.
Additional detailed information such
as cycle chemistry records, pre-per-
formed stress analyses, fracture
mechanics analyses or remaining
life assessments will be needed at
later stages of the investigation
depending on the preliminary root
cause identified. If failures occur in
LP turbines, it is useful to plot the
failure location on heat balance and
Mollier diagrams. This will indicate
whether the failures are occurring in
the phase transition zone and
whether steam chemistry may be a
contributing factor to the failure.
9.6 Prepare Metallurgical Evalua-
tion Plan (Step 5, Figure 9-1)
After logging in the sample(s) and
providing each with a unique identi-
fication number and/or tag, a plan
should be prepared that specifies
the work to be performed.
9.7 Visual and Other NDE of Table 9-1
As-Received Sample(s) Information Determined by Replication
(Step 6, Figure 9-1)
Service-induced damage mechanisms
Visual and macroscopic examina- • Spheroidization
tion of the sample material is an • Graphitization
extremely important step. A prelimi- • Creep
nary diagnosis of the mechanism • Cracking–fatigue, stress corrosion
can often be made using only cracking, corrosion fatigue
macroscopic features. Table 14-1 • Corrosion
uses such features as an aid to lead
the investigator to a preliminary Fabrication-induced defects
diagnosis. The Actions found in • Laminations
each mechanism writeup also rely • Forging laps
heavily on the analysis of macro- • Slag
scopic features. • Porosity
Important features include: (i) mor-
phology of the fracture, (ii) deposits, Microstructure
(iii) distortion, and (iv) pitting. Visual • Decarburization
examination should be conducted • Quenched structures
with direct and oblique lighting; the • Spheroidization
latter can often highlight surface • Graphitization
features.
Fabrication history
Further examination using a
(forging, casting, welded construction)
stereobinocular microscope at
magnifications up to around 70X
Heat-treatment (annealed, as-fabricated)
can also be useful.
Documentation of important features Adapted from L.D. Nottingham, T.P. Sherlock and
should include: written descriptions A. Johns2
of the features observed, sketches,
and especially photographs. Scale
and magnification of the pho- • Microanalysis for role of segrega-
tographs should be indicated using tion, banding, etc. in the failure.
a ruler or other common object, • Microstructural transformation.
such as a coin. Color photography
• Pit shape and depth
is useful to show the color of heat
effects, corrosion products, and • Identification of damage initiation
chemical deposits. site.
• Fracture features such as stria-
9.8 Metallographic and tions, beach marks, chevrons,
Fractographic Analysis and arrest points.
(Step 7, Figure 9-1) • Morphology of surface (cleavage,
Metallography, fractography and the quasi-cleavage, shear, mixed).
evaluation of microstructural fea-
• Deformation mode (ductile, brit-
tures are key Actions in determin-
tle, creep).
ing each steam path damage mech-
anism. Such evaluations usually • Crack morphology.
document features such as: • Characteristics of deposits
• Microstructure (phases and distri- (including thickness, color, and
bution, grain size, inclusions). morphology).
• Microstructural degradation
including degree of spheroidiza-
tion or graphitization.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 9-3
• Extent of creep cavitation (trans-
granular, intergranular, and any
deformation involved).
• Microhardness.
• Association of local surface fea-
tures (surface hardening, inclu-
sions, surface cold work, etc.)
with damage locations.
• Search for anomalous features
that might distinguish failed and
unfailed components. Examples
include pitting, notches, erosion,
arc strikes, local surface deforma-
tion, forgining laps or a high
degree of microsegregation.
Metallographic sections are gener-
ally taken at and away from the fail-
ure or damage. ASTM standards
E33, E3404, and E4075 cover speci-
men preparation.
It is not possible to indicate in detail
the approach necessary for any indi-
vidual failure; it is, however, worth
pointing out that often in the middle
of a fracture (i.e., the origin of crack-
ing, usually) oxidation or other dam-
age is at its greatest and therefore
the original characteristics indicative
of the mechanism of fracture can be
obliterated.6 Thus, it is normally
more fruitful to take microspecimens
from the ends of the crack or frac-
ture surface where the damage will
be less. It is, however, always nec-
essary to keep in mind that, particu-
larly for blade failures, the mecha-
nism may vary along the fracture
surface or crack. Fractography is
essential to determine from surface
topography any variations that may
exist and often a range of microsec-
tions should be removed to verify
mechanisms.6
Light microscopy is usually per-
formed with bright field illumination,
although various filters, polarizers,
and interference techniques can be
used, as needed, to highlight partic-
ular phases and structures.
9-4 Metallurgical and Chemical Analysis
Table 9-2
Mechanical Properties Testing
• Tensile tests conducted at room temperature can determine yield strength, tensile strength,
elongation, and reduction of area. Evaluation as to conformance with material specification.
• Charpy V-notch testing can establish ductile-to-brittle transition, fracture appearance transition
temperature, absorbed energy, and lateral expansion. Results can be compared to results of
fractography and material specification.
• Fracture toughness testing can be used to establish KIC, and or the critical J-integral, JIC.
• Fatigue testing, at temperature, can establish the relationship between strain amplitude and
cycles-to-failure.
• Creep-rupture testing over an appropriate range of stresses, temperatures and rupture times can
be used to establish the time-temperature parametric relationship. The effects of service can be
judged by comparison with unaged material or prior test results.
• Hardness.
Adapted from: B.W. Roberts10
Scanning electron microscopy chemical analysis techniques can
(SEM) allows much higher magnifi- also be used for quantitative mea-
cations and provides a greater surements in which the intensities of
depth of field so that irregular sur- emission lines are proportional to the
faces can be viewed directly without amount of each element present. Of
metallographic preparation. These particular importance may be the
features make SEM applicable to distribution of elements near failed
viewing fracture surfaces, determin- surfaces. For example, segregation
ing the mode of fracture (ductile or of phosphorous, sulfur, tin, arsenic,
brittle), and in some cases, the antimony and other metalloids to
intensity and frequency of stresses grain boundaries is one manifesta-
driving a crack. It is often neces- tion of embrittlement.
sary to etch the microstructure of a Chemical analysis is also used for
metallurgical cross section. surface deposits and corrosion
Microhardness or Rockwell hardness products, particularly where the
measurements can be used as a fur- environmental has played a role in
ther diagnostic. Standard methods, the damage (via corrosion fatigue or
for example ASTM E107 and E188 stress corrosion cracking). Analysis
for Brinell and Rockwell hardness of deposits on the component sur-
testing respectively, and sample face or in fracture surfaces may help
preparation techniques are com- pinpoint the source of the poor envi-
monly available. ronment. Such chemical analyses
are generally performed by energy
dispersive x-ray (EDX) spectroscopy
9.9 Chemical Analysis: Alloy
or x-ray diffraction. The bulk
Verification and Deposit Analysis
deposits can be analyzed by EDX
(Step 8, Figure 9-1)
directly on a large area of the sam-
Chemical analysis is often used to ple, or, for more detailed analysis,
measure the bulk chemical composi-
on a cross section through the sam-
tion on failed and unfailed steam
ple. X-ray diffraction can be used
path components. This will provide
to identify the specific compounds
a verification of the alloy used.
that are present. The patterns of dif-
Typical blade alloy compositions are
fraction of a sample, usually at least
provided in Chapter 4; typical rotor
1 mg, are compared to known stan-
materials of construction in Chapter
dard patterns for precise identifica-
3. Wet chemical analysis is often
tion. The common deposits are dis-
used to determine the elemental
cussed in Chapter 8 and 18.
composition. A number of spectro-
It is important to report the method
of analysis, composition, and accu-
racy for elements measured in the
final report of results.
9.10 Evaluate Mechanical
Properties (Step 9, Figure 9-1)
Table 9-2 provides a list of some of
the properties which may be
needed, depending on the sus-
pected underlying damage mecha-
nism. Typical mechanical properties
of rotors and blades are found in
Chapters 3 and 4, respectively.
A small punch test has been devel-
oped that can use small specimens
(6.4 mm (0.25 in) dia. x 0.5 mm
(0.020 in.) thick) to determine frac-
ture properties, for example of
discs.1,9 The small punch test can
be used to determine FATT and KIC
or JIC. The accuracy of the method
to predict KIC for a wide range of
fracture toughness in power plant
steels is about ± 25% of KIC, an
improvement over FATT correlation
methods.1 Tensile stress-strain
curves can be produced within
about ± 5% of standard measured
test results.
9.11 Prepare a Damage Analysis
Report (Step 10, Figure 9-1)
The findings of the damage analysis
will be central to the turbine condi-
tion assessment team (T-CAT) in
confirming the mechanism of dam-
age, identifying specific root causes
and specifying the applicable solu-
tions. For this reason, the impor-
tance of completing the analysis and
transmitting the results in a compre-
hensive and useful form cannot be
overstated.

References
1. Foulds, J.R., P.J. Woytowitz, T.K. Parnell, and C.W. 6. Personal Communication from K. Woolhouse (FCA,
Jewet, “Fracture Toughness by Small Punch Testing” in Australia) to R.B. Dooley, February, 1995.
P.F. Sabourin, ed., Proceedings: Third EPRI Turbine and
7. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard
Generator NDE, Life Assessment, and Maintenance
E10-93 (1993), “Standard Testing Method for Brinell
Workshop, held July 20-23, 1993 in Albany, NY,
Hardness of Metallic Materials”, 1994 Annual Book of
Proceedings TR-103392, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, January,
ASTM Standards, Volume 03.01, American Society for
1994.
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
2. Nottingham, L.D., T.P. Sherlock, and A. Johns, NDE
8. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard
Guidelines for Fossil Power Plants, Final Report TR-
E18-93 (1993), “Standard Test Methods for Rockwell
108450, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, September, 1997.
Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic
3. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Materials”, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
E3-80 (1986), “Standard Methods of Preparation of Volume 03.01, American Society for Testing and
Metallographic Specimens”, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
Standards, Volume 03.01, American Society for Testing
9. Foulds, J.R. and C.W. Jewett, Miniature Specimen
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
Test Technique for Toughness Assessment, Final Report
4. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard GS-7526, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1991.
E340-87 (1987), “Standard Test Method for Macroetching
10. Roberts, B.W., “Metallurgical Analysis of Blade and
Metals and Alloys”, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM
Rotor Failures, With Case Studies”, in EPRI/Stress
Standards, Volume 03.01, American Society for Testing
Technology Incorporated, Management of Steam and
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
Combustion Turbine Blade Problems - Prevention,
5. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Diagnosis, and Repair, Joint EPRI/STI Seminar Notes,
E407-93 (1993), “Standard Practice for Microetching presented in Rochester, NY, May 20-22, 1997.
Metals and Alloys”, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Volume 03.01, American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 9-5

9-6 Metallurgical and Chemical Analysis
 Chapter 10 • Volume 1
+
Monitoring and
Diagnostics
10.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes some of
the monitoring and diagnostic sys-
tems that have direct applicability to
steam path damage detection and
analysis. It would be desirable to
have means of detecting all forms of
steam path damage without open-
ing the turbine and as early as pos-
sible in the damage accumulation
process. Although this is not cur-
rently possible, there are measures
that can be used for some forms
of damage.
The chapter begins with a general
overview of types of instrumentation
(Section 10.2), then looks in detail at
• Performance Test Codes
(Section 10.3).
• Monitoring performance by
enthalpy drop testing (HP or IP
turbines in fossil units)
(Section 10.4)
• Monitoring performance of tur-
bine wet stages (Section 10.5)
• Interpreting enthalpy drop test
results (Section 10.6)
• Other degradation diagnostics
(Section 10.7)
• Measurement of blade vibration
(Section 10.8)
• Modal testing (Section 10.9)
• Torsional vibration monitoring
(Section 10.10)
Instrumentation for monitoring of
steam purity and cycle chemistry
is described in Chapter 7; specific
instrumentation for detecting
water induction can be found in
Chapter 28.
The main monitor and diagnostic is
still a trained operator regularly
walking around the unit. He can tell
a considerable amount from sounds
and from the feel of the unit on his
hands and feet. The value of this
familiarity with the unit is often
underestimated.1
10.2 Turbine Instrumentation
Three categories of instrumentation
are briefly discussed here: (i) super-
visory instrumentation, (ii) efficiency
instrumentation, and (iii) instrumen-
tation for condition monitoring.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 10-1
10.2.1 Supervisory instrumentation.
Supervisory instrument monitors
present condition and the trend of
rotating and stationary components.
Indications from the supervisory
instrumentation can provide
advance warning of deterioration of
change in the turbine-generator
condition. Measured parameters
typically include:
• Rotor axial position.
• Differential rotor thermal expan-
sion and cylinder expansions.
Instrumentation can provide dif-
ferential measurement of move-
ment or expansion of cylinders
and rotors relative to one another
or to their support structure; this
can help avoid rubs.
• Bearing vibrations. Detection of
a change in the amplitude and
phase angle of bearing vibrations
can indicate loss of a blade (such
as caused by fatigue or corrosion
fatigue) or rubbing (as induced
by water induction, overheating or
creep of blades). Detection of
bearing vibration can also help
avoid radial rubs or seal leakage.
• Shaft eccentricity. Provides
peak-to-peak radial motion of
rotor to non-rotating parts.
• Shaft speed.
• Steam valve positions.
• Metal temperature measurements.
Measuring points typically include
walls of the HP and interceptor
steam valve chests, and in the HP
and IP cylinders.
• Thrust bearing temperature. High
thrust bearing temperatures can
indicate rubbing or damage by
water induction, for example.
• Thrust bearing wear can provide
an indication of water induction or
blade deposits.
10-2 Monitoring and Diagnostics
• Condenser backpressure. At low
load, high backpressure should
trip the turbine to avoid conditions
such as flutter in last stage
blades, overheating by windage,
or recirculation which can lead to
high vibratory stresses.
10.2.2 Efficiency instrumentation.
Typically includes such measure-
ments as temperatures and pres-
sures to ensure efficient operation
is occurring.
10.2.3 Condition monitoring.
This group of instrumentation may
include:
• Shaft vibration instrumentation.
This instrumentation type is used
to detect rotor imbalance at the
bearings. It consists of shaft
rider or induction type probes.
Typically two probes are placed
90 degrees to one another to
enable evaluation of the orbit of
the rotor. On the surface of the
rotor is a key phaser which is the
zero angle location.
If there is loss of a blade or
shroud, for example, the vector
of imbalance changes (both the
angular location and magnitude)
with rotation. In the case of a lost
blade, the magnitude of vibration
is typically on the order of 0.25-
0.5 mm (~1-2 mils) peak-to-peak.
This form of instrumentation is
simple and is always contained
as part of the original equipment,
but may not detect damage to a
blade until the blade is lost. As
a result, for blade damage,
blade vibration monitors such as
described in Section 10.8 are
preferred for the specific evalua-
tion of root cause of persistent
blade vibration problems.
• Heat rate monitoring.
• Machine level (bearing
pedestals level changes)
instrumentation.
10.3 Performance Testing
For routine monitoring and evalua-
tion, trending analysis, for example,
of pressure ratios and maximum
load capability, can provide excel-
lent information about turbine perfor-
mance. For acceptance testing and
other more precise evaluations of
turbine performance there are
numerous applicable international
standards. IEC/ISO Standard TC-52
covers the various subsystems
related to the steam turbine cycle;
excluded from that standard are
thermal turbines for industrial appli-
cations, steam supply systems, the
generator and its electrical system,
and combined cycle plants. In the
U.S., the two primary standards
pertaining to performance testing
of steam turbines are the ASME
Performance Test Codes - PTC-63
and PTC-6S4.
10.3.1 ASME PTC-6.
ASME PTC-6 is used for acceptance
testing, and where there is a need to
know turbine performance with a
minimum of uncertainty. PTC-6 can
be used for either fossil or nuclear
turbines. Within the scope of PTC-6
are specifications for full scale test-
ing and an alternative test that uses
somewhat fewer measurements with
concurrent increase in uncertainty.
It is estimated that the uncertainties
on unit heat rate are about:
• For a typical fossil reheat cycle:
0.25% for the full scale test;
0.33% for the alternative test.
• For moisture regions: 0.375% for
the full scale test; 0.5% for the
alternative test.
Performance parameters which are
to be determined include: (i) heat
rate, (ii) generator output, (iii) steam
flow, (iv) steam rate, (v) feedwater
flow, and (vi) enthalpy values. The
standard describes in detail how
the tests are to be conducted, the
instrumentation and methods of
measurements, computation of
results, reporting, corrections and
uncertainties. However, as the
procedures are expensive and
provide more information than is
required for periodic monitoring,
there was a need perceived for a
standard addressing routine
performance testing; ASME PTC-6S
fulfills this need.
10.3.2 ASME PTC-6S.
ASME PTC-6S includes simplified
test procedures of good accuracy
intended for periodic checks of tur-
bine performance; they however do
not meet the requirements of PTC-6.
PTC-6S provides test procedures for
instrumentation, planning, conduct-
ing, calculation and evaluation of
test results. The emphasis in PTC-
6S is on repeatability of results
rather than absolute measurements
of performance, and economy.
Routine performance testing can4:
• Provide guidance in scheduling
maintenance outages on the
basis of performance,
• Provide guidance in establishing
the loading sequence of steam
turbine-generator units according
to current performance.
• Evaluate major modifications of
the turbine or turbine cycle, and
changes in operating procedures.
• Detect performance changes in
specific areas of the turbine or
the turbine cycle.
• Check the accuracy of station
instruments by comparison with
test instruments.
• Train personnel in testing tech-
niques.
ASME PTC-6S provides specific
tests for six generic turbine types
including the required instrumenta-
tion and methods of testing. Turbine
types and the recommended routine
performance monitoring for each are
shown in Table 10-1.
Table 10-1
ASME Recommended Routine Performance Monitoring
Turbine Type
Non-extraction condensing turbines with
superheated inlet steam.
Condensing turbine, regenerative cycle, with
superheated inlet steam.
Condensing turbine, reheat, regenerative cycle
with superheated inlet steam.
Condensing turbine, regenerative cycle with
saturated inlet steam.
Non-condensing non-extraction turbine with
superheated exhaust.
Non-condensing extraction turbine.
Source: American Society of Mechanical Engineers 4
There are basically five types of
tests recommended for the various
turbine types:
• Enthalpy drop efficiency testing in
superheated steam sections is
straightforward, requiring accu-
rate measurements of inlet and
exhaust steam temperature and
pressure. Enthalpy drops in tur-
bine sections containing two
phases require measurement of
moisture level, which has only
recently become available on a
routine basis. Given the impor-
tance of these tests to diagnosing
steam path damage, they are
discussed in detail in two sec-
tions below.
• Simplified heat rate testing con-
sists of measuring the heat sup-
plied to the turbine cycle and the
Recommended Test(s)
• Steam rate test.
• Maximum capability test.
• Simplified heat rate test (particularly if
capability test shows degradation).
• Enthalpy drop efficiency test in superheated
steam region combined with generating
capability tests.
• Other cycle efficiency tests or simplified
heat rate test if enthalpy drop tests show a
deterioration.
• Simplified turbine heat rate test.
• Internal efficiency enthalpy drop test.
• Maximum capability test.
• Enthalpy drop efficiency test.
• Capability test.
• Steam rate test.
• Heat balance test (if deterioration is
detected).
electrical output at given valve
points. It also requires flow mea-
surements, cycle isolation, and
measurement of certain feedwa-
ter temperatures and pressures.
• Capability testing includes mea-
surements of electric output at
specific governing valve points,
extraction flows, pressures and
temperatures.
• Steam rate testing requires accu-
rate measurement of throttle
steam flow, generator output at
given valve points, extraction
steam flow rates, steam pres-
sures and temperatures.
• Heat balance testing requires
precise measures of all steam
flows, temperatures, pressures,
and electrical output.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 10-3
10.4 Monitoring Performance by
Enthalpy Drop Testing Hot reheat
S.V. T T
Under single phase conditions, tem- Throttle P
T T P T T
perature and pressure are indepen- I.V. P
Spray kW
dent thus enthalpy drops for the HP
HP IP I
and IP sections of the turbine can LP turbine Generator E
be fixed by measuring temperatures turbine turbine
P
and pressures. Measurement of the P
Spray P
turbine section efficiency by an To
enthalpy drop test is one of the sim- T T condenser
P
plest and most useful tests for a tur- Cold reheat
bine operating in the superheated
steam region. It provides a simple To steam generator From LP
heaters
check on the condition of turbine
nozzles and blades. Legend
P = Pressure
Plots of stage efficiency and stage T = Temperature
pressure ratio can reveal nozzle kW = Kilowatts To sprays
and/or blade erosion or deposits; Special
plots should be made of turbine effi- Secondary
ciency versus time, and load versus Estimated
time. It may also be useful to plot
turbine efficiency and load versus
number of starts, as a diagnostic for Figure 10-1. Schematic of instrumentation locations for enthalpy drop efficiency tests
some mechanisms such as copper of fossil unit HP and IP turbines. Source: American Society of Mechanical Engineers4
deposition. In the case of copper
deposition, for example, the worst
copper transport is typically during
unit starts. For units operating at Valves wide open
less than full load, a plot of load ver-
sus turbine inlet pressure can help
identify loss of capacity.
Accurate measures of the pressures
Efficiency, η

and temperatures at the inlet and

outlet of the stage are required.
Figure 10-1 shows schematic
arrangements for pressure and tem-
perature instrumentation for enthalpy
drop testing of the HP and IP stages
in a fossil unit. Primary readings
include4: (i) throttle pressure and
temperature, (ii) first stage shell
pressure, (iii) cold reheat pressure
and temperature, (iv) hot reheat
pressure and temperature, and (v)
crossover pressure and temperature.
The efficiency of the control stage of
the HP section, in partial arc admis-
sion machines, is a function of flow
or pressure ratio, Figure 10-2.
Typically the efficiency of the HP is
highest with the valves wide open.
The efficiency between valve points
Valve loops (locus of
Locus of valve points operating points)
Single valve operation
of partial arc unit
Flow, or Pressure Ratio, or Flow Ratio
Figure 10-2. Partial arc admission unit - high pressure turbine section efficiency ver-
sus flow or pressure parameter. Source: American Society of Mechanical Engineers4
is poorer than at valve points sure ratio is essentially constant.
because of throttling losses through Similarly, in the IP turbine, as it
the governing valves as shown in operates at a constant pressure
Figure 10-2. The efficiency of sub- ratio, the efficiency of the stages
sequent stages does not change does not change with changing
much as a function of flow rate as flow rates.
the pressure drops with decreased Enthalpy drop testing should be
flow in a manner in which the pres- conducted with valves wide open or

10-4 Monitoring and Diagnostics

 413.5 psia
Enthalpy, Btu/lbm

996.8 °F
A

1500
Intermediate Pressure Turbine Enthalpy Drop
Press., Temp., Enthalpy Entropy
Location psia °F Btu/lbm Btu/lbm °R
(a) IP inlet 413.5 996.8 1521.1 1.758
(b) IP EXH 70.5 561.1 1312.4
1450 (c) . . . . 70.5 . . . . 1290.5 1.758

