Relationship With Non-Muslims

Allah commands to justice and
kindness. God does not forbid you to

be kind and just with them. God loves
the just. Let not hatred sway you
from justice. Be just. Justice is nearest
RELATIONS
to consciousness of God. Allah
commands to WITH justice and kindness.
God doesNON-MUSLIMS
not forbid you to be kind
and just with them. God loves the just.
Let not hatred sway you
An introductory examination of the
Islamic textual evidence from justice.
for peaceful
Be just. Justice is nearest to
inter-faith relations
consciousness of God. Allah

commands to justice and kindness.
God does notDa‟wah forbid you to be kind
Institute of Nigeria
Islamic Education Trust
and just with them. God loves the just.
Let not hatred sway you from justice.
Be just. Justice is nearest to
consciousness of God. Allah
commands to justice and kindness.
RELATIONS WITH
NON-MUSLIMS
An introductory examination of the Islamic textual evidence for

peaceful inter-faith relations
Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria

2
©Islamic Education Trust, 1429/2008
ISBN 978-2159-52-2
All rights reserved: No part of this book may be reproduced in any

manner except with written permission from the publisher.

Islamic Education Trust Headquarters
PMB 229, Ilmi Avenue, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
Phone: +234-803-600-5535
Email: dawahinstitute@yahoo.com
Website: www.ietonline.org
3
Other Books in the Train-the-Trainers Course in
Islam and Dialogue 101 Series:
1. Authenticity of the Qur‟an

2. Understanding Misconceptions About Islam
3. Appreciating Diversity in Muslim Scholarship
4. What is “Islamic” Culture?
5. Should Muslim Women Speak?
6. Muslim Women in the Public Space
7. The Hijab Q & A
8. Is Polygamy Fair to Women?
9. Jihad and the Spread of Islam
10. Sharing Islam through Dialogue
4
CONTENTS
Foreword .................................................................................................. 7
Acknowledgements ................................................................................ 9
Notes on Terminology and Transliteration ......................................12
Preface… ...............................................................................................14
“Doesn‟t the Qur‟an oppose friendliness to non-Muslims?.. .........16

1) Friendliness to all people as the rule ...........................................22
2) Interfaith marriages and the quality of relationships ................24
3) Terms denoting close and friendly relations in the Qur‟an .....26
4) Commonly misinterpreted verses of the Qur‟an: ......................27
5) Verses prescribing kindness not „abrogated‟ ..............................38
6) Trusting non-Muslims ...................................................................39
7) Non-Muslims in the Mosque of the Prophet () .....................43
8) Good and bad members of all faith groups ...............................45
9) Concerns in selecting and initating friendships .........................46
10) Visiting and hosting non-Muslims...............................................49
11) Exchanging gifts with non-Muslims ...........................................51
12) Charity (sadaqah) to non-Muslims ..............................................52
13) Zakat al-Fitr to non-Muslims ........................................................55
5
14) Zakat to non-Muslims ...................................................................57
15) Protection and security of non-Muslim Citizens.......................63
16) Muslim minorities in non-Muslim territories .............................68
17) Relations with non-Muslim parents and relatives .....................71
18) The sanctity of all human life .......................................................73
19) Conclusion .............................................................................................. 77
Bibliography...........................................................................................79
Recommended Websites......................................................................92
6
FOREWORD TO THE SERIES
Islam is considered by many observers to be the fastest

growing religion in the world, yet it is the most misunderstood of
the world‟s major faiths. Some misconceptions about Islam stem
from calculated propaganda against Islam, but a good amount of it
is attributable to the ignorance of many Muslims whose limited
knowledge and practice of Islam perpetuates these
misconceptions.
Due to the deficiencies of the common, restricted way of
teaching Islam to children, many Muslims grow up believing that
Islam requires only blind faith and invites no intellectual
challenges. Often such Muslims manage with minimal knowledge
of their faith until they interact with larger circles of people, in
higher institutions or the work place, where they are confronted
with many misconceptions about Islam, and face questions they
cannot answer.
It is in response to the need for empowering Muslims to know
their religion, and to share its beautiful message with the rest of
humanity, that this work was begun.
This effort is part of a wider project of intellectual
empowerment of the global Muslim world. Among the programs
designed by the Islamic Education Trust over the past decade and
a half is the Train the Trainers Course (TTC) in Islam and
Dialogue. As its name indicates, the course is designed to train
da‟wah volunteers in clarifying misconceptions about Islam,
handling differences of opinion among Muslim scholars, and
extending personal leadership training to others. The contents of
this series of books evolved from teaching manuals from the TTC.
It is hoped that this publication will serve as intellectual resource
material for Muslims of different backgrounds.
7
Justice Sheikh Ahmed Lemu, OFR
National President
November 2008/Dhul-Qa‟dah, 1429 AH
8
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All praise and gratitude is due to Allah Who has made this
work possible. And may the peace and blessings of Allah be in His
last messenger, Prophet Muhammad.
The Prophet () said: “Whoever does not show gratitude to
people does not show gratitude to Allah”. It is therefore with great
pleasure that the Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria (DIN) takes this
opportunity to express its sincere gratitude to all the brothers and
sisters from all over the world, who have in various ways
contributed to the development of the Train the Trainers Course
in Islam and Dialogue (TTC) and its study material of which this
book is a part.
The material has evolved into its present form over a long
period before and after the TTC became an organized course in
1994.
The contributions to the course and its material have come in
many ways, through numerous channels, both formally and
informally, and from all over the world. They have come from
contributors of various backgrounds, age-groups, organizations,
and specializations.
It has unfortunately become practically impossible to cite all
who deserve mention - but Allah has counted them all, and we
continue to pray Allah to bless them with the best in this life and
the next. We will however mention at least the countries where the
major contributors have come from, and may Allah forgive us for
any omissions.
Contributions to the development of the course have come
from Australia, Bahrain, Burundi, Cameroun, Egypt, the Gambia,
Ghana, Jordan, Kenya, Liberia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Niger, the
Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sri
Lanka, Sudan, U.K., U.S.A., and most importantly, Nigeria.
9
In Nigeria, we would like to acknowledge the following
organizations for their key support in the development of the TTC
material. They include the Da‟wah Coordination Council of
Nigeria (DCCN), the Federation of Muslim Women‟s Associations
in Nigeria (FOMWAN), the Movement for Islamic Culture and
Awareness (MICA), the Muslim Students Society of Nigeria
(MSSN), the Muslim Corpers Association of Nigeria (MCAN), and
the Nasirul Fatih Society of Nigeria (NASFAT). Others include
numerous University departments, Colleges of Education, Colleges
of Arts and Islamic Legal Studies, etc.
We wish to acknowledge those who, to the best of our
knowledge, had the greatest input to the TTC 101 Series. The chief
editor of the material was Asiya Rodrigo, who also located most of
the references and citations in this work. Others who greatly
assisted in important capacities such as structure, content, clarity,
style and preparation of the materials for printing include Justice
Sheikh Ahmed Lemu, B. Aisha Lemu, Abdullahi Orire, Isa Friday
Okonkwo, Muhammad Dukuly, Salatu Sule, Bashir Mundi,
Nuruddeen Lemu, and Aliyu Badeggi.
Finally, and on behalf of all the research team and staff of the
Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria (DIN), I would like to pray for the
Trustees and minds behind the Islamic Education Trust (IET), and
the DIN in particular, Justice Sheikh Ahmed Lemu and B. Aisha
Lemu, whose wisdom, support, encouragement and leadership
have helped bring the DIN to where it is today alhamdulillah and
jazākum Allahu khair.
As only the Qur‟an is perfect, this material will by Allah‟s leave
continue to evolve through revisions and improvements with
better contributions from people like you, the reader, inshā Allah.
May the reward for whatever benefit comes from this material
go to those who have in any way contributed to it. The Da'wah
Institute of Nigeria (DIN) takes full responsibility for any
10
imperfection in this work, and we pray that such will be forgiven
by Allah and you the reader.
Alhaji Ibrahim Yahya

Director
January, 2009
Muharram, 1430 A.H.
11
NOTES ON TERMINOLOGY AND
TRANSLITERATION
 Use of “”
It is a time-honored and cherished tradition among Muslims
that whenever the name of any of the numerous Prophets of God
is mentioned, peace and blessings of God are invoked upon him.
In line with this tradition and the injunction in Qur‟an 33:56,
wherever the title “the Prophet,” “Messenger of Allah,” “Apostle
of Allah,” or the Prophet's name, “Muhammad,” appears in this
text, the blessing in Arabic () appears next to it. It means “may
the peace and blessings of Allah be upon him.” Contemporary
writings on Islam by Muslims use many variations and
abbreviations of this benediction in Arabic or English or other
languages such as “S.A.W.”, “s.a.s.”, “s”, “p”, “pbuh” and others.
In deciding which customary symbol to use, it is worth mentioning
that in manuscripts belonging to the first two centuries of Islam‟s
intellectual heritage the writers did not rigidly adhere to the custom
of writing a benediction after the Prophet‟s name1, and hence,
there is no „best‟ way of representing it.
 References to ahadith2 and commentaries drawn from

computer software
Efforts have been made to ensure that all ahadith (narrations
or reported actions of Prophet Muhammad ) in this material are
drawn from reliable and well-respected collections. Reservations
1
Jeffrey Lang, Struggling to Surrender: Some Impressions of an American
Convert to Islam (Beltsville, USA: Amana Publications, 1994), p. ix.
2
Plural of hadith the narrations or reported actions of the Prophet
Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him.
12
expressed by respected authorities about the authenticity of any
hadith have been indicated in footnotes, even as its presence in
this text indicates that it is considered authentic by other scholars
of repute. An abundance of Islamic classical texts and some of
their translations now exist on CD-ROMs.3 The present material
has made use of some of these CD-ROMs for obtaining ahadith
and their commentaries (tafasir). The most commonly utilized
CD-ROM database of hadith in English has been the Alim
Version 6.0 software. Hence, references to hadith collections that
end with the phrase “in Alim 6.0” throughout this material refer
to those obtained from the Alim Version 6.0 database (ISL
Software Corporation, 1986-2000). References to collections of
hadith commentaries which have been drawn from other CD-
ROMs have been noted in footnotes throughout the text.
 Transliteration of Arabic words

Modern Islamic literature in English utilizes a number of
transliteration systems for Arabic words. With a few exceptions,
this material has followed the system used by the majority, the
details of which may be found in the International Journal of
Middle East Studies.4 However, for our ease and simplicity, we
have omitted the diacritical dots and dashes which facilitate exact
pronunciations. It is expected that this should not render the
words unreadable.
3
Database software for viewing information on computers.
4
With a few exceptions.
13
PREFACE
Islam is considered by many observers to be the fastest

growing religion, yet it is the most misunderstood of the world‟s
major faiths. Misconceptions about Islam stem from calculated
propaganda against Islam, but a good amount of it is attributable
to the ignorance of many Muslims whose limited knowledge and
practice of Islam perpetuates these misconceptions. Many Muslims
grow up believing that Islam requires only blind faith and invites
no intellectual challenges. Often such people are able to minimally
manage their faith until they interact with larger circles of people in
places, such as schools or workplaces, and are confronted with
many misconceptions about Islam.
It is in response to the need for empowering Muslims to,

not only preserve their religion, but to share its beautiful message
with the rest of humanity that this work was begun.
Muslims live in a world where interactions between people

of all faiths and nationalities are increasingly common, whether
through travel, television, radio, telephone or the internet. Trade
and services now transcend national boundaries while societies are
becoming increasingly multicultural and multi-religious. In this
context, peaceful and amicable relations between Muslims and
other religious groups are essential not just for the advancement of
Muslim societies, but for facilitating better communication and
reception of the Islamic message. This da„wah-conducive
relationship should not compromise Islamic values and the
security of Muslims‟ lives.
14
Yet many non-Muslims and even Muslims are of the
opinion that Islam is inherently against any form of friendliness
with those who do not ascribe to the faith. In fact, many assume
that Islam prescribes the normative relationship between Muslims
and non-Muslims to be one of war and intolerance. This position
is commonly pushed by antagonists of Islam for the dual purpose
of undermining a Muslim‟s pride in his faith and a non-Muslim‟s
confidence in having any interactions with Muslims. It is
incumbent upon Muslims in today‟s world to understand the true
positive and realistic attitude of Islam to interfaith relations in
order to feel uplifted and strengthened against those who may
attempt to undermine their faith. Hence, the question discussed in
this book is phrased as a non-Muslim might ask it.
15
RELATIONS WITH NON-MUSLIMS5
Question: “Even though some Muslims appear to be friendly

with non-Muslims, does the Qur‟an not teach against
friendliness with non-
Muslims (as in Qur‟an 5:51, “It may be that Allah will grant love
(and friendship) between you and those
57; 3:28)?”
whom you (now) hold as enemies: for
The Qur‟an and Hadith Allah has power (over all things); and
make the position of Islam Allah is Oft-Forgiving Most
on the relationships between Merciful.”
Muslims and non-Muslims
abundantly clear. This Qur‟an 60:7
position is summarized in
Qur‟an 60:8-9 which says, “As for such (of the unbelievers) as do not
fight against you on account of (your) faith, and neither drive you forth from
your homelands, God does not forbid you to show them kindness and to behave
towards them with full equity: for verily, God loves those who act equitably.
God only forbids you to turn in friendship towards such as fight against you
because of (your) faith, and drive you forth from your homelands, or aid
(others) in driving you forth: and as
for those (from among you) who turn “…whoever pardons (his foe) and
toward them in friendship, it is they, makes peace, his reward rests with
they who are truly wrongdoers!” God…”
Qur‟an 42:40- 43
5 This topic treats relations with the usual majority of peaceful, friendly,
or non-hostile non-Muslims. The relations with hostile or aggressive
non-Muslims is treated under the topic “Jihad and the Spread of Islam”
in the relevant sections of the Train-the-Trainers Course in Islam and Dialogue
of the Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria. See the book by the same title, or
visit www.ietonline.org for more information on this.
16
“The expression „God does not
forbid you‟ implies in this context a Tabari explains that, “The
positive exhortation.”6 In other most credible view is that
words, Muslims are enjoined to the verse refers to people of
relate with non-Muslims amicably, all kinds of creeds and
with kindness and with justice, religions who should be
unless they are hostile, persecute shown kindness and treated
or drive Muslims out of their equitably. Allah referred to
homes. It further reaffirms that all those who do not fight
Muslims should not even engage the Muslims or drive them
them in argument “except in a most out from their homes,
kindly manner” (Q.29:46). Ibn al- without exception or
Jawzi says, “This verse permits qualification.”
association with those who have
not declared war against the Muslims and allows kindness towards
them, even though they may not be allies.”7
In his Tafsir (commentary) on Q.60:8, Imam Al-Qurtubi said:
“This verse (Qur‟an 60:8)

permits association with
those who have not
6 Zamakhshari, cited in Muhammad Asad, The Message of the Qur‟an

(Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1980), footnote to Q.60:8-9
7 Zad al-Masir, vol.8, p.39; cited in Taha Jabir al-Alwani, Towards a Fiqh for
Minorities: Some Basic Reflections (London: International Institute of Islamic

