Two Mark Question & Answer – University Examination

Unit - I
1. What are the applications of AI?

i) Autonomous planning and Scheduling ii) Autonomous control

iii) Robotics iv) Game Playing
v) Logistic planning vi) Diagnosis
vii) Language Understanding and Problem solving

2. What are the components of Production System?

 A set of rules
 One or more knowledge/databases
 A control strategy
 A rule applier

3. List the requirements of a good control strategy.

 The first requirement of a good control strategy is that it causes motion.

 The Second requirement of a good control strategy is that it be Systematic.

4. What are the advantages of Depth-First Search?

 DFS requires less memory since only the nodes on the current path are stored.
 By chance, DFS may find a solution without examining much of the search space at
all.

5. What is Heuristic Search?

It is a technique that improves the efficiency of a search process, possibly by

sacrificing claims of completeness. It is like a tour guide. One example of a good general-
purpose heuristics that is useful for a variety of combinatorial problems is the nearest
neighbor heuristic.

6. What is Constraint Satisfaction Problem(CSP)?

CSPs are mathematical problems defined as a set of objects whose state must
satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. They represent the entities in a problem
as a homogeneous collection of finite constraints over variables, which are solved by
constraint satisfaction methods.

7. How can we avoid ridge and plateau in hill climbing?

A ridge is a special kind of local maximum. It is an area of the search space

that is higher that the surrounding areas and that it have a slope. But the orientation of
the high region, compared to the set of available moves and the directions in which
they move, makes it impossible to traverse a ridge by single moves. Any point on a
ridge can look like peak because movement in all probe directions is downward.

A plateau is a flat area of the search space in which a whole set of neighboring
states have the same value. On a plateau, it is not possible to determine the best
direction in which to move by making local comparisons.
 Unit – II

1. Write the properties that a system should possess for representing knowledge.

 Representational Adequacy
 Inferential adequacy
 Inferential Efficiency
 Acquisitional Efficiency

2. What are the components of Propositional Logic?

a) Logical constants: true, false

b) Propositional symbols: P, Q, S, ... (atomic sentences)
c) Wrapping parentheses: (…)
d) Sentences are combined by connectives:
and [conjunction], or [disjunction], not [negation]
implies [implication / conditional], is equivalent [biconditional]
e) Literal: atomic sentence or negated atomic sentences

3. Define First Order Logic.

First-order logic (FOL) models the world in terms of

– Objects, which are things with individual identities
– Properties of objects that distinguish them from other objects
– Relations that hold among sets of objects
– Functions, which are a subset of relations where there is only one “value”
or any given “input”

4. What are the types of Quantifiers?

Universal Quantifiers ∀
Existential Quantifiers ∃

5. Define atomic sentence and complex sentence.

• An atomic sentence (which has value true or false) is an n-place predicate of n terms
• A complex sentence is formed from atomic sentences connected by the logical connectives:
P, PQ, PQ, PQ, PQ where P and Q are sentences

6. What is unification?

The idea of unification is to describe values by logical equations which can be

resolved automatically by some unification algorithm. First-order unification is a form of
unification whose values are trees. There are several kinds of first-order unification which
differ in the choice of the notion of trees. Trees may be ground terms (tuples) or feature trees
(records), they may be finite or infinite. First-order unification for feature trees is called
feature unification.
 Unit – III

1. Define Baye’s Theorem.

In probability theory and statistics, Bayes’ theorem describes the probability of
an event, based on prior knowledge of conditions that might be related to the event. For
example, if cancer is related to age, then, using Bayes’ theorem, a person’s age can be used to
more accurately assess the probability that they have cancer, compared to the assessment of
the probability of cancer made without knowledge of the person's age.

2. Define Prior Probability.

In Baye’s theorem, P(Hi) – the a priori probability that hypothesis i is true in the
absence of any specific evidence. These probabilities are called prior probabilities or priors.

3. What is Certainty Factor?

A Certainty factor CF(h, e) is defined in terms of two components MB[h, e] and

MD[h, e]. From these two measures, the certainty factor is defined as

CF[h, e] = MB[h, e] - MD[h, e]

Where MB[h, e] – a measure of belief in hypothesis h given the evidence e.

MD[h, e] – a measure of disbelief in hypothesis h given the evidence e .

4. State Dempster-Shafer theory.

The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–Shafer

theory, is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood
connections to other frameworks such as probability, possibility and imprecise probability
theories.

5. Define knowledge acquisition.

The knowledge engineer might already be an expert in the domain, or might need to work
with real experts to extract what they know-a process called knowledge acquisition.

6. What is Critical Path?

It is that path whose total duration is longest. The path is critical because it determines
the duration of the entire plan. Shortening other paths does not shorten the plan as a
whole by post delaying the start of any action on the critical path slows down the whole
plan.
 Unit-IV

1. State the factors that play a role in the design of a learning system.

• Learning element
• Performance element
• Critic
• Problem generator

2. Define computational learning theory.

Computational learning theory is the analysis of computational complexity of

machine learning algorithms. It is the intersection of theory of computation and machine
learning.

3. Define Inductive learning.

Inductive learning means learning from examples. It is a form of supervised learning
which uses specific examples to reach general conclusions. The concepts are learned from
sets of labeled instances.

4. State the advantages of Inductive Logic Programming (ILP).

In inductive logic programming, prior knowledge reduces the complexity of learning.

It is able to create new predicates o facilitate the expression of explanatory hypothesis.

5. Discuss the major issues that affect the design of learning element.

 What type of performance issue element is used?

 Which functional component is to be learned?
 How the functional component is represented?
 What kind of feedback is available?

6. What is Over fitting?

Whenever there is a large set of possible hypothesis, it may result in finding
meaningless regularity in the data. This is the problem of over fitting. This problem is not
to find meaningless regularity in the data. The solution to over fitting is decision tree
pruning. This can be done detecting irrelevant attributes.
 Unit - V

1. List out all ES Components in AI.

Knowledge Acquisition Subsystem

Knowledge Base
Inference Engine
User Interface
Knowledge Refining System

2. What are the Characteristics of Expert Systems?

High performance
Understandable
Reliable
Highly responsive

3. What is meant by cover-and-differentiate problem solving method?

MOLE is a knowledge acquisition system for heuristic classification problems, such

as diagnosing diseases. In particular, it is used in conjunction with the cover-and-differentiate
problem solving method. An expert system produced by MOLE accepts input data, comes up
with a set of candidate explanations or classifications that cover(or explain) the data, then
uses differentiating knowledge to determine which one is best. The process is iterative since
explanations must themselves be justified, until ultimate causes are ascertained.

4. What is MOLE-p?

MOLE is a knowledge acquisition system that interacts with a domain expert to

produce a knowledge base that a system called MOLE-p(for MOLE-performance) uses to
solve problems.

5. Write short notes on DART.

DART is a joint project of the Heuristic Programming Project and IBM that explores
the application of artificial intelligence techniques to the diagnosis of computer faults. The
primary goal of the DART Project is to develop programs that capture the special design
knowledge and diagnostic abilities of these experts and to make them available to field
engineers. The practical goal is the construction of an automated diagnostician capable of
pinpointing the functional units responsible for observed malfunctions in arbitrary system
configurations.

6. What is Expert System Shell?

Initially each expert system is build from scratch. Systems are constructed as a set of
declarative representations combined with an interpreter for those representations. It helps to
separate the interpreter from domain-specific knowledge and to create a system that could be
used construct new expert system by adding new knowledge corresponding to the new
problem domain. The resulting interpreters are called shells.

Example of shells is EMYCIN (for Empty MYCIN derived from MYCIN).