Isentropic enthalpy drop = 1521.1 - 1290.5 = 230.6 Btu/lbm

Actual enthalpy drop = 1521.1 - 1312.4 = 208.7 Btu/lbm
Stage group efficiency = (208.7/230.6) 100 = 90.5%

1400 Steam flow at IP inlet = 939,000 lbm/hr

1350
70.5 psia
561.1 °F
B
1300
C
1280
1.75 1.76 1.77 1.78 1.79
Entropy, Btu/lbm °R

Figure 10-3. Determining stage group efficiency by the enthalpy drop method. [(T °F - 32)/1.8 = °C; psi x 6.895 = kPa;
Btu/lbm °R x 4.1869 = kJ/kg °C; Btu/lbm x 2.326 = kJ/kg]. Source: American Society of Mechanical Engineers4

at valve points to provide a repro-
ducible test condition. The recom-
mended test duration is one hour;
shorter durations can adversely
affect accuracy and repeatability of
the results.4
From the test data, turbine section
efficiency can be calculated as
shown in Figure 10-3. The tempera-
ture and pressure are measured pre-
cisely at the inlet and exhaust of the
stage or section of interest. The
enthalpy can then be read off from
the Mollier diagram. For the exam-
ple IP turbine shown in Figure 10-3,
the inlet conditions of 413.5 psia
(2.85 MPa) and 996.8°F (536.0°C)
result in an inlet enthalpy of 1521.1
Btu/lbm (3528.9 kJ/kg). Similarly
exhaust conditions of 70.5 psia
(0.486 MPa) and 561.1°F (293.9°C)
represent an exhaust enthalpy of
1312.4 Btu/lbm (3044.7 kJ/kg). The
difference 1521.1-1312.4 Btu/lbm =
208.7 Btu/lbm (484.2 kJ/kg) repre-
sents the actual enthalpy drop of
amount of work done by the turbine.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the ideal
change in enthalpy would be isen-
tropic (a vertical line on the Mollier
diagram). In the example IP turbine,
the exhaust enthalpy corresponding
to an isentropic process would be
found by dropping down the vertical
line from point A to where the
exhaust pressure (70.5 psia (0.486
MPa) ) crosses. As shown, this
value would be 1290.5 Btu/lbm
2993.9 kJ/kg). The efficiency of the
stage is therefore the ratio of the
actual enthalpy drop (work done) to
the ideal (isentropic) enthalpy drop
or 208.7/230.6 = 90.5%.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 10-5

10.5 Measuring LP Stage
Efficiency and Wetness Levels
with an Optical Wetness Probe
In two phase steam conditions, that
is, below the saturation line on the
Mollier diagram (Figure 2-3), temper-
ature and pressure are not indepen-
dent. Thus, to establishing the state
point of two phase steam requires
both pressure and wetness fraction.
Once the points on the Mollier
diagram can be identified, then a
procedure as described above for
comparing the actual enthalpy drop
across the section or stage to the
isentropic enthalpy drop can be
used to determine efficiency. LP
stage efficiency tests are not com-
monly used. However, for units
having specific problems such as
liquid droplet erosion, they are an
excellent diagnostic.
Until recently there has been no
means to measure the wetness of
the interstage and exhaust steam,
and thus LP turbine power and
efficiency could only be inferred
indirectly from a heat balance
calculation. The first attempts to
measure enthalpy of wet steam were
performed with traversing calorime-
ters. Enthalpy was measured by
determining the energy required to
re-vaporize the condensed steam.
The practical use of such methods
were limited, mostly because of the
difficulty in obtaining proper steam
samples.
More recently, wetness probes have
now been developed that can mea-
sure the distribution of wetness at
the interstage and turbine exhaust
planes. Several research organiza-
tions worldwide have developed and
used wetness probes.5-14
Optical probes use light scattering
to determine the percentage
decrease in light intensity and thus
derive the size of suspended
droplets in the steam. Liquid mass
flow rates derived from droplet sizes
can be used to determine wetness
10-6 Monitoring and Diagnostics
25mm probe tube
Scattering volume
(max. length: 20mm) 16mm optical probe
Collimating lens
Reflector
Figure 10-4. Optical wetness probe. Source: S. Hesler, A. Liberson, R. Maurer, and T.
McCloskey14
fraction based on static pressure downstream locations, or by travers-
and the corresponding vapor spe- ing simultaneously at both planes
cific volume. Distributions of flow using two probes.14 The equipment
angles, total/static pressure and can be adapted to provide LP
velocities in the wet sections of tur- turbine efficiency monitoring.
bines and exhaust hoods are mea-
Figures 8-4, 10-4 and 10-5 show
sured. These measurements, taken
two optical probe systems. The
as traverses, establish aerodynamic
EPRI Steam Turbine Efficiency and
data. Then the wetness data is
Enthalpy Measurement System
combined with the aerodynamic
(STEEM), (Figures 10-4 and 10-5)
data to quantify the LP discharge
uses a combination of stable ultravi-
mass flow, flow-weighted total/static
olet and visible light sources to
pressure, and turbine exhaust state
cover the 200-1000 nm wavelength
point.15 From the state point, the
range. Light is delivered to a small
thermodynamic efficiency of the last
(12-16 mm (0.47-0.63 in)) diameter
stage and/or entire LP cylinder can
optical probe via a fiberoptic cable.
be determined. This allows for
The folded light path that comprises
baseline data to be established in
the scattering volume allows up to
an efficiency or flow path improve-
40 mm (1.57 in) of total scattering
ment project.
length. The received scattered light
Calculation of mass flow-averaged is sent via fiberoptic cable to a
enthalpy drops between transverse photodiode array (PDA) contained in
planes provide turbine stage and the spectrophotometer, Figure 10-5.
cylinder efficiencies. Measurements The PDA collects over 1000 spectral
of individual stage efficiencies can lines of light transmission data per
be obtained from sequential tests measurement in less than a second.
performed at the upstream and The computer controls the operation

Diffraction grating and
photodiode array
Probe
Unix workstation
Figure 10-5. Schematic of wetness probe and optical system. Source: S. Hesler, A.
Liberson, R. Maurer, and T. McCloskey14
of the spectrophotometer and stores
the measurements for subsequent
data analysis.
Optical wetness probes can pro-
duce excellent results, with an
average of less than one percent
difference between wetness probe
and measured turbine heat rates
in more than twenty comparison
tests.16 For example, field testing
has been performed to compare the
results of an optical wetness probe
to those obtained from a state-of-
the-art on-line monitoring system at
a 625 MW unit.11 The unit operates
on a supercritical single reheat
cycle with inlet steam conditions of
24.13 MPa/538°C/538°C (3500
psia/1000°F/1000°F). The field test-
ing was performed to measure the
Source
Spectrophotometer
enthalpy at the exhaust and thus
access ports were only required in
the exhaust hoods. Tests were run
on a variety of load conditions
(260-595 MW). Flow and wetness
data were measured at four different
loads on three separate exhaust
traverses.
Mean exhaust conditions and corre-
sponding efficiencies (on a total-
static basis) were measured by the
traversing probes. The efficiency
values measured with the probes
and calculated from the unit moni-
toring system data were in good
agreement, generally within 1%
point for most load levels. The
study concluded that probe testing
alone would have provided an
accurate indication of LP turbine
efficiency.
10.6 Interpreting Enthalpy Drop
Test Results
Table 10-2 provides an overview of
how enthalpy drop test results,
along with other indicators can be
used to provide an indication of the
nature of steam path damage.
10.7 Other Degradation
Diagnostics
In addition to the specific perfor-
mance tests outlined in the previous
sections, there are many measures
of turbine and unit performance that
can be used to highlight specific
accumulating damage or degrada-
tion in the turbine. For many of the
mechanisms in Volume 2, such
indicators are presented in the
section labeled “Indications that
this damage mechanism is active”.
One additional simple screening
measure is to compare stage inlet
steam pressure and flow to feedwa-
ter flow. As the feedwater flow and
steam flow are nearly identical, a
general relationship can be devel-
oped between the two, Figure 10-6
can be used as a simple means to
detect performance degradation.
10.8 Measuring Blade Vibration
It is critical to be able to measure
blade responses in order to evaluate
designs, measure deflections that
can then be used to calculate
applied strains by finite element
models, confirm the root cause of
damage, and confirm the efficacy of
modifications. The major goal for
this class of instruments is a simple,
rugged general purpose system for
non-contact monitoring of vibrations
in rotating blades. Although blade
vibration monitors are not widely
used, they are recommended for
units having known vibration
problems.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 10-7
Table 10-2
Evaluation of Enthalpy Drop Test Results
Results of Other
Change in Efficiency1 Gradual or Sudden Onset? Measurements/Observations Probable Damage Mechanism Chapter(s)

Decrease Gradual Increase in unit MW. Solid particle erosion. 17

Decrease Gradual Decrease in unit MW. Deposits, see for example copper 18, 19
deposition.
Decrease Gradual Increase in unit MW Liquid droplet erosion. 27
Decrease Typically sudden (water • Change in bearing vibration. Rubbing or warping of blades, 28
induction), but may be gradual • Decrease in MW output. such as caused by water induction.
Decrease Sudden Foreign object damage.
1 As indicated by enthalpy drop test results.

Blade vibration can be sensed by a

variety of non-contacting methods
including electromagnetic, eddy cur- Possible causes of high pressure/flow ratio
rent, or optical. The first instruments • Nozzles undersized High
used to monitor turbine blades in • Nozzles partially plugged
operation were strain gages
mounted on the blades, from which
Turbine 1st Stage Pressure

information was taken by slip rings

connected to the gages by leads
along the shaft. In the 1950s
telemetry was introduced to avoid Low
the problems with lead failures
experienced on the early designs.
Principal systems for monitoring
blade vibration include: Possible causes of low pressure/flow ratio
• Nozzles eroded or oversized
• Strain gage systems. Strain • Turbine internal bypass
gages on rotating blades are the • Lack of cycle isolation
traditional method for measuring • Venturi fouling
• Increased moisture carryover
blade vibration. Data are
recorded from the strain gages Steam or Feedwater Flow
using either radio telemetry or slip
rings. This is a well established
technique that has been used to
Figure 10-6. Degradation as indicated by plotting turbine first stage pressure versus
measure dynamic strains, steady steam or feedwater flow. Source: F.J. Mollerus, R.D. Allen, and R.A. Tomkiewicz17
strains, pressure transducer out-
put, and other signal data from
• Magnetic sensor system. tric pulse each time a blade
rotating blades. A disadvantage
Magnetic sensor probe systems passes. Figure 10-7 provides a
of strain gages is that they tend
using time-of-arrival measure- schematic of the two probe sys-
to have a fairly short life (on the
ments allow for on-line measure- tem. The sensor probes are
order of a couple of weeks) after
installation, and re-installation ment of blades.18,19 Such sys- inserted through guide tubes
tems have been developed by mounted in holes drilled in the
requires opening the turbine.
several manufacturers.18-20 They cylinder covers. Seals prevent
measure non-synchronous vibra- the passage of steam between
tion of all blades in a row using the inner and outer cylinder.
two or more magnetic reluctance Sensors are simple and
sensors which generate an elec- replaceable.

10-8 Monitoring and Diagnostics

The sensors measure blade
passing time of arrival. If the Inner cylinder Outer cylinder
cover cover
blade is not vibrating then the Sensor
passing time will be predicted Gate support tube
directly from the rotational speed valve
of the rotor. However, if the blade
is vibrating, then the blade tip
will arrive earlier or later than the
Seals
expected time, depending on Guide
the direction of the deflection.
The important measurement is
tube
+
the time difference between the
expected and actual passing
times; the absolute arrival time
is not required. The system can
detect axial and tangential Rotating blades Sensors
deflection because the blades (2 places)
are at a steep angle to the
turbine axis. Tip deflection is a
composite of axial, tangential Figure 10-7. Two probe blade vibration monitor installation.
and rotational components. Source: P.F. Rozelle, D.H. Evans, and B.B. Seth18
Timing precision sets the mini-
mum detectable vibratory deflec-
tion, which ranges from about a) Original Blades
10 µm (0.4 mils) to 25 µm
Failure deflection
Amplitude, Peak Inches

(0.001 in) depending on the

blade length, unit speed and
supplier.18,20 Shrouded blading
can be handled by this method
using several notches on the
shroud that can detect bending
of the shroud.
The data gathered are used to
produce a diagram of the 0
response of each blade to a 1 Blade Number 120
particular harmonic such as illus-
trated in Figure 10-8. The data b) Mix-tuned Blades
shown in Figure 10-8a are from Failure deflection
Amplitude, Peak Inches

a turbine showing a problem

with aeroelastic excitation and
indicate the typical clustering of
affected blades. Figure 10-8b
shows the response at the same
harmonic following mixed tuning
of the blades to correct the
problem. This system is useful
for detecting non-synchronous 0
vibration of individual blades, the 1 Blade Number 120
resonant frequencies of individual
blades, and torsional modes
(both synchronous and nonsyn- Figure 10-8. Use of a blade vibration monitor to determine indi-
chronous).18 For cases of vidual blade responses before (a) and after (b) using mixed tun-
chronic problems with vibration, ing to counteract a problem with aeroelastic excitation. Source:
P.F. Rozelle, D.H. Evans, and B.B. Seth18
its use is recommended. Such

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 10-9

 a system is not currently suitable
for measuring the synchronous
vibration of individual blades
when the turbine speed is con-
stant because each blade returns
to the same deflection as it
passes a particular sensor (the
so-called “aliasing” problem).
Continued development is
addressing this shortcoming.
A comparison between strain
gages and a magnetic sensor
system is given in Table 10-3.
The primary advantages of the
magnetic sensor systems are the
ability to measure all blades in a
row (strain gage– telemetry is lim-
ited to about 20 blades per row),
over a long period without affect-
ing the flow.18 Strain gages have
the advantages of being able to
resolve frequencies and thus
monitor the synchronous vibration
of individual blades, to more
accurately measure modes with
low tip deflection (typical of
higher modes of vibration).18
Table 10-3
Comparison of Strain Gage Telemetry and Two Probe Magnetic Sensors for Blade Vibration Monitoring
Blades per row observed
Installation life (monitoring time)
Installation time
Measures
Identify mode (individual blade mode)
Identify mode (torsional mode)
Deduce stress (mode shape known)
Determine harmonic (frequency)
• Non-synchronous (aerodynamic)
• Synchronous (individual blades)
• Torsional synchronous (rotor interaction)
• Torsional non- synchronous (rotor interaction)
Affects flow
Affects frequency and damping
Source: P.F. Rozelle, D.H. Evans, and B.B. Seth 18
10-10 Monitoring and Diagnostics
• Optical sensors. The time-of-
arrival method can also be
applied using optical sensors.
Similar to the magnetic sensors
described above, the method
uses small differences in mea-
sured signals from successive
arrivals of blades to detect vibra-
tion. One such system, termed
the non-interference stress mea-
surement system (NSMS) uses
fiber optics to shine light into the
path of a blade.21 A portion of
the light is reflected back from the
passing blade and to a photode-
tector with subsequent signal pro-
cessing. Either a spot focus or
line focus method is used. The
former is simpler, but does not
allow for resolution of vector com-
ponents of vibration. The line
focus method allows such resolu-
tion but is more expensive. Blade
tip positions are calculated to
within 0.03 mm (~0.0012 inches)
by comparing measured tip posi-
tion with the expected position.21
The system was developed, and
has been demonstrated on
Strain Gage—Telemetry
20
Days
10 days per row
Strain
By frequency or measured stress ratios
By frequency and measured stress ratios
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
turbine engines. It has been
used to investigate synchronous
and non-synchronous vibrations
including flutter conditions.
Optical systems have also been
demonstrated in field tests in
LP turbines.19
• Eddy current proximity sensors.
Eddy current sensors can also be
used for time-of-arrival measure-
ments and are particularly applic-
able for non-magnetic materials
such as titanium19 and have been
used in a field test on open-
ended titanium blades.22
At this time, strain gages are the
preferable method because they are
well proven. However, magnetic
and optical sensor technologies
continue to be developed and have
seen application in specific cases.
These latter technologies represent
the best longterm benefits and it
is expected that the high costs
will come down with increased
computing power and miniaturiza-
tion of sensors.
Two Probe Vibration Monitoring
All
Unlimited
1 day per row
Tip deflection
By fractional harmonic and known response
By frequency and measured response rates
Yes
Fractional part
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
10.9 Modal Testing
Modal tests can be used to measure
natural frequencies and mode
shapes for comparison with corre-
sponding values calculated by finite
element analysis. Dynamic stresses
and steady stresses are measured
on the blades during rotating tests
using radio telemetry from strain
gages mounted on the rotating
blades. Strain gages can be placed
on locations corresponding to the
highest dynamic stresses as deter-
mined by analysis, such as indi-
cated in Chapter 5.
Typically, blade natural frequencies
are measured during a series of
ascending and descending speed
ramps. The turbine is bought up
through operating speed to over-
speed then allowed to coast down.
During coast down, a stationary
steam jet can be turned on to pro-
vide a once per-rev impulse.
Case Study II in Chapter 20
describes the use of modal tests to
evaluate blade design changes.
10.10 Torsional Vibration Monitor
A torsional vibration monitor (TVM)
can be used to measure rotor shaft
torsional vibration. As discussed in
detail in Chapters 5 and 20, the
longest blades of the LP turbine
have natural modes of vibration that
correspond to the vibrations set up
from torsional vibration of the rotor
responding to forcing functions at
frequencies 1-2 times the power
system frequency. Such resonance
can lead to rapid failure of blades
by high cycle fatigue. A torsional
vibration monitor may be useful in
detecting such problems.23

References
1. Personal communication from C. Moore (Ontario
Hydro) to B. Dooley, November 29, 1998.
2. IEC/ISO Standard TC-5, “Standardization on the
Rating and Testing of Steam Turbines and the Testing of
Steam Power Plants”, Geneva, Switzerland.
3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Performance Test Code 6 on Steam Turbines, ASME
PTC-6-1996, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, NY, 1996.
4. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Procedures for Routine Performance Tests on Steam
Turbines, ASME PTC-6S Report -1988 Reaffirmed 1995,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
NY, 1989.
5. Tatsuno, K. and S. Nagao, “Water Droplet Size
Measurements in an Experimental Steam Turbine Using
Optical Fiber Droplet Sizer”, Journal of Heat Transfer,
Volume 108, November, 1986.
6. Walters, P.T., “Wetness and Efficiency Measurements
in LP Turbines as an Aid to Improving Performance”,
ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and
Power, Volume 109, 1987, pp. 85-90.
7. Kleitz, A., A., Laali, and J. Courant, “Fog Droplet Size
Measurement and Calculation in Wet Steam Turbines”,
Technology of Turbine Plant Operating with Wet Steam,
BNES, IME and ENS Conference, London, 1988.
8. Barbucci, P., C. Carbone, F. Donatini, L. Mazzocchi,
and M. Verga, “Steam Turbine Flow Field and Steam
Quality Measurements”, in B.R. King, ed., The Steam
Turbine-Generator Today: Materials Flow Path Design,
Repair and Replacement, Papers from the 1993
International Joint Power Generation Conference held in
Kansas City, MO, October 17-22, 1993, PWR-Vol. 21,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
1993, pp. 129-135.
9. Petr, V., M. Kolovratník, I. Jirícek, and O. Jonas,
“Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Steam
Chemistry on Droplet Nucleation”, in Jonas, Inc., et al.,
Turbine Steam, Chemistry, and Corrosion, Volume 2:
Individual Contributions of Participants, Final Report TR-
108184, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, February, 1998.
10. Feldberg, L. and Y. Y. Katchurinier, “Optical Methods
for Initial Condensation in a Turbine Cascade”, in N.F.
Rieger and R.B. Dooley, eds., Moisture Nucleation in
Steam Turbines, Proceedings TR-108942, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, October, 1997, pp. 6-1 through 6-12.
11. Walters, P.T. and R.W. Langford, “Measurements of
the Wetness and LP Turbine Efficiency Over a Range of
Operating Loads For Morgantown Unit 2 of the Potomac
Electric Power Company in Southern Maryland USA”,
Power Plant Performance Measurements Research
Report, December, 1995.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 10-11