Thought, 2003), p.26
17
declared war against the
The majority of commentators Muslims, and it allows
have agreed that this verse has not kindness towards them,
been abrogated. They cited the even though they may not
story reported by Al-Bukhari and be allies.”
Muslim of Asmā‟ bint Abubakr
when she asked the Prophet () if
- Ibn al-Jawzi
she could receive and be kind to
her non-Muslim mother who visited her in Madinah and the
Prophet () said „Yes‟. It was said that this verse was revealed in
this specific incident. Al-Mawardi and Abu Dawood reported
that Amir ibn Abdullah ibn Al-Zubair narrated that his father
told him that, before accepting Islam, Abubakr divorced his
wife Qatila, the mother of Asmā‟. When the truce was held
between the Prophet and the pagans of the Quraish, the mother
visited her daughter in Madinah and brought her a pair of
earrings and other gifts. Asmā‟ was reluctant to accept the gifts
before asking the Prophet. In answer to her question, Allah
revealed this verse [i.e. Q.60:8].8
Tabari further explains that, “The most credible view is that
the verse refers to people of all kinds of creeds and religions who
should be shown kindness and treated equitably. Allah referred to
all those who do not fight the Muslims or drive them out from
their homes, without exception or qualification.”9
8 Al-Qurtubi, quoted by Shaykh Abdul Fattah Abu Ghudda, Islamic

Manners. Trans. by Muhammad Zahid Abu Ghudda. Edited by S.M.
Hassan Al-Banna (Awakening Publications, 2001), pp.76-77; See Sahih al-
Bukhari, vol.3, no.789 for the hadith.
9 Cited in Taha Jabir al-Alwani, Towards a Fiqh for Minorities: Some Basic
Reflections (London: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2003),

p.26
18
When it comes to social relationships, which fall under the
category of mu„āmalāt (social transactions), the principle of
jurisprudence stands that everything is permissible except where
there is an explicit and decisive verse from the Qur‟an or Sunnah
stipulating otherwise.10 The normative stance of Islam is that
Muslims are enjoined to relate with all people with birr
(righteousness; goodness) and taqwa (piety; God-consciousness).11
Friendliness, then, with non-hostile non-Muslims is permitted
in Islam. An examination of Islamic sources addressing the
general treatment of non-Muslims results in the following
observations, which readers may variously consider as either
obvious, novel, or debatable.
10 This is the first principle of Usul al-Fiqh which in Arabic is called “Al-
„asl fil ashyā„i al-ibaahah” (“the legal premise of everything is
permissibility”). See Yusuf al-Qaradawi‟s discussion of this principle in
The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam (London: Al-Birr Foundation, 2003),
pp.3-7, and Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Qawa‟id al-Fiqh: The Legal
Maxims of Islamic Law, (The Association of Muslim Lawyers, UK, 1998),
p.2. For more information on this and other principles of Usul al-Fiqh,
see Tariq Ramadan‟s “Some General Rulings of Usul al-Fiqh” in To Be a
European Muslim (Leicester, UK: The Islamic Foundation, 1999); Michael
Mumisa‟s Islamic Law: Theory and Interpretation (Belstville, USA: Amana
Publications, 2002); Mohammad Hashim Kamali‟s excellent work,
Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ilmiah
Publishers, 1999 edition); and Wael B. Hallaq‟s A History of Islamic Legal
Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul al-Fiqh (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997).
11 See, for example, “…and do good (unto others) as Allah has done
good unto you; and seek not to spread corruption on earth: for, verily,
Allah does not love the spreaders of corruption” (Q.28:77); Q.2:44, 177;
3:92; 3:104; 5:2; 33:35; and 58:9.
19
1) Friendliness to people of other faiths is permitted in Islam,
while in some cases more intimate relationships may be
extended to Christians and Jews, who are described in the
Qur‟an as “Ahl al-Kitab” (“People of the Book” in
English).12
2) The permissibility of marriage between Muslim men and
Alh al-Kitab women is proof that Islam favors harmonious
relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims.
3) The Qur‟an uses a number of terms denoting friendly
relations with reference to Muslims as well as non-
Muslims.
4) Certain verses of the Qur‟an have been misinterpreted to
suggest that Muslims may not befriend any non-Muslim
under any circumstance.
5) Many esteemed classical commentators of the Qur‟an state
that verses prescribing kindness to non-aggressive non-
Muslims are not abrogated by subsequently revealed
verses.
6) The Prophet () trusted certain non-Muslims with his life
and the lives of other Muslims. The type of individuals that
are trustworthy may thus be derived from the Qur‟an and
Sunnah.
7) The Prophet‟s openness to friendly relations with non-
Muslims was such that he freely allowed them into his
mosque to resolve upon mutual pacts and alliances as late
as 10A.H. If all non-Muslims are enemies by default and
not to be befriended, he would not have done so.
8) Islamic sources make it clear that there are good and bad
members of all faith groups.
12Examples of the Qur‟an‟s use of the expression “Ahl al-Kitab” include

2:105, 2:109, 2:144-146, 2:159, 2:213, 29:46-47, 3:100, 3:110, 3:113,
4:123, 4:131, 5:77, etc.
20
9) Muslims are to take care in selecting and initiating positive
friendships and influences.
10) Muslims are allowed to visit non-Muslim associates and
neighbors, accept invitations from non-Muslims, and host
non-Muslims in their homes.
11) Cementing positive relationships through exchanging gifts
with non-Muslims is also permitted in Islam.
12) Kindness and friendly gestures such as giving charity
(sadaqah) to all people, including non-Muslims, is
encouraged in Islam.
13) Charity to non-Muslims may take the form of Zakat al-Fitr,
given by Muslims as a spiritual complement to their fast of
Ramadan.
14) Some scholars also permit giving Zakat to non-Muslims
under at least one category of beneficiaries listed by
Q.9:60.
15) Islamic law specifies that non-Muslim citizens of an
Islamic territory must be protected.
16) Muslim minorities in non-Muslim territories are obliged to
honor their terms of residence and cultivate a local Muslim
identity in keeping with the way of a society and positive
Islamic contribution.
17) Muslims are also expected to be dutiful to their non-
Muslim parents and kin.
18) Islam views every human life as sacred and containing a
spirit from God (Allah) in it. Therefore, respect and good
treatment to others, irrespective of faith, is encouraged as
the norm.
The preceding points are discussed in further detail throughout the

remainder of this book.
21
1) Friendliness to all faiths, and more intimate relationships
with the “People of the Book”13
The kindness14 and fair, peaceful relationship spoken of in
Qur‟an 60:8-9 (cited on page
13) applies to all peace-loving “I have not been sent as the invoker
non-Muslims, whether they are of curses; I have only been sent as a
of monotheistic, polytheistic, mercy.”
or non-religious persuasions. - Prophet Muhammad,
Regarding the general transmitted in Sahih Muslim
treatment of non-monotheists,
such as the Zoroastrians (Majus), the Prophet () is reported to
have said, "Treat them as you treat the People of the Book”.15 The
13
Or “People of Earlier Revelation”. For reasons why some scholars prefer
this translation of the term “Ahl al-Kitab”, see Muhammad Asad, The
Message of The Qur‟an (Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus), p.vi.
14
The Qur‟anic term birr, translated here as “kindness”, encompasses all
forms of sincere goodness, equity, charity, integrity, compassion, love,
devotion, and righteousness. See Q:2:177, and Hammudah Abdalati, Islam in
Focus (Riyadh: WAMY 1994), p.25
15
Reported by Malik and al-Shafi‟i, cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi‟s The
Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam, Chapter 2, Section: “The Meat of
Zoroastrians and Others Like Them” (London: Al-Birr Foundation, 2003),
p.49. Also see Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-Kharaj, pp.130-131; cited in Sa‟id
Ramadan, Islamic Law: Its Scope and Equity (London: Macmillan, 1961),
p.108. What usually comes at the end of reports of this hadith (i.e.: “(But) Do
not marry their women nor eat their meat”) is not considered authentic by the
compilers of ahadith. (Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi‟s The Lawful and the
Prohibited in Islam, Chapter 2, section: “The Meat of Zoroastrians and
Others Like Them” p.332, n.41).
This does not detract from the prohibition of eating the meat slaughtered by
polytheists (Q.2:173, 5:3, 6:121) and the prohibition of marriage to their
women, mentioned in the Qur‟an (60:10; 2:221; 5:5), is still applicable: “Do
not marry mushrik women until they become believers; a believing slave
woman is better than a free mushrik woman even though she pleases you.
22
majority of scholars state that Zoroastrians are polytheists16 and
thus that this precedent - "Treat them as you treat the People of the
Book” - also applies to people of other creeds besides the People of
the Book.17 Hence, the statement of the Prophet () is interpreted
to mean that non-Jews and non-Christians may be treated with the
rights, kindness and friendliness accorded to Jews and Christians
(“People of the Book”).18
Though, for moral, ethical and spiritual reasons, marriage to
polytheists and eating of their slaughtered meat is not permissible
to Muslims19, kindness and justice are to be given to all non-
Muslims. Disgracing or reviling others‟ beliefs is forbidden in
Islam, as Allah says in the Qur‟an, “Do not revile those whom others
invoke instead of God, lest they in retaliation revile Allah out of ignorance”
Likewise, do not marry (your girls to) mushrik men until they become
believers; a believing slave man is better than a free mushrik man even
though he pleases you…” (Q.2:221).
For further reading on the views of scholars on who the “Ahl-al-Kitab” are
and whether they still exist today, see the relevant sections of the Train the
Trainers Course in Islam and Dialogue material (produced by the Da„wah
Institute of Nigeria). Also see Sheikh Khalid Abdul-Qadir, Fiqh al-Aqalliyat
al-Muslimah (Lebanon: Darul-Iman, 1998) p.26-27; Zaidan, Al Mufassal fi
Ahkam al Mar‟ah, (Mu‟assasat al Risalah, Beirut, 1993)Vol. 6, p.307: Rashid
Rida, Tafsir al Manar, Vol. 6, p.190; Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, Ahkam
Ahl al-Dhimmah in CD Rom "Maktabah Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn al-Qayyim and
Ibn Jawzy, www.el-ariss.com 2002; Qurtubi, Al-Jami' Ahkam al-Qur'an,
(Dar al-Kutub Beirut 2001) Vol. 6, p.11.
16
Yusuf al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam (London: Al-
Birr Foundation, 2003), p.49
17
Sa‟id Ramadan, Islamic Law: Its Scope and Equity (London: Macmillan,
1961), p.108
18
See footnote 8 for examples of the Qur‟an‟s use of the expression “Ahl al-
Kitab” (“People of the Book”) in reference to Jews and Christians.
19
See Q.60:10 and 2:221 – quoted in footnote 9 above
23
(Q.6:108). The Prophet () exemplified this in his response when
it was said to him, “Pray to Allah against the polytheists and curse
them!” The Messenger () replied, “I have not been sent as the invoker
of curses; I have only been sent as a mercy.”20 In another hadith, he is
also reported to have said, “I have been sent to join ties of relationship”21;
and when Aisha wanted to retort to some Jews who had insulted
the Prophet (), he said to her, “O Aisha, be gentle and beware of being
harsh and of saying evil things.”22
This considerate relationship is extended to the permission for
Muslim men to marry upright or chaste Christian or Jewish
women (“People of the Book”)23. Muslims are also allowed to eat
meat slaughtered by Jews or Christians.24
2) Sanction for interfaith Islam would tolerate a Muslim