12. Dooley, R.B., L.A. Feldberg, V.I. Kashinsky, O.I.
Martynova, A. Yu. Petrov, T.I. Petrova, S.A. Popov, O.A.
Povarov, V.N. Semenov, and A.N. Troitsky, authors; O.A.
Povarov and T.I. Petrova, principal investigators, Turbine
Steam, Chemistry and Corrosion: Experimental Turbine
Tests, Final Report TR-108185, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
September, 1997.
13. State-of-Knowledge Document on Deposition, EPRI,
to be published, 1999.
14. Hesler, S., A. Liberson, R. Maurer, and T. McCloskey,
“Optical Probe for Measurement of Steam Wetness
Fraction in LP Turbines”, in EPRI/Stress Technology
Incorporated, Management of Steam and Combustion
Turbine Blade Problems - Prevention, Diagnosis, and
Repair, Joint EPRI/STI Seminar Notes, presented in
Rochester, NY, May 20-22, 1997. Also in EPRI Workshop
on Nuclear Performance (unpublished), held in San
Antonio, TX, August, 1997 and 1998 EPRI Heat Rate
Conference.
15. McCloskey, T., R. Dewey, S. Hesler, and M. Pollard,
“Low Pressure Steam Turbine Thermal Performance
Improvements”, Thirteenth Annual Plant Performance
Enhancement Program, held August 12-14, 1997 in San
Antonio, TX, Plant Support Engineering, EPRI, Charlotte,
NC, 1997.
16. Hesler, S. and P. Hartman, Turbine Efficiency
Improvement Investigation, Final Report TR-102729,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, September, 1993.
17. Mollerus, F.J., R.D. Allen, and R.A. Tomkiewicz,
Megawatt Improvement Casebook and Guidelines, Final
Report TR-101867, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, December, 1992.
18. Rozelle, P.F., D.H. Evans, and B.B. Seth,
“Development and Application of a Blade Vibration
Monitor”, in D.M. Rasmussen, ed., Latest Advances in
Steam Turbine Design, Blading, Repairs, Condition
Assessment and Condenser Interaction, 1989 Joint
Power Generation Conference held in Dallas, TX,
October 22-26, 1989, PWR-Vol. 7, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1989, pp. 37-45.
10-12 Monitoring and Diagnostics
19. Mase, M., R.F. Rozelle, and T.W. Azagar, “Blade
Vibration Monitoring Technology”, in Stress Technology,
Inc., ed., Proceedings of the Steam and Combustion
Turbine-Blading Conference and Workshop–1992, held
in Orlando, FL, January, 29-31, 1992, Proceedings
TR-102061, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, April, 1993, pp. 5-1
through 5-20.
20. Gloger, M., K. Neumann, D. Bergmann, and H.
Termuehlen, “Advanced LP Turbine Blading: A Reliable
and Highly Efficient Design”, in W.G. Steltz, ed., Steam
Turbine-Generator Developments for the Power
Generation Industry, Papers from the 1992 International
Joint Power Generation Conference held in Atlanta, GA,
October 18-22, 1992, PWR-Vol. 18, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1992, pp. 41-51.
21. Jones, H., “Shedding Light on Vibration”,
Mechanical Engineering, November, 1996, pp. 94-97.
22. Nedeljkovic, S.I., P.F. Rozelle, and B.B. Seth,
“Design and Verification of Mixed-Tuned Titanium
Freestanding Low Pressure Steam Turbine Blades”, in
A.S. Warnock, ed., Design, Repair, and Refurbishment of
Steam Turbines, Papers from the 1991 International Joint
Power Generation Conference held in San Diego, CA,
October 6-10, 1991, PWR-Vol. 13, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1991, pp. 203-208.
23. Reid, S.R., “Coupled Blade-Rotor Torsional Vibration
Component and Low Pressure Blade Retrofit Issues”, in
I. Fruchtman, S. Hartman, B. Moore, R. Henry, D. Karg,
M. Curley, S. Reid, and B. Sykes, eds., Proceedings of
the International Joint Power Generation Conference:
Volume 3: Power, Papers from the 1995 International
Joint Power Generation Conference held in Minneapolis,
MN, October 8-12, 1995, PWR-Vol. 28, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1995, pp. 251-259.
 Chapter 11 • Volume 1
Inspection and
NDE Methods
L-2R L-1R
11.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an overview
of inspections for the turbine. There
are numerous references1-3 that
cover the specifics of the most com-
mon non-destructive examination
(NDE) techniques: penetrant testing
(PT), magnetic particle testing (MT),
ultrasonic testing (UT), eddy current
(ET) and radiographic testing (RT).
The focus in this chapter is on the
application of these standard NDE
techniques to turbine components:
rotating blades (Section 11.4),
stationary blades and turbine com-
ponents (Section 11.5), and disc
rim attachments and disc keyways
(Section 11.6).
Before examining specific compo-
nents, a brief overview is provided
on steam path audits and the
required inspections during an out-
age (Section 11.2). Visual examina-
tion is a powerful means to provide
a quick assessment of overall condi-
tion once the turbine is opened,
and, in conjunction with innovative
means of access, can provide
significant information about the
turbine without opening or even
during operation. These issues are
discussed in Section 11.3.
11.2 Steam Path Audits and
Outage Inspections
Steam path audits are used to
evaluate deterioration of turbine
performance, specifically the losses
of efficiency and heat rate degrada-
tion, so that restoration can occur.4-8
Table 2-3 provides a comprehensive
list of losses that might be evaluated
during the audit process. Steam
path audits are particularly impor-
tant for helping to identify leakage
losses, and those caused by sur-
face roughness or deposition. Note
that adding up the losses in individ-
ual stages, when varying the losses
of only a single stage at a time
overstates the power loss as com-
pared to when two or more stages
are evaluated simultaneously. This
is because of the reheat effect in the
stages following the degraded
stages.9
Steam path audits are performed at
every major outage by some utilities;
for others they are performed only
to evaluate known performance
degradation. In either case, a
beginning determination is made for
comparison during reassembly of
the turbine after refurbishment to
document the performance improve-
ment. Such audits can often be
used to quantify benefits of leakage
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 11-1
improvement or reduction of
deposits, and can often justify sig-
nificant expenses to provide the
performance improvement.7
Activities during a steam path audit
typically include7:
• Visual inspection of steam path
parts during disassembly.
• Documentation (photography).
• Measurement of geometry of
steam path including blade
lengths, widths, angles, thick-
nesses, clearances, and
distortion.
• Evaluate blade profile losses.
• Assessment of the effects of
increased roughness, deposition
and corrosion of affected sur-
faces (Chapter 18).
• Evaluation of all seals and poten-
tial steam leakage sites (see
Chapter 2 for more detail).
• Evaluation of locations subject to
mechanical damage.
• Evaluation of locations subject to
solid particle (Chapter 17) or liq-
uid droplet erosion (Chapter 27).
The results of these inspections will
be used to calculate the deviation
from design points, expressed in kW
losses. Following refurbishment, a
similar set of measurements and cal-
culations is used to determine the
expected improvement in perfor-
mance. The evaluation can also
help determine the date of the next
major maintenance and to schedule
procurement of replacement parts.4

Case Studies: Examples of Steam Path Audits

Case Study I: The first example is of blade profiles by sandblasting. of losses and efficiency measure-
a 300 MW turbine with a Curtis The seals were not completely ments before and after the mainte-
stage, HP section with 10 stages, changed out however. The results nance were:
IP section with 8 stages and an LP
section with double flow and 6 Damaged component Losses (kW) before Losses (kW) after
stages. The primary problems maintenance maintenance
were deposits, worn out nozzles Control stage nozzles 1,522 0
and stationary blades of the control Deposits and blade wear 491 152
stage, deposits in the HP section, Deposits at trailing edges
and wear on the seals. of the blades 538 0
Maintenance included: replace- Internal seals 5,360 4,238
ment of the nozzles and second Roughness of blade surface 369 0
diaphragm in the Curtis stage, and Total losses 8,280 4,390
removal of deposits and smoothing
Efficiency (%) 82.55 84.17

As shown maintenance activities resulted in the recovery of approximately 3,890 kW and an efficiency
improvement of 1.62%.

Case Study II: This 158 MW tur- by sandblasting and smoothing of remained large. The results of loss
bine has a control stage, HP sec- surface roughness. Seals were not measurements before and after
tion with 7 stages, IP section with 7 changed, so that leakage losses were:
stages and a double-flow LP. Key
problems identified during the
audit were deposits, wear of the Damaged component Losses (kW) before Losses (kW) after
control stage nozzles and wear of maintenance maintenance
the seals. Activities during mainte- Control stage nozzles 2,766 2,121
nance included: cleaning of the Blade wear 555 555
control stage, removal of deposits Internal and external seals 1,127 1,127
Roughness of blade surface 632 544
Total losses 5,080 4,347
Efficiency (%) 82.78 83.95

11-2 Inspection and NDE Methods

 Case Studies: Examples of Steam Path Audits (Continued)

Case Study III: The final example ness. Maintenance actions decrease roughness. Seals were
is an 84 MW turbine consisting of a included cleaning the control stage not changed, leaving potential for
control stage, HP section with 11 and sand blasting of blades to loss improvement.
stages, IP section with 16 stages
and an LP section with 3 stages. Damaged component Losses (kW) before Losses (kW) after
Principal problems identified were maintenance maintenance
wear of control stage nozzles and Control stage nozzles 43.2 30.2
blades, wear of seals, and rough- Blade wear 143 143
Internal and external seals 523 523
Roughness of blade surface 262 39.3
Total losses 971.2 735.5
Efficiency (%) 84.22 84.89

Source: J. Kubiak, F. del Angel, A. Carnero, A. Campos, G. Urquiza, C. Mariño, and M. Villegas4

11.3 Visual Examination and
Access Issues
Visual inspection is one of the most
basic and important means of dam-
age evaluations. Steam path condi-
tion and many forms of damage can
be assessed visually after the tur-
bine has been opened with or with-
out removal of blade(s) and/or the
rotor. Visual examination may also
be made without opening the turbine
if access for fiber optics devices
can be obtained through manway,
access ports, fittings, extraction cav-
ities, or other penetrations through
the casing. This is a key advantage
in monitoring high damage areas,
particularly with lengthening periods
between scheduled turbine inspec-
tion outages. Required equipment
includes either a fiberscope or video
probe, a light source, a camera or
VCR for documentation, and miscel-
laneous equipment such as exten-
sion cords, guide tubes, etc.10
Typical forms of damage that can be
assessed with visual examination
include:
• Missing blades or covers.
• General surface condition of
blades, shields, etc.
• General surface condition of
coatings.
• Degree of erosion by solid
particles or liquid droplet
impingement.
• Visible signs of cracking.
• Surface damage including pitting,
corrosion buildup, deposits,
foreign object damage.
• Heavy rubbing.
• Notch lifting.
• Evidence of elongation such
as by creep or other gross
deformation.
• Distortion.
• Forging laps
Most of these damage types are
also detectable by fiberscope and
videoprobe inspection on accessible
stages. Figures 11-1 and 11-2 show
use of a fiberscope for inspection of
a LP turbine. In Figure 11-2, the
fiberscope can be seen inside the
turbine. Figure 11-3 shows the
appearance of a crack as seen
through the fiberscope.
At each outage, it is recommended
that there be 100% visual inspection
of all available steam touched sur-
faces such as:
• Rotating blade airfoils.
• Visible roots of the rotating blade.
• Accessible stationary blade
airfoils.
• Erosion shields on protected
blades of the LP turbine.
• All shrouds, tiewires/lashing wires,
lugs, and tenons.
• All diaphragm airfoils.
The results should be used to deter-
mine whether additional disassem-
bly will be needed and whether
more thorough NDE is indicated by
a survey or inspection of the easily
accessible locations. Such
expanded inspections may include
up to 100% inspection of suspect
locations and involve magnetic parti-
cle, ultrasonic, dye penetrant, repli-
cation, or radiography; for example,
the additional use of magnetic parti-
cle testing (MT) or penetrant testing
(PT) for detecting small cracks.
Note that after magnetic particle
testing, the rotor and blades need to
be demagnetized.
Key locations to be accessed
include: the control stage of the HP
and first stage of the IP (primarily for
assessing accumulating damage by
solid particle erosion and copper
deposition) and the last few rows of
the LP turbine, for erosion, fatigue
and corrosion fatigue.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 11-3

Figure 11-1. Inspection of an LP turbine by fiberscope. Figure 11-2. End of fiberscope inside turbine used to detect
Photograph provided courtesy of J. Michaelson and a variety of damage types. Photograph provided courtesy of
P. Sabourin J. Michaelson and P. Sabourin

Mechanical inspections will typically

include:
• Axial/radial clearances
• Rotor run out
• Alignment
• Stationary/rotating blade profile
condition
A major decision will be whether to
remove the rotor or inspect it in the
lower casing.
Inspection ports have been installed
in HP, IP and LP turbines to allow
access for fiberoptic inspections.10,11
The following case study illustrates
the use of existing, or slightly modi-
fied access locations for L-0, L-1 and
L-2 stage inspection.
Figure 11-3. Crack in an LP turbine blade. Photograph provided courtesy of
R. Ortolano (Turbine RESCUE)

11-4 Inspection and NDE Methods

 Case Study: In-Situ Examination of L-0, L-1 and L-2 Blades in a Nuclear Unit

The utility wished to be able to

examine, in-situ, the blade roots of Modified thermal shield
the last three rows of an LP turbine
of a nuclear unit. They were moti- Existing 1 1/2” openings
vated by moving to an extended
Manway Existing 1” gap
(ten year) period between major
turbine inspection outages. A suc-
cessful inspection procedure was
developed using a video imaging
scope with near and far focus tips.
A small 8 mm TV/VCR was used to
record the inspection information.
Figure 11-4 shows how access Video probe paths
Video probe paths
was accomplished. The root of the
L-0 blades was examined through
a diffuser 25 mm (1 in.) gap. The
L-1 discharge side was inspected
through an existing 38 mm (11/2 in.)
hole. Examination of the L-1 intake
side and L-2 (both sides) required
entry through the manway. The
thermal shield had to be cut down
to allow access to the manway. L-2C L-1C L-0C L-0R
Desirable future developments
include the ability: (i) to perform
inspection while on turning gear,
(ii) to process visual data on-line,
(iii) to provide video pictures on- L-2R L-1R
line, (iv) to perform inspections on-
line and at temperature, (v) to pro-
vide for remote insertion and
retraction of inspection probes,
and (vi) to provide a system that Inspection
locations
can be operated remotely.

Figure 11-4. Example of visual in-situ inspection of L-0, L-1, and L-2 rows.
Source: J. Michaelson, B. Weir, and P. Schmitz11

Source: J. Michaelson, B. Weir, and P. Schmitz11

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 11-5

11.4 Inspection of Rotating Blades
11.4.1 Rotating blade airfoils.
Visual examination can provide a
good overview of the type and
nature of damage, if any. Table 11-1
lists some common types of damage
in blades that might be uncovered
by visual examination and possible
active mechanisms thus indicated.
It is also key in determining what
additional inspection methods or
disassembly may be needed during
the outage. Visual inspection of
rotating blade airfoils should be con-
ducted at every outage to detect:
• Cracks that might indicate fatigue
(Chapters 20 and 21), corrosion
fatigue (Chapter 24), stress corro-
sion cracking (Chapters 25 and
26), thermal cracking from water
induction (Chapter 28) or over-
heating by windage (Chapter 32).
Table 11-1
Damage Found by Visual Examination and Possible Active Mechanism Indicated
Nature of Damage
Cracking
Surface wear or grooving, irregular blade
profiles, thinning of edges, flattening of leading
edges, undercuttting of surfaces
Roughened surface consistent with tearing
Roughened surface with pits or craters
Deposits
Elongation, sag, deformation such as ovalization
of pin holes, lack of concentricity in blade roots
Elongation of blade/ tip rubbing
Rubbing
Distortion of component
Galling
11-6 Inspection and NDE Methods
• Erosion by solid particles in the
first couple of stages of the HP or
IP turbine in fossil units (Chapter
17) or liquid droplets in any wet
stages (Chapter 27).
• Mechanical damage such as by
foreign object impact or fretting
(Chapter 31).
• Distortion, evidence of creep
such as concentricity of exposed
roots or ovalization of pin holes
in pinned radial entry blades in
the first stages of the HP
(Chapter 16).
• Rubbing (Chapter 33).
• Deposits such as copper in the
HP (Chapter 19) or salts in the
wet stages of the turbine
(Chapter 18).
• Pitting (Chapter 23).
Stage(s) or Sections
• Any, more prevalent in longer blades.
• Wet stages
• Any
• Last stages of LP
• First stages of HP or IP in fossil units
• Any, particularly at shroud or coverband and
in blade roots
• Can be found in any stage as a result of
shutdown, typically worst in wet stages
• Wet stages
• At LP exhaust
• On airfoil in first stages of HP
• Under cover in first stages of HP
• Wet stages of HP (nuclear) or LP (nuclear and
fossil)
• First few rows of HP or IP turbine in fossil units
• Last stages of LP
• Any
• First stages of HP or IP in fossil units
• Last stages of LP
• Any
• Any
It is estimated that visual inspection
will take about 1-3 hours per row.12
Rows with lashing wires or tiewires
which are welded or brazed require
an additional 1-2 hours per row. If
pitting is suspected, visual inspec-
tion using a low power magnifying
glass may be required, increasing
inspection times.
Magnetic particle examination is
typically used to detect cracks in
airfoils; penetrant testing if the mate-
rial is non-magnetic which may be
possible in the first HP or IP rotating
row or last couple of stationary
stages of the LP. The appearance
of cracks detected by dye penetrant
is shown in Figure 11-5.
If the upper casing is removed, but
the rotor left in position, cleaning of
rotating airfoils is not recommended
as abrasive media can be trapped
Possible Active Mechanisms
• Fatigue
• Corrosion fatigue or stress corrosion
cracking
• Thermal cracking from water induction
• Overheating from windage
• Solid particle erosion
• Fretting
• Pitting
• Liquid droplet erosion
• Flow-accelerated corrosion
• Copper deposition
• Solid particle erosion
• Pitting, corrosion fatigue
• Creep
• Overheating by windage
• Water induction
• Creep
• Overheating by windage
• Water induction
• Severe rubbing
in the lower half of the turbine. Also
silica in aluminum oxide grit can
contaminate the condensate. The
rotor is rotated to expose all blade
airfoils. If the rotor is removed from
the casing and the lower half
diaphragms removed from the
casing, then the blades can be
cleaned by grit blasting. Inspection
will be by fluorescent magnetic
particle or penetrant for non-
magnetic materials.

11.4.2 Shrouds, tiewires, lashing

wires, lugs, and tenons. These
parts of the rotating blades should
also be visually inspected at each
outage. Dial indicator run out read-
ings should be taken to detect
shroud lifting. This can be executed
when the turbine is left in the half
shell or by placing the removed rotor
on power rollers or similar equip-
ment. If shroud lifting is indicated,
inspection for tenon cracks should
be performed using magnetic parti-
cle (ferritic material), penetrant
testing (non-magnetic material) or
ultrasonic testing. Magnetic particle
or penetrant testing can also be
used to inspect lashing lugs and
tiewire connections.
11.4.3 Erosion shields. Shields are
often welded or brazed on to the
blade to provide protection against
liquid droplet erosion. Loss of an
erosion shield can cause damage to
the later stages of the turbine and
can lead to an imbalance in the
affected blade leading to a vibration
alarm, or damage to condenser
tubes, and an outage. Cracks in
the shielding can lead to cracking
in the blade. A complete visual
examination of erosion shields is
recommended at each LP turbine
overhaul.12 Visual examination can
detect erosion damage to the shield;
non-magnetic penetrant testing is
typically used for crack detection in
shielding and to determine whether
there is sufficient life left until the next
outage. NDE is needed to ensure
adequate braze bonding. A com-
plete row of shields can be visually
and penetrant tested in one shift.12
Figure 11-5. Detection of cracks using dye penetrant.
Photograph provided courtesy of R. Ortolano (Turbine
RESCUE)
11.4.4 Rotating blade roots.
Visual inspection of all visible por-
tions of roots is recommended for
every outage plus magnetic particle
or penetrant testing for the detection
of small cracks. First stages of the
HP and IP should be inspected for
creep (fossil units); last stages of the
LP for fatigue or stress corrosion
cracking. Ultrasonic testing can be
used for crack detection without
removing blades, but crack sizing
using ultrasonics may require
blade removal.
11.5 Inspection of Stationary
Blades and Turbine Components
11.5.1 Stationary blades and
diaphragms. Stationary vanes are
the most critical of the stationary
blade components. Depending on
design they can be removed and
examined independently or integral
with the balance of the nozzle.
Welds and seals are also inspection-
critical locations.
In high temperature locations, such
as the first few stages of the HP and
IP turbines of fossil units, thermal
fatigue and erosion by solid parti-
cles are the primary potential prob-
lems. Visual inspection can be used
as a first cut at damage assessment
using magnetic particle or penetrant
inspection to locate small fatigue
cracks. Light grit blasting may be
needed to prepare the surfaces for
inspection. Visual inspection can
also detect wire drawing erosion
(Chapter 30). Dimensional checks
can be used to determine the extent
of erosion or of distortion.
Replication can be used to deter-
mine the presence of creep voids
and help estimate the damage asso-
ciated with high temperature opera-
tion (see Chapter 9 for a brief dis-
cussion of replication). A complete
set of nozzle blocks can typically be
inspected by visual, MT/PT, and
dimensional checks in two shifts.
Replicas (6-8 per set) can usually
be done in one shift.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 11-7

The wet stages (last stages of the
HP and LP turbines in nuclear
designs and the LP turbine in fossil
plants) need to be inspected for liq-
uid droplet erosion. As with high
temperature stages, visual examina-
tion, magnetic particle and pene-
trant inspections are indicated for at
least all airfoils of diaphragms at
each outage.
11.5.2 Turbine casings and steam
chests. Thermal fatigue is the most
common damage mechanism in
casings and steam chests; distor-
tion, water induction incidents, and
wire drawing may also occur in both.
Thermal fatigue cracks may often be
left in the casing after attempted
repairs (grinding). Creep is typically
limited in both casings and steam
chests as stresses are low.
Cracks are often surface connected
so that PT and MT can be used to
detect cracks; UT or RT is often then
employed to determine crack depth.
Direct measurement for ovality (by
dial indicator, or by advanced laser
techniques) and of axial clearances
are also recommended.3
11.6 Inspection of Disc Rim Blade
Attachments and Disc Keyways
For shrunk-on disc designs, inspec-
tion of disc rim blade attachment
areas, keyways (anti-rotation pin
slots) and bores are of concern.
Creep is typically not a concern as
these designs are subject to lower
temperatures, however, fracture
following damage by corrosion
fatigue (Chapter 24) or stress cor-
rosion cracking (Chapter 25) is a
major concern.
11.6.1 Disc rim attachment areas.
The inspection of disc rim attach-
ment areas is discussed in detail in
Chapter 25 on stress corrosion
cracking of this area.
11.6.2 Keyways.
If discs are disassembled, surface
inspection techniques such as PT or
ET can be used. If discs are not
removed, UT from the outside sur-
face is required. Whether or not UT
can be used (it is preferred as disc
removal is not necessary) will
depend on the critical size of flaw
that must be detected according to
fracture mechanics evaluation.

References
1. ASM International, ASM Handbook Volume 17:
Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, ASM
International, Materials Park, OH, 1989.
2. Cartz, L., Nondestructive Testing, ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1995.
3. Nottingham, L.D., T.P. Sherlock, and A. Johns, NDE
Guidelines for Fossil Power Plants, Final Report TR-
108450, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, September, 1997.
4. Kubiak, J., F. del Angel, A. Carnero, A. Campos, G.
Urquiza, C. Mariño, and M. Villegas, “Steam Turbine Path
Evaluation During Maintenance” in Proceedings: 1996
EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference, held in
Baltimore, MD, July 29-August 1, 1996, Proceedings TR-
106753, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, July, 1996, pp. 36-1
through 36-16.
5. “Example Report of a Turbine Steam Path Audit using
the Steam Turbine Performance Evaluation (STPE)
Computer Program”, Encotech, Inc., August, 1992.
6. Sanders, W.P., “The Structural Audit and Condition
Assessment of the Turbine Steam Path, in L. Kielsas and
A. Clary, eds., Proceedings of the International Joint
Power Generation Conference: Volume 2: Power, Papers
from the 1997 International Joint Power Generation
Conference held in Denver, CO, November 2-5, 1997,
PWR-Vol. 32, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, 1997, pp. 391-398.
7. Dimmer, J.P., K.J. Shields, and O. Jonas, Cycle
Chemistry Improvement Program, Final Report TR-
106371, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, April, 1997. See Appendix
B for background information on steam path audits.
8. Pollard, M., “Turbine Generator Condition Audits” in
EPRI/Stress Technology Incorporated, Management of
Steam and Combustion Turbine Blade Problems -
Prevention, Diagnosis, and Repair, Joint EPRI/STI
Seminar Notes, presented in Rochester, NY, May 20-22,
1997.
9. Personal communication between G.J. Silvestri, Jr.
and T. McCloskey, October, 1998.
10. Ortolano, R.J., “Blade Inspection Techniques”, pre-
sented at the Flow Path Performance and Blade
Reliability Seminar, Rochester, NY, June 26, 1990
11. Michaelson, J., B. Weir, and P. Schmitz, “Steam
Turbine Remote In-Situ Inspection”, in Fifth EPRI Steam
Turbine/Generator Workshop, held in Lake Buena Vista,
FL, July 29-August 1, 1997, EPRI, Charlotte, N.C.
12. Structural Integrity Associates, Inc., “NDE Guidelines
for Fossil Power Plants”, CD-108450, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
1997.