marriage as proof of man initiating and having a
Islam‟s promotion of relationship as close and
harmonious interfaith intimate as that of marriage
relationships with a Christian or Jewish
The fact that Islam would wife, in spite of the difference
tolerate a Muslim man initiating in faith.
and having a relationship as
20
Sahih Muslim, no.1192 in Alim 6.0
21
22
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.8, no.410 in Alim 6.0
23
See Q.5:5. Marriage to any non-Muslim man is, however, prohibited for a
Muslim woman. The wisdom of this prohibition is discussed further in the
topic “Why can‟t a Muslim woman marry a non-Muslim man?” found in the
relevant sections of Train the Trainers Course in Islam and Dialogue by the
Da„wah Institute of Nigeria.
24
See Q.5:5
24
close and intimate as that of marriage with a Christian or Jewish
woman, in spite of the difference in faith, points to the extent of
expression of love and kindness that a Muslim is allowed to offer
some non-Muslims.25 It is also proof that Islam does allow
genuine friendship with non-Muslims, for marriage is a
relationship that the Qur‟an characterizes as one of “tranquility”
and “mutual love and mercy” (Q.30:21) – qualities that also
characterize the closest of friends.26 As with all relationships, and
irrespective of the person‟s faith, such a marriage should not be
allowed to undermine Islamic ideals.
25
This level of respect and, indeed, love is not morally permissible to initiate
in some other religions. (See legal studies on Christianity and Judaism, for
example, where any form of interfaith marriage is prohibited, whether male
or female. This prohibition is derived by Christian and Jewish scholars in
view of II Corinthians 6:14-15, I Corinthians 7:39, Exodus 34:12-16,
Deuteronomy 7:1-4, Ezra 10:2-3, Nehemiah 13:25-27, etc. in the Bible. In
Christianity, however, an already existing interfaith marriage is tolerated if
one of the partners accepts Christianity and the other does not (I Corinthians
7:12-14)). Contemporary canons of Catholicism and guidelines for pastoral
practice in Protestant churches, however, accommodate the fact that interfaith
marriages are legitimate in common law. See:
http://www.religioustolerance.org/ifm_bibl.htm, 2005, for more information
about Biblical teachings on inter-faith marriages.
26
For more on the subject of relations with People of the Book, refer to
topics in the relevant sections of the Train the Trainers Course (TTC) in
Islam and Dialogue (op. cit.) titled: “Is the food of Non-Muslims permissible
to eat?”, “Why can a Muslim man marry a Jewish or Christian woman?” and
“Why can‟t a Muslim woman marry a Non-Muslim man?”. See also further
readings referred to in footnote 9 above.
25
3) Some Qur‟anic terms for close relationships do not
exclude non-Muslims in their scope
The Qur‟an uses different terms to express a degree of close or
positive association between people. These include the terms: hubb,
akh, and mawaddah in the following verses:
a. Hubb – “love” (as in Q.28:56) – “Verily, you cannot guide
aright everyone whom you love (man ahbabta), but it is Allah who
guides whom He wills, and He is fully aware of all those who receive
guidance.” This verse was revealed in relation to the
Prophet‟s uncle, Abu Talib, who supported him and whom
he loved dearly but could not convince to become a
Muslim. The verse is a clear indication of the fact that non-
Muslims may be among those whom we love and hold
even our closest relationships with.27
b. Mawaddah – “love, friendly relations” (as in Q.60:7) –
“Perhaps Allah will make friendly relations between you and those
whom you hold as enemies. And Allah has power over all things,
and Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.” This verse refers to
Allah‟s ability to place love (or at least warm sentiment)
between oneself and one‟s enemies, which may include
non-Muslims, as understood from the context of verses 8
and 9 of the same chapter which refer to kindness to Non-
Muslims who do not fight against Muslims. Q.30:21 also
speaks of love between husbands and wives, while Q.5:82
mentions Christians being nearest in love to the believers.
c. Akh – “brother”. The Qur‟an refers to Prophets and the
people they deliver their Message to as brethren. For
27
Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur‟an: English Translation of the Meanings and
Commentary. Revised by The Presidency of Islamic Researches, IFTA, Call
and Guidance (Madinah: King Fahd Holy Qur‟an Printing Complex, 1411H),
p.1136, n.3388.
26
example, “…the brethren of Lut...” (Q.50:12-14). The term
“their brother” is also mentioned with respect to Nuh
(Q.26:106), Hud (Q.26:124, 7:65, 11:50, 46:21), Salih
(Q.26:142, 27:46, 7:73, 11:61), and Shu„aib (Q.26:176, 7:85,
11:84, 29:36). Yusuf Ali makes the following comment on
the use of the word “brethren”:
Note that Lot‟s people are the people to whom he is
sent on a mission. He was not one of their own
brethren, as was Salih or Shu„aib. But he looked upon
his people as his brethren, as a man of God always
does.28
In other words, non-Muslims also belong to the
brotherhood of humanity. The relationship term “brother”
may thus be addressed to them, and not just to fellow
Muslim believers.
4) Commonly
misinterpreted verses of
“The term wali has several shades
the Qur‟an: of meaning: “ally”, “friend”,
Many misinterpreted “helper”, “protector”,
verses of the Qur‟an make “guardian”, etc. The choice of
use of the term “wali” which the particular term – and
means protector, guardian, sometimes a combination of two
willing subordinate, terms is always dependent on the
responsible manager, master, context.”
superior, or favored servant - Muhammad Asad
or companion; confidante.
28
p.422, n.1049 to Q.7:80
27
The term often implies one party being superior in rank and
authority to another.29
Muhammad Asad notes:
It should also be borne in mind that the term wali has several
shades of meaning: “ally”, “friend”, “helper”, “protector”,
“guardian”, etc. The choice of the particular term – and
sometimes a combination of two terms is always dependent on
the context.30
Let us examine some examples of misinterpreted verses one by
one:
a. Qur‟an 3:28: In cases where the interests of the
“Let not the believers “deniers of truth” clash with the interests
take those who deny the of the faithful, it would be hypocritical
truth for their allies for any believer to ally himself with a
(awliyā’) in preference denier of truth in preference to fellow
to the believers – since believers.
he who does this cuts
himself from God in everything – unless you fear from them
something that is to be feared (to protect yourselves against them
in this way)…”
This injunction is logical from any religion‟s point of view. In
cases where the interests of the “deniers of truth” clash with the
interests of the faithful, it would be hypocritical for any believer to
ally himself with a denier of truth in preference to fellow believers.
Verses such as this one imply that a hierarchical relationship
(where deniers of truth have authority over believers) should not
be sought after. This understanding is consistent with a number of
29
Al-Mawrid (Beirut, Lebanon: Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin, 1996), p.1248
30
M. Asad, The Message of the Qur‟an (Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1980),
p.155
28
other verses which encourage guardianship and protection
between believers, and discourage Muslims from taking protection
from non-Muslims who subordinate them, in preference to other
Muslims who have their interests at heart.
Imam al-Tabari explains that:
Whoever is loyal to Jews and Christians against believers is one
of them… No one can be loyal to others unless he is part of
them and is content with that. If he is content with their beliefs
and their religion, he becomes an enemy and hates whatever
disagrees with the [beliefs of those he has supported], and will
be judged according to the
same judgments that are Not taking disbelievers as
applied to these people.31 “awliyā‟” does not mean one
cannot bring them close, as
Ibn Kathir‟s comments that demonstrated by the
what is meant in Q.3:28 is that relationships of the Prophet
Allah forbids his servants from () and the expressions of
taking a party of disbelievers as positive relations in the
“awliyā‟” and extending love to Qur‟an as mentioned above.
them at the expense of believers,
and that this corroborates Allah‟s words in Q.60:1:
“…take not my enemies and yours as awliyā‟, offering them your
love even though they have rejected the truth that has come to you and
driven out the Messenger and yourselves simply because you believe in
Allah, your Sustainer…”32
It also relates to Q.8:73 which states, “Those who deny the truth
are awliyā‟ of one another. Unless you do likewise, there will be tumult and
31
Tafsir al-Tabari, vol.6, p.179, quoted in Salim Al-Bahnasawy, Non-
Muslims in the Shari‟ah of Islam (Egypt: Dar an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at, 2004),
p.50, emphasis added.
32
This explanation may be found in the Tafsir of Ibn Kathir, in Maktab
Taalib al-Ilm CD-ROM (Beirut, Lebanon: Ariss Computers Inc., 2002).
29
oppression on earth.”33 Yusuf Ali elaborates that the message of this
verse is that the good should
consort with the good just as “The fact that their being bent on
the evil consort with each denying the truth of the divine
other; otherwise the world message constitutes, as it were, a
will give way to aggression common denominator between
and chaos.34 Hence, the them, and precludes the
verse is not condemning possibility of their ever being real
general friendliness to non- friends [supporters in faith] to the
Muslims. Rather, it believers. This refers, of course,
condemns favoritism and to relations between communities,
preference for disbelievers, and not necessarily between
particularly those who have individuals: hence the rendering
recently persecuted or are of the term awliya, in this context
presently persecuting as „allies‟”
Muslims. - Muhammad Asad
Moreover, not taking
disbelievers as “awliyā‟ ” does not mean one cannot bring them
close, as demonstrated by the relationships of the Prophet () and
the expressions of positive relations in the Qur‟an as mentioned
above. Hence, the degree of “al-walā‟” (i.e. guardianship,
protection, alliance, etc.) mentioned in this verse does not
generally prohibit a friendly relationship with non-Muslims.
33
Ibid.
34
n.1242, cited in Alim 6.0
30
b. Qur‟an 4:139: “As for those who take the deniers of truth
for their allies (awliyā’) in preference to the believers – do they
hope to be honored by them, when behold, all honor belongs to
God (alone).” The term „allies‟ (awliyā‟, sing.
wali) does not indicate in this
This verse is similar in context, merely political alliances,
meaning to the preceding one, but more than anything else a
and also does not negate general „moral alliance‟ with the deniers
friendly relations. Here, believers of truth in preference to the way
are discouraged from seeking an of life of the believers, in the
alliance which may make them hope of being „honored‟ or
subordinate to disbelievers in accepted as equal, by the former.
order to be accepted.
Muhammad Asad (1980) writes:
The term „allies‟ (awliyā‟, sing. wali) does not indicate in this
context, merely political alliances, but more than anything else a
„moral alliance‟ with the deniers of truth in preference to the
way of life of the believers, in the hope of being „honored‟ or
accepted as equal, by the former. Since an imitation of the way
of life of confirmed unbelievers must obviously conflict with
the moral principles demanded by true faith, it unavoidably
leads to a gradual abandonment of those principles.35
Ibn Kathir states that the verse rebukes believers who seek
eminence in the eyes of disbelievers, while all power and
authority belong to Allah.36 Al-Qurtubi states that those
referred to in the verse are hypocrites (munafiqun) who connive
with others against Islam in order to win recognition and
favor. This, he says, is evidence that rebelling against the
35
p.131
36
Tafsir of Ibn Kathir, in Maktab Taalib al-Ilm CD-ROM (Beirut, Lebanon:
Ariss Computers Inc., 2002).
31
people of tawheed (pure Islamic monotheism) is a sign of
hypocrisy.37
c. Qur‟an 5:51: “O you who have attained to faith! Do not

take the Jews and Christians for your allies/protectors (awliyā’):
they are but allies/protectors (awliyā’) of one another…”
The meaning of this verse is related to that of Q.4:139 above.
Believers are warned that Jews and Christians, as communities,38
should not be sought after as guardians wielding authority over
them, as they have their own interests to protect and would not be
committed to protecting the interests of Islam.
Al-Qurtubi states that those addressed in this verse are
hypocrites who were apparently among the Madinan believers but
who were associating with disbelieving opponents and revealing
Muslims‟ secrets to them. He also states that it is said that the
verse was revealed concerning a hypocrite called Abu Lubabah.
However, Sa'di said it was revealed concerning the event of Uhud,
when the Muslims were afraid to the extent that some of them
decided to take the Christians and Jews as confidantes. Another
narration said it was revealed in the case of Abdullah ibn Ubayy
ibn Salool, who was afraid of being involved in a calamity and thus
took protection among the Jews. Al-Qurtubi states that in doing
so, Abdullah ibn Ubayy was considered by Allah to be among
37
Tafsir al-Qurtubi, in Maktab Taalib al-Ilm, op. cit.
38
Muhammad Asad‟s commentary of Q.8:73, a verse identical in substance
to Q.5:51 is: “The fact that their being bent on denying the truth of the divine
message constitutes, as it were, a common denominator between them, and
precludes the possibility of their ever being real friends [supporting in faith]
to the believers. This refers, of course, to relations between communities,
and not necessarily between individuals: hence the rendering of the term
awliya, in this context as „allies‟” (M. Asad, The Message of the Qur‟an,
Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1980, p.253, n.82).
32
them, since they had willfully disobeyed Allah and His Prophet
and yet he inclined towards them.39
d. Qur‟an 2:120: “Never will the Jews or the Christians be

satisfied with you unless you follow their form of religion. Say:
‘The Guidance of Allah – that is the only Guidance.’ Were you to
follow their desires after the The verse (Q. 2:120) was revealed
knowledge which has in the specific context of the
reached you, then would you Prophet‟s discussions with some
find neither protector nor People of the Book.
helper against Allah.”
- Ibn Kathir
This verse is closely
related to the verses mentioned earlier which make the realistic
observation that disbelievers are not suited to safeguard Muslims‟
interests because they have their own interests to protect, and
Muslims should not hope to attain their favor as opposed to the
favor of Allah.
This point is expressed in another verse, particularly regarding
antagonist non-Muslims:
They will spare nothing to ruin you; they yearn for what makes you
suffer. Hatred has been expressed by their mouths, but what their
hearts conceal is still greater. Thus have We made clear to you the
signs, if you possess understanding. Lo! You love them, but they do
not love you… (Q.3:118-119)
Ibn Kathir comments that Qatadah narrated that Q.2:120 was
revealed in the specific context of the Prophet‟s discussions with
some People of the Book. Allah was assuring the Prophet () that
he should not be stirred by their disputation for their hearts,
having already been satisfied with disbelief, would never find any
39
Ibid.
33
explanation by the Prophet () satisfactory, while he should know
that he is upon true guidance.40 Ibn Kathir also said that the verse
contains a strong warning for Muslims to avoid following the
(religious) paths of Jews and Christians41 after what they (i.e.
Muslims) have learned of the truth from the Qur‟an and example
of the Prophet ().42 The Qur‟an declares itself as the final and
most preserved revelation, and a correction of the errors of belief
and practice of those claiming allegiance to earlier revelations –
hence, the warning to desist from reverting to error.
One may infer from these explanations that the verse refers to
Jews and Christians as a group, and their religious paths, rather
than the attitudes and sincerity of individuals among them who
may be favorably disposed towards Islam and Muslims.
Furthermore, it is common knowledge that many individuals
from among non-Muslim communities embrace Islam
wholeheartedly, and thus do become satisfied with it. Others
remain non-Muslim but bear no ill will towards Islam or Muslims,
and may even, like the Prophet‟s uncle Abu Talib, come to its
defense for the sake of justice or filial duty. We may therefore
safely conclude that though Q.2:120 and Q.3:118-119 apply to
particular communities, they do not necessarily apply to every one
of its members.
40
Tafsir of Ibn Kathir, in Maktab Taalib al-Ilm CD-ROM (Beirut, Lebanon:
Ariss Computers Inc., 2002).
41
Al-Qurtubi states that a great number of scholars such as Abu Hanifa,
Shafi„i, Dawood, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, etc. hold the view that disbelief in its
entirety is one path, as opposed to truth, while Malik and Ahmad hold that
disbelief has many different paths (Maktab Taalib al-Ilm, op. cit.)
42
Tafsir Ibn Kathir, op. cit.
34
e. Qur‟an 5:57: “O you who have attained to faith! Do not
take for yourselves allies/protectors (awliyā’) such as mock at
your faith and make a jest of it – be they from among those who
have been vouchsafed revelation before your time, or (from
among) those who deny the truth…”
The type of disbelievers referred to in the verse above is made
clearer through an examination
of the verses that follow:
“…making alliances with non-
And when you proclaim the call Muslims in ways that will
to prayer, they take it (but) as a benefit the believers or prevent
mockery and fun, that is harm from them is a matter of
because they are a people who discretion which the majority of
understand not. Say, „O people scholars have permitted.”
of the Scripture, do you criticize
- Rashid Rida
us for no other reason than that
we believe in Allah, and in that which has been sent down to us and
in that which has been sent down before…(Q.5:58-59)
As has been made Ibn Abbas considered the mushrik
abundantly clear in Q.60:7- (one who ascribes divinity to others
9 (and implied in Q5:57 besides Allah) as being najas
above), as well as the (impure) because of their shirk
numerous sayings and (ascribing divinity to others besides
actions of the Prophet Allah) – the shirk being what is
Muhammad (), this actually najas.
prohibition of a „moral - Qurtubi
alliance‟ with non-Muslims
who mock Islam does not constitute an injunction against normal
friendly relations with those of them that interact with Muslims
35
respectfully or peacefully; nor is it an injunction against accepting
assistance from non-Muslims whose sincerity is not in doubt.43
God only forbids you to turn in friendship towards (an
tawallawhum) such as fight against you because of (your) faith, and
drive you forth from your homelands, or aid (others) in driving you
forth: and as for those (from among you) who turn toward them in
friendship, it is they, they who are truly wrongdoers! (Q.60:9)
It may be inferred from this that Muslims may “tawalla” (i.e.
“turn to”) those non-Muslims that do not fight against or support
those who fight against Muslims on account of their faith.
f. Qur‟an 9:28: “O you who have attained to faith! Those

who ascribe divinity to aught besides God (mushrikūn) are
nothing but impure (najas), and so they shall not approach the
Secure House of Worship from this year onwards...”
Some conclude from this verse that since non-Muslims are
“impure”, Muslims cannot touch non-Muslims, let alone show them
affection or allow them into mosques, etc. However,
The term „najas‟ occurs in the Qur‟an only in this one instance,
and carries an exclusively spiritual meaning (see Manar X, 322
ff.). To this day, the Bedouin of Central and Eastern Arabia –
who, contrary to the modern town-dwellers, have preserved the
43
Such as some of the Prophet‟s uncles and non-Muslim political allies – see
relevant section on “Trusting Non-Muslims” below. Sheikh Muhammad
Rashid Rida also writes, “Forbidden in the issue of showing loyalty is when
Muslims show loyalty to Jews and Christians and make alliances with them
to support them against other Muslims or to convene with them against other
Muslims. But making alliances with non-Muslims in ways that will benefit
the believers or preventing harm from them is a matter of discretion which
the majority of scholars have permitted.” (Tafsir al-Manar, vol.16, pp.81-82;
quoted in Salim Al-Bahnasawy, Non-Muslims in the Shari‟ah of Islam,
Egypt: Dar an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at, 2004, p.52)
36
purity of the Arabic idiom to a high degree – describe a person
[even a Muslim] who is immoral, faithless or wicked as najas.44
Al-Qurtubi cites views of scholars such as the Companion,
Ibn Abbas, who consider the mushrik (one who ascribes divinity to
others besides Allah) as being najas (impure) because of their shirk
(ascribing divinity to others besides Allah) – the shirk being what is
actually najas, and not necessarily the individual‟s physical entity.45
Accordingly, Ibn Abdul-Hakam opines that this najas is removed
upon the acceptance of Islam.46 Al-Tabari cites a narration where
the Prophet () took Hudhayfah by the hand whereupon he
(Hudhayfah) said he was in a state of junub (impurity). The
Prophet () replied that a true believer is never impure. This
narration implies that an individual‟s real purity or impurity rests
in the purity of his faith.47
The text of this verse is explicit that any prohibition of non-
Muslims entering mosques refers specifically to the Protected
Mosque of Makkah (al-Masjid al-Harām). This is supported by the
Prophet‟s () allowing non-Muslims into his Mosque in Madinah
after this verse was revealed.48
The fact that the Qur‟an also permits marriage to a Jewish or
Christian woman further proves that this verse does not ascribe
44
Muhammad Asad, The Message of the Qur‟an (Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus,
1980), p.261, n.37
45
Tafsir al-Qurtubi, vol.8 (Beirut: Dar Ihya at-Turath al-Arab, 1985), p.103
46
Ibid.
47
Tafsir al-Tabari, vol.6 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1992), p.345
48
See section on “Non-Muslims were allowed into the Mosque of the
Prophet” below.
37
physical impurity to non-Muslims; rather, an impurity of faith,
concept of God, and understanding of His will.49
5) No abrogation of verses prescribing friendliness with

non-Muslims
Unfortunately, there is a tendency among some people to take
some passages or verses in the Qur‟an or hadith in isolation from
their context, without relating them to several others that explain
the whole subject better. These verses often relate to non-Muslims
who are hostile to Islam and have made war upon Muslims (as
explicitly mentioned in Qur‟an 3:118-119, 58:22 and 60:1, 9). Also,
as a number of great Qur‟anic commentators have made very clear,
verses of the Qur‟an which enjoin peaceful relations with peaceful
non-Muslims are fixed rules, and have not been “abrogated”
(“mansūkh”) by any other verse of the Qur‟an.50
“Among the People of the Book are

some who, if entrusted with a hoard
of gold, will (readily) pay it back;
others, who, if entrusted with a
single silver coin, will not repay it
unless you constantly stand
demandingly over them.”
49
See Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Abridged), vol.4 (Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers),
p.402
50
See for example Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi, An Introduction to the
Sciences of the Qur‟an (UK: Al-Hidaayah Publishing and Distribution,
1999), p.254; and Louay M. Safi, Peace and the Limits of War: Transcending
Classical Conception of Jihad (Herndon, USA: IIIT, 2001) for more details.
For further discussion on the subject of the “verse of the sword” abrogating
all other references to friendly coexistence with non-Muslims, see another
book in this series titled “Jihad and the Spread of Islam.”
38
6) Trusting non-Muslims - Qur‟an 3:75
The Qur‟an makes mention
of the fact that some non-Muslims are trustworthy. Qur‟an 3:75
states:
Among the People of the Book are some who, if entrusted with a
hoard of gold, will (readily) pay it back; others, who, if entrusted with
a single silver coin, will not repay it unless you constantly stand over
them demanding it.
Seeking help from non-Muslims was also done at the time of
the Prophet () and is thus permissible provided it does not
endanger or compromise Islamic values and principles. For
example, non-Muslims may be consulted and assigned positions of
trust in technical matters at private or governmental level, such as
in the fields of Medicine, Transport (e.g. pilots of air carriers),
Agriculture, Industry, Military equipment, etc. In such areas,
however, it is also encouraged that Muslims should collectively
strive to attain some autonomy and independent strength vis a vis
their status in comparison to non-Muslim states, in pursuit of
greater social equity and effective political and economic inter-
dependence in the world.
The Prophet () employed Abdullah ibn Uraiqit, a
polytheist, to be his guide on his “Hijra” (i.e. “flight; migration”)
from Makkah to Madinah. Aisha narrated that:
The Prophet and Abubakr “…the Prophet, peace be upon
employed a man from the him, hired a polytheist as a
tribe of Bani Ad-Dail and the
guide at the time of his
tribe of Bani „Abu bin „Adi as
a guide. He was an expert migration to Madinah, so he
guide and he broke the oath entrusted him with his life and
contract which he had to money.”
abide by with the tribe of Al- - Ibn Taymiyyah
„Asi bin Wail, and he was on
39
the religion of Quraysh pagans. The Prophet and Abubakr had
confidence in him and gave him their riding camels and told
him to bring them to the Cave of Thaur after three days. So, he
brought them their two riding camels after three days and both
of them (The Prophet and Abubakr) set out accompanied by
„Amir bin Fuhaira and the Dili guide who guided them below
Makkah along the road leading to the sea-shore.51
A person‟s state of unbelief, therefore, does not necessarily
mean that he is untrustworthy. The Prophet‟s life was at stake yet
this particular polytheist was trustworthy, and the Prophet trusted
him. Other trusted non-Muslims included Abu Talib, the
Prophet‟s beloved uncle, who gave the Prophet security in
Makkah, and Mut‟im bin „Adi, who was one of the leaders of
Makkah that sympathized and helped the Prophet () especially
during the years of the Boycott by the Makkans.52 It is also a well-
known historical fact that the Prophet () trusted the Christian
Ethiopian King, Negus, with the lives of the first group of
Muslim refugees escaping persecution from the polytheists of
Makkah.53
„…the Prophet, peace be upon
him, sent a man of the Khuza„ah
tribe to gather intelligence, and
the Prophet, peace be upon him,
accepted his report despite the
fact that he was a disbeliever.‟
51
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.3, hadith no.464, in Alim 6.0
52
Ibn Abidin, Hashiyah, vol.5, p.265; cited by Salim Al-Bahnasawy, Non-
p.67
53
Safiur-Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Al-Raheeq al-Makhtum (The Sealed
Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet), Revised edition (Riyadh:
Darussalam Publications, 2002), pp.118-123.
40
The author of the - Ibn Taymiyyah
renowned work, Fiqh us-
Sunnah, Sayyid Sabiq, states:
In his book, Al-Adab ash-Shari‟ah, Ibn Muflih writes that
Sheikh Taqiuddin Ibn Taymiyyah said: „A credible Jew or
Christian who has medical expertise may treat a sick Muslim.
Such a person may, likewise, be entrusted with funds or other
financial transactions, for Allah, the Exalted, says: “Among
the People of the Book are some who, if entrusted with a
hoard of gold, will (readily) pay it back; others, who, if
entrusted with a single silver coin, will not repay it unless you
constantly stand over them demanding it” (Qur‟an 3:75)‟ We
find in a sound hadith that the Prophet, peace be upon him,
hired a polytheist as a guide at the time of his migration to
Madinah, so he entrusted him with his life and money. The
people of the tribe of Khuza„ah, who were both Muslims and
Non-Muslims, acted as scouts for the Messenger of Allah,
peace be upon him. It is also reported that the Prophet, peace
be upon him, ordered Muslims to seek treatment from Al-
Harith ibn Kildah, who was a disbeliever. But when a Muslim
physician with the expertise is available, one should seek his
or her treatment and not turn to anyone else. The same
applies when one has to entrust a person with funds or deal
with him in business. If a Muslim has to confide in or turn to
someone from the people of the Book for medical treatment,
he may do so. It is not prohibited to befriend Jews and
Christians. And when the Muslim has an opportunity to talk
to them, he should address them in ways that are polite and
sincere. Indeed, Allah, the Exalted, says: “And do not argue
with the people of the Book, except in ways that are best.”
(Qur‟an 29:46) In a hadith on the Treaty of Hudaibiyyah, Abu
Al-Khattab tells us that, „the Prophet, peace be upon him,
sent a man of the Khuza„ah tribe to gather intelligence, and
the Prophet, peace be upon him, accepted his report despite
the fact that he was a disbeliever.‟ This proves, according to
41
Abu Al-Khattab, that it is quite permissible to take the advice
of a non-believing physician for diagnosis and treatment,
provided he is not suspected and his fidelity is not doubtful.54
Even as late in the sequence of revelation as the Farewell Hajj,
the Prophet () asked Al-Harith ibn Kildah, a non-Muslim
physician, to treat the illness of Sa‟d ibn Abi Waqqas.55
Trustworthiness, therefore, is an essential factor to consider when
seeking the assistance of a non-Muslim, or anyone else for that
matter.
54
Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh us-Sunnah, vol.4, hadith no.6A in Alim 6.0
55
Tafsir, al-Qurtubi, Vol.11, p.112, cited in Salim Al-Bahnasawy in Non-
Muslims in the Shari‟ah of Islam, 2004. Egypt: Dar an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at, p.67
42
7) Non-Muslims were allowed into the Mosque of the
Prophet ()
The respect Islam has for non-Muslims is such that the
Prophet () endorsed receiving
The Prophet () received
non-Muslims guests in his
about 60 Christian delegates
Mosque. For example, in the
from Najran. They ate, slept,
year 10 A.H.56, the „Year of
and were even permitted to
Deputations‟, the Prophet ()
pray in the Prophet‟s Mosque
received about 60 Christian
in Madinah.
delegates from Najran.57 They
ate, slept, and were even permitted to pray in the Prophet‟s
Mosque in Madinah.58 This shows the extent of respect the
56
This dating of the event is based on the following sources: Muhammad Al-
Ghazali, Fiqh-U-Seerah: Understanding the Life of Prophet Muhammad.
Revised edition with hadith authenticated by Nasiruddeen al-Albani (Riyadh:
International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, 1995), p.433
states that the Najran delegation was received at the time Q.3:59-61was
revealed. Muhammad Asad (The Message of the Qur‟an, Gibraltar: Dar al-
Andalus, 1980, p.76, n.48 to Q.3:61), meanwhile, states: “According to all
the reliable authorities, verses 59-63 of this Surah [3] were revealed in the
year 10H., on the occasion of a dispute between the Prophet and a deputation
of the Christians of Najran who, like all other Christians, maintained that
Jesus was „the son of God‟ and, therefore, God incarnate.” This dating is also
agreed by Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur‟an: English Translation of the Meanings
and Commentary. Revised by The Presidency of Islamic Researches, IFTA,
Call and Guidance (Madinah: King Fahd Holy Qur‟an Printing Complex,
1411H), p.158
57
Ibn al-Qayyim, Ahkam Ahl al-Dhimmah, Ed. As-Salih, Beirut: Dar al-Ilm
Lilmalayin, 1964, p.691; cited by Salim Al-Bahnasawy in Non-Muslims in
the Shari‟ah of Islam, 2004. Egypt: Dar an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at, p.77
58
Ibn al-Qayyim, Zād al-Ma„ād, vol.3, p.629; cited in Saeed Ismaeel, The
Relationship between Muslims and Non-Muslims (Originally published in
Toronto, Canada: Al-Attique International Islamic Publishing, 2000;
Republished in Lagos: Sawtul Haqq), p.59. The aspect of prayer in this
incident is, in the opinion of al-Albani (in his footnotes to Muhammad Al-
43
Prophet () had for the right of these Christians to practice their
faith.
Reports also indicate that he received some pagans of Banu
Thaqif from Taif in his Mosque in 9A.H.59 Al-Mubarakpuri,
author of the acclaimed biography of the Prophet (), the Sealed
Nectar (2002), writes that their “tent was erected in the corner of
the mosque so that they could listen to the Qur‟an and see the
people in prayer.”60
Furthermore, the hadith “There is no harm in a
collection of Imam Bukhari has polytheist staying in any
records of non-Muslim prisoners mosque except in the
of war who were held in the Inviolable Mosque (of
mosque.61 Imam al-Shafi„i writes Makkah).”
in al-Umm, “If a polytheist could
sleep in a mosque, then definitely - Imam al-Shafi„i
a Muslim can,” and in al-
Mukhtasar states, “There is no
harm in a polytheist staying in any mosque except in the Inviolable
Mosque (of Makkah).”62
Ghazali‟s Fiqh-U-Seerah: Understanding the Life of Prophet Muhammad,

Riyadh: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, 1995),
defective in the narration, though others consider it strong – see Muhammad
al-Ghazali‟s preface to Fiqh-U-Seerah.
59
Imtiaz Ahmad, “Friendship with Non-Muslims” in Speeches for an
Inquiring Mind (Madinah: Al-Rasheed Printers, 2001), p.57; Safiur-Rahman
al-Mubarakpuri, Al-Raheeq al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar: Biography of
the Noble Prophet), Revised edition (Riyadh: Darussalam Publications,
2002), p.522.
60
Al-Mubarakpuri, op. cit., p.523
61
E.g. Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.5, no.658 in Alim 6.0 on “Thumama ibn Uthal”.
62
Quoted in Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh us-Sunnah, vol.2, no.73a in Alim 6.0
44
Some Muslims unfortunately quote Q.9:17-18 as evidence for
the prohibition of non-Muslims entering mosques. The verses
read:
It does not befit those who ascribe divinity to any other than Allah,
to maintain the mosques of Allah… The mosques of Allah shall be
visited and maintained by only he who believes in Allah and the
Last Day, and who is steadfast in his prayers…
M. Asad (1980) notes that prohibiting non-Muslims from entering

all mosques based on this verse is not tenable:
… in view of the fact that in 9H. – that is, after the revelation
of this Surah – the Prophet himself lodged a deputation of
the pagan Banu Thaqif in the mosque of Medina (Razi).
Thus, the above verse expresses no more than the moral
incongruity of the unbelievers‟ “visiting or tending God‟s
houses of worship.63
Ibn Kathir notes that what is prohibited for non-Muslims to enter
is [only] the Masjid al-Haram (the Inviolable Mosque in Makkah).64
8) Good and bad people exist in all faiths