11-8 Inspection and NDE Methods

Chapter 12 • Volume 1
Formalized Programs for
the Correction, Prevention
and Control of Damage
12.1 Formalizing a Company-
Wide Program for Correction,
Prevention and Control of Steam
Path Damage
This book focuses on technical
guidance to understand, prevent,
and correct turbine steam path
damage. However, it is clear from
previous experience that more than
just access to proper technical
guidance will be necessary to
reduce the costs associated with
turbine damage. Organizations with
formalized, company-wide programs
and a commitment to reducing tur-
bine steam path damage will be the
ones that garner the most significant
benefits from the technical experi-
ence base. Aspects of successful
programs will include:
• Emphasis on the importance of
a corporate directive reflecting
continued management support
for steam path damage reduction
activities (as part of ensuring the
continued performance of the
turbines).
• Emphasis on training and com-
mitment of personnel. It is not
possible to overemphasize the
importance of operator and main-
tenance personnel training, expe-
rience, and commitment to the
health of the unit.1
• An emphasis on the importance
of a multifunctional team, i.e.,
steam path failures are not just a
maintenance problem, but should
involve operators, chemists, and
other functional groups.
• A recognition that the longterm
view of damage prevention is not
only cost effective, but a require-
ment to enable extended turbine
outage intervals.
• Training of key personnel (opera-
tors, chemists, maintenance
personnel, and management) is
central to the success of the pro-
gram and is a continual process
with the addition of new program
personnel and/or management.
The maximum time between
training sessions should be
limited to two years.
• The necessary technical under-
standing and the solutions
needed to mitigate outbreaks of
steam path damage are known
and are available; it is important
to make sure that the information
is systematically applied to out-
breaks of turbine damage, and
to preventing of damage.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 12-1
• A commitment to determining the
correct underlying cause of dam-
age. Much of the time damage is Corporate
wrongly characterized, making it Directives
impossible to prescribe the
appropriate action and avoid a T-CAT
repeat of the same damage in the
future.1 In many cases, the final
failure is remote enough from the Respond to damage:
Identify mechanism
causing event or series of caus-
ing events that the true cause is
obscured.1
Inspection and Determine extent
• Remaining life assessment for monitoring results of damage
damage components is a critical
part of the successful turbine pro-
Determine
gram. Such assessments, com- root cause
bined with risk analysis are partic-
ularly critical for units moving to
longer outage intervals. T-CAT
Intra-outage activities
• A detailed NDE inspection of a • Monitor turbine
turbine by trained staff is essential Steam path performance
damage • Anticipate damage
to detect developing or emerging
database • Respond to turbine
problems such as corrosion incidents
fatigue, stress corrosion cracking, • Prepare for next
creep, high cycle fatigue and low outage (prepare
cycle fatigue in known suscepti- analysis models,
qualify inspection
ble areas such as rotors and
or repair procedures,
blades. etc.)
• Established shutdown procedures
such as to provide a dehumidified Economic Specify repairs and
atmosphere to the steam-touched analysis short term actions
components.
This section briefly reviews some Spare parts Turbine back
key, non-technical elements of suc- policy on line
cessful programs for the prevention,
correction, and control of turbine
Specify optimum
steam path damage. outage interval
Three key parts of a formal program
are: (i) a formal corporate directive Implement long
or a “philosophy statement” to pro- term actions
vide action oriented directives and – Monitoring
procedures, (ii) forming a multidisci- changes
plinary team, the Turbine Condition – Operating
changes
Assessment Team (T-CAT) to take
responsibility for all actions required
to ensure the continued reliable and
safe operation of the turbine includ- Figure 12-1. Flowchart showing aspects of a comprehensive corporate program for
ing preventing steam path damage, the correction, prevention, and control of steam path damage along with activities of
the T-CAT. Key aspects are shown in the boxes outlined in bold.

12-2 Formalized Damage Programs

and (iii) the comprehensive report-
ing and trending of steam path con-
dition. There clearly needs to be a
responsible and accountable per-
son in each power plant whose spe-
cific task is to coordinate all turbine
steam path condition investigations.
These three aspects of the program
are discussed below.
Figure 12-1 shows these three key
aspects of the corporate program
along with the activities of the T-CAT.
Other success factors for the formal-
ized program that are addressed
throughout this book include: (i)
attention to indicators that damage
is accumulating, (ii) evaluation of
unit “precursors” to turbine damage,
(iii) optimizing inspection and out-
age intervals, (iv) identifying the
appropriate root cause of damage,
(v) determining the residual life of
damaged turbine components, (vi)
applying permanent engineering
solutions to problems identified,
and (vii) maintaining established
procedures and careful control over
startup, shutdown and layup condi-
tions in the turbine.
Once established, the T-CAT and
the formal program will have repre-
sentatives from, and continued inter-
faces with, plant operating, mainte-
nance, chemistry, and engineering
personnel. For example, cycle
chemistry can have a significant
impact on steam path damage.
Therefore, there is a need to allow
operating personnel to direct unit
activities so as to set and achieve
cycle chemistry goals and thus pro-
tect the turbine. Actions might
include: application of permanent
engineering solutions, development
of “controllable” procedures, and
the use of instrumentation to monitor
critical control parameters. Inter-
action between the T-CAT and other
such plant decisions will be critical.
A useful classification for influences
on steam path damage is: (i) opera-
tion-controllable, (ii) maintenance-
controllable, (iii) chemistry-control-
lable, (iv) management-controllable,
(v) design-related, (vi) manufacture-
related and (vii) installation-related.
The last three of these are termed
“-related” as the owner/operator will
have little control over them once the
installation has been completed; the
exception being when replacements
or upgrades are contemplated. In
contrast, the first four factors are
controllable by the organization.
Table 12-1 provides a list of some of
the individual causes within each
group. The key recognition pro-
vided in such a schema is that spe-
cific activities, choices and controls
within the job function of a variety of
personnel will affect the occurrence
of turbine steam path damage.
Training and clear directive is critical
for each group to have an appropri-
ate role in preventing turbine dam-
age. Without specific directives, it
can be very difficult for operating
personnel to convince system
control personnel that significant
conditions in the unit are “harmful”
to the turbine.
12.2 Corporate
Directives/Philosophy Statement
and Program Goals
The most important step in imple-
menting an effective turbine steam
path damage reduction program is
to develop and issue a corporate
philosophy statement signed by
senior management. The statement
provides corporate direction and
support for all functional groups
within the organization to engage in
activities specifically targeted to
ensuring the continued safe and reli-
able operation of the turbine, includ-
ing reducing turbine damage and
associated costs.
The philosophy statement should be
built from short and longterm goals,
and must also provide direction for
the necessary corrective and pre-
ventative actions necessary to
reduce damage accumulation. Table
12-2 lists typical examples of state-
ments that should be included. Table
12-3 provides a sample of short and
longterm turbine program goals.
Table 12-1
Typical Steam Path Damage Influences
Operation-Controllable
• Excessive thermal change rates.
• Improper controls on steam purity.
• Improper startup and shutdown
procedures.
• Lack of layup procedures.
• Excessive debris carried into steam path.
• Excessive testing (such as overspeed
testing or valve testing).
• Inadequate audit procedures.
Maintenance-Controllable
• Failure to perform recommended
maintenance.
• Incorrect maintenance procedures.
• Inadequate NDE and inspection
procedures.
• Improper or inadequate correction or
nonconformances.
• Choice of incorrect mitigation method.
• Improper or inadequate repair procedure.
• Improper or poor chemical clean.
• Inadequate audit procedures.
Chemistry-Controllable
• Operating outside of set limits on steam
and water purity.
• Improper shutdown and layup
procedures.
• Inadequate instrumentation; no or
insufficient control room alarms.
Management-Controllable
• Underestimating resources required to
properly operate and maintain turbine.
• Inadequate training budget.
Design-Related
• Incorrect data used to establish design.
• Improper material specified.
• Poor tolerances choice.
Manufacture-Related
• Improper material or heat treatment.
• Out-of-tolerance part.
• Poor machining (which could lead to
cracking initiation centers and increased
deposition)
Installation-Related
• Incorrect assembly or alignment.
• Incorrect or inadequate testing or test
procedures.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 12-3
Table 12-2 • Determine whether precursors
Examples of Statements for Use in A Turbine Condition Program to turbine damage are occur-
ring in the unit (see Section 1.4
1. A Turbine Condition Assessment Team (T-CAT) will be established and will be charged with
of each Chapter in Volume 2
ensuring the continued safe and reliable operation of the utility’s/unit’s turbines.
and/or Table 14-1). This might
2. A risk assessment program will be initiated that will allow each unit to move to extended inter- include such conditions as
vals between outages; the goal is to move to 10 years between scheduled major overhauls. steam chemistry upsets, opera-
3. The T-CAT will evaluate means to reduce the standard outage period to six weeks from its cur- tional upsets, problems with
rent eight weeks. other equipment, etc.
4. The T-CAT will review, at least every other year, events that have occurred in the unit which may • If conditions arise that require tur-
have increased the likelihood of damage to the turbine (“precursors”). The T-CAT will deter- bine work, the T-CAT should rec-
mine whether such events have materially changed the assumptions under which the next ommend whether (i) the unit con-
major overhaul was scheduled. dition is acceptable to run until
5. All steam path damage (SPD) will be reported and documented by responsible, trained person- the next assessment, (ii) the unit
nel in a comprehensive format describing specific turbine locations; failure mechanisms and requires work to be performed at
root causes; repair and/or welding procedures; and solution(s) applied. the next weekend shutdown, or
6. All SPD will be defined and reported in terms of magnitude, historical trend and cost (MWhr (iii) the unit requires work at the
loss). next unit boiler outage.
7. All SPD will be analyzed by assigned personnel from the T-CAT. Some key failures may • Anticipate and be able to
require metallurgical analysis. respond quickly to any turbine
incidents.
8. The failure mechanism and extent of damage will be determined for all SPD.
9. All SPD repairs will be inspected (NDE) and/or tested before a repair is considered complete. • To establish the optimal interval
between turbine outages (see dis-
10. All SPD repairs will include quality assurance provisions for blader and NDE inspector certifi-
cussion below) and to review
cation, welding materials, and selection of replacement materials.
each step in the planned outage
11. All SPD reports will be centrally processed. to minimize the length of outage
12. All modes of turbine operations including startup, load change, planned or immediate removal required.
from service, and layup will be controlled by written, established, action-oriented procedures • To anticipate and be able to
including those dealing with cycle chemistry quality, and turbine cyclic-life temperature curves. respond to any damage found
13. Steam path audits will be conducted at the start of each major outage. during planned turbine outages.
14. Adequate instrumentation for monitoring the quality of steam chemistry will be available for This may include such anticipa-
all turbines (see Table 7-6a). Key cation conductivity measurements will be alarmed in the tory steps as (i) building pre-pre-
control room. pared finite element models, (ii)
accumulation of databases of
materials properties, (iii) compari-
12.3 The Turbine Condition goals established in the philosophy son of prior inspection records so
Assessment Team (T-CAT): statement. The T-CAT will have mul- changes in component condition
Multidisciplinary Approach and tiple functions: can be easily made, (iv) assum-
Personnel Training ing qualified repair procedures
• Between outages the T-CAT are in hand, or (v) advanced
A turbine condition assessment should: analysis to determine which run-
team (T-CAT) consisting of represen-
• Monitor turbine performance. repair-replace choice will be used
tatives of all pertinent functional
This may include all existing depending on the damage found
groups (maintenance, engineering,
instrumentation and monitoring once the turbine is opened.
operations, chemistry, and manage-
ment) should be set up. It is impor- systems, the installation of new • The T-CAT should review spares
tant that all functional groups are systems such as through policy and establish the optimum
represented as this increases the access ports, periodic checks inventory.
likelihood that each will then under- of efficiency, etc.
The Actions portion of each indi-
stand the implications of their • Determine whether damage vidual mechanism (see Volume 2)
actions on the performance of the indicators are appearing (see provides a specific list of the
turbine and in meeting the overall Section 1.3 of each Chapter of
Volume 2)

12-4 Formalized Damage Programs

 steps required from the T-CAT in
anticipating or dealing with steam
path damage, or with a unit pre-
cursor that could lead to such
damage.
• The T-CAT will also have responsi-
bility for determining what ramifi-
cations to other parts of the unit
may be implied by an incident of
damage. this information is pro-
vided in Action 7 of each chapter
in Volume 2.
12.4 Comprehensive Reporting
and Trending
Standardized report forms, such as
shown in Figure 12-2 for blading
along with a means to store, evalu-
ate and disseminate information
about turbine condition/damage are
required. This will help in diagnos-
ing damage outbreaks, judging the
efficacy of imposed solutions, and
predicting future problems. This
aspect of the formalized program is
particularly key in helping to evalu-
ate the risk associated with extend-
ing outage intervals. As discussed
in detail below, a first order analysis
to judge the likelihood of a future
problem is typically based on an
evaluation of unit or industry-wide
history. Without a formal means of
accruing the necessary information
such an analysis will have to rely on
generic data.
Comprehensive data storage and
retrieval systems, such as the EPRI
sponsored Rotating Machinery
Workstation (RMW)2, are currently
being developed. The schematic in
Figure 12-3 illustrates the sources
and uses of such information.
12.5 Economic Evaluations
An economic assessment of techni-
cally feasible options is central to
the correction of turbine damage.
Each organization has, or will
develop, a preferred means of per-
forming such analyses when faced
with a run-repair-replace decision.
Table 12-3
Example Turbine Program Goals
• The turbine shall have a minimum availability target of X% (see note 1).
• The turbine shall have an efficiency target of X% (see note 1).
• The turbine should have no blade or disc failures.
• Optimized steam chemistry should be ensured during all periods.
• The amount of deposition in the turbine should be minimized.
• Proper protection shall be provided for the turbine during unit shutdown and layup.
• There should be a minimum of 10 years between scheduled major overhauls (see note 1).
• The length of scheduled outages shall be decreased by 1-2 weeks (see note 1).
• An economic analysis will be conducted as a part of all major repair, refurbishment or
replacement decisions. The value of improvements and refurbishment must be combined with
the rate and cost of damage accumulation as part of this analysis.
• A formal, management-supported program (T-CAT) shall be implemented.
Note 1: Machine-specific and unit-specific performance criteria should be set by each organization.
Some basic concepts about such estimates, or, if the work is to be
analyses are presented here. done in-house, by comparison
with prior projects of a similar
It is interesting that there is a long
nature.
history of economic accountability
related to thermodynamics and • Cost of outage, including replace-
power production, in fact it was nec- ment power costs.
essary during the earliest evalua- • Cost of ongoing maintenance for
tions of thermodynamics to have an a particular option. This may be
“effective accountancy for the forms obtained from OEM or consultant
of energy, so that all could be recommendations, or expectation
equated with the universal standard from in-house experience.
–money”.3
• Requirement for and cost of peri-
The economic analysis will typically odic inspection or monitoring of
consist of some form of cost-benefit the component.
analysis or, preferably, a discounted
cash flow method such as net pre- Benefits to be considered include:
sent value (to take account of the • Changes in outage schedule.
timing of benefit streams). A tricky Run (with existing damage) and
part of either type of analysis is monitoring options may require a
determining the expected benefits of more frequent scheduled outage
a particular run-repair-replacement, than if the component is
and in the case of discounted cash replaced. Such changes should
flow methods, in determining the be factored into the benefit analy-
timing of such benefits. In other sis.
words, it typically requires consider-
• Increases in unit output or
ation of such questions as:
improvements in efficiency, if rele-
• What is the expected period of vant.
performance for a given repair or
• Improvements in operating flexi-
replacement.?
bility and/or unit reliability.
Costs to be considered include:
• Benefits of decreased emissions
• Capital cost of repair or replace- levels, if relevant.
ment. This can typically be cal-
culated from OEM or consultant
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 12-5
 Figure 12-2. A sample turbine steam path damage report form (First page).

12-6 Formalized Damage Programs

Figure 12-2. A sample turbine steam path damage report form (Second page).

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 12-7

 Figure 12-2. A sample turbine steam path damage report form (Third page).

12-8 Formalized Damage Programs


Design and
historical data
Periodic documentation
Data access/integration
LAN/WAN
Maintenance
planning & scheduling
Figure 12-3. Considerable information about the turbine and its condition is routinely
gathered. A formal program, and proper tools, to store and use that information is
critical to optimized turbine maintenance and operation. Source: F. Wong, S.
McQueen, and T. McCloskey2
12.6 Extending the Interval
Between Turbine-Generator
Outages
Worldwide there are strong eco-
nomic pressures to move toward
longer intervals between major
overhauls. For example in North
America, major turbine inspection
Cost Per Year
Turbine overhaul data
Periodic
RMW
testing data
Turbine outage forms
Pictures/images mgmnt.
Reporting Trending and analysis
Central maintenance
facilities
Engineering
outages traditionally have been
scheduled every five years with a
duration of approximately six to
eight weeks. Current achievable
targets for outage intervals are now
10-12 years with a decrease in
duration by 1-2 weeks.
Total cost
Equipment
failure cost
Obviously, with longer periods
between major inspections, there is
an increased risk of equipment fail-
ure. Outage extension needs to be
executed with no compromise to
reliability of the turbine-generator.
At the most basic level, what is
required to make the extended out-
age decision is an understanding of
issues such as:
• Identification of components
which will limit turbine-generator
safe operating life, e.g., what
components are at risk by extend-
ing the period between outages.
• Periodic check and accurate
assessment of current machinery
condition/risk and developing
conditions. In many cases, this
can be performed using a fiber-
scope and videoprobe to examine
the condition of the control, reheat
and exhaust stage blading.4
• Application of methods for track-
ing and monitoring the critical
components; ideally methods
should be utilized that can pro-
vide on-line, real-time reports on
accumulated damage or perfor-
mance degradation.
• Risk and decision analysis based
on probability of failure for com-
ponents being monitoring. Such
assessments should be able to
assess the risks of deferring
inspections and take into account
a specific machine type and
operating and maintenance his-
tory. The probability and conse-
quences of outage extension

decisions should be calculated.

• Assessment of O&M practices
and the effects on machinery
condition/ risk.
A proper, quantitative, probabilistic
engineering analysis can provide
the foundation on which the risk of
outage extension issue can be
Inspection cost judged, particularly when combin-
ed with an economic or financial
Inspection Interval
analysis of the implications of the
outage extension decision. A
schematic showing the overall
Figure 12-4. Optimized inspection interval for steam turbine discs - an example.
Source: American Society of Mechanical Engineers5 problem is shown in Figure 12-4.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 12-9

Lengthening the interval between
inspections increases the equipment
failure cost, but decreases the
inspection cost. The objective is to
minimize the total cost.
A number of methods have been
proposed that can be used to obtain
estimates of the probability of
failure.5-8 Any such methodology
should rank components for inspec-
tion, focus inspections according to
risk, and allocate inspection
resources cost effectively. A bal-
ance between economics and safety
constraints is inherent in such risk
assessment.
Three level approaches will include
such steps as 6,7:
• Level 1 – Industry risk data can
be combined with unit-specific
experience to establish a proba-
bility of failure, and from that to
establish a net present value
versus time for the unit. Such a
Level 1 will be formulated to
provide guidance about overhaul
interval optimization even if no
monitoring or engineering analy-
sis has been done on a specific
component. It therefore relies on
statistical analysis of failure histo-
ries. A generic database, such
as the North American Electric
Reliability Council Generation
Availability Data System (NERC
GADS) database, can provide
knowledge of the high risk com-
ponents for a particular unit type,
along with history-based probabil-
ity curves for the highest risk
components. Knowledge of unit-
specific conditions, as derived
from interviews with plant person-
nel, can also be entered into the
calculation of failure probabilities.
The calculation of net present
value will be constrained by
maintenance budget and forced
outage rate limit. Figure 12-5
indicates schematically the
typical results from this level of
analysis. Using such an
approach, a net present value
12-10 Formalized Damage Programs
Consequential
cost of
forced outage
Without overhaul
Run without
overhaul Benefit of deferring an outage Net present
versus Cost of taking action value
Run with
overhaul
Consequential
cost of
forced outage
Data With overhaul
Cost of
overhaul
Figure 12-5. Calculating the optimal outage interval.
Source: Source: R.P. Dewey, M.J. Roemer, M.A. Pollard, and T.H. McCloskey9
curve is calculated by analysis; bility of failure or risk limit. The sys-
however choice of outage interval tem will track (i) cumulative damage
is further constrained by limits on or performance degradation, (ii)
the probability of failure. NPV incremental and cumulative
• Level 2 – Specific component cost of degradation by turbine sec-
performance and integrity can be tion, and (iii) automate the perfor-
evaluated using a rules-based mance of risk/decision analysis with
approach to assess key parame- probabilities of failure and their
ters such as stresses. At this associated costs.
level, results from tools such as
finite element models, coupled 12.7 Shortening Outage Length
with periodic monitoring to refine Large economic savings are also
the estimate of probability of fail- inherent in minimizing the length of
ure will be utilized. scheduled outages. Potential time
• Level 3 – Applies on-line sensor savings that are being actively pur-
inputs to assess the conse- sued include:
quences of changes in operating Preparation
conditions and continuously
update the probability of failure. • Listing qualified sources.
Level 3 would apply measured • “Pre-modeling” of blade disc
unit data to update component stages for damage types and
life analyses from a Level 2 analy- locations that are expected to
sis . It will track damage accu- require analysis or decision about
mulated during operating periods. repair choice. Such activities typi-
An overhaul outage inspection inter- cally include a database of
val needs to be optimized by net stresses.
present value (NPV) and constrained • Establishing databases of mater-
by: (i) maintenance budget limit, (ii) ial properties, chemistry effects
forced outage rate limit, and (iii) and surface treatments for rapid
safety limit, expressed as a proba- run-repair decisions.
• Support repair specifications for Table 12-4
quality assurance of blades, Typical Engineering Time for Major Tasks of a Maintenance Outage
discs, partitions, seals, bearings,
Potential for improvement, $
spill strips and packing glands.
Activities Downtime, range (days) (see note 1)
• Having adequate spares avail-
able. Pre-bidding and
Shutdown and Startup pre-outage planning 2.0 - 14.0 600,000

• Procedures, practices and tech- Shutdown 0.25 - 0.50 12,500

niques are being compiled that
can reduce the margin of conser- Disassembly and
vatism in generic loading and recording of clearances 2.0 - 4.0 100,000
starting curves.
Disassembly Cleaning and NDE 1.0 - 3.0 100,000
• Advanced bolting and coupling
Condition assessment 5.0 - 10 250,000
techniques.
• Cleaning and NDE of key Oil flushing 2.0 - 14.0 600,000
components.
• Automating the recording of Assembly, internal/unit
clearances during tear down. realignment and
re-balancing 6.0 - 21.0 750,000
Outage activities
• Making alignment changes to Controls re-set and
rotors and couplings with the unit re-start 0.75 - 1.5 37,500
minimum number of moves.
Total 19 - 68 2,450,00
• Potential for modifications to (49 days)
allow bearings to be isolated and
drained on an individual basis, Note 1: Potential for improvement indicates difference between minimum and maximum time requirement,
as well as other potential time figured at an average of $50,000/day for labor and replacement power costs (in 1999). It is evident that some
savings in the oil flushing activities have rather large downtime ranges. This is a reflection of such factors as the differences between large
process. and small units, and the resources available at each organization to complete the activities. Each organization
can evaluate the potential for improvement of their own outages and highlight those specific activities for which
Assembly the greater potential in cost savings will result.
• Optimization of assembly proce-
dures such as internal and unit
realignment and re-balancing.
Table 12-4 presents one utility’s esti-
mate of the breakdown of engineer-
ing time required for the major tasks
of a typical maintenance outage. As
indicated in the table, there is
opportunity for significant cost sav-
ings if these activities can be
streamlined.

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 12-11

References
1. Personal communication from C. Moore (Ontario
Hydro) to B. Dooley, November 29, 1998.
2. Wong, F., S. McQueen, and T. McCloskey, “RMW for
Centralized Turbine Outage Management”, in Fifth EPRI
Steam Turbine/Generator Workshop, held in Lake Buena
Vista, FL, July 29-August 1, 1997, EPRI, Charlotte, N.C.
3. Bernal, J.D., Science and Industry in the Nineteenth
Century, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1970.
4. Personal communication from R. Ortolano (Turbine
RESCUE) to T. McCloskey, November, 1998.
5. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Risk-
Based Inspection - Development of Guidelines. Volume
1: General Document, CRTD-20-1, 1991; Volume 2, Part
1: Light Water Reactor (LWR) Nuclear Power
Components, CRTD-20-2, 1992; Volume 3: Fossil Fuel-
Fired Electric Power Generating Station Applications,
CRTD- 20-3, 1994, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York, NY.
12-12 Formalized Damage Programs
6. Main Turbine Performance Upgrade Task Group, Main
Turbine Performance Upgrade Guideline, Final Report
TR-106230, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, January, 1997.
7. Roemer, M.J., R.P. Dewey, B. Atkinson, D.A. Mauney,
and T.H. McCloskey, “Turbine-Generator Maintenance
Outage Optimization: Probability/Risk Assessment of Net
Present Value”, in L. Kielsas and A. Clary, eds.,
Proceedings of the International Joint Power Generation
Conference: Volume 2: Power, Papers from the 1997
International Joint Power Generation Conference held in
Denver, CO, November 2-5, 1997, PWR-Vol. 32,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
1997.
8. Latcovich, J.A., Jr., “Steam Turbine Generator
Inspection Outages - An Insurer’s Perspective and
Approach”, in Fifth EPRI Steam Turbine/Generator
Workshop, held in Lake Buena Vista, FL, July 29-August
1, 1997, EPRI, Charlotte, N.C.
9. Dewey, R.P., M.J. Roemer, M.A. Pollard, and T.H.
McCloskey, "Optimization of Outage Interval for a Large
Steam Turbine Unit", presented at the 1998 International
Joint Power Conference, Baltimore, MD., 1998
Chapter 13 • Volume 1
Turbine Repairs and
Repair Methods
13.1 Introduction
Nearly all of the mechanisms
described in Volume 2 can cause
damage to the steam path sufficient
to require repair. This chapter
reviews blade replacements
(Section 13.2), repair procedures
for blades (Sections 13.3 - 13.9),
and repairs of discs (Section 13.10
and 13.11). The information covers
material of importance for those
owners performing their own
repairs, and should provide an
overview to aid those working with
outside vendors and OEMs to better
understand the available options
and procedures.
Some owners, particularly those
with multiple units of the same
design maintain an inventory of
spare parts to be substituted for
damaged stages. Repairs can then
be performed outside the outage
period. The decision to carry spare
parts will be economic, taking into
account such factors as the poten-
tial for damage, expected outage
period, and the capital and carrying
costs of the inventory. Another
advantage of an aggressive spares
policy is that better repairs to the
damaged component are possible,
either by the operator, or by sending
the part to the manufacturer or to a
third party for repair.
13.2 Blade Replacement
For extensive blading damage, it
may be economically advantageous
to replace blades.1 Considerations
will include (i) careful attention to
blade geometry, (ii) choice of mate-
rials and heat treatment, (iii) surface
finish requirements, (iv) surface pro-
cessing such as thermal hardening,
shot peening or coatings, and (v)
testing and NDE evaluation of the
replacement blades. Recom-
mended surface finish is 1.6 µm (63
µinches) for airfoils and 0.8 µm (32
µinches) for fillets, roots and blade
attachment areas.
Care is required even in the direct
replacement of blades with the
same material. The current row
must be removed and critical disc
or wheel surfaces restored. The
goal is to have each disc and blade
joint make contact. It is prudent to
make careful independent measure-
ments of the fit up between new
blades and the mating attachment.1
Removal of blades and grit blasting
of disc and root surfaces to remove
oxide scale will increase clearances
in the attachment.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 13-1
A “rocking” test (qualitative) or lifting
test (quantitative) can be used to
determine fit up for replacement
blades. The lifting test uses a feeler
gauge to measure the gap between
the blade roots and disc attachment.
The range of lifting which can be
tolerated depends on the attach-
ment design, localized stresses and
ductility of the material. For new
blades, the gap should be limited
to 0.05 mm (0.002 in) or less.
Rocking and lifting do not work as
well for multiple contact roots as for
single contact roots as a single
“good” contact point will limit the
maximum travel.
A list of typical steps in the replace-
ment of first stage blades is shown
in Table 13-1. Table 13-2 provides a
list of some of the problems that can
occur with improper assembly.
13.3 Information Common to All
Blade Repairs
13.3.1 Importance of maintaining
dimensions and tolerances. It is
critical that dimensions and toler-
ances be maintained as part of the
repair process for all turbine compo-
nents. For blading this includes
blade airfoils, blade attachments,
coverband areas, tiewires.
Dimensions and tolerances are
critical to3:
• Maintain acceptable vibration
characteristics.
• Maintain acceptable static
and alternating stresses during
operation.
• Maintain the appropriate steam
passages.
• Allow for assembly and removal
of blading, to the extent possible,
in the minimum of time without
causing damage to blades, rotor
attachment areas or other
components.
Methods for gathering and storing
dimensional information have
13-2 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods
changed dramatically in the last 10 Table 13-1
to 20 years; automated, computer Typical Procedure for Replacement of
based measurement systems are First Stage Blades
now commonly employed.3 Without
detailed specification and OEM Remove cover
design drawings, however, absolute • Slit covers and remove from blade tips.
dimensional requirements for turbine
blading are difficult to define.1 Toler- Remove notch
ances and fits vary from manufac- • Remove caulked material around pins
turer to manufacturer. Measurement and keys by grinding.
locations and methods have been • Remove pins and keys.
characterized.1,3
• Drive out notch blade.
13.3.2 Weld filler materials. Choice • Remove blade adjacent to notch and
of filler material is critical to execut- save to use as reference for fitting
ing a proper weld repair. Information replacement blades.
about the composition and proper-
ties of the most common base mate- Remove blades from row
rials is provided in Chapter 4.
• Cut relief groove in blade leg above
• Filler materials for stainless steel tang to relieve contact pressure.
blades (austenitic, martensitic and • lide or drive buckets singly to notch
precipitation hardened). Three opening and remove.
stainless steel filler materials
Types 309, 410 and 410NiMo Prepare disc for reblading
have excellent weldability and
• Clean all surfaces. Mask hook
acceptable corrosion resistance.3 contact surfaces.
Type 410 is generally preferred.
The wear resistance of these filler • Dress top of disc tang. Remove
minimal material.
materials is only about as good
as the original blade material and,
as a result, will require re-repair if Initial fit of blades
the underlying damage process is
not eliminated. Inconel 82 has Fit blades to disc
been commonly used as well
although it has generally shown Fit notch blade
faster wear rates. Inconel 625
provides similar properties, and Assemble notch
as it is more expensive, has not
been as widely used. Fit blade covers
Stellite 6 has been used as a filler Assemble cover to blades
metal for repairs, as well as an insert
for erosion resistance. The alloy Adapted from: M.F. O’Connor2
offers excellent wear resistance and
erosion resistance, but because of
low ductility has weldability prob-
lems, and may crack as a result of
postweld heat treating.3
• Filler materials for weld repairs of
titanium blades. Filler metals
equal to or one grade below the
base titanium alloy are used for
repairs.3
Table 13-2
Problems Related to Improper Assembly of Replacement Blades
Interference between integral covers
• Failure of integral cover due to fretting and fatigue.
• Improper fit of outer cover and tenon; failure of tenon or
outer cover.
• Improper seating of dovetail surfaces, fretting in dovetail and fatigue.
Excessive gap between integral covers
• Excess pressure load on outer cover and over-stressed condition.
Tenon incompletely peened
• Outer cover loose, excessive fretting and failure of outer cover
and tenons.
Excessive clearance for initial tenon and cover fit
• Additional peening of tenon required to completely fill cover tenon
hole; leads to cracking of tenon.
Tight clearance for initial tenon and cover fit
• Local overstress in cover adjacent to tenon, loss of fatigue strength
Excessive tenon stick-through
• Additional peening of tenon required to form proper connection;
leads to cracking of tenon.
Insufficient tenon stick-through
• Incompletely filled tenon hole and poorly formed tenon head, weak
tenon-cover connection.
Incorrect peening tool or pressure for tool
• Loss of control of tenon cold forming process, tenon cracking at
assembly. These cannot be found by inspection and lead to loss
of tenon and covers in service.
Improper tang radial fit
• Excessive lifting of blade during operation. Improper seating of
dovetail, loss of row tightness, dovetail fatigue.
Adapted from: M.F. O’Connor2
Improper tang axial fit
• Improper seating of dovetail contact surfaces and loss of strength.
• Misalignment leading to improper cover-tenon fits.
Improper contact between blades during fitting
• Permits excessive movement during operation; dovetail fretting
damage and fatigue cracks.
Improper location of large taper blades
• Improper fit between covers and tenons, cover cracking
Row not assembled with proper sequence
• Blade-to-blade line fits not preserved, leading to dovetail
fretting damage and fatigue cracks.
Notch opening in blade row misaligned with disc
• Excessive loading of adjacent dovetail hooks leading to
creep damage; loss of overspeed capability.
Notch assembled with insufficient tightness
• Row is loose during operation, leading to dovetail fretting,
loss of strength and fatigue damage.
Notch keys improperly fit
• Key can come loose during service and back out.
• Notch blade can lift, leading to a loosening of the assembly,
fretting and fatigue damage.
• Excessive local strain in key region leading to local cracking.
Dovetail hook-to-hook tolerance too loose
• Overloading of hooks, creep damage, and loss of fatigue strength.
Outer cover pre-bent incorrectly
• Excessive force required to seat cover on blade top platform,
excessive load on tenon, loss of fatigue strength in cover and tenon.
Improper preparation of disc for replacement row
• Poor fits between blade and disc dovetails, leading to local
overloading, loss of fatigue and creep strength.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 13-3
13.4 Erosion Shield Repair
Materials and justification for erosion (a) (b)
shields to mitigate liquid droplet ero-
sion are discussed in Chapter 27.
Shield designs are shown in Figure
13-1. At least five types of erosion
shield repairs (plus replacement)
have been used in recent years by
utilities, OEMs and repair vendors.3,4
A flat plate brazed to the suction face. The “J” shield, formed to cover
Welding provides a better attach- Effort may or may not be made to form the entire inlet nose.
ment than brazing, but it has been an aerodynamic inlet.
traditionally recommended that the
blade be removed and factory
welded so that the proper heat treat- (c) (d)
ment can be performed. Field tech-
niques that allow for installation of
erosion shields in-situ by welding
have, however, been successfully
demonstrated5, particularly if erosion
is not too severe and if cracks do A recessed shield, designed A forged inlay nose, arranged
to extend around the inlet to provide a greater mass of
not penetrate to the blade/shield
nose, and fit into a machined protective material at the
interface.6 In other cases, removal recess to preserve the nose points which are eroded.
of the blade for factory welding is aerodynamic form.
recommended.
Brazing is easier to apply in-situ
than is welding, however it results in (e) (f)
a generally weaker bond.

13.4.1 Application of erosion

resistant full inlet nose inserts. A
highly successful option to brazing
or welding thin erosion shields onto
the blade is the removal of a portion
of the damaged blade and replace-
ment with a resistant material.
Thousands of blades are in service
that utilize such a solid nose insert of
Stellite™ 6B, welded with Inconel™
82 filler material.5,7,8 A schematic of
the concept is shown in Figure 13-1f.
This shielding option is typically
applied in the shop because of the
potential for blade distortion and
alteration of blade balance.3
In any weld repair, removal of
cracked material by grinding and
inspection to ensure that all cracked
material has been removed are
needed. Also proper weld proce-
dures must be used to prevent
cracking at the heat affected zone of
the shield/blade interface. Welding
of erosion shields has been per-
A formed nose covering both the
pressure and suction faces. The
shield would be forged material
welded to the vane.
Figure 13-1. Various forms of erosion shields found on last stage blades.
Source: W.P. Sanders6
formed with either oxyacetylene
welding or gas tungsten arc welding
using the appropriate filler metals. A
flowchart of the typical procedure is
shown in Figure 13-2.
13.4.2 Application of “J-” or “hook-
type” erosion shields by welding.
Two full penetration welds are laid
down along the length of the inter-
face between the blade and erosion
shield. A “back step” welding tech-
nique is recommended in which
A full inlet nose produced from the
protective shield material. This type
of improvement is produced by
welding. Nose is at least as deep
as the original shield.
alternating lengths of weld are laid
down on the upper then lower inter-
faces, repeating the process until
the weld is complete.3 Some users
have found that although welding
Stellite™ inserts offers better protec-
tion than brazing, that the process
can lead to microcracking that prop-
agates into the blade.4 A full inlet
nose insert, discussed above was
found to be more permanent.

13-4 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods

 Take reference measurements
so that blade can be returned to
correct position
Remove shield. Minimize blade
overheating, distortion or damage.
Form insert.
Machine blade to accept insert.
Prepare fixturing to hold
shield close to blade during
welding process.
Preheat.
Perform full penetration weld.
Ensure blades have original
contour. Cold twist if needed to
correct airfoil alignment.
Inspect for bond integrity,
absence of cracking.
Post-weld heat treatment of blades.
Final dimensional check. Final
grinding and polishing to produce
original blade contour, proper
aerodynamic form, and proper
surface finish.
Figure 13-2. Flowchart of key steps in
weld repair of erosion shields.
Adapted from: D.W. Gandy, S.J. Findlan,
J.T. Stover, M. Breslin, S. Allgood, and
E.V. Clark3
Erosion shield
Rod solder
Shield groove
Blade
Figure 13-3 Flat erosion shield repair showing placement of erosion shield material
and braze material prior to repair. Adapted from: D.W. Gandy, S.J. Findlan, J.T.
Stover, M. Breslin, S. Allgood, and E.V. Clark3
13.4.3 Flame hardening or induction
hardening of existing blades.
Several options exist to provide local
hardening (of several common blade
materials and shielding) including:
flame hardening and laser hardening
of the blade material, and weld-
deposited hardfacing. Flame hard-
ening has been commonly used by
several manufacturers and consider-
able field experience with its use
exists.6 Repair of damage in hard-
ened blades requires some concern
to ensure blade integrity, ensure
uniformity of hardening around the
repair, and to prevent the introduc-
tion of high levels of residual
stresses.6 It is important that low
temperature tempering is used after
the hardening to avoid stress coro-
sion cracking.16 Hardening itself
does not replace material, so that
depending upon the extent of dam-
age, replacement of the blade may
be required. Laser hardening has
been used by some manufacturers,
for example to produce laser nitrided
surfaces on Ti-6Al-4V.9 The efficacy
of the results is material dependent.
Straight
edge
4.8 - 9.5 mm
(3/16-3/8 in.)
Ribbon
solder
Tab
13.4.4 Brazed erosion shields.
Cracks in the brazed interface of
shielding should be repaired by
rebrazing; excessive erosion
requires replacement or full blade
nose replacement. Rebrazing of
erosion shields has been done
in-situ with the rotor in place, on
the turbine deck with blades still
attached to the removed rotor, and
with blades removed from the rotor.3
In-situ brazing is not recommended
by some manufacturers who cite the
risk of blade tip distortion. Brazing
can be used with (i) a flat plate
shield fit on the blade surface (such
as shown in Figure 13-1a), (ii) a flat
plat shield recessed into a shield
groove in the blade surface (shown
in Figure 13-3) so that the aerody-
namic shape of the blade can be
maintained, or (iii) a “J-” or “hook-
type” shield (Figures 13-1 b and c).
Care must be taken for brazed-on
erosion shields to prevent the shield
from detaching during operation
which can cause significant damage
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 13-5
to the condenser. The softer braze
material has been subject to heavy
damage and undercutting.6
Detailed procedures for replacing
and repairing erosion shields by
brazing have been developed.3
13.4.5 Change leading blade.
Where liquid droplet erosion is sig-
nificantly greater on the leading
blades of blade groups, the lashing
lug can be cut on the leading blade
and the lugs welded to the trailing
blade of the next group.4 This
rotates which blade is the leading
blade and, although not eliminating
the erosion problem, if performed at
every outage or every other outage
can extend the life of the blade
group. Whether this option is viable
is design specific.
13.5 Tenon and Coverband
(Shroud) Repair
Light damage to tenons and cover-
bands can be repaired in-situ with-
out removing blades or coverbands
and with the rotor in place; moderate
to heavy damage requires removal
of blades and coverbands.3
Welding has been developed as a
means to rebuild cracked or eroded
tenons and coverbands, and serves
as an alternative to replacement.10
It is important to note that any
material (braze material, weld filler,
etc.) weight added by a repair or
modification may change the natural
frequencies of these long, slender
assemblies.3
Undershroud welding should be
avoided. Loose shrouds will crack
as a result of vibration and should be
re-peened. Table 13-3 summarizes
some of the key information about
13-6 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods
key repair/restoration procedures for
tenon and coverband repair.
A procedure for coverband (shroud)
removal and rebuilding of tenons is
outlined in Figure 13-4.
13.6 Lashing Lugs and
Tiewire Repair
Lashing lugs and tiewires are used
to tie together the airfoils of groups
of blades. Tiewires have been used
for more than fifty years and until the
late 1960s were of brazed construc-
tion.3 Tiewires were introduced to
move the natural frequency of the
blades well away from resonance
and were required because of the
inability, at the time, to accurately
calculate natural frequencies. With
modern analysis tools, it is possible
to develop designs in which the
tiewires can be eliminated and this
should be considered for conditions
where there are significant problems
in the tiewire area of the blade.
13.6.1 Repair of lashing lugs.
Repairs of lashing lugs are com-
monly performed in-situ without
blade row removal. If cracks are
shallow (on the order of 1.5 - 2.25
mm (0.060-0.90 in.)), they can be
ground out, polished and blended
into the surface. For deeper cracks,
in the lug fillet weld or at the weld
fusion line of the lug weld, the flaw
or defect should be removed by
grinding. The repair is then accom-
plished by preheating, repair weld-
ing, postweld heat treatment, and
shotpeening. For deep cracks that
cannot be ground out, such as those
which completely penetrate the lug,
the lug is cut through and repaired
or, alternatively, removed completely
and replaced.
Inspection of repairs for cracking
using eddy current, wet florescent
magnetic particle, wet florescent
dye penetrant, or red dye penetrant
(in decreasing order of desirability)
should follow any repair.
13.6.2 Tiewire repair.
Welding with a full penetration weld,
split sleeve repairs, and for hollow
tiewires, plug insertion are the pre-
ferred tiewire repair options.
• Full penetration weld repairs.
Breaks can be repaired using a
full penetration weld. Type 410
stainless steel filler material is
deposited into a half round cop-
per chill. Preheat by a GTAW
process and postweld heat treat-
ment (PWHT) are required. Care
is required so that the repaired
tiewire is not overheated during
the PWHT cycle.
• Split sleeve repair. A stainless
steel split sleeve can be soldered
over a tiewire break.
• Plug insertion. Weld repairs are
typically not practical for hollow
tiewires. Instead, a plug can be
inserted into hollow tiewires at the
end of the wire and driven along
until it spans the break. The plug
is then silver brazed in place.
The plug should be a small stub
of Type 410 stainless steel at
least 12.5 mm (0.5 in) long and
should fit snugly in the hollow
center.
Various brazing options are also
available.3
Table 13-3
Tenon Repair Procedures
Use
• To rebuild damage to rivet.
• To minimize erosion on rivet.
• To replace partial (complete group)
coverband sections.
• Where a shroud has cracked or
re-grouping of blades is desired.
• To rebuild countersunk tenon rivets.
• Used instead of welding to increase
tenon length in order to install new
coverbands.
• To reduce centrifugal loads.
• Used where coverband edges or ends
have lifted or curled.
• On lightweight coverbands where lost
capacity from damage can be restored
by a new fillet weld.
• To provide margin on designs with
large coverbands and small rivets.
• Usually used for securing the tenons
to the underside of the coverband or
adding erosion dams.
Adapted from: D.W. Gandy, S.J. Findlan, J.T. Stover, M. Breslin, S. Allgood, and E.V. Clark3
Procedure
Welding of tenon upsets (rivets)
Addition of welded erosion dams to
coverbands.
Butt welding of coverbands
Countersunk or “foxholed” tenons
Machining of blade tips to increase
tenon length
Removing material from coverbands
(lightening)
Welded tee-type fillets on the underside
of coverbands.
Braze repairs.
Notes and Cautions
• Simplest form of repair.
• Clean and degrease area.
• Preheat.
• Weld using GTAW process.
• Inspect, PWHT and re-inspect.
• Recommended procedure although requires most work and
is costly in comparison to alternatives.
• Deposit narrow weld bead on top surface of coverband along
the leading side of each peened head.
• Grind dam to contour after welding to help deflect erodant.
• Fabricate new coverband.
• Butt weld to remaining sections.
• Re-grouping will change natural frequencies and thus will
require analysis.
• Remove covers.
• Grind tenon tips and sides to fit template.
• Prepare peening platform by machining
around tenon hole on the outboard side of the coverband.
• Install coverband and peen.
• Place turbine rotor, with blades and coverbands assembled,
in a lathe.
• Remove shrouding.
• Machine or grind blade airfoil tip surface
axially ahead and behind the rivets to establish a new
base surface.
• Dimensional limits on amount of cut down is limited by
requirements on spacing between stationary and rotating
blades.
• Machine or cut overhanging edges or ends.
• OEMs use grooves, multi-angle cuts, and other shaping to
accomplish same end.
• Care must be taken as this modification will change blade
frequency and, thinning can reduce span buckling strength
of the coverband and lead to buckling or bulging.
• Weld attach tenon to underside of blade using GTAW process.
• Rule-of-thumb is to limit fillet stress to 137 MPa (20 ksi).
• PWHT.
• Procedures similar to equivalent welding processes described
above (except for appropriate temperatures).
• Brazing not typically recommended because of expense
associated with proper cleaning needed during preparation
for brazing, lower strength and fatigue resistance of the
resulting joint.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 13-7
 efficiency (than blending), but
incremental erosion may occur at a
Take reference measurements for each coverband at each steam seal slower rate depending upon which
location. Perform dimensional checks of runout on the rotor.
stage in the erosion process is
in effect.
Remove coverband (shroud) by grinding peened head of each tenon. Use Cracked blades may require
old coverband as a template for producing the new coverband. replacement. For shrouded blades,
this is accomplished by cutting the
shroud on each side, removing the
Prepare tenon. blade, installing a new blade and
• Remove all but 1.27 mm (0.050 in.) of radial height of tenon above
the tip of the blade. butt welding the shroud.
• Grit blast, polish or wire brush area.
• Remove any crack-like indications. A general procedure for repair of
• Prepare mold for tenon weld buildup. cracking in an airfoil at the tiewire
hole is shown in Figure 13-5 for
either an in-situ or shop repair. If the
Weld rebuild of tenon. blades can be removed from the
• Clamp chill blocks and mold. disc, the tiewire should be removed,
• Preheat entire blade. the indication removed by grinding
• Restore height of tenon by filling mold using appropriate diameter and a weld repair performed. If the
GTAW filler metal.
• Cover completed tenons and blades with insulation and allow to cool. blades cannot be removed, the
crack should be removed and a
smooth weld cavity ground, then the
solder melted so that repair using
Postweld heat treatment.
the GTAW process can be per-
formed. It is very important that any
solder not be allowed to be drawn
Final machining and grinding to contour. into the repair weld puddle as this
will lead to subsequent cracking.