The Qur‟an and Sunnah “Let not the hatred of any people
make it clear that not all non- cause you to swerve from justice. Be
Muslims are bad people, just as just: this is nearest to being God-
not all Muslims are good conscious.” (Qur‟an 5:8)
people. There are honest and
63
Muhammad Asad, The Message of the Qur‟an (Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus,
1980), p.258, n.27. This incongruity of one who does not believe in
worshipping Allah maintaining the place where Allah is worshipped is also
mentioned by Abu Ja‟far. (See Tafsir al-Qurtubi, vol.8 (Beirut: Dar Ihya at-
Turath al-Arab, 1985), p.89).
64
Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Abridged), vol.4 (Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers), p.388
45
trustworthy people, along with hypocrites (munafiqun), and
wrongdoers (fasiqun), etc. among all religious and irreligious
communities. A few verses will suffice to demonstrate this point:
“(But) they are not all alike: among the followers of earlier revelation, there
are upright people…” (Q. 3:113)
“Among the followers of earlier revelation are some who, if entrusted with a
hoard of gold, will (readily) pay it back; others, who, if entrusted with a single
silver coin, will not repay it unless you constantly stand over them demanding
it.” (Q. 3:75)
“And there are people who say, „We do believe in God and the Last Day,‟
while they do not (really) believe. They would deceive God and those who have
attained to faith – they deceive none but themselves, and perceive it not.”
(Q. 2:8-9)
In other words, a person is not judged as bad and
untrustworthy just because he is a non-Muslim, nor is he
automatically good and trustworthy just because he calls himself a
Muslim. There should be reasonable trust and good expectations
of everyone, as Allah reminds us, “If you judge between mankind, judge
with justice” (Q.4:58) and “Do not let hatred of any people cause you to
swerve from justice. Be just: this is nearest to being God-conscious” (Q.5:8).
9) Friendship and influences

Interaction implies the “It is better to be alone than in bad
possibility of influence. This company; and it is better still be in
influence could be positive or good company than to be alone …”
negative, as influence is rarely
- Prophet Muhammad,
neutral. It is important for
transmitted in Sahih Bukhari
Muslims to recognize the
influence that others around
them have. Abu Musa al-Ash‟ari narrated that the Prophet ()
said:
46
The example of a good (pious) companion and an evil one is that of a
person carrying musk and another blowing a pair of bellows. The one
who is carrying musk will either give you some perfume as a present,
or you will buy some from him, or you will get a good smell from him,
but the one who is blowing a pair of bellows will either burn your
clothes or you will get a bad smell from him.65
If a Muslim realizes that his or her interaction with a particular
person, whether Muslim or non-Muslim, is having a negative
influence, then the following advice of the Prophet () becomes
applicable:
It is better to be alone than in bad company; and it is better still be
in good company than to be alone. It is better to speak to a seeker of
knowledge than to remain silent; but silence is better than idle
words.66
A Muslim should always “Do not be people without minds of
remember that every non- your own, saying that if others treat you
Muslim is a potential well you will treat them well and that if
Muslim, just as every weak they do wrong you will do wrong; but
Muslim is potentially a good accustom yourselves to do good if people
one (mu‟min), by Allah‟s do good and not to do wrong if they do
Grace. A Muslim should evil.”
therefore ensure, as much as
he can, that his life and - Prophet Muhammad,
relationships serve as a transmitted in Tirmidhi
testament to his faith.
Moreover, he should take the initiative to have a positive influence
on those around him. The following passages from the Qur‟an and
65
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.7, no.442; also found in vol.3, no.314, in Alim 6.0
66
Sahih al-Bukhari; Baihaqi
47
Hadith illustrate the manner and disposition enjoined on Muslims
to have such positive influence:
Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful
exhortation… And if you have to respond to an attack, respond only
to the extent of the attack leveled against you; but to bear yourselves
with patience is indeed far better for (you, since God is with) those
who are patient in adversity. (Q.16:125-126)
Do not speak to the people with your face turned away, nor walk
proudly on earth; for Allah does not love any arrogant boaster.
(Q.31:18)
Do you know what is better than charity and fasting and prayer? It
is keeping peace and good relations between people, as quarrels and
bad feelings destroy mankind.67
Do not be people without minds of “Allah will not give mercy to
your own, saying that if others treat anyone, except those who give
you well you will treat them well and mercy to other creatures”
that if they do wrong you will do - Prophet Muhammad,
wrong; but accustom yourselves to do transmitted by Abu
good if people do good and not to do Dawood, Tirmidhi
wrong if they do evil.68
A believer should not taunt, curse, abuse or talk indecently69
If someone abuses you, and reproaches you for what he knows about
you, then do not reproach him for what you know about him, so that
you may have the reward thereof and the sin thereof is against him.70
67
Muslim, Bukhari
68
Tirmidhi, no.1325 in Alim 6.0
69
Tirmidhi, no.544 in Alim 6.0
70
Abu Dawood, no.1889 in Alim 6.0
48
Do not revile those whom others invoke instead of God, lest they in
retaliation revile Allah out of ignorance. (Q.6:108)
Someone once said to the Prophet (), “Pray to Allah
against the idol-worshippers and curse them!” The
Prophet () replied, “I have not been sent as the invoker of
curses; I have only been sent as a mercy.”71
Allah will not give mercy to anyone, except those who give mercy to
other creatures.72
These passages and many others The kind of
assume that a Muslim would sometimes relationship that is
interact with those who are unpleasant prohibited between a
towards him or who oppose his beliefs. Muslim and non-
Therefore, the passages provide Muslim is that which
guidance from Allah‟s wisdom for such makes a Muslim
interaction. Though Muslims should be compromise the
cautious of negative influences within essential teachings of
the society, fear of this should not Islam, and do what
prevent them from relating with others Islam prohibits.
in a positive manner.
10) Visiting and Hosting Non-Muslims

Visiting non-Muslims is not only permissible but an
encouraged act of da„wah and relationship-building. Imam
Bukhari, for instance, records that Anas said, “A Jewish boy used
to serve the Prophet (). Once he fell ill and the Prophet ()
visited him and said to him, „Embrace Islam.‟ So he did.”73 Sa‟id
71
72
Narrated by Abdullah b. Amr; Abu Dawood, Tirmidhi
73
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.2, no.438; vol.7, no.561 in Alim 6.0; Ibn Hajr, Fath
al-Bari, vol.10, p.119, cited in Salim Al-Bahnasawy, Non-Muslims in the
Shari‟ah of Islam (Egypt: Dar an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at, 2004), p.57
49
ibn al-Musayyab narrated that the Prophet () also visited his
uncle Abu Talib when he was ill.74 This latter narration was
recorded by Imam Bukhari under a chapter entitled, “„Iyadatul-
Mushrik” (i.e. “Visiting polytheists who are unwell”).
Muslims are also permitted to accept invitations from non-
Muslims if it does not cause any harm to anyone, just as the
Prophet demonstrated (). For instance, Anas ibn Malik narrated
that:
Allah‟s Messenger () had a neighbor who was Persian [a
Zoroastrian], and he was an expert in the preparation of
soup. He prepared (soup) for Allah‟s Messenger () and then
came to him to invite him (to that feast). He () said, “Here
is Aisha (and you should also invite her to the meal).” He
said, “No,” then Allah‟s Messenger also said, “No (then I
cannot join the feast).” He (the Persian) returned to invite
him, and Allah‟s Messenger said, “She (Aisha) is also here.”
He said, “No” whereupon Allah‟s Messenger also said, “No”
(and declined his offer). He (the Persian) returned another
time to invite him and Allah‟s Messenger again said, “She is
also here.” He (the Persian) said, “Yes” on the third
occasion. Then he accepted his invitation, and both of them
set out and went to his house.75
Finally, Muslims are allowed to host non-Muslims in their
homes. A frequently cited example is the report of Asmā‟, the
daughter of Abubakr, who said, “My mother came to me and she
is a polytheist. I said, „O Messenger of Allah, if my mother came to
74
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.7, no.561; Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh us-Sunnah, vol.4, no.5
in Alim 6.0
75
50
me and she is willing, do I establish a link with her?‟ He said, „Yes,
establish a link with your mother.‟”76
11) Exchanging Gifts with Non-Muslims

It is a time-honored tradition of Muslims to give gifts,
irrespective of the religion of the recipient, and numerous hadith
narrations abound to this effect. For example, Mujahid narrated
that Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-„As slaughtered a sheep and said,
“Have you presented a gift from it to my neighbor, the Jew, for I
heard the Apostle of Allah () say, „Jibril kept on commending the
neighbor to me such that I thought he would make him an heir‟?”77 Umm
Salamah also narrated that the Prophet told her, “I have sent al-
Najashi [the Abyssinian king] a robe and some milk.”78
True friendly relations entail reciprocal exchanges of
friendship. Accordingly, receiving gifts from non-Muslims is also
permissible to a Muslim. Salim Al-Bahnasawy notes a well-known
case from the lifetime of the Prophet ():
When Salman Al-Farisy first came to Al-Madinah, he was not
yet a Muslim. He knew that the Prophet (peace be upon him)
was dignified and would not accept charity. He entered upon
the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said, “I respect your
dignity and I present a gift to you, not a Sadaqah (charity).” The
Prophet (peace be upon him) extended his hand and ate, and so
did the Companions. Al-Hafiz Al-Iraqi commented on this
saying, “This hadith shows the lawfulness of accepting gifts
76
Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh us-Sunnah, vol.3, no.103a, in Alim 6.0
77
Abu Dawood, no.2446 in Alim 6.0
78
Ahmad, al-Tabarani; cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and the
Prohibited in Islam (London: Al-Birr Foundation, 2003), p.317
51
from a polytheist as Salman had not embraced Islam at that
time.”79
Moreover, it is reported that the Prophet () accepted gifts from
non-Muslim kings.80
12) Giving Charity (sadaqah) to Non-Muslims

A Muslim is free and even The Prophet () explicitly
encouraged to give his wealth to enjoined Muslims to give
any one he so wishes, particularly charity to all who needed it,
his needy and blood relatives irrespective of faith.
without regard to faith. The
Messenger of Allah said, - Ibn Kathir
“Whoever believes in Allah and in the
Hereafter should take care of his neighbor,”81 and “Jibril continued to remind
me of the neighbor‟s rights till I thought he would tell me that the neighbor
inherits from his neighbor.”82
When the Prophet () first migrated to Madinah, and was
concerned about the meager resources available to assist those in
poverty, he instructed his Companions to give charity only to
those who accepted Islam.83 In correction of this Prophetic
instruction, Allah revealed the verse:
79
Salim Al-Bahnasawy, Non-Muslims in the Shari‟ah of Islam (Egypt: Dar
an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at, 2004), p.68, quoting Tafsir al-Qurtubi, vol.11, p.112.
80
Ahmad, Tirmidhi; cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and the
Prohibited in Islam (London: Al-Birr Foundation, 2003), p.317
81
82
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.8, no.27; See also no.28, in Alim 6.0
83
This event is reported in a number of traditions quoted by al-Tabari in his
Tafsir, vol.3 (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1992), p.94-96; Tafsir al-
Qurtubi, vol.3 (Beirut: Dar al-Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, 1985), p.337-339; and
Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Abridged), vol.2 (Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers), p.63,
citing An-Nasa‟i in Al-Kubra 6:305.
52
It is not for thee (O Prophet) to Withholding charity must
make people follow the right path, never become a means of
since it is God alone who guides attracting unbelievers to
whom He wills; and whatever Islam, for faith, in order to be
good you may spend on others is valid, must be based on
for your own good provided you conviction and free choice.
spend only out of a longing for
God‟s guidance. For whatever - Al-Razi
good you may spend will be repaid
unto you in full and you will not be wronged. (Q.2:272)
According to several traditions reported by al-Nasa‟i, Abu
Dawood and others, the Prophet then explicitly enjoined Muslims
to give charity to all who needed it, irrespective of faith. 84
Muhammad Asad notes that, “there is full agreement among all
commentators that the above verse… lays down an injunction
binding upon all Muslims.”85 In fact, Imam al-Razi derives from
this verse the conclusion that withholding charity must never
become a means of attracting unbelievers to Islam, for faith, in
order to be valid, must be based on conviction and free choice.86
Ibn Kathir states on the issue of one‟s charity possibly being
used for un-Islamic purposes (if one gives to a non-Muslim):
„Ata Al-Khurasani said that the āyah [“verse”] means, “You give
away charity for the sake of Allah. Therefore, you will not be
asked about the deeds [or wickedness] of those who receive it.”
(Ibn Abi Hatim, 3:1115). This is a sound meaning… [The giver]
will not be asked if the charity unintentionally reached
righteous, evil, deserving or undeserving persons, for he will be
84
See M. Asad, The Message of the Qur‟an (Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus,
1980), p.61, n.260; Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Abridged), vol.2 (Riyadh: Darussalam
Publishers), p.63.
85
M. Asad, op. cit.
86
Ibid.
53
rewarded for his good intention. The proof to this statement is
the āyah, “And whatever you spend in good, it will be repaid to
you in full, and you shall not be wronged.”87
In addition to Q.2:272, Allah praises those who, “…give food,
despite their love for it, to the poor and orphans and captives” (Q.76:8). Ibn
Abi Shaybah observes that, “Captives in Muslim society were
obviously unbelievers, as reported by al-Hasan and others.”88 Asad
(1980) elaborates:
The term asīr denotes anyone who is a “captive” either literally
(e.g., a prisoner) or figuratively, i.e., a captive of circumstances
which render him helpless; thus, the Prophet said, “Thy debtor
is thy captive; be, therefore, truly kind to thy captive”
(Zamakhshari, Razi, et. al.). The injunction of kindness towards
all who are in need of help – and therefore “captive” in one
sense or another – applies to The Prophet () gave 500
believers and non-believers dinars as financial assistance to
alike (Tabari, Zamakhshari).89 Abu Sufyan (the leader of
Sayyid Sabiq writes: Makkah) for the poor of the
predominantly idol-worshipping
One can give sadaqa to the
dhimmi90 and the (non-
Makkans during their period of
Muslim) soldier, and one is famine.
rewarded for that. Allah
87
Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Abridged), vol.2 (Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers),
pp.63-64
88
Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, vol.4, pp.39-40; quoted in Yusuf al-Qaradawi,
Fiqh al-Zakat. Trans. from Arabic by Dr. Monzer Kahf (London: Dar al-
Taqwa, 1999), p.449
89
p.916, n.11
90
A Non-Muslim subject of an Islamic state, protected by a covenant
54
praised a group of people (for this) when He said, “And they feed,
for His love, the indigent, the orphan, and the captive” [Q. 76:8]. The
captive is a [non-Muslim] soldier …91
The Prophet‟s example was one of regular charity towards
Muslims and non-Muslims. The works of Seerah (History of the
Prophet) record that during the peace treaty of Hudaibiyyah, the
Prophet () gave 500 dinars as financial assistance to Abu Sufyan
(the leader of Makkah) for the poor of the predominantly idol-
worshipping Makkans during their period of famine.92 This
gesture demonstrates the fact that Islam encourages the
consolidation of peaceful relationships with non-Muslims.
13) Giving Zakat al-Fitr to Non-Muslims

Sayyid Sabiq, in his compendium, Fiqh us-Sunnah, describes
Zakat al-Fitr in the following words:
These āyāt make no

distinction between poor
91
Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh us-Sunnah, vol.l3, no.103a in Alim 6.0
92
Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fatawa al-Ma‟asira (Al-Mansura, Egypt: Dar
al-Wafa‟, 1996); Imtiaz Ahmad, “Friendship with Non-Muslims” in Speeches
for an Inquiring Mind (Madinah: Al-Rasheed Printers, 2001), p.56.
55
Zakat al-Fitr was made obligatory believers and unbelievers,
in the month of Sha„bān in the which is an expression of the
second year of the Hijra. Its generally required good
purpose is to purify one who fasts treatment of the People of
from any indecent act or speech the Pledge.
and to help the poor and needy.
This view is based upon the hadith reported by Abu Dawood,
Ibn Majah, and al-Daraqutni from Ibn Abbas. The Messenger
of Allah, upon whom be peace, enjoined Zakat al-Fitr on the
one who fasts, to shield one‟s self from any indecent act or
speech and for the purpose of providing food for the needy. It
is accepted as Zakah for the person who pays it before the „Eid
Salah, and it is sadaqa for the one who pays it after the Salah.93
Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi explains:
Abu Ubayd and Ibn Abi Shayba

report that some followers [of
the Companions of the Prophet]
gave Zakat al-Fitr to some
93
Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh us-Sunnah, vol.3, no.87a, under the title “The Purpose
of Zakat al-Fitr”, in Alim 6.0
56
Zakat al-Fitr, expiation Christian monks.
(kaffara) and vows are like
voluntary charity as far as
giving to People of the Pledge is concerned. Abu Hanifa,
Muhammad, and some other jurists permit paying these
charities to People of the Pledge on the grounds that texts
about these charities are general, such as the āyāt [verses], “If you
make your sadaqa public, that is good. But if you conceal it and give it to
the poor, that is better for you, and We will erase some of your bad actions
from you” (2:271), and “The expiation in that case is to feed ten poor
people with the average amount you feed your family” (5:92), and “And
anyone who is unable to do that must feed sixty poor people” (58:4).
These āyāt make no distinction between poor believers and
unbelievers, which is an expression of the generally required
good treatment of the People of the Pledge. Obviously these
scholars believe it is undoubtedly better to give to the Muslim
poor since it helps a person who obeys Allah. Abu Hanifa
established the condition that an unbeliever must not be
fighting against Muslims in order to be given Zakat al-Fitr (Al-
Bada‟i„, vol.2, p.49). Lastly, Abu Ubayd and Ibn Abi Shayba
report that some followers [of the Companions of the Prophet]
gave monks Zakat al-Fitr (Al-Amwal, pp.613-614 and Musannaf
Ibn Abi Shayba, vol.4, p. 39). 94
The majority of Muslim scholars

14) Giving Zakat to Non- believe that, with the exception of
Muslims “those whose hearts are being
The Qur‟an states, “Alms reconciled”, Zakat should not be
are for the poor and needy, and given to any Non-Muslim.
those who are in charge thereof (to - Yusuf al-Qaradawi
administer it), and those whose
hearts are being reconciled, and for those who are in bondage, and those who
94
Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al-Zakat. Trans. from Arabic by Dr. Monzer
Kahf (London: Dar al-Taqwa, 1999), p.449
57
are in debt, and in the cause of Allah, (and for) the wayfarer. This is an
ordinance from Allah, and Allah is All-Knowing, Wise” (Q.9:60). This
verse is the basis for the establishment of Zakat in Islam.
Muslim scholars unanimously agree that Zakat cannot be paid
to non-Muslims that fight Muslims.95 This ijmā‟ (consensus) is
based on the verse:
“God only forbids you to turn in friendship towards such as fight against
you because of (your) faith, and drive you forth from your homelands, or aid
(others) in driving you forth…” (Q.60:9)
This is because financial help to enemies could be used against
Islam in one way or another.
The majority of Muslim scholars believe that, with the
exception of “those whose hearts are being reconciled”, Zakat should not
be given to any non-Muslim.96 This majority view is founded on
the hadith narrated by Mu‟adh, that the Prophet () instructed
him, “Allah prescribed Zakat on their wealth to be taken from the rich
among them and rendered to the poor among them,” in which the word
“them” is interpreted to refer to Muslims. This hadith is agreed
upon as authentic.97
However, in the view of other scholars,
…this hadith does not clearly exclude the non-Muslim poor
since it may simply mean that Zakat should be collected and
distributed in the same area. This hadith is often quoted to
95
Al-Bahr az-Zakhkhar Vol.2, p.195, cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al-
Zakat. Trans. from Arabic by Dr. Monzer Kahf (London: Dar al-Taqwa,
1999), p.447
96
Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1999) Fiqh al-Zakat. Trans. from Arabic by Dr.
Monzer Kahf. London: Dar al-Taqwa, p.449.
97
Ibid., p.451.
58
support the policy of non-transportation of Zakat from one
land to another.98
Indeed, the manner in which the
narrator, Mu‟adh, implemented „Umar and „Ikrimah
the Prophet‟s instruction interpreted the word
indicates that he interpreted the “masakin” in the verse (Qur‟an
word “them” to mean everyone in 9:60): “Alms are for the poor and
the region (and not just the the needy (masakin)…” as Non-
Muslims). Sheikh Yusuf al- Muslims.
Qaradawi notes, “Mu‟adh
implemented this instruction by dividing Yemen into regions in
such a way that Zakat was collected and distributed within each
region autonomously. He wrote letters to the effect that Zakat be
distributed within the same clan from which it was collected.”99
Non-Muslims are included in at least one of the categories of
the recipients of Zakat. While prescribing laws for the distribution
of Zakat, the Qur‟an includes among the recipients those “whose
hearts are being reconciled” (in
Arabic, “mu„allafat It must be noted here that the
qulubuhum”). share of those belonging to this
category is not on account of
The following hadith
their inability to meet their
indicates how this category
material needs but for
was treated by the Prophet
“reconciliation” of their hearts.
(). Sa‟id ibn al-Musayyab
narrated that Safwan ibn Umayyah said, “By Allah, when the
Prophet gave to me, he was the person I hated most. He
continued to give to me until he became the person I loved the
98
Ibid.
99
Ibid, p.511, citing Imam al-Shawkani (n.d.) Nayl al-Awtar Vol.2, p.161.
Al-Halabi Publishers.
59
most.”100 Qatadah said, “Those who hearts are being reconciled
were often pagan bedouins whom the Prophet () used to
reconcile through giving Zakat in order to bring them to faith.”101
From these and other accounts, “those whose hearts are being reconciled”
include “persons who have recently become Muslims or who need
to strengthen their commitment to this faith, and individuals
whose evil can be forestalled or who can benefit and defend
Muslims.”102
Some jurists are of the Umar did not annul payment to
view that this clause is „individuals whose hearts are
inoperative after the time of being reconciled‟ nor was there
the Prophet ().103 Their an ijma on such annulment. He
views are based on a simply judged that there were
precedent of „Umar ibn al- none entitled in that category at
Khattab who cancelled the that point in time.
payment of Zakat towards
some recipients of this - Yusuf al-Qaradawi
104
category. Some other
prominent scholars of the past and present, however, are of the
view that this injunction is operative even today.105 Shaykh Yusuf
al-Qaradawi mentions that scholars that view the applicability of
the verse as permanent include al-Zuhri, Abu Ja‟far al-Baqir, Qadi
Ibn al-„Arabi, al-Khattabi, Ibn Qudama, one group of Malikis, and
the followers of the Hanbali, Zaydi and Ja‟fari Schools of
Thought.106
100 Umar ibn Abdul Aziz ordered

Tafsir Ibn Kathir, vol.2, p.325; cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi‟s Fiqh al-
during his caliphate that non-
Zakat. Trans. Dr. Monzer Kahf (London: Dar al-Taqwa, 1999), p.377; Sahih
Muslim, vol.4, no.1806 and Ahmad, vol.6,Muslim subjects,
no.465 transmit it, cited in taken
Tafsir
Ibn Kathir (Abridged), vol.4 (Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers), p.455 should
prisoner by an enemy,
101
Al-Tabari, Tafsir, vol.14, p.314; cited inasYusuf
much be ransomed
al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al- and
Zakat, op. cit., p.380
102
liberated on government
Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al-Zakat, op.expenses
cit., p.377 as any Muslim
subjects.
- Ibn Sa‟d
60
Ibn Qudama expounds:
Allah mentions reconciliation of hearts among the categories of
Zakat-spending and the Prophet () used to give generously for
reconciliation, as stated in famous reports. He continued to do
this until he died. It is unacceptable to abandon the Book of
Allah and the tradition of the Messenger () except by
authentic annulment from Allah or His Messenger, and
annulment is not confirmed by mere possibility. Moreover,
such annulment could only take place during the life of the
Prophet (), because the texts required for annulment ceased to
be revealed upon his death. A text in the Qur‟an can only be
annulled by another text in the Qur‟an itself; there is no such
text. By what virtue is one asked to abandon Qur‟an and
Sunnah and revert to mere human opinion or the statements of
a Companion? Scholars do not consider a statement of a
Companion strong enough to stand in opposition to analogy, so
how could such an opinion stand against the Qur‟an and
Sunnah? Al-Zuhri also says, “I know of nothing that annuls the
category of those whose hearts are being reconciled.” Lastly,
Umar‟s action does not contradict the Qur‟an or Sunnah since,
when Muslims do not need those individuals who were paid in
the past, they may choose to cease such payment, and if the
need arises in the future to pay the same individuals or others,
that can be done. In reality, this principle applies to all
categories. A category may not exist at a certain time, but that
does not mean it is eliminated because it may exist at some later
time.107
103
Ibid., p.381
104
Ibid., p.382
105
A. Mawdudi, Tafhim al-Qur'an, vol.2 (Delhi: 1983), p.9; Rashid Rida,
Tafsir al-Qur‟an al-Hakim, vol.2 (1354 A.H.), p.574
106
Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al-Zakat, op cit., pp.380-386
107
Ibn Qudama, Al-Mughni, vol.2, p.666; cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh
al-Zakat, op. cit., pp.385-386). In other words, “Umar did not annul payment
61
It must be noted here that the share of those belonging to this
category is not on account of their inability to meet their material
needs but for “reconciliation” of their hearts.108
In spite of this, it is reported that „Umar interpreted the word
“masakin” in the verse (Qur‟an 9:60): “Alms are for the poor and the
needy (masakin)…” as non-Muslims.109 Ibn Abi Shayba also cites
„Umar‟s comment that the verse includes People of the Pledge
(“Ahl al-„Ahd”)110 who are chronically ill.111 Al-Tabari reports that
„Ikrimah understood the word “needy” to refer to the poor among
to „individuals whose hearts are being reconciled‟ nor was there an ijma on
such annulment. He simply judged that there were none entitled in that
category at that point in time. The statement of al-Hasan and al-Sha„bi that
„today there are no individuals who are being reconciled‟ is understood
similarly as a fact of the age in which they lived. Abrogation of a ruling
enacted by Allah can only be made by Allah through Revelation to His
Messenger and can, therefore, only take place during the time of the
Message. Abrogation is dictated only when two authentic texts of Qur‟an or
Sunna contradict one another and we know that one of them came after the
other chronologically. In the case in hand there is only one text which
determines this category as a recipient of Zakat. There is no text contradicting
the Qur‟anic verse” (Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al-Zakat, op. cit., p.383,
emphasis added).
108
An example of this occurring after the time of Caliph Umar was recorded
by Ibn Sa‟d (vol.8, p.260, 272), who wrote that “Umar ibn Abdul Aziz
ordered during his caliphate that non-Muslim subjects, taken prisoner by an
enemy, should as much be ransomed and liberated on government expenses
as any Muslim subjects”. Cited in Sa‟id Ramadan, Islamic Law: Its Scope
and Equity, (London: Macmillan, 1961), p.133).
109
Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-Kharaj (Cairo, 1382 A.H.), p.144
110
The “People of the Pledge” are “the People of the Book, and all who like
them live within Muslim society, pledging their sincerity to the state and
obeying its laws” (Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al-Zakat, op. cit., p.448)
111
Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, vol.4, p.40; cited in Fiqh al-Zakat, op. cit.,
p.450
62
the People of the Book.112 Other scholars who allowed the paying
of Zakat to non-Muslims include Ibn Sirin and Al-Zuhri.113 Zafar,
a student of Abu Hanifa, also sanctioned it for People of the
Pledge.114
There are some reports which suggest that the needy among
non-Muslims were helped from the collective Zakat funds during
the early days of Islam.115 It is recorded that „Umar even ordered
the payment of a monthly allowance from the treasury to a Jew
when he saw him begging from door to door, on the grounds that
he was covered by the categories of Q.9:60.116
In addition, some past and As the Muslim sultanates
present day scholars still also hold the and empires grew to
view that the poor and destitute (and lands of other faiths, a
not just “those whose hearts are to be dhimmi evolved to being
reconciled”) among non-Muslims may virtually any non-Muslim
be helped out of the Zakat funds.117 who agreed to live under
a Muslim government.
15) Guarantee of Rights and
Protection of Non-Muslim Citizens
The Prophet () commanded that non-Muslim citizens of an
Islamic State are to be protected against internal oppression and
external aggression. A non-Muslim citizen of an Islamic state is
called a “Dhimmi” (i.e., protected person).118 Historian Jane Smith
112
Tafsir al-Tabari, vol.14, p.308; cited in Fiqh al-Zakat, op. cit., p.451
113
Al-Majmu‟, vol.6, p.228; cited in Fiqh al-Zakat, op. cit., p.450
114
Al-Sarakhsi, Al-Mabsut (n.d.); cited in Fiqh al-Zakat, op. cit.
115
Abu „Ubaydah, Kitab al-'Amwal (Cairo, 1353 A.H.), pp.611-612
116
Abu Yusuf, Al-Kharaj (n.d.), p.126
117
See more detailed discussion on this by Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Fiqh al-
Zakat. Trans. Dr. Monzer Kahf (London: Dar al-Taqwa, 1999), pp.447-452
118
Jews and Christians were the earliest dhimmis, though the status was one
that the Prophet also later afforded to Zoroastrians and then Sabians. (Murad
63
writes, “Christians and Jews, along with Magians, Samaritans,
Sabians, and later Zoroastrians and others, were treated as
minorities under the protection of Islam (dhimmis).”119
Numerous hadith enunciate The term mu‟ahid is used for
the importance of upholding the an approved non-Muslim
rights of a dhimmi. On separate visitor from another state, as
occasions, the Prophet () is distinguished from a dhimmi
reported to have said, “Whoever who is a citizen of the Islamic
hurts a dhimmi, hurts me, and he who territory.
hurts me angers Allah”120, “Whoever
- Al-Shawkani
hurts a dhimmi, I am his adversary,
and I shall be an adversary to him on
the Day of Resurrection”121, “On the Day of Resurrection, I shall dispute
with anyone who oppresses a person from among the People of the Covenant, or
infringes on his right, or burdens him beyond his strength, or takes something
from him against his will”122, and “Anyone who kills a person from among
the people with whom there is a treaty (mu„ahid)123 will not smell the fragrance
Wilfried Hofmann, Protection of Religious Minorities in Islam, Leicester,