Tenon peening.
• Use a pneumatic riveting hammer. 13.8 Rotating Blade Root Repair
• Perform dimensional checks. At this time, repair to the roots of
• Start peening with center blade in a group (or two center blades if an rotating blades is not recommended
even number) and work outward.
• After peening grind tips of tenon to a flat surface flush with or slightly because of the large stresses
above (depending on the design) the coverband surface inherent in these attachment areas.
• Inspect for cracked tenons and proper steam seal clearance. However, one utility has developed
a method to recover pinned fork
roots where small cracks are found
in the pinholes, although the proce-
Figure 13-4. Flowchart of key steps in blade tenon restoration. Adapted from: D.W. dure has not yet been applied to
Gandy, S.J. Findlan, J.T. Stover, M. Breslin, S. Allgood, and E.V. Clark3 the field.11

13.7 Airfoil Repair
All detrimental flaws in airfoils
should be removed before they are
returned to service. These include
cracks or crack-like indications in
the airfoil or weld. Minor pitting can
be removed by light abrasion.
Erosion damage, if extensive will
need repair; if it is less extensive it
should be blended out or left. The
decision as to whether to blend or
leave less extensive damage is 13.9 Repairs to Stationary
economic based on the length of Blades/Nozzles
time to the next outage and the rela-
Welding and grinding of stationary
tive efficiencies expected. Blending
blades/nozzles can restore base
will result in improved aerodynamics
metal to the original contour,
and thus lower losses, however, in
although typically this does not
the early stages after blending, may
enhance the resistance to erosion.
result in slightly faster erosion rates
Following welding, grinding to re-
(for liquid droplet erosion, for exam-
establish nozzle contour and throat
ple, see Chapter 27 for an explana-
area is required. This is followed by
tion of the variation in erosion rate
a procedure such as glass bead
with time). Leaving lighter erosion
damage will result in poorer stage

13-8 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods

cleaning to improve the surface fin-
ish. AISI 410 and 422 have pro-
duced optimum repairs. Inconel 82 Take reference measurements so that blades and tiewires can be
and the 300 series stainless steels returned to correct position
have also been used for repairs, but
as they are somewhat softer, provide
Cut tiewire. Cut first on convex side of blade, then concave, as close
less wear resistance. as possible to the blade. A power saw will make a cleaner cut than bolt
Other procedures have been tried cutters and make removal easier.
with mixed success. For example,
nozzle foil trailing edges have been
replaced by welding Stellite™ 6 Remove solder. Use minimum possible heat. Melt from both
sides simultaneously if possible, otherwise, melt on trailing side first,
insert plates attached to the foil with then leading side.
Inconel™ 82, AISI 309 and AISI 410
filler metals.12 After four years, it
was found that the Inconel™ 82 had Remove indication. Use a carbide grinding burr and periodically check
eroded away and that many of the with magnetic particle or liquid penetrant to determine when the indication
inserts had been carried away. is removed. Limit depth of ground area to 2/3rds of the thickness of the
Welded-in Stellite™ partitions have blade and less than half the distance from the tiewire hole to exhaust
edge of the blade.
also been used for increased SPE
erosion resistance.
Prepare tiewire slot.
13.10 Information Common
to All Rotor Repairs
Weld repairs of rotors are a major Remove all traces of solder.
undertaking. Seven classes of rotor
repairs have been defined, as illus-
trated by Figure 13-6.
Position blade horizontally with convex side of blade facing upward.
13.10.1 Weld filler material selec-
tion. Weld metals are typically
chosen to match the composition Preheat and weld with GTAW using multiple passes. If the tiewire is in
place, do not weld it to the blade. If the tiewire has been removed, use a
of the rotor, with modifications to
cold copper weld plug.
improve properties or SCC resis-
tance. Candidate weld materials
include 2Cr-1Mo, 5Cr and 12Cr
Grind to restore original contour.
alloys, all which can produce weld-
ments with properties superior to the
base rotor material.14 12Cr has the
additional advantage of being more Post-weld heat treat and cooling.
resistant to SCC than the typical
rotor material.
13.10.2 Welding process and weld Post-repair inspection.
procedure development. Gas tung-
sten arc welding (GTAW) and sub-
merged arc welding (SAW) have Rebraze tiewires.
been most commonly used for
repairs, although gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) and shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW) have also been Figure 13-5. Flowchart of key steps in repair of airfoil at a tiewire hole. Adapted from:
D.W. Gandy, S.J. Findlan, J.T. Stover, M. Breslin, S. Allgood, and E.V. Clark3

Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 13-9

 Class 1: Weld build-up to restore a bearing journal Class 2: Weld repair of damaged blade shroud and
blade to repair erosion damage

Representative weld area Representative weld area

Class 3: Weld repair of wheel hooks on rotor disc. Three Class 4: Weld repair of rotor wheel by removing the
typical blade attachments are shown damaged metal and restoring with weld metal

Representative weld area Representative weld area

Class 5: Weld repair of a crack in the wheel-to- Class 6: Weld attachment of a new rotor component
shaft fillet on a rotor to an existing rotor

Representative weld area Representative weld area

New axial rotor component

Class 7: (left) Rotor replacement by welding of full ring forging. (right) Rotor wheel
replacement by welding of partial (half) ring sections (not recommended).

Representative weld area Representative weld area

New circumferential rotor component New circumferential rotor component

Figure 13-6. Seven classes of rotor repairs. Source: F.D. Mansfield and R. Munson13