UK: The Islamic Foundation, 1998.) As the Muslim sultanates and empires
grew to lands of other faiths, a dhimmi evolved to being virtually any non-
Muslim who agreed to live under a Muslim government. This is all too
evident in the fact that the Caliph Umar‟s assassination was perpetrated by
Abu Lulu‟ah, the Zoroastrian, who was a dhimmi! (Sa‟id Ramadan, Islamic
Law: Its Scope and Equity (London: Macmillan, 1961), p.121).
119
Jane I. Smith, “Islam and Christendom: Historical, Cultural and Religious
Interaction from the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries,” The Oxford History
of Islam. Ed. John L. Esposito (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),
p.307
120
Al-Tabarani
121
Al-Khatib
122
Abu Dawood
123
The term mu‟ahid is used for an approved non-Muslim visitor from
another state, as distinct from a dhimmi who is a citizen of the Islamic
64
of Paradise, even though its fragrance extends to a walking distance of forty
years.”124
It is required for the State to “…Dhimmis were allowed to keep
uphold that “they enjoy the same their own communal laws,
rights we enjoy.”125 For example, although they could apply to a
Khalid ibn al-Walid, in his Muslim judge if they wished….”
famous “Covenant of Peace” - Historian Jane Smith
with the people of Hirah, wrote:
I have stipulated that if any one of them becomes unfit to work
on account of old age or for some other reason, or if anyone
who was formerly rich becomes so poor that his co-religionists
have to support him, then all such persons will be exempt from
paying the jizya126 and they, together with their dependents, will
get a pension from the Islamic Treasury as long as they choose
to reside in the Islamic state.127
Historian Jane Smith (1999) describes the early Islamic state‟s

practice of dhimmi rights as follows:
territory (Al-Shawkani, Nayl al-Awtar, vol.7, p.14; cited in Sa‟id Ramadan,

Islamic Law: Its Scope and Equity (London: Macmillan, 1961), pp.109-110).
124
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.9, no.49, in Alim 6.0
125
Al-Kasani, Bada‟l as-Sana‟l, vol.7, p.100; Ibn al-Qayyim, Ahkam Ahl al-
Dhimmah, Ed. P. Sobhy al-Saleh (Beirut: Dar al-Ilm Lilmalayin, 1964), p.48;
both cited in Salim Al-Bahnasawy, Non-Muslims in the Shari‟ah of Islam
(Egypt: Dar an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at, 2004), p.3
126
Military exemption tax paid by able-bodied, male, non-clergy, non-
Muslim subjects of an Islamic state, in lieu of having to join the army.
Exemptions to women, children, elderly, monks, and those who join the
Muslim army are evidence that the tax is not a fine for disbelief as some have
postulated (Sa‟id Ramadan, Islamic Law: Its Scope and Equity, London:
Macmillan, 1961, p.123).
127
Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-Kharaj, p.144; cited in Sa‟id Ramadan, Islamic Law:
Its Scope and Equity (London: Macmillan, 1961), p.123
65
The specifics of the requirements for Christians who enjoyed
dhimmi status were spelled out in what has come to be referred
to as „the covenant of Umar,‟ which exists in several versions
and most likely was attributed to rather than designed by the
second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634-44). The covenant
stipulated prohibition of the building of new churches or repair
of those in towns inhabited by Muslims, although in some cases
when financing was available Christians did construct new
places of worship… Dhimmis were allowed to keep their own
communal laws, although they could apply to a Muslim judge if
they wished…. Christians occupied high positions in the
caliphal courts as physicians, engineers, architects, and
translators, and sometimes they were treated as having virtually
equal rights with Muslims. Muslim writers and poets sometimes
gave great tributes to Christians in their literature.128
It is true that Muslim administrations, however, have at times
imposed some inequitable conditions and restrictions upon dhimmi
communities. Smith states that this may be explained by the fact
that after the lifetime of the early caliphs, the:
Through the Middle Ages there

was a hardening of attitudes
against dhimmis, due more to
political than to religious
reasons, especially after the
128
Jane I. Smith, “Islam and Christendom: Historical, Cultural and Religious
Interaction from the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries,” The Oxford History
of Islam. Ed. John L. Esposito (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),
p.308
66
…dhimmi status seems to have period of the Crusades.
been a changing one, in that laws
were made and either broken or
forgotten… never free from the whims of individual rulers who
might choose to enforce strict regulations, or from the caprice
of mobs expressing their passions in prejudicial and harmful
ways [as may be observed even today in the policies of non-
Muslim dominated nations towards their minorities]. In general,
the first Arab Muslim dynasty, that of the Umayyads, was fairly
flexible in terms of its Christian citizens, but in Islam‟s second
century the laws became more stringent. Under the reign of the
caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847-61), laws against dhimmis were most
severe, sometimes resulting in persecution of Christians as well
as of Mu'tazilis, Shiites, and others [Muslim sects] considered
opponents of the state. Through the Middle Ages there was a
hardening of attitudes against dhimmis, due more to political
than to religious reasons, especially after the period of the
Crusades.129
Despite these changing attitudes of rulers and the Muslim

masses, knowledge of the implicit rights of dhimmis in an Islamic
state compelled other Muslims to campaign for justice. Examples
of this include the fervent protest of the public, led by Muslim
jurists, against the Caliph Walid ibn Yazid when he exiled non-
Muslim citizens of Cyprus to Syria130; and the reprimand sent by
Imam al-Awza‟i to the Governor of Lebanon who exiled some
non-Muslim civilians that lived in the same areas as some armed
rebels:
129
Ibid., pp.308-309
130
Abul-„Ala Maududi, Islamic Law and Constitution (Karachi, Pakistan:
Jamaat-e-Islamic Publications, 1955), p.188; cited in Sa‟id Ramadan, Islamic
Law: Its Scope and Equity (London: Macmillan, 1961), p.99
67
The following extract from the letter that he wrote to him
speaks for itself: “Dhimmis of the hill-tracts of Lebanon have
been exiled and you know the fact. Amongst them are men
who had not taken part in the revolt. I fail to understand why
common people should be punished for the sins of particular
individuals and be deprived of their homes and properties.
The Qur‟anic injunction is quite clear that ultimately
everybody will have to account for his own actions and
nobody shall beheld responsible for anybody else‟s actions.
This is an eternal and universal injunction, and the best
advice therefore, that I can give to you is to remind you of
one of the directives of God‟s Prophet that he himself will
stand up as plaintiff against all such Muslims who are unkind
to those non-Muslims who have entered into an agreement
with them, and tax them beyond endurance.”131
16) Muslim minorities living within Non-Muslim states are to

honor their terms of residence and strive to make positive
contributions
If a Muslim is able to practice

Islam openly in a non-Muslim
land, then that land becomes
Dar al-Islam (the Abode of
Islam) by virtue of his settling
there, and living there is
preferable to moving away from
it as other people may be
131
Ibid.
68
When deriving laws, attracted to Islam merely by
traditional scholars of the their interaction with him.
Muslim world substantially
- Al-Mawardi
accommodated local customs
and practices in societies that newly embraced Islam.132 Such
scholars as Abu Hamid al-Ghazali emphasized the universality and
flexibility of Shari‟ah133 and the role of public interest (maslaha) in
the revision of rulings (fatawa) that were previously deduced only
on the basis of analogy with an explicit scriptural ruling.134
This flexibility permits rulings specifically for Muslim
minorities in a non-Muslim state, in order to foster a positive
relationship between Muslims, the state, and fellow citizens. A
Muslim living anywhere in the world belongs to the Ummah
(community of believers), and provided he or she is granted the
right to his/her identity and practice of Islam, it is permissible for
a Muslim to reside, study or work in a non-Muslim land.135
However, in order to be granted entry, he must agree to abide
by certain conditions, whether for visa or migration purposes. A
Muslim who is born in a non-Muslim land is usually given
automatic citizenship and is naturally bound by same agreements,
since all believers are characterized as those “who are faithful to their
trusts and to their pledges” (Q.23:8). Once a Muslim chooses to
remain a citizen or resident (rather than migrate to another land),
132
T. J. Winter, British Muslim Identity: Past, problems, prospects
(Cambridge: The Muslim Academic Trust, 2003), p.12
133
Ibid.
134
Wael B. Hallaq, A History of Islamic Legal Theories (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp.112-113.
135
Ibn Hajr cites the view of al-Mawardi that if a Muslim is able to practice
Islam openly in a non-Muslim land, then that land becomes Dar al-Islam (the
Abode of Islam) by virtue of his settling there, and living there is preferable
to moving away from it as other people may be attracted to Islam merely by
their interaction with him (Fath al-Bari, vol.7, no.230).
69
he is required to acknowledge the nation‟s legislation and conduct
himself within the scope of the law. Upon acceptance of these
conditions of residence, a Muslim is bound by them, as stipulated
by the Islamic rule “al-muslimoon „inda shurootihim” (i.e. “Muslims are
bound by their conditions”).136 This obligation on Muslim
minorities in non-Muslim lands illustrates Islam‟s endorsement of
peaceful interfaith co-existence.
Moreover, a Muslim should not just be dutiful to his host
country but actively contribute towards improving it. This is
because Muslims are enjoined to be “the best nation ever raised for
mankind” (Q.3:110). „Ikrimah explained this verse, saying, “In the
past, people were not secure in other people‟s lands, but as
Muslims people of any color feel secure among you…”137, while
Abu al-Su„ud elaborates that, “You are the best community for
people, which clearly means helpful to other people.”138 Al-
Khatib also says, “A feature of the Muslim nation is that it should
not keep any beneficial advantage to itself but should share its
benefit with other human societies.”139 These explanations accord
with the Prophet‟s statement, “The best among you is the best towards
people,”140 and the example of the Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon
him), who was a foreigner residing in Egypt, and even offered his
services at the level of government (Q.12:54-55).
136
Tariq Ramadan, To Be a European Muslim (Leicester, UK: The Islamic
Foundation, 1999), p.173
137
Tafsir Ibn Abi Hatim, vol.1, no.472; cited in Taha Jabir al-Alwani,
Towards a Fiqh for Minorities: Some Basic Reflections (London:
International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2003), p.27
138
Irshad al-„Aql al-Salim ila Mazaya al-Qur‟an al-„Azim, vol.2, p.70; cited
in Taha Jabir al-Alwani, Towards a Fiqh for Minorities, op. cit., p.28
139
Abd al-Karim al-Khatib, Al-Tafsir al-Qur‟an, vol.4, p.548; cited in Taha
Jabir al-Alwani, op. cit., p.28
140
Sunan Baihaqi
70
Shaykh Abdullah ibn Bayyah, a highly distinguished Maliki
scholar serving on many international fiqh councils and one of the
contemporary world‟s leading authorities in Usul al-Fiqh
(Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence), explains the obligations of
Muslims in non-Muslim lands in the following remarks:
…the relationship between Muslims living in this land and the
dominant authorities in this land is a relationship of peace and
contractual agreement – of a treaty. This is a relationship of
dialogue and a relationship of giving and taking… It is
absolutely essential that you respect the laws of the land that
you are living in… We have to maintain those things that are
particular to us as a community, but we also have to recognize
that there are other things that are not particular to us but rather
general to the human condition that we can partake in.141
Examples of this friendly yet faith-retaining integration may be
found throughout the history of Muslim minority groups in non-
Muslim lands. Muslims in China, for instance, are celebrated for
successfully constructing an indigenous Muslim identity within the
country and making significant contributions to their homeland.142
17) Duty to Non-Muslim Relatives and Parents

“He who desires that his provision be
expanded and that his days be
lengthened should join ties of kinship.”
- Prophet Muhammad,
transmitted by Bukhari and
141
Shaykh Abdullah ibn Bayyah, “Muslims Living in Non-Muslim Lands”,
http://sunnah.org/articles/muslims_in_nonmuslim_lands.htm, 2005
142
See Ibrahim Ma Zhao-chun, “Islam in China: The Internal Dimension”,
Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, vol.7, no.2 (UK: July
1986), pp.373-383.
71
Numerous mentions are Muslim
made in both the Qur‟an and
hadith on the obligations of
being considerate and loyal to the ties of kinship, irrespective of
the religious background of one‟s kinsmen. Allah states in the
Qur‟an: “Be mindful of your duty to Allah in whose name you appeal to one
another, and of your obligations in respect of ties of kinship” (Q.4:2). This
message is emphasized by the Prophet () in the following
narration: “Anas related that the Prophet said, „He who desires that
his provision be expanded and that his days be lengthened should join ties of
kinship.‟”143
“One who reciprocates in doing good is not
This duty is sustained the one who upholds the ties of kinship. It
despite prevailing tensions is the one who upholds them when the
between family members. other party severs them.”
Abdullah ibn Amr, for
instance, relates that the - Prophet Muhammad, transmitted
Holy Prophet () said, by Bukhari
“One who reciprocates in doing
good is not the one who upholds the ties of kinship. It is the one who upholds
them when the other party severs them”144 Asmā‟, the daughter of
Abubakr, reports, “My mother came to me and she is a polytheist.
I said, „O Messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace, if my mother
came to me and she is willing, do I establish a link with her?‟ He
said, „Yes, establish a link with your mother.‟”145 Another version of this
tradition states that Asmā‟ said, “„My mother has come to see me
143
Bukhari and Muslim, cited in Imam an-Nawawi, Riyadh us-Saliheen,
no.321, under section “On Benevolence towards Parents and Strengthening
the Ties of Kinship.” Transl. from Arabic by Muhammad Zafrulla Khan
(London: Curzon Press, 1974), p.74
144
Bukhari, cited in Riyadh us-Saliheen, op. cit., no.324, p.75
145
Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqh-us-Sunnah, vol.3, no.103a in Alim 6.0
72
and she is hoping for something from me. Should I gratify her?‟
He said, „Yes, be benevolent towards your mother.‟”146
Similarly, Abu Dharr relates that the Prophet () said, “You
will soon conquer the land of Egypt. Then treat its people kindly, for there are
ties of treaty and kinship with them.147 When Q.26:215 was revealed,
Abu Hurairah relates that the Holy Prophet () summoned the
Quraysh and said to them, “O Bani Abd Shams, O Bani Ka‟ab ibn
Lu‟ayy safeguard yourselves against the Fire; O Bani Murrah ibn Ka‟ab,
safeguard yourselves against the Fire; O Bani Abd Manaf, safeguard
yourselves against the Fire, O Bani Hashim, safeguard yourselves against the
Fire; O Bani Abdul Muttalib, safeguard yourselves against the Fire; O
Fatimah, safeguard thyself against the Fire, for I can avail you nothing against
Allah. I have ties of kinship with you, and these I shall continue to honor.”148
18) Sanctity of human life

Each human being has a “Whoever killed a mu‟ahid shall
special place in Allah‟s creation not smell the fragrance of
irrespective of what faith or belief Paradise though its fragrance can
an individual chooses to profess. be smelt at a distance of forty
Not only are all humans children years.”
of Adam to whom Allah
- Prophet Muhammad,
commanded the Angels to bow
transmitted by Bukhari
(Q.2:34), but each human has a
spirit Allah breathed into him or
her. Allah says “…and then He forms him in accordance with what he is
meant to be, and breathes into him of His spirit” (Q.32:7-9). Thus, every
human is a spiritual being living in a physical or earthly body. Each
and every human is born in the way of the fitrah (pure, natural
disposition) of surrender to God‟s will (Islam). It is the family that
146
Riyadh us-Saliheen, op. cit., no.327, p.75
147
Muslim, in Riyadh us-Saliheen, op. cit., no.330, p.75-76
148
Muslim, cited in Riyadh us-Saliheen, op. cit., no.331, p.76
73
brings different individuals up as belonging to one religious group
or the other. 149
Every human is a spiritual The Prophet () stood up out
being whose life is sacred and of respect for a Jewish corpse
harming or taking it unjustly is a being carried by for burial.
great sin and crime that is When he was asked why, he
punishable by death, irrespective replied, “Was he not a soul?”
of the murdered person‟s faith - Bukhari
(Q.2:178). The gravity of this
crime is highlighted in the narration of Abdullah ibn Amr that the
Prophet () said, “Whoever killed a mu‟ahid shall not smell the fragrance
of Paradise though its fragrance can be smelt at a distance of forty years.”150
Imam Malik said, “What is done in our community is that a
Muslim is not killed for [killing] a kafir [one who denies the
truth]151 unless the Muslim kills him wrongfully. Then he is killed
for it… The diya [blood money/compensation]
149
See Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.6, no.298 in Alim 6.0; Muwatta, vol.16, no.53 in
Alim 6.0; and Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 2, nos.440 & 441 in Alim 6.0
respectively.
150
151
Misunderstanding on this issue has been generated by incorrect
interpretation of some hadith, such as the following: Abu Juhaifa narrated, “I
asked Ali, „Do you have anything of divine literature besides what is in the
Qur‟an?‟” (or, as Uyaina once said, “„Apart from what the people have?‟”)
“Ali said, „By him who made the grain split and created the soul, we have
nothing except what is in the Qur‟an and the ability of understanding Allah‟s
Book which He may endow a man with and what is written in this sheet of
paper.‟ I asked, „What is on this paper?‟ He replied, „The legal regulations of
Diya (compensation for death) and the releasing of captives and the judgment
that no Muslim should be killed in qisas for killing a kafir‟” (Sahih al-
Bukhari, vol.9, no.50 in Alim 6.0). Ramadan (1961) observes about a similar
hadith:
…there is another recorded hadith which gave rise to controversy. It
reads as follows: “A Muslim should not be killed for (murdering) an
74
infidel. Nor should a holder of a covenant be killed so long as he
holds his covenant.” (Al-Maraghi, Al-Tashri‟ al-Islami li-Ghayri‟l-
Muslimin, p.82). Jurists accept the authenticity of this hadith, but
they opine differently over its implication. Some of them, like
Malik and Al-Shafi‟i, take it as implying a restriction of the general
principle of retaliation. Others, like Abu Hanifah, interpret it within
the general implication of Qur‟anic and other Prophetic texts, Abu
Hanifah states that the wording of the hadith, using „infidel‟ (kafir)
in the first portion and „holder of a covenant‟ (dhu-„ahdin) in the
second, implies two different categories. Thus, „infidel‟, according
to Abu Hanifah, should mean the belligerent non-Muslim and the
hadith should thereby imply that neither a Muslim nor a dhimmi is
to be executed for killing a belligerent non-Muslim. The
reasonableness of such an interpretation can well be appreciated if
we recall that in the early days of Islam there were only two active
camps: the subjects of the Islamic State (Muslims and non-
Muslims) and their hostile neighbors… (Sa‟id Ramadan, Islamic
Law: Its Scope and Equity (London: Macmillan, 1961), p.146.
This explanation is corroborated in Tafsir al-Qurtubi, which states,

“Thawri and the scholars of Kufa said that a master may be killed for a slave,
and a Muslim may be killed for a dhimmi. They derived their evidence from
the words of Allah „O you who believe, just retribution is ordained for you in
cases of murder…‟ (Q.2:178) which they said has general applicability, and
also the words of Allah, „We ordained for them a soul for a soul…‟
(Q.5:45).” Al-Qurtubi agrees with this conclusion, stating that the hadith has
specific (rather than general) application. He explains that a dhimmi is equal
to a Muslim in sacredness, which is evident in the laws of just retribution,
particularly since both of them (Muslim and dhimmi) belong to Dar al-Islam.
Furthermore, in practice, a Muslim‟s hand may be cut for stealing the
property of a dhimmi. This also indicates that the wealth of a dhimmi is equal
to the wealth of a Muslim. Likewise, his blood, which is even more sacred
than his wealth, should be protected (Qurtubi, vol.2 (Issue 6), Beirut: Dar
Ihya at-Turath al-Arab, 1985, p.246). Qurtubi continues to state that the
majority of ulama believe that a Muslim cannot be killed for a kafir out of
Dar al-Islam (i.e. belligerent to Muslims). This is consistent with Ramadan‟s
explanation above. (See Tafsir al-Qurtubi, op cit., Issue 7).
75
of the Jew, Christians and “…And if God had so willed, He
Magians in their injuries is could surely have made you all one
[also] according to the injury of single community…”
the Muslims in their diya...”152
Allah also says “…if anyone slays - Qur‟an 5:48-49
a human being – unless it be (in
punishment) for murder or for spreading corruption on earth – it shall be as
though he had slain all mankind; whereas, if anyone saves a life, it shall be as
though he had saved the lives of all mankind. …” (Q.5:32)
Islam therefore enjoins believers to respect the life (and death)
of every human being irrespective of religion, by virtue of
everyone‟s possession of a soul and spirit from Allah. This is
demonstrated in the report that the Prophet () stood up out of
respect for a Jewish corpse being carried by for burial. When he
was asked why, he replied, “Was he not a soul?”153 Similarly, when
the Prophet‟s pagan uncle, Abu Talib died, he ordered the
Companion Ali (Abu Talib‟s son) to bury him.154 It is also
reported that the mother of Al-Harith ibn Abu Rabi‟ah died as a
Christian and he followed her funeral accompanied by a group of
Companions.155
152
Al-Muwatta, vol.43, no.8b in Alim 6.0, emphasis added.
153
Sahih al-Bukhari, vol.2, no.399, in Alim 6.0
154
Abu Dawood, no.1423, An-Nasa‟i, cited in Salim Al-Bahnasawy, Non-
p.58.
155
Al-Kasani, Bada‟l as-Sana‟l, vol.1, p.303; cited in Salim Al-Bahnasawy,
Non-Muslims in the Shari‟ah of Islam (Egypt: Dar an-Nashr lil-Jami‟at,
2004), p.58.
Al-Bahnasawy also cites evidence from the life of the Prophet and the
Sahaba, as well as the views of some classical scholars, on the permissibility
of visiting non-Muslims, preparing their dead for burial and following their
funerals, visiting their graves, comforting, greeting them, etc, and the
guidelines for these (Al-Bahnasawy, pp.56-69)
76
In conclusion, Islam has encouraged relations between Muslims
and non-Muslims to be one of Islam respects other people‟s
respect and kindness, as right to follow their respective
practiced by the Prophet () faiths, and “there is no
throughout his mission. Allah compulsion in religion”
has given Muslims a
responsibility to be witnesses unto mankind (shuhada „ala al-nas
Q.2:143), and the best nation raised for mankind (Q.3:110),
through their example of goodness (birr) and God-consciousness
(taqwa) (Q.2:177, 189, 44; 3:92; 58:9). In this manner, a Muslim
should make his relationship with non-Muslims conducive for
da„wah and positive influence, just as he would with a Muslim.
However, a Muslim is advised not to seek subjugation to non-
Muslim communities out of a desire to be accepted. Furthermore,
Muslims are to safeguard their faith and pursue their own moral
and spiritual development, since Allah has warned in Qur‟an 5:48-
49, that:
“…Unto every one of you have We appointed a (different) law (Shari‟ah)
and way of life (Minhaj). And if God had so willed, He could surely
have made you all one single community, but (He willed it otherwise) in
order to test you by means of what he has vouchsafed unto you. Vie, then,
with one another in doing good works! Unto God you all must return;
and then he will make you truly understand all that on which you were
wont to differ. Hence, judge between the followers of earlier revelation in
accordance with what God has bestowed from on high, and do not follow
their errant views; and beware of them lest they tempt thee away from
aught that God has bestowed from on high upon thee…” 156
156
Similar warnings are also given in the Qur‟an regarding others, besides
Jews and Christians, who would like Muslims to follow their form of religion
or moral law. The Qur‟an warns faithful Muslims about Muslim hypocrites
77
Hence, even though Islam respects other people‟s right to
follow their respective faiths, and “there is no compulsion in
religion”, Muslims are cautioned to hold strongly to their faith, and
not turn away from submission to Allah‟s Will and final guidance
to mankind as contained in the message of the last Prophet,
Muhammad ().
However, those who insist The kind of relationship that
that Islam forbids showing is prohibited between a
kindness to peaceful non- Muslim and non-Muslim is
Muslims would do well to that which makes a Muslim
remember Allah‟s explicit words: compromise the essential
“As for those (unbelievers) who do not teachings of Islam, and do
fight against you on account of (your) what Islam prohibits.
faith, nor drive you out of your
homelands, God does not forbid you to show them kindness and to
deal with them with fairness and equity…” (Q.60:8-9).
(Munafiqun) in Qur‟an 4:89: “They (Muslim hypocrites) would love to see

you deny the Truth even as they have denied it, so that you should be like
them.” In Q.109:1-6, Muslims are told regarding those bent on denying His
truth (Kafirun) to: “Say: „O you who deny the truth! I do not worship that
which you worship, and neither do you worship that which I worship. And I
will not worship that which you have (ever) worshipped, and neither will you
(ever) worship that which I worship. Unto you, your religion, and unto me
mine!‟”
78
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RECOMMENDED WEBSITES157
www.altafsir.com
www.discoverislam.net
www.ietonline.org
www.irf.net
www.islam.about.com
www.islam-guide.com
www.islamic-awareness.org
www.islamicgarden.com
www.islamicity.com
www.islamicweb.com
www.islamonline.net
www.islamunveiled.com
www.jannah.com
www.jannah.org
www.masud.co.uk
www.muhaddith.com/index.html
www.muslimtube.blogspot.com
www.renaissance.com.pk
www.shamela.ws (Arabic)
www.soundvision.com/info
www.sunnipath.com
www.uga.edu/islam
www.witness-pioneer.org/
www.zaytuna.org
157
These online resources have very useful information and products on
Islam. This list is, however, far from being exhaustive, as new websites debut
on the internet daily. Other Islamic websites may be even more informative
than the above listed, and whereas these websites are recommended, not all
the views and opinions expressed in them necessarily reflect those of DIN or
the IET.
92
93
BACK COVER
Many non-Muslims, and even some Muslims, are of the opinion that
Islam is inherently against any form of friendliness with those who do
not ascribe to the faith. Many assume that Islam prescribes the
relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims to be one of war,
hostility, and intolerance. This position is commonly advanced by
antagonists of Islam for the dual purpose of undermining a Muslim‟s
pride in his faith and a non-Muslim‟s confidence in having any valuable
long-term interactions with Muslims.
Relations with Non-Muslims aims to clarify the Islamic position

regarding inter-faith relations based on the authoritative and authentic
teachings of the Qur‟an and Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (p). The
book empowers readers against the litany of confusion on this topic, and
cultivates a greater understanding of Islam‟s attitude towards bridge-
building.
The Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria (DIN) is the research and Islamic

propagation department of the Islamic Education Trust (IET). The DIN
partners with other organizations for comprehensive capacity building and
improved da‟wah effectiveness. It conducts training programs on Islam and
Dialogue for Peaceful Coexistence, as well as Personal Development and
Leadership, Business and Financial Literacy, Pre-marital and Marital Counseling,
Da‟wah Resource Management, and other courses. DIN also organizes a rural
Da‟wah Grassroots Program, Imam training courses, and produces audiovisual
and other multimedia content. In addition DIN partners with other
organizations – Muslim, non-Muslim, government agencies and NGOs - in
furthering its objectives and the strategic good of society at large. DIN has
partnered with organizations based in Nigeria as well as other countries in
Africa, North America, Australia, South Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.

Islamic Education Trust Headquarters PMB 229, Ilmi Avenue,
Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. Phone: +234-803-600-5535
Email: dawahinstitute@yahoo.com Website: www.ietonline.org
94

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Relationship With Non-Muslims

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Allah commands to justice and

kindness. God does not forbid you to

consciousness of God. Allah

An introductory examination of the Islamic textual evidence for

Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria

All rights reserved: No part of this book may be reproduced in any

Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria

1. Authenticity of the Qur‟an

“Doesn‟t the Qur‟an oppose friendliness to non-Muslims?.. .........16

Islam is considered by many observers to be the fastest

Alhaji Ibrahim Yahya

 References to ahadith2 and commentaries drawn from

 Transliteration of Arabic words

Islam is considered by many observers to be the fastest

It is in response to the need for empowering Muslims to,

Muslims live in a world where interactions between people

Question: “Even though some Muslims appear to be friendly

“This verse (Qur‟an 60:8)

6 Zamakhshari, cited in Muhammad Asad, The Message of the Qur‟an

Minorities: Some Basic Reflections (London: International Institute of Islamic

8 Al-Qurtubi, quoted by Shaykh Abdul Fattah Abu Ghudda, Islamic

Reflections (London: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2003),

12Examples of the Qur‟an‟s use of the expression “Ahl al-Kitab” include

The preceding points are discussed in further detail throughout the

2) Sanction for interfaith Islam would tolerate a Muslim

c. Qur‟an 5:51: “O you who have attained to faith! Do not

d. Qur‟an 2:120: “Never will the Jews or the Christians be

f. Qur‟an 9:28: “O you who have attained to faith! Those

5) No abrogation of verses prescribing friendliness with

“Among the People of the Book are

Ghazali‟s Fiqh-U-Seerah: Understanding the Life of Prophet Muhammad,

M. Asad (1980) notes that prohibiting non-Muslims from entering

8) Good and bad people exist in all faiths

9) Friendship and influences

10) Visiting and Hosting Non-Muslims

11) Exchanging Gifts with Non-Muslims

12) Giving Charity (sadaqah) to Non-Muslims

13) Giving Zakat al-Fitr to Non-Muslims

These āyāt make no

Abu Ubayd and Ibn Abi Shayba

The majority of Muslim scholars

100 Umar ibn Abdul Aziz ordered

Wilfried Hofmann, Protection of Religious Minorities in Islam, Leicester,

Historian Jane Smith (1999) describes the early Islamic state‟s

territory (Al-Shawkani, Nayl al-Awtar, vol.7, p.14; cited in Sa‟id Ramadan,

Through the Middle Ages there

Despite these changing attitudes of rulers and the Muslim

16) Muslim minorities living within Non-Muslim states are to

If a Muslim is able to practice

17) Duty to Non-Muslim Relatives and Parents

18) Sanctity of human life

This explanation is corroborated in Tafsir al-Qurtubi, which states,

(Munafiqun) in Qur‟an 4:89: “They (Muslim hypocrites) would love to see

'ABDALATI, HAMMUDAH: The Family Structure in Islam.

ABD AL-QADIR, KHALID. Fiqh al Aqalliyat al-Muslimah.

Relations with Non-Muslims aims to clarify the Islamic position

The Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria (DIN) is the research and Islamic

Da‟wah Institute of Nigeria

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