13-10 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods

used. A weld procedure qualified
for the particular rotor material is
required. A mockup welding proce-
dure may or may not be required
depending on the class, material,
and extent of repair.3 Weld proce-
dure variables such as heat input,
geometry, weld preparation, filler
wire specification, and heat treat-
ment are typically proprietary.
13.10.3 Machining and other sur-
face treatments. All pre-existing
defects should be removed prior to
weld repairing. Ideally, the fusion
line and heat affected zone of the
repair should be located outside of
the region of highest stresses.
Details of the pre- and postweld
machining processes are typically
proprietary, however, the owner
should make sure that an adequate
qualification process, utilizing all key
aspects of the expected repair,
including machining, has been
completed by the vendor.
13.10.4 Heat treatment. Both pre-
and postweld heat treatments must
be carefully chosen depending on
the rotor material, weld metal, geom-
etry and desired final properties of
the repair. Postweld heat treatment
is usually specified to reduce hard-
ness and level of residual stresses.
These heat treatments must also be
qualified as part of the overall repair
qualification.
13.10.5 Inspection and testing.
Inspection is used (i) to confirm that
existing defects have been removed
by machining, (ii) to monitor the
repair process, and (iii) after the
repair to verify its soundness.
Figure 13-7. Flowchart of key steps in Class 3 rotor repair - weld restoration of
individual rotor steeples. Adapted from: D.W. Gandy, S.J. Findlan, R. Munson, W.F.
Newell, and J.T. Stover3
Verify and record dimensions Welding.
including blade attachment
configuration and blade-to-blade
dimensions.
Perform interim inspection.
Remove blading.
Rough machine to dimension.
Remove flaws, irregular surfaces,
or steeple(s) by grinding and/or
machining. Locate cavity in such Interim inspection.
a manner that the heat-affected
zone will be in a lower stress
region.
Apply additional heaters, insulate
and perform post-weld heat
Determine buildup dimensions
and extra material for machining
allowance. Interim inspection.
Remove samples and determine
composition and hardness. Perform Final machine.
additional testing such as fatigue or
creep testing, if necessary.
Final inspection.
Perform initial inspection.
Final dimensions.
Select welding procedure and
weld filler metal.
Reinstall blading.
Prepare for preheat, interpass
controls, welding, and post-weld
heat treat parameters. Balance wheel and rotor.
Preheat repair steeple and
adjacent areas per a qualified
procedure.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 13-11
Various tests may be performed,
depending on the vendor. Typically
an overspeed test (to 10% above
rated RPM) is performed.15
Mechanical testing may include
hardness, tensile strength, FATT,
impact fracture toughness, residual
stress determination, and SCC sus-
ceptibility. Note that the properties
of the base material, weld, and heat
affected zone (HAZ) will almost cer-
tainly be different, requiring some
subset of all of these tests for each.
Testing the HAZ in particular is diffi-
cult because of its limited extent.
13.11 Repair of the Disc Rim
Blade Attachment Area of Rotors
Class 3, 4, and 7 repairs (Figure
13-6) are most applicable to disc
repairs and are pertinent to disc-
blade attachments. Weld repair of a
shrunk-on disc typically requires15:
(i) de-stacking of the rotor, (ii)
machining of the disc surfaces
where weld metal will be applied,
(iii) application of the weld metal,
(iv) postweld heat treatment, (v) disc
re-machining the attachments and
(vi) inspection.
One organization has completely
rebuilt disc heads by welding on
shrunk on disc rotors without remov-
ing discs.16,17 A specially designed
PWHT was used to avoid loss of
shrink fit.
Local weld repairs may be sufficient
if damage is limited in extent. If only
a local repair is performed (Class 3),
care must be taken to avoid distor-
tion and high residual stresses in
adjacent areas. Analysis of the weld
repair using finite elements may be
necessary to properly predict the
magnitude and distribution of resid-
ual stresses. Most typically 360°
weld repairs are performed (Class 4
repair), or repair of integral wheel
rims is made by welding new ring
forgings (Class 7), particularly if
many steeples in a particular row
are damaged. Figures 13-7 and
13-8 illustrate the typical steps in
Class 3 and Class 4 repairs.
13-12 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods
Verify and record dimensions Preheat.
and straightness.
Welding.
Perform heat treatment for
straightening (Optional)
Perform interim inspection.
Perform heat treatment for de-
embrittlement of rotor forging.
Blade removal required (Optional)
Rough machine to gross
dimensions (provide allowance
for post-weld heat treatment and
Perform weld mockup. final machining).
Remove blading, as required for Interim inspection.
access and inspection.
Apply heaters, insulate and perform
Remove gouges, flaws, irregular
surfaces, or damaged material by post-weld heat treatment.
machining to restore a uniform
surface suitable for weld buildup.
Interim inspection.
Determine buildup dimensions.
Final machine.
Remove samples/determine
composition and hardness.
Final inspection.
Perform inspection or repair
cavity/surface to ensure flaw Final dimensions.
removal.
Select welding procedure and Reinstall blading.
weld filler metal.
Balance.
Prepare for preheat, interpass
controls, welding, and post-weld
heat treat parameters.
Figure 13-8. Flowchart of key steps in Class 4 rotor repair - weld repair of integral
wheel rims by weld buildup. Adapted from: D.W. Gandy, S.J. Findlan, R. Munson,
W.F. Newell, and J.T. Stover3
References
1. Sanders, W.P., The Procurement of Replacement
Steam Turbine Blading, Forham Printing Company, Ltd.,
Toronto, Canada, 1993. Distributed by Turbomachinery
International, Norwich, CT.
2. O’Connor, M.F., “Steam Turbine First Stage Design
and Assembly”, General Electric Company notes,
January 26, 1987.
3. State-of-the-Art Weld Repair Technology for Rotating
Components, Final Report TR-107021 V1&V2, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, December, 1997.
Volume 1: Gandy, D.W., S.J. Findlan, R. Munson, W.F.
Newell, and J.T. Stover, Weld Repair of Steam Turbine
Discs and Rotors.
Volume 2: Gandy, D.W., S.J. Findlan, J.T. Stover,
M. Breslin, S. Allgood, E.V. Clark, Repair of Steam
Turbine Blading.
4. Ortolano, R.J., “Current Industry Blade Modification
and Repair Techniques”, presented to the Management
Seminar “Managing Turbine Blade Life Extension
Problems”, Rochester, NY, October 12, 1988.
5. Fraser, M. and R.J. Ortolano, “In-Situ Weld Repair to
Last Stage Low Pressure Turbine Blades” in C.P.
Bellanca, ed., Advances in Steam Turbine Technology
for Power Generation, 1990 International Joint Power
Generation Conference, Boston, MA, October 21-25,
1990, PWR-Vol. 10, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York, 1990, pp. 167-175.
6. Sanders, W.P., Turbine Steam Path Engineering for
Operations and Maintenance Staff, Turbo-Technic
Services Incorporated, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
December, 1988.
7. Ortolano, R.J., “Recent Case Histories in the
Inspection, Modification, and Repair of Steam Turbine
Blading”, in A.S. Warnock, ed., Design, Repair, and
Refurbishment of Steam Turbines, Papers from the 1991
International Joint Power Generation Conference held in
San Diego, CA, October 6-10, 1991, PWR-Vol. 13,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
1991, pp. 147-154.
8. McQueen, S. and J.C. Hendelman, “In-Service
Evaluation of Refurbished Low Pressure Steam Turbine
Blades” in B.R. King, ed., The Steam Turbine-Generator
Today: Materials Flow Path Design, Repair and
Replacement, Papers from the 1993 International Joint
Power Generation Conference held in Kansas City, MO,
October 17-22, 1993, PWR-Vol. 21, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1993, pp. 221-227.
9. Gerdes, C., “Water Droplet Erosion and
Microstructure of Laser-Nitrided Ti-6Al-4V”, in I.M
Hutchings and J.A. Little, eds., Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Erosion by Liquid and Solid
Impact, held in Cambridge, U.K., September 4-8, 1994,
see also Wear Volumes 186-187, 1995, pp. 368-374..
10. Hill, R. and R.D. Conroy, “Improving the Design and
Performance of Turbine Components by Welding”, in
D.W. Gandy and S.J. Findlan, Proceedings: Welding and
Repair Technology for Power Plants, Second
International EPRI Conference, held in Daytona Beach,
Fl, May 21-24, 1996, Final Report TR-107719, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, January, 1997, pp. 745-761.
11. Personal communication from K.R. Mathwin
(ESKOM) to T. McCloskey, November 23, 1998.
12. Ortolano, R.J., “Recent Experience with Abrasion
Resistant Coatings on Steam Turbine Blades”, in S.R.
Murphy, ed., Solid Particle Erosion of Steam Turbine
Components: 1989 Workshop, held March 7-9, 1989 in
New Orleans, LA, Proceedings GS-6535, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, September, 1989, pp. 4-1 through 4-15.
13. Mansfield, F.D. and R. Munson, “Ten Years of
Welded Repair on Steam Turbine Rotors, An Insurer’s
Perspective”, Proceedings: Welding and Repair
Technology for Fossil Power Plants, EPRI Conference,
Williamsburg, VA, March 23-25, 1994.
14. Galanes, G.W., T.D. Spry, and J.E. Indacochea,
“Filler Metal Evaluation for Weld Repairing CrMoV Steel
HP Rotors”, in A.S. Warnock, ed., Design, Repair, and
Refurbishment of Steam Turbines, Papers from the 1991
International Joint Power Generation Conference held in
San Diego, CA, October 6-10, 1991, PWR-Vol. 13,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
1991, pp. 241-248.
15. Rosario, D.A., C.H. Wells, and G.J. Licina, Low-
Pressure Rotor Rim Attachment Cracking: Survey of
Utility Experience, Final Report TR-107088, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, March, 1997.
16. Personal communication from A. Hesketh (Alstom
Energy, Ltd.) to T. McCloskey, 1999.
17. Ballal, R.R., “Weld Refurbishment of Turbine Rotor
Blade Fixings”, Proceedings: Welding and Repair
Technology for Power Plants, Second International EPRI
Conference, Daytona Beach, FL, May 21-24, 1996.
Volume 1: Turbine Fundamentals 13-13
13-14 Turbine Repairs and Repair Methods
Index
A Austenitic stainless steels as blading
“A” parameter for quantitative interpre-
tation of creep damage from repli-
cas, 6-12 through 6-14
Accelerated rupture testing, 6-9, 6-11
Access ports, 11-3 to 11-5
Admission of steam to HP turbine (see
also Partial arc admission), 3-8
Aerodynamic analysis of blades, 5-12,
5-13, 5-18, 5-19
Aerodynamic damping, 4-7
Aerodynamic instability in blading,
4-7, 5-11, 5-12, 5-16, 5-18, 5-19
Aeroelastic Stability Index (ASI), 5-12
Air inleakage, 22-8, 22-10 role in
copper deposition in the HP, 19-14
All-volatile treatment (AVT) in fossil
plants
carryover of chloride under AVT, 7-5
carryover of sulfate under AVT, 7-5
guidelines for, 7-9 through 7-13
in units with all-ferrous metallurgy
feedwater trains, 7-10, 7-11
in units with mixed metallurgy feed-
water trains, 7-10, 7-11
All-volatile treatment (AVT) in nuclear
units, 7-13
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers,
Performance Test Code (PTC-6),
10-2, 10-3
Performance Test Code (PTC-6S),
10-3
recommendations for avoiding
water induction, 28-1, 28-6, 28-8
through 28-11, 28-13, 28-16,
28-17
risk-based inspection guidelines,
12-9, 12-10
Analysis of steam path damage,
Chapter 9
objectives, 9-1
ANSYS finite element code, 6-6,
20-19, 20-20
Anti-rotation pin slots (keyways) on
discs
inspecting, 11-8
Attemperators
as sources of water induction
damage, 28-6, 28-7
Audits, see Steam path audits
alloys, 4-8
Axial entry blade attachments
inspecting, 25-22
stress corrosion cracking in, 25-4
B 19-19 through 19-21
Backpressure,
defined, 3-4, 3-5
effect of high backpressure on
blades, 5-11, 5-12
“Beach marks”, 20-2, 20-23, 21-2
Bearings
damage to bearings caused by
water induction, 28-3, 28-6
vibration of turbine bearings as an
indicator of potential water induc-
tion 28-3,
28-20, 28-21
Bearing vibration,
at harmonics that are fractions of
rotor speed (usually rubbing),
32-8
at harmonics that are at the rotor
speed (generally imbalance),
32-8
at harmonics that are two times the
rotor speed (generally misalign-
ment), 32-8
BLADE, BLADE-ST™, 6-4 through 6-6,
20-15. 20-19, 20-20, 21-8
Blade airfoil
repair, 13-7, 13-8
Blade analysis
case study for the analysis of
corrosion fatigue, 24-19 through
24-21
examples, 20-17 through 20-23
procedure for fatigue, 20-10, 20-13
through 20-16
Blade damage
caused by water induction, 28-2
edge thinning from solid particle
erosion, 17-2
overheating by windage,
Chapter 32
Blade dimensions
importance of maintaining as part
of repairs, 13-1, 13-2
obtaining by computer-based
measurement systems, 13-2
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
Blade-disc,
attachments, 4-1, 4-2
modes of vibration, 20-4, 20-15,
20-16
Blade efficiency,
losses from deposition, 19-5, 19-16,
Blade failures, significance, 1-2
Blade inspection, 11-6 through 11-8
Blade modes (of vibration)
in LP blades, 20-4, 20-5, 20-14
through 20-16
Blade repairs (see Repairs, blade)
Blade replacement, 13-1 through 13-3
Blade root gaps,
case study of cracking, 20-21,
20-22
Blades
blade-disc interactions, 5-10, 5-11,
5-16
damping of, 4-6, 4-7
design of blade-disc attachments,
4-1, 4-2
ductility, 4-6
erosion resistance, 4-7
features, 4-1 through 4-5
generic procedure for life assess-
ment, 6-1 through 6-5
grouping, 4-3, 4-5
inspection information needed for
assessment, 6-3
leaned or bowed designs, 4-5
life, factors affecting, 5-1
material properties for assessment,
6-5
materials of construction, 4-7
through 4-11
mode shapes, 6-4
notch sensitivity, 4-6
required material properties, 4-5
through 4-7
sources of uncertainty in analysis,
6-5
stress concentrations, 5-6, 5-7,
5-13, 5-14
stresses, 5-2 through 5-14
accuracy in knowledge of stresses,
5-2
surface treatments, 4-11
tuning, 5-8, 5-15, 5-16
I-1
Blade shielding
as a means of reducing liquid
droplet erosion, 27-12 through
27-26
shielding designs, 27-16
Blade surface finish, improving to
decrease deposition and improve
corrosion fatigue
life, 24-17, 24-18
Blade tuning,
case study, 20-17 through 20-19
to improve corrosion fatigue life,
24-13 through 24-17
Blade vibration (see also Resonance,
Vibration)
measuring, 10-7 through 10-10
Blade Vibration Monitor (BVM), 5-12,
20-14, 20-16
Boiler feedpump turbines,
damage mechanisms, 1-4
Boiler tube blockages
as indicator as potential for solid
particle erosion in the turbine,
17-5
Boiler water treatment
in fossil units, 7-7 through 7-10
Boiling water reactors (BWRs)
cycle chemistry for, 7-13 through
7-15
Borescope inspection, 11-3, 11-4
for detecting solid particle erosion
damage, 17-17
Brazed erosion shields
repair of, 13-4 to 13-6
Buckets (see entries under blades)
Bypass systems, 3-14, 3-15
as means to reduce solid particle
erosion, 17-32 through 17-34
Bypass systems
improperly sized or malfunction
bypass valves, 32-4
malfunction, as a cause of over-
heating by windage, 32-2
operating procedures with to
prevent overheating, 32-5
C 25-11
“C” grade rotors, composition, 3-10
C* parameter for analysis of creep
crack growth, 6-11
Campbell diagram, 5-10, 5-14 through
5-17
case studies illustrating, 20-15,
20-17 through 20-20, 24-19,
24-20
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
I-2
Carnot, Sadi 2-1
Carnot cycle, 2-6, 2-7
Carryover, 7-3 through 7-6
mechanical, of copper, 19-11,
19-12, 19-15, 19-19
vaporous, of copper, 19-12
volatile, of copper, 19-11, 19-12
Casings,
damage mechanisms, 3-13, 3-14
design and features, 3-12, 3-13
erosion, 30-2
humping, distortion, leaking caused
by water induction, 28-2 through
28-4, 28-6, 28-8
inspecting, 11-8
materials of construction, 3-10, 3-13
susceptibility to flow-accelerated
corrosion, 29-3
types, 3-5, 3-6
Caustic treatment
guidelines for, 7-7, 7-9, 7-10
Cavitation erosion, 27-5
Centrifugal bending stresses in
blades, 5-7
Centrifugal stresses in blades, 5-2,
5-6, 5-7
Chafing wear, see Fretting wear
Charpy V-notch impact tests
changes in embrittled material,
16-7
Chemical analysis, 9-4, 9-5
Chemical cleaning,
of the boiler, 7-15
of superheater/reheater and steam
piping as a primary approach to
controlling solid particle erosion,
17-19, 17-20
of turbine, 19-15, 19-16
safety, 19-16
solvents, 19-15, 19-16
to remove deposits, 18-6
typical procedure, 19-15, 19-16
Chevron marks, 20-3, 21-2
Class 3 rotor repairs, 13-10 through
13-12
Class 4 rotor repairs, 13-10, 13-12
Clausius, Rudolf, 2-1
Coatings,
blades, 23-11, 23-12
for fretting, 31-7
for improving corrosion fatigue
resistance, 24-18
for improving resistance of blades
exposed to liquid droplet
erosion, 27-16
potential for use in combating
stress corrosion cracking, 25-26,
26-7
Coffin-Manson rule, 6-11
Co-generation units,
turbines, 3-9
Combined cycle units,
damage mechanisms, 1-4
turbines, 3-9
Company-wide programs for correc-
tion, prevention and control of
steam path damage, Chapter 12
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
5-18
Concentration of impurities, 8-7
through 8-11, 8-13
Condensate polisher,
breakdown in regeneration as
source of contaminant ingress,
22-6, 22-7, 22-9
improper operation leading to
impurity ingress, 22-9
Condensation, 8-3, 8-4
Condensation shocks,
effect on blades, 5-12, 5-13
Condensing turbines, 3-4, 3-5
Condenser pressure, 3-5
Condensers,
as source of impurities in steam
and water cycle, 22-6 through
22-8
excessive air inleakage, 32-2
excessive number of plugged
tubes, 32-2
high backpressure, 32-4
improperly design steam and water
dumps as a cause of water
induction incidents, 28-3, 28-7,
28-18
leakage, as a precursor to pitting,
23-4
macrofouling as a cause of over
heating by windage, 32-2
operation of drains to avoid water
induction, 28-8
Conductivity
effect on stress corrosion cracking,
Control stage, 3-8
design, 4-2
Converging-diverging nozzle
as an on-line monitoring device to
determine the effectiveness of
cycle chemistry in minimizing
turbine deposits, 22-6
to confirm deposition in the turbine,
22-6
Copper and copper alloys,
aqueous transport of, 19-5 through
19-11
correct levels in final feedwater,
19-17
corrosion 19-5 through 19-11
deposition, Chapter 19
oxide formation, 19-5 through 19-11
steam transport of, 19-11, 19-12
types in the feedwater train, 19-6
Copper and copper alloys (cont.)
volatility and transport through
cycle, 19-13, 19-13
Copper deposition in the HP turbine,
Chapter 19
actions, 19-24 through 19-29
case studies, 19-20, 19-21
determining the extent of damage,
19-15
effect on turbine, 19-5
features, 19-2, 19-3
field inventory of the problem,
19-17
indications that the damage mech-
anism is active, 19-4
longterm actions and prevention of
repeated deposition, 19-17
through 19-19
mechanism, 19-5 through 19-13
nature of damage, 19-2 through
19-5
repairs and immediate actions,
19-15, 19-16
root causes, 19-13 through 19-15
susceptible units and locations,
19-2, 19-4
unit precursors indicating that this
mechanism may become active,
19-4
Copper oxides
cupric oxide (CuO), 19-5, 19-7
through 19-13
cuprous (Cu2O), 19-5, 19-7 through
19-13
growth of, 19-5, 19-7 through 19-13
as a function of oxygen level, 19-8,
19-9
as function of pH, 19-9, 19-10
as function of CO2, 19-10
as a function of NH3, 19-10
solubility in steam, 19-11, 19-12
solubility in water, 19-5, 19-7
through 19-11
Corrosion fatigue, Chapter 24
actions, 24-25 through 24-32
case studies, 24-19 through 24-21
crack propagation by, 22-2
determining the extent of damage
by, 24-11
distinguishing from stress corrosion
cracking and fatigue, 14-15
effect of environment in producing,
22-4
effect of oxygen on, 22-4
effect on turbine, 24-4
features, 24-1, 24-2
features as compared to stress
corrosion cracking, 24-2, 26-2
indications that corrosion fatigue is
active, 24-3
life assessment for, 24-15, 24-16
longterm actions to prevent repeat
damage, 24-15 through 24-18
mechanism, 24-4 through 24-10
models, 24-10
morphology of cracking, 24-1
repairs, 24-11
role of cyclic stresses in promoting,
24-11, 24-15
role of the environment in promot-
ing, 24-10, 24-12, 24-13
root causes, 24-10 through 24-15
susceptible units and locations
24-2, 24-3
test environments, 24-6
unit precursors indicating corrosion
fatigue may become active, 24-4
Corrosion pitting, see Pitting
Corrosion potential changed by
droplets in steam, 8-13
Coverbands,
repair, 13-6
Creep
as precursor to fretting, 31-6
creep cracking, 6-9 through 6-11
damage rules, 6-10
general expressions for, 6-9
in the blade attachment of HP and
IP rotors, Chapter 15
in HP and IP blading, 16-1 through
16-6
in rotors, 3-10, 3-12
life assessment, 6-11 through 6-14
softening of base material as a
result of, 6-11, 6-12
Creep cavities, 6-12 through 6-14
Creep-fatigue, 6-9 through 6-11, 15-4
in HP and IP blading, 16-6
in rotors, 3-10, 3-12
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
Creep in the blade attachment of HP
and IP rotors, Chapter 15
case studies, 15-8
determining the extent of damage,
15-5, 15-6
features of damage, 15-1
indications that the damage mech-
anism is active, 15-3
longterm actions for reduction of
damage, 15-6, 15-7
mechanism, 15-4, 15-5
repairs and immediate actions,
15-6, 15-7
root causes, 15-5
susceptible units and locations,
15-2 through 15-4
unit precursors indicating that this
mechanism may become active,
15-3, 15-4
Creep rupture curves, 6-9 through
6-11
Creep strength
of Type 403/410, 16-4
of Type 422, 16-4
Crevice corrosion
compared with pitting, 23-6, 23-7
features of damage, 23-2
Critical point (steam), 2-3
Cross compound designs,
defined, 3-6
Crossover piping, 3-9
Crossunder piping, 3-9
C(t) parameter for creep crack
analysis, 6-11
Ct parameter for creep crack analysis,
6-11
Cycle chemistry
effect on early condensate, 8-8
effect on composition of liquid
films, 8-10
influence on damage mechanisms,
1-6, 1-8
instrumentation for monitoring,
7-15, 7-16
relationship to common damage
mechanisms in the turbine, 7-1
Cycle chemistry guidelines
as applied to copper control, 19-11
as derived from allowable turbine
steam impurities, 7-6
for fossil units, 7-6 through 7-13
for nuclear units, 7-13 through 7-15
historical development of, 7-6, 7-7
specific application to individual
units, 7-15
I-3
Cycle chemistry monitoring for control
of copper deposition, 19-13, 19-14,
19-15,19-18
Cyclic strain-based fatigue properties
as a means of predicting erosion
resistance, 27-10, 27-11
cyclic stress-strain curves, 6-7
Cycling units,
as increasing rate of corrosion
fatigue damage, 24-2, 24-3
Cylinders and liners, erosion, 30-1
D measuring blade vibration, 10-10
“D” grade rotors, composition, 3-10
Damage summation rules for creep-
fatigue analysis, 6-11
Damping
aerodynamic or gas dynamic
damping, 4-7
blades, to improve corrosion fatigue
resistance, 24-13 through 24-17
Lazan’s law, 4-7
material, 4-7
mechanical or interface damping,
4-7
of blades, 4-6, 4-7, 20-16
Debris, from fretting wear, 31-1
De Laval, Carl Gustaf, 1-1
Deposition, copper - see Copper
deposition in the HP turbine
Deposition on turbine surfaces (see
also Deposits)
confirming directly with converging-
diverging nozzle, 22-6
mechanisms of, 8-11 through 8-13
Deposits (see also Deposition on tur-
bine surfaces), 8-10 through 8-14,
Chapter 18
and pitting, 23-2 through 23-4,
23-6, 23-7, 23-9, 23-10
common deposits and means to
remove, 18-8
detecting by measurements of
stage efficiency, 10-4, 10-7, 10-8
determining the extent of deposits,
18-4
effect of deposition on turbine, 18-2
in conjunction with corrosion
fatigue, 24-2
instrumentation for analyzing, 8-14,
8-15
instrumentation for collecting, 8-14,
8-15
locations in the turbine for various
deposits, 8-10, 8-11
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
I-4
most common composition of, 8-11,
8-12
on fracture surfaces of stress
corrosion cracks, 25-2
removing non-water soluble
deposits, 18-6
removing water soluble deposits,
18-4 through 18-6
role of steam impurity concentra-
tion, 8-10 through 8-13
use of Mollier diagram in conjunc-
tion with analysis of, 8-10, 8-11
Diaphragm construction, 4-2, 4-3, 4-5
DICE code, 25-28
Diffusion alloying
as a primary approach to control-
ling solid particle erosion, 17-21
through 17-22
Discoloration
of blades, evidence of overheating,
32-2
Discs,
disc-blade interactions, 5-10, 5-11
repair of, 13-12
Disc rim attachments
assessment of stress corrosion
cracking in, 25-23 through 25-28
inspecting, 25-19, 25-22
stresses in, 25-16, 25-17
Disks (see entries under discs)
Distortion
in HP blading, 16-6, 16-7
Distribution system
faults and their effect on blades,
5-10, 5-11
Dovetail pins,
as sites for stress corrosion
cracking, 26-2
Drains, 3-15
erosion from high local fluid
velocities, 30-2
Droplets (moisture),
formation and nucleation, 8-2
through 8-5, 27-6, 27-7
size, 8-5, 27-6
Drum level control, 28-4, 28-6
Ductility exhaustion, 6-11
Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless
steels,
corrosion fatigue crack growth in,
24-8, 24-17
Dynamically produced environment
and effect on damage mechanisms,
22-4, 22-5
E
Early (first) condensate, 22-4
as a primary means of concentra-
tion of steam impurities, 8-7, 8-8
effect of chemistry treatment
method, 8-8
impurity levels in, 8-7
location of first occurrence, 8-7
Economic assessments, 12-5
of options for controlling solid
particle erosion, 17-19, 17-20
Eddy current proximity sensors for
Efficiency,
and losses, 2-10
Carnot, 2-6, 2-7
losses caused by moisture levels,
27-5
measuring changes in stage
efficiency, 2-13
Rankine, 2-7, 2-8
Efficiency reduction, HP,
from copper deposition, 19-5, 19-6,
19-19 through 19-21
Electrostatic charges
on droplets in steam, 8-13
in liquid films on turbine surfaces,
8-13
using as a means of breaking up
steam droplets, 8-13
Embrittlement
of HP turbine blades, 16-7
Enthalpy,
definition, 2-2
drops measuring, 2-13
Enthalpy drop testing, 10-4 through
10-7
as diagnostic for detecting solid
particle erosion damage, 17-16,
17-17, 17-20
for detecting copper deposition,
19-15
in the HP or IP turbine, 10-4, 10-5
in the LP turbine, 10-6, 10-7
Enthalpy-entropy diagram (see Mollier
diagram)
Entropy,
definition, 2-2
Erosion
detecting by measurements of
stage efficiency, 10-4, 10-8
liquid droplet erosion, Chapter 27
material properties of target
material affecting rate of liquid
droplet erosion, 27-10 through
27-12
 rates of liquid droplet erosion,
27-11, 27-12
Erosion-corrosion, see Flow-acceler-
ated corrosion
difference between erosion-corro-
sion and flow-accelerated
corrosion, 29-1
Erosion shield repairs, 13-4 through
13-6
“full inlet nose” type, 13-4
brazed, 13-5, 13-6
“J-” or “hook-type”, 13-4
Erosion shields,
as sites for stress corrosion
cracking, 26-2
Exfoliation of boiler tubing and steam
leads
leading to solid particle erosion in
the turbine, 17-5, 17-9 through
17-13
rating system, 17-10 through 17-12
Exhaust hoods, 3-8
susceptibility to flow-accelerated
corrosion, 29-3
Exhaust pressure and overheating,
32-2, 32-4, 32-6
Expansion rate,
effect on nucleation, 8-5
Extraction piping, erosion from high
local fluid velocities, 30-2
Extraction systems, 28-2 through 28-7,
28-9, 28-16, 28-18
F Feedwater heaters,
False brinelling, see Fretting wear
Fatigue analysis methods, 6-6, 6-7
basic considerations, 6-6, 6-7
elastic-plastic (local strain) analysis,
6-6, 6-7
representing mean and cyclic
stresses, 6-6
Fatigue crack initiation, from fretting,
31-1, 31-2, 31-5
Fatigue, HP blades - Chapter 21
actions, 21-11 through 21-14
determining the extent of damage,
21-5, 21-6
features of damage, 21-1, 21-2
indications of this form of damage,
21-2
longterm actions and prevention of
repeat damage, 21-6 through
21-9
mechanism, 21-2, 21-3
origins for fatigue cracks, 21-3
precursors, 21-2
repairs and immediate actions, 21-6
root causes, 21-3 through 21-5
susceptible units and locations,
21-2
Fatigue, LP blades - Chapter 20
actions, 20-26 through 20-31
case studies, 20-17 through 20-23
determining the extent of damage,
20-8, 20-9
distinguishing from corrosion
fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking, 14-15
features of damage, 20-1 through
20-3
indications of this form of damage,
20-7
longterm actions and prevention of
repeat failures, 20-10 through
20-17
mechanism, 20-7, 20-8
origins for fatigue cracks, 20-8
precursors to fatigue, 20-7
ramifications, 20-31
repairs and immediate actions,
20-9, 20-10
root causes, 20-8
susceptible units and locations,
20-3 through 20-7
Fatigue striations, 20-2, 20-8, 21-1,
21-2
Feedwater flow and turbine stage flow
as a means to detect damage, 10-7
as sources for water induction
incidents, 28-5 through 28-7
use in regenerative steam cycle,
2-8
Feedwater treatment,
changes as possible warning for
copper deposition, 19-1, 19-4,
19-7, 19-8, 19-11, 19-17, 19-18
in fossil units, 7-10 through 7-13
need for careful monitoring for the
effect of changes in, 19-18,
19-20, 19-21
optimizing for control of copper
deposition, 19-17, 19-18
road map to optimize, 19-18
Fiberscopic inspection, 11-3, 11-4
for detecting solid particle erosion
damage, 17-17
Finite element methods, 6-6
First condensate (see Early
condensate)
First Law of Thermodynamics, 2-1, 2-2
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
Flame hardening of blade surfaces for
erosion resistance, 13-5
Flashing,
in drains and vent lines, 30-2
in HP casings of nuclear units, 30-2
Flow-accelerated corrosion, 7-15,
Chapter 29
determining the extent of damage,
29-5
effect of oxygen on, 29-4
features of damage, 29-1, 29-2
indications that mechanism is
active, 29-3
longterm actions to control, 29-5
low rates of damage in materials
containing over 1% Cr, 29-3
through 29-5
mechanism, 29-3 through 29-5
root causes, 29-5
susceptible units and locations,
29-2, 29-3
Flow-assisted corrosion, see Flow-
accelerated corrosion
Flowchart of environmental influences
on damage, 22-5, 24-5
Flow redirection, as a means of reduc-
ing liquid droplet erosion, 27-17
Flutter,
in blades, 5-11, 5-12, 5-16
role in setting backpressure limits,
32-4
Foreign object damage, 33-1
Fossil fired power plant cycle design,
3-8, 3-9
contrasted with nuclear cycles, 3-9
Fractographic analysis, 9-3, 9-4
Fracture mechanics,
analysis of stress corrosion cracks
in the disc rim attachments,
25-23, 25-26 through 25-28
basic considerations, 6-7, 6-8
evaluating stress corrosion crack-
ing in blades, 26-4, 26-5
Frequency-modified Coffin-Manson
rule, 6-11
Frequency response,
in blades, 5-8, 5-14 through 5-17
Fretting
as initiation site for corrosion fatigue
and stress corrosion cracking,
22-2, 24-1, 24-4
of titanium, 4-11
Fretting corrosion, see Fretting wear
Fretting fatigue, see Fretting wear
Fretting fatigue test, 31-5, 31-6
I-5
Fretting wear, Chapter 31
actions, 31-9 through 31-12
case study, 31-7
determining extent of damage, 31-6
effect of shotpeening on, 31-5
through 31-7
features of damage, 31-1 through
31-3
indications that fretting is active,
31-4
longterm actions and reduction of
damage, 31-7
mechanism, 31-4, 31-5
precursors to fretting, 31-4
repairs and immediate actions,
31-6, 31-7
root causes, 31-6
susceptible units and locations,
31-4
Friction oxidation, see fretting wear
Full arc admission, 3-8, 3-13
G Induction hardening of blade surfaces
Galling fatigue, 31-2
Gaps (connections), between blades
and discs, 5-13, 5-14
Geometric untwisting of blades, 5-7
Geothermal units,
damage mechanisms, 1-4
turbines, 3-9
Gerber relationship, 6-6, 6-7
Goodman diagram for fatigue
analysis, 6-6, 6-7
Grit blasting of the turbine,
as means of removing copper
deposits, 19-16
to remove deposits, 18-6
H turbine, 10-1, 10-2
Hardness,
changes relating to creep damage,
6-11, 6-12, 16-4, 16-6
measurement specifications, 9-4
Harmonics to running speed
use in determining possible source
of blade excitation, 5-17
Heat rate, unit, 2-2, 2-8
Heat recovery steam generators
(HRSGs), 2-8, 2-17
Helmholtz, Herman L.F., 2-1
Heterogeneous condensation, 8-3
through 8-5
High cycle fatigue, 20-2 through 20-8
case studies, 20-17 through 20-21
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
I-6
High pressure (HP) turbine blades,
features and structure, 4-1, 4-2
materials of construction, 4-7, 4-8
Historical development of turbine
designs, 1-1, 1-2
Homogeneous condensation, 8-3, 8-5
“Horseshoe pits”, appearance of flow-
accelerated corrosion, 29-1
Hydrazine, 19-7, 19-9, 19-13, 19-20,
19-21
Hydrogen water chemistry in BWRs,
7-15
I
IAPWS (International Association for
the Properties of Water and Steam),
2-2
Impulse stages,
design, 3-1, 3-2
Impurity concentration, 8-7 through
8-11, 8-13
Impurity ingress, 7-3
for erosion resistance, 13-5
Industry-wide data
as source of leads in blade
analysis, 6-3
Inspection (see also Section 4.0 of
individual damage mechanism
chapters in Volume 2),
Chapter 11
Inspection intervals,
setting, 12-9, 12-10
Installation defects, 33-1
Instrumentation
for analysis of steam samples, con-
densate and deposits, 8-14, 8-15
for monitoring cycle chemistry,
7-15, 7-16, 7-20
Interference diagram, 5-17, 20-15
case study, 20-17 through 20-20
Intergranular cracks
as a sign of stress corrosion
cracking in the disc rim attach-
ment, 25-1
as evidence of stress corrosion
cracking in LP blades, 26-1
as seen in corrosion fatigue
damage, 24-1
Intervals between outages, lengthen-
ing, 12-9, 12-10
Ion vapor deposited (IVD) aluminum,
as a means to improve corrosion
fatigue resistance, 24-18
Isostress testing, 6-9
J
JIC measurement, 9-5
K
KIC measurement, 9-5
KISCC
defined, 25-9
for rotor materials, 25-13
Keyways (disc)
inspecting, 11-8
L
Larson-Miller parameter, 6-9 through
6-11
Lashing lug, repair, 13-6
LAST code, 25-28
Last stage (L-0) blades,
design, 3-8
Layup of the unit, 22-1, 22-6, 22-8,
22-9
and its role in increased pitting,
23-10
effect of poor practices on copper
deposition, 19-4, 19-7, 19-11,
19-14, 19-15, 19-19
Lazan’s law, 4-7
Leakage,
interstage packing leakage, 2-11
losses, 2-11
tip leakage, 2-11
Leakage paths, as locations of erosion
damage, 30-2
Life assessment methodology for
blades and blade attachments, 6-1
through 6-5
Life-fraction rule, 6-10
“Lifting” of blades, 13-2, 16-1
Light microscopy, 9-3
Liquid droplet erosion
actions, 27-23 through 27-27
appearance of damage 27-2
through 27-4
as an expected form of damage to
the turbine, 27-1
case studies, 27-18, 27-19
determining the extent of damage,
27-14
effect of blade speed, 27-6, 27-8,
27-9
effect of the target material proper-
ties, 27-10, 27-11
effect of turbine design and
operating conditions, 27-8, 27-9
 factors tending to increase, 27-1
features of damage, 27-2 through
27-4
in fossil fired units, 27-2 through
27-4
in nuclear units, 27-2 through 27-4
indicators of this form of damage,
27-3
levels of severity of damage, 27-2
through 27-4
locations, 27-2 through 27-4
longterm actions to reducing
repeated damage, 27-14 through
27-18
mechanism 27-5 through 27-12
root causes, 27-12 through 27-14
similarity with cavitation erosion,
27-5
Liquid films
concentration of impurities in, 8-9,
8-10
formation, 8-9, 8-10, 22-4, 22-5
pH decrease in, compared with
inlet steam, 8-9
Ljöngstrom turbines, 3-1, 3-2
Local strain approach to fatigue
analysis, 6-7
Localized corrosion processes,
Chapter 23
Long shank repair option for stress
corrosion cracking, 25-25
Lord Kelvin, 2-1
Losses,
endwall losses, 2-11
exhaust loss, 2-10
friction loss, 2-11
from deposition, calculation
example, 18-3, 18-4
leakage losses, 2-11 through 2-13
moisture loss, 2-10
nozzle end loss, 2-10
pressure drop losses, 2-9 and 2-10
profile losses, 2-11
secondary losses, 2-11
surface finish losses, 2-11, 2-14
tiewire losses, 2-11
turbine section losses, 2-10
turbine stage losses, 2-10, 2-11
windage loss, 2-10
Low cycle fatigue, 20-2 through 20-8,
20-14
case study, 20-21, 20-22
Low pressure (LP) turbine blades
features and structure, 4-3 through
4-5
free standing versus grouped, 4-3,
4-4
materials of construction, 4-8
through 4-11
M Moisture separators,
Magnetic particle testing
for inspecting disc rim attachments,
25-19
Magnetic sensors for measuring blade
vibrations, 10-8 to 10-10
Main steam conditions,
for fossil fuel power plants, typical,
2-15
for nuclear power plants, typical,
2-15
Manson-Brown parameter, 6-9
Manson-Haferd parametric correlation,
6-9
Manufacturing defects, 33-1
as initiation site for corrosion fatigue
in LP turbine blading, 24-4
Martensitic stainless steels
as blading alloys, 4-7 through 4-11
Metallurgical analysis, 9-3, 9-4
information for blade analysis, 6-3
Metallographic replication, see
Replication
Metallographic specimen preparation,
standards, 9-4
Metallurgical analysis, Chapter 9
Miner’s rule, 6-7
Miniature sampling techniques, 9-2,
9-5
Mixed metallurgy feedwater systems
feedwater treatment for, 7-10 to
7-13, 19-11, 19-17, 19-18
potential for copper deposition,
19-1, 19-11, 19-13 through 19-18
“Mixed” tuning of blades, 20-16, 2-17
Modal testing of blades, 10-11, 20-15
as a means of confirming finite
element analysis of blades, 6-4
case study, 20-17 through 20-19
Mode shapes,
display of, 5-14, 5-17
in blades, 6-4
Moisture (see also Nucleation of
moisture)
as a function of location on an
individual turbine blade, 8-5
designs to limit, 2-17, 2-18
effect of moisture on efficiency,
2-17, 2-18
extraction methods, 27-13, 27-16,
27-17
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
in nuclear units, 2-18
levels, 3-9, 27-5, 27-6
losses, 2-18, 27-5
percent as a function of location on
blade, 8-5
function, 3-9
Mollier diagram, 2-3 through 2-6
Molybdenum disulfide as lubricant to
mitigate fretting wear, 31-7
Monitoring, Chapter 10
Monkman-Grant correlation, 6-9, 6-10
Monoblock rotor construction, 3-9,
3-10
Monte Carlo methods, 25-27, 25-28
Motion of water on stationary blades
and casing walls, 27-6
MW loss, HP from copper deposition
19-5, 19-16, 19-19 through 19-21
N
Natural frequencies,
in blades, 5-14 through 5-17, 6-4
Nickel aluminide (NiAl)
as a means to improve corrosion
fatigue resistance, 24-18
Noble metals chemical addition in
BWRs, 7-15
Non-synchronous loads on blades,
defined, 5-2
Normal water chemistry in BWRs, 7-15
Notches,
comparing the effect notches
versus environment in corrosion
fatigue cracking, 24-6, 24-7
Nozzle angle, 3-3
Nozzles,
repair, 13-8
Nozzle-wake interactions,
effect on blades, 5-8, 5-9
Nuclear power plant cycle design, 3-9
contrasted with fossil cycles, 3-9
Nucleation of moisture (see also
Moisture), 8-2 through 8-5
effect of chemistry on, 8-6
effect of expansion rate on, 8-5
effect of impurity levels on, 8-6
effect of surface tension, 8-3, 8-4
heterogeneous, 8-4, 8-5
homogeneous, 8-3 through 8-5
open issues, 8-5
seeds, 8-2
I-7
O Oxygen scavengers, see Reducing
Octadecylamine (ODA), 8-6, 8-8, 8-10
treatment in PWRs, 7-13
Operating procedures
for reacting to water induction
incidents, 28-8
Optical sensors for measuring blade
vibration, 10-10
Optical wetness probes, 10-6, 10-7
“Orange peel”, appearance of flow-
accelerated corrosion, 29-1
Orr-Sherby-Dorn parameter, 6-9
Outages,
extending period of time between
12-10, 12-11
shortening outage length, 12-10,
12-11
Overfrequency operation, 20-17
and its effect on blading, 5-11
Overheating by windage, 16-4, 16-5,
Chapter 32
Overheating of seals, 32-1
Overpressure operation and copper
deposition, 19-4, 19-14, 19-20,
19-21
Overspeed,
effect on blades, 5-6, 5-13
Oxide dissolution,
leading to flow-accelerated
corrosion, 29-3, 29-4
Oxides,
growth and exfoliation in boiler
tubes and steam leads, 17-9
through 17-13, 17-20
transport 17-13 through 17-15
Oxidizing-reduction potential (ORP),
7-7, 7-10 through 7-12
role in copper and copper alloy
corrosion 19-4, 19-7, 19-8,
19-11, 19-13, 19-14, 19-17
Oxygen
concentration in liquid films, 8-10
does not concentrate in early con
densate, 8-8
effect on flow-accelerated
corrosion, 29-4
effect on pitting, 23-6, 23-9
effect on stress corrosion cracking
of disc material, 25-8, 25-10,
25-11
relative effect of oxygen compared
with cation conductivity, 25-10,
25-11
role in corrosion fatigue, 24-4, 24-6
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
I-8
agents
Oxygenated treatment
advantages for the phase transition
zone environment, 7-11, 7-12
concentration ratios when using,
8-8, 8-9
guidelines for, 7-7, 7-11, 7-12
results for reducing feedwater
corrosion products, 7-11, 7-12
P effect of pitting on the turbine, 23-4
Packets (blade configurations), 4-3
through 4-5
Parsons, Carl, 1-1, 1-2
Partial arc admission, 3-8, 3-13
and fatigue in HP blades, 21-2
through 21-4, 21-6, 21-9
and solid particle erosion, 17-16,
17-24
effect on blades, 5-9
Particle flows through the turbine,
17-15, 17-16
Particles in steam, 8-2, 8-11 through
8-13
Partitioning of impurities between
liquid and vapor phase, 7-4, 7-5
of organic acids, 7-14
Performance testing, 10-2, 10-3
pH,
effect of, on flow-accelerated
corrosion, 29-4
Phase transition zone (PTZ), 8-1, 8-2,
8-5, 8-13
and pitting, 23-2, 23-4
as location for corrosion fatigue
cracking, 24-2
environment in, 22-44
location of environmentally-induced
LP turbine damage to, 22-4,
22-6
location on Mollier diagram, 2-5,
2-6
Philosophy statement or corporate
directive, 12-1, 12-3, 12-4
Phosphate treatment
guidelines for, 7-7 through 7-9
Pin-and-finger (or pinned finger) blade
attachments
stress corrosion cracking in, 25-4,
25-5
Pitting
and unit shutdown, 22-1, 22-6,
as initiation site for corrosion
fatigue in LP turbine blading,
24-1, 24-4, 24-7
changing blade materials to
prevent, 23-12
coatings to prevent, 23-11, 23-12
compared with crevice corrosion
23-6, 23-7
correspondence of pitting with
blade deposits, 23-2 through
23-4, 23-6, 23-7, 23-9, 23-10
description, 23-1
determining the extent of damage,
23-10
features of damage, 23-1 through
23-4
growth rates in various blading
materials, 23-7
in HP or IP turbines, 23-1, 23-2,
23-4, 23-9, 23-14
indications that pitting is active,
23-4
longterm actions, 23-10 through
23-12
mechanism, 23-4 through 23-9
repairs, immediate solutions and
actions, 23-10
root causes, 23-10
susceptible units and locations,
23-2, 23-3
unit precursors to pitting, 23-4
Plasma coatings
as a primary approach to
controlling solid particle erosion,
17-20, 17-21
chromium carbide, 17-20, 17-21
tungsten carbide, 17-20, 17-21
Point defect model of pitting, 23-5,
23-6
Precipitation hardened stainless
steels, 4-8, 4-10
“Precursors”, use, 12-3
Pressure compounding,
defined, 3-4
Pressure drop losses, 2-10
Pressure ratio,
defined, 3-1
Pressurized water reactors (PWRs)
cycle chemistry, 7-13, 7-14
Probabilistic methods of analysis, 6-7
through 6-9, 25-28
fatigue analysis, 6-7
fracture mechanics, 6-8
Process representation, 2-2, 2-3
Punch testing - see Small punch
testing
Punch testing, 25-27
Q Rotor bowing
Quality of steam,
defined, 2-3
R corrosion cracking, 25-1
Rankine cycle, 2-7, 2-8
Ray diagram, 7-4
Reaction stages
design, 3-1, 3-2, 3-4, 3-5
difference in reaction between
blade tip and root, 3-2, 3-4, 3-5
Redox, 7-10
Reducing agents (oxygen scav-
engers), 7-10 through 7-13
role in copper deposition 19-4, 19-7
through 19-9, 19-11, 19-13, 19-14,
19-17, 19-18, 19-20, 19-21
Refurbishment of blades as temporary
measures, 20-9, 20-10
Regenerative cycle, 2-8
Reheat,
theory of why it is used, 2-8
Repairs, blade, 13-2 through 13-9
(see also Section 5 in individual
damage mechanism chapters of
Volume 2) and solid particle
erosion, 17-17
with corrosion fatigue damage,
24-11
Repairs, rotor, 13-9 through 13-12
Replication, 6-12 through 6-14, 9-2,
9-3
“A” parameter for quantitative
interpretation of creep damage,
6-12 through 6-14
Reporting steam path damage,
importance of uniform, 12-5
sample reporting form, 12-6
through 12-8
Residual stresses
and role in stress corrosion
cracking, 25-9
Resonance
in blades, 5-8 through 5-10, 5-14
through 5-17
Resonance vibration, effect on fretting
wear, 31-7
Risk-based inspection intervals, 12-9,
12-10
Robinson life fraction rule, 6-10
Rocking or lifting test, 13-2
Rotating blades (buckets)
velocity through, 3-3, 3-5
damage caused by water
induction, 28-8
Rotors,
areas susceptible to stress
classification of repairs, 13-9, 13-10
considerations if replacing, 25-28,
25-29
damage mechanisms, 3-10, 3-12
materials of construction, 3-10
through 3-12
overview of design and features,
3-9, 3-10
Rotor shaft vibration, 10-2, 10-11
Rubbing, 32-1, 32-2, 32-4, 33-1
Rubbing fatigue, see Fretting wear
S locations of damage, 17-3, 17-4
SAFE diagram, 5-17
“Salt” zone, 8-9
Sampling of steam path damage, 9-2
Saturation line, 2-6
Screening table for turbine blade
damage, 14-10 through 14-14
Seals,
end seals, 3-14
interstage seals, 3-14
Second law of thermodynamics, 2-2
Secondary damage, 33-1
Self-excitation in blades, 5-11 through
5-13
17-4 PH (precipitation hardening)
steel,
substitutions for corrosion fatigue
resistance, 24-8, 24-17
Shielding, see Blade shielding
Shot peening, 31-5 through 31-7
as used in repair of disc rim
attachment areas, 25-26, 25-28
for slowing corrosion fatigue
damage, 24-18
Shrouds (blade), 4-2 through 4-4
repair, 13-6
Shrunk-on discs, 3-9, 3-10
Shutdown environment and effect on
damage mechanisms, 22-5, 22-6
Shutdown, of unit,
and role in increased pitting, 23-8,
23-9
as cause of pitting 22-1, 22-6, 22-8,
22-9
formation of oxygenated films as a
result of, 22-4, 22-6
poor shutdown practices as leading
to impurity ingress, 22-10
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
Skim cutting, 25-23, 25-25
Small punch testing
as a sampling option, 9-2
for mechanical properties, 9-5
Smith diagram, 24-7, 24-8
Softening of blade materials
as a result of creep, 16-4, 16-6
Solid particle erosion, Chapter 17
actions, 17-34 through 17-37
as precursor to fatigue in HP
blades, 21-1, 21-6
case studies, 17-26 through 17-29
determining the extent of damage,
17-16, 17-17
effect on turbine, 17-5, 17-6
features of damage, 17-2, 17-3
indications that the damage
mechanism is active, 17-4
longterm actions and prevention of
repeated deposition, 17-18
through 17-26
mechanism, 17-6 through 17-16
nature of damage, 17-2 through
17-6
repairs and immediate actions,
17-17
root causes, 17-16
susceptible units and locations,
17-1, 17-3, 17-4
unit precursors indicating that this
mechanism may become active,
17-5
Solid particle erosion rate
effect of angle of impact, 17-7
effect of cycling units, 17-3, 17-4,
17-19
effect of target material, 17-8
effect of particle hardness, 17-8,
17-9
effect of particle size, 17-8
effect of velocity, 17-8
in ductile materials, 17-7, 17-8
Solubility of major steam impurities,
7-5, 7-6
Spare parts policy, 13-1
SPEEDM (Solid-Particle Erosion
Economic Decision Methodology)
computer code, 17-20
Spin softening, 20-15
Spray exhausts in turbine, 32-2, 32-4
Stages,
optimum number considerations,
3-5
Stall flutter, 5-11, 5-12
I-9
Start-stop transients
effect on blades, 5-13
Startup and shutdown,
operating procedures for controlling
copper transport during
startups, 19-18, 19-19
Stationary blades (or nozzles)
function, 3-3
repair, 13-8, 13-9
velocity through, 3-3
Steam bending loads in blades, 5-7,
5-8
Steam chests
as an integral part of older turbine
casings, 3-13
Steam cycles,
Carnot cycle, 2-6, 2-7
in co-generation plants, 2-17
in combined cycle plants, 2-17
in fossil power plants, 2-14, 2-15
in geothermal plants, 2-17
in nuclear power plants, 2-15, 2-17
open versus closed cycle, 2-8
practical, 2-14 through 2-17
Rankine, 2-7, 2-8
regenerative, 2-8
reheat, 2-8
theory, 2-6 through 2-9
Steam dome, 2-3
Steam extractions, see Extraction
systems
Steam flow,
orientations, 3-1
Steam path audits, 11-1 through 11-3
Steam path damage reports,
information to obtain, 9-2
preparing, 9-5
Steam properties, 2-2
Steam seal systems
as sources for water induction
incidents, 28-7, 28-11
Steam tables, 2-2
Stop valves, 3-8, 3-13
Straddle-mount blade attachments
inspecting, 25-19, 25-22
stress corrosion cracking in, 25-4
Strain-fraction rule for creep, 6-10
Strain gages
case study, 20-17 through 20-21
use in measuring blade vibration,
10-8 through 10-10
Strain range partitioning, 6-11
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
I-10
Stress analysis,
general, 6-5, 6-6
Stress concentrations
as initiating site for fatigue, 20-3,
20-7, 20-8, 20-13, 20-15, 21-2,
21-8
in blade attachments, 5-6, 5-7, 5-13
lowering to reduce fatigue, 20-16,
20-22
Stress corrosion cracking
blades, Chapter 26
crack propagation by, 22-2
disc rim attachment, Chapter 25
distinguishing from corrosion
fatigue and fatigue, 14-15
effect of oxygen on, 22-4
features as compared to corrosion
fatigue, 24-1
Stress corrosion cracking in LP turbine
blades, Chapter 26
determining the extent of damage
by, 26-5
features, 26-1
features as compared to corrosion
fatigue, 26-1, 26-2
indications that stress corrosion
cracking is active, 26-2
longterm actions to prevent repeat
damage, 26-6, 26-9
mechanism, 26-2 through 26-5
morphology of cracking, 26-1
repairs, 26-6
role of material in promoting, 26-2
role of stresses in promoting, 26-4,
26-5
role of the environment in
promoting, 26-3 to 26-5
root causes, 26-5
susceptible units and locations ,
26-1, 26-2
unit precursors indicating stress
corrosion cracking may become
active, 26-2
Stress corrosion cracking of the disc
rim blade attachments, Chapter 25
actions, 25-35 through 25-41
assessment of, 25-26 through 25-28
case studies, 25-30, 25-31
crack growth rates, 25-13 to 25-18
determining the extent of damage,
25-19, 25-22
features of damage, 25-1, 25-2
indications that stress corrosion
cracking is active, 25-4
longer term actions, 25-26 through
25-29
mechanism, 25-5 through 25-19
repairs and actions that can be
conducted in current outage,
25-22 through 25-26
root causes, 25-19
susceptible units and locations,
25-2 through 25-4
unit precursors indicating stress
corrosion cracking may become
active, 25-5
Stress corrosion cracking in rotor/disc
materials
compared to corrosion fatigue, 25-1
through 25-3
counting initiation damage, 25-13
crack growth rates by, 25-13
through 25-18
effect of surface finish, 25-9
incubation and initiation, 25-8
through 25-12
influence of environment, 25-9
through 25-13
mechanistic aspects, 25-17 through
25-19
models of initiation, 25-13
propagation, 25-13 through 25-15
role of material strength, 25-8
role of materials, 25-17, 25-18
role of residual stresses, 25-9
role of stress, 25-9, 25-10, 25-16,
25-17
role of temperature, 25-8
stages of growth, 25-6, 25-7
Stress stiffening, 20-15, 24-19
Stresses
accuracy in blade analyses, 5-2
in blades, 5-2 through 5-14, 20-8,
20-9, 20-11, 20-12
Suction slots in stationary blades, as a
means of reducing damage from
liquid droplet erosion, 27-17
Superheating, 2-9
Supersaturation losses, 2-17, 2-18
Supervisory instrumentation, 10-2
Surface finish and loss of efficiency,
2-14
Surface layer activation, 17-17
Surface tension
effect on droplet nucleation, 8-3
Synchronous loads,
defined, 5-2
Synchronous resonance
in blades, 5-2, 5-8
T Titanium alloys
Tandem-compound designs,
defined, 3-6
Temperature-entropy diagrams for
steam, 2-3
Temper embrittlement
defined, 16-7
in HP blades, 16-7
Tenons,
repair, 13-6, 13-7
Thermal distortion
in HP diaphragms, 16-6, 16-7
Thermal expansion (differential)
as a result of water induction, 28-2,
28-4
Thermal shock, 28-1, 28-5
Thermocouples
for detecting water induction
episodes, 28-18 through 28-20
Thermodynamic principles
first law of thermodynamics, 2-1
historical perspectives, 2-1
second law of thermodynamics,
2-2
Thermowells
for detecting water induction
episodes, 28-18 through 28-20
Throttle control, defined, 3-13
Thrust bearings
damage caused by water induction
incidents, 28-1, 28-3, 28-4, 28-6
Thrust pressure,
increases as sign of copper
deposition in the HP turbine,
19-1, 19-4
“Tide” marks, as indication of solid
particle erosion, 17-2
Tiewires,
design, 4-3, 4-4
fatigue cracking from tiewire holes,
20-5, 20-8
loose or cracked, 13-6
modifying to reduce low cycle
fatigue, 20-16
repair, 13-6
“Tiger striping”, appearance of flow-
accelerated corrosion, 29-1
Titanium,
as a blading alloy, 4-10, 4-11
blading, fretting, 31-5
corrosion fatigue crack growth
rates in, 24-8, 24-9, 24-17
repair of titanium blades, 13-2
performance when exposed to
liquid droplet erosion, 27-12,
27-15, 27-16, 27-19
Torsional vibration, 10-11
Torsional Vibration Monitor (TVM),
10-11
Transgranular cracking,
as seen in corrosion fatigue
damage, 24-1
Tuning, blades, 5-8, 5-15, 5-16
to reduce fatigue, 20-16
Turbine condition assessment team
(T-CAT), 12-2 through 12-5
anticipating turbine damage, 1-6
to determine whether damage
precursors are occurring in the
unit, 12-3
to monitor turbine performance
between outages, 12-3
Turbine damage investigation flow-
chart, 1-6, 1-7, 14-2, 14-3
Turbine efficiency,
calculations, 2-2
decreases, caused by copper
deposition in the HP turbine,
19-5, 19-16, 19-19 through
19-21
Turbine exhaust,
design considerations, 3-8
Turbine instrumentation, 10-2
Turbine low flow operation, 32-3, 32-4
Turbulence,
role in causing flow-accelerated
corrosion, 29-4
12% Cr material
as a repair option for stress
corrosion cracking, 25-25, 25-26
U Volatility of impurities, 7-3 through 7-6
Underfrequency operation, 20-17
and its effect on blading, 5-11
Ultrasonic testing
for inspecting disc rim attach-
ments, 25-19, 25-22
Unit contract performance, differences
under IAPWS-IF97 and IFC-67, 2-2
Unit design
limitations imposed on the unit by
moisture and related damage, 27-5
Unit layup
and effect on impurities transported
to the turbine, 7-15, 7-16, 7-18
through 7-20
Unit heat rate, 2-2, 2-8
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
Unit precursors, table of, 14-4 through
14-9
Unstalled flutter, 5-12
V
Valves,
as an integral part of older casing
designs, 3-13
damage mechanisms, 3-14
design and features, 3-13
materials of construction, 3-13
valving options for partial load and
startup, 3-13
Valve seats, erosion, 30-1
Velocity compounding,
defined, 3-4
Velocity triangles, 5-18
defined, 3-3 through 3-5
Ventilation effect, see Overheating by
windage
Vibration,
blades, 20-4
clues to modes from fretting
damage patterns, 31-2
measuring, 20-14, 20-16
Vibration of bearings,
at harmonics that are fractions of
rotor speed (usually rubbing),
32-8
at harmonics that are at the rotor
speed (generally imbalance),
32-8
at harmonics that are two times the
rotor speed (generally misalign-
ment), 32-8
Videoprobes, 11-3, 11-4
Visual inspection
in general, 11-3 through 11-5
W
Wakes,
in flow, effect on blades, 5-8
through 5-10
Water
sources that can lead to turbine
damage, 28-1, 28-5 through
28-7
Water hammer, 28-4 through 28-6,
28-22
Water incidents, see Water induction
I-11
Water induction - Chapter 28
actions, 28-25 through 28-31
as cause of distortion, 16-7
case studies, 28-20 through 28-23
determining the extent of damage,
28-8
economic assessment of effects,
28-11 through 28-13
effects on turbine, 28-5
features of damage, 28-1 through
28-3
indications of this form of damage,
28-4
instrumentation to detect, 28-18
through 28-20
longterm actions and prevention of
repeat damage, 28-18 through
28-20
mechanism, 28-5
Chapters 1-13 can be found in Volume 1; 14-33 in Volume 2
I-12
“no single failure” criterion, 28-8
precursors to water induction, 28-4
repairs and immediate actions,
28-8
root causes, 28-5 through 28-7
sources of water, 28-5 through 28-7
susceptible units, 28-3
Water (steam) washing of turbine,
as a means of removing copper
deposits, 19-16
to remove deposits, 18-4 through
18-6
Water table studies of blade stresses,
5-2, 5-9
Water treatment plant
upsets leading to ingress of
contaminants, 22-6, 22-7, 22-9
Wear oxidation, see Fretting wear
Weld filler materials
for blade repairs, 13-2
for rotor repairs, 13-9
Weld repair,
of disc rim attachment areas,
25-25, 25-26
of erosion shields, 13-4, 13-5
of shielding on blades, 27-16,
27-18, 27-19
Wetness loss, 2-10
Wetness probes, 10-6, 10-7
application to liquid droplet erosion
evaluation, 27-23, 27-27
Wheel speed, 3-3
Wilson line or Wilson zone (see Phase
Transition Zone), 8-2
Windage, Chapter 32
calculation of windage power of a
stage, 32-3
Windage loss, 2-10
“Wire drawing”, type of erosion, 30-1
“Worming” erosion, 30-1