4.

2 Monitoring of optical thin films using a quartz

crystal monitor
C J vd Lann a n d H J Frnnkena, Department of Applied Physics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Quartz crystal monitoring in the production of dielectric multilayer stacks is compared to optical
monitoring. The stacks are calculated with the aid of an optimizing program. This yields optical
thicknesses of the layers differing from multiples of a quarter of the wavelength. Optical monitoring
is complicated in this case. Using quartz crystal monitoring, planning and execution of the process
is easier and yields stacks with satisfactory reflectance characteristics faster than with
optical monitoring.
The reproducibility of the optical thickness of MgF2 layers is investigated. In general, both
methods turn out to be equivalent in performance.

1. Introduction is fixed to the domed calotte, in a position with the same distance
to the centre of the bell jar and on the same height as the regular
Optical thin dielectric film stacks, fabricated in the Delft
substrates. Using a shutter before the test substrates, we can
University Optical G r o u p (e.g. broad band mirrors, high- and
control the exposition during evaporation independently.
low-pass filters, anti-reflectance coatings, etc.), are usually
The test substrates are used for measurement of the obtained
optimized with the aid of a specially designed computer
refractive indices after the process following the A b e l s method2
program. This optimization is performed by varying the layer
The changer can contain six test substrates.
thicknesses keeping the refractive indices fixed on experiment-
Furthermore, we used a Beckman spectrophotometer DB--GT
ally determined values.
for determination of the reflectance and transmittance of the
This design process yields stacks whose layers, in general,
stack afterwards.
have optical thicknesses differing from exact multiples of a
quarter of the wavelength. F o r monitoring t the evaporation
process of these stacks an optical method or a quartz crystal 3. The evolution o f a thin film stack
monitor can be used. The aim of this paper is to give some
In Figure 1 the evolution of a stack is sketched; our discussions
practical information on the use of quartz crystal monitoring.
will follow this diagram.
After information about the equipment used, we discuss
Figure 1 showing the processes leading to a multilayer stack
satisfying preset specifications. Finally, we consider the repro-
ducibility of the optical thickness of MgF~ layers. Optical and A SpeclflCOtlOnSRa
()~)
quartz crystal monitoring are compared. Toleronces
1
Inltlol stock
2. The equipment used B '{t},{n,(X)~,R,(X}

Two Balzers coating plants are available, viz. a BA 5002 with

Opt=rnjzlng
the optical monitor G S M 210 a (measuring the reflectance and C Resuil Ro(X),
transmittance of a layer as a function of the optical thickness) I't',{o (xl~
and a BA 510 'L provided with the quartz crystal monitor QSG T
201.s I =
The principle of the quartz crystal monitor 6-8 is outlined in Plgnnmcj process
D deDosll=on
Figure 2. An oscillating quartz crystal (frequency about Y
4.96 MHz) is placed in the bell jar, above the vapour source. Execution I
deposlhon Droces.~
The condensing vapour increases its mass leading to a decrease E Result R~(X), |
in the oscillating frequency f~. This frequency f~ is compared
with the stable standard frequency fo, their difference !
f~ = ifc - f o l is supplied to a frequency meter. The standard of }\ Unocceptob~e
~~ccc°rnp°r's°n
frequency is variable from 4.8 to 5.0 MHz. The frequency shift R{(X}onaR~(X~/
Af in f~ during deposition of the layer is a measure for its epi'oble
thickness t. In first approximation, we may assume a linear
relationship between A f a n d t.
In the bell jar of the BA 510, also a changer for test substrates Figure 1. Diagram of the evolution of a multilayer stack.

Vacuum/volume 27/number 4. Pergamon Press/Printed in Great Britain 391

C d vd L u n rood H J Ftmnkena: Monitoring of optical thin filmm using a quartz crystal monitor
h. ~ die proidem. We shall consider the problems related
to producing broadband anti-reflection coatings, low- and high-
pass filters, broadband laser mirrors, etc., all composed of
dielectric layers and in general for use at visible wavelength. In
our optimizing program the desired reflectance Rd(,~), where ,~
is the wavelength, must be specified as an ideal curve (consisting
of a set of straight lines in the various wavelength regions that
must be specified by the user) plus bands of constant widths
around it in which deviations of the ideal curve can be tolerated.
The number and positions of the wavelength regions, the place
of the straight lines and the width of each of the tolerance re-
gions can be freely chosen. An example, relating to a low-pass
filter, is given in Figure 3. The computer input in this example
Aalustoble fo
stondor(;Iolcallotot: t
- f~-fo IFrequenc¥meter
" I f," If~ -f,I
0scfllotun<::3 crystoI f.
( ) "
Z. Principle of a quartz crystal thin film monitor.
i -" ~
o TJOz Itao~
L\\\\",~IT,\"
Wav2lenoth
3. Example of the specification of the reflectan~ ,%.
will consist of the wavelengths k , . . . ,L, (determining the
wavelength regions), the reflectances for the ideal curve at these
wavelengths (the points a . . . d) and the widths T= . . . 7"3 (we
suppose the tolerance band symmetric around the ideal curve
as long as no natural boundaries (Rd = 0 or Ra = I) prevent
this).
B. The initial stack. Our program optimizes by varying the
layer thickness (starting from an initial stack) until the reflec-
tance of the stack is brought completely (if possible) within the
given tolerance bands. The used initial stack is often derived
from systems d.,~.ocrihed in the literature. The initial stack is
supplied to the program by giving the refractive indices {n~(,~)}
of the layers and their starting thicknesses {4 :. Dispersion is
taken into account. The refractive indices are obtained from
previous experiments by which layers, with optical thickn~ses
of about ¼k, are deposited on test substrates. The conditions
(such as: the composition of residual gas, the bell jar pressure,
the substrat¢ temperature and the rate of evaporation) under
which the layer is deposited, have to be accurately described to
make reproduction possible.
392
C. Optimizing of the stuck. The discussion of the optimizing
program is beyond the scope of this paper. Important is,
that it leads to stacks consisting of layers with optical thick-
nesses that, in general, differ from multiples of a quarter of a
wavelength. This fact influences the choice of the monitoring
method. The so-called turning value method a' 1o., t which is in
use for ¼,~stacks, cannot be used in our case.
Another optical method, ~ in which deposition is terminated
after (if possible) or before (to avoid) a turning value is reached
can he applied. However, as will be discussed later, this method
shows certain disadvantages in comparison with quartz crystal
monitoring.
Another feature of the program is, that it determines the
derivatives of the reflectanceRo (,~), viz. ~Rslc94, where Rs is the
reflectance in thejth extremum and t~ is the thickness of the kth
layer. They are used for finding the layers, for which errors in
] thickness have serious consequences for the total reflectance of
the stack and also for the calculation of deviations in the
+
thicknesses of a produced stack. In Figure 4 an example is given
of the matrix ~Rs/c~tkfor an anti-reflection coating consisting of
four layers.
°°°sL-
R~ R ~
0000' i I "~"
'cl 700nm
x
02 JtI
S i 0492 0260 0 HI 0.050 -0.284~
i~i/ 8 I-0.P98 -0199 0097 -0.0o,2 "0.489
SiO~ F~ tk~0481"t 0142 "O.~f.,)5-0018 0 t94 /
\
0003-0534 -0639 -0115- C.%64//
{3K?'
I l
Figure 4. Example of the matrix of derivatives ~Rs/~tk (dimension
~,m - t) of an anti-reflectance coating. The refractive indices of TiO2
and SiO, are given in Figure 10. The thicknesses of the layers
tt . . . t., are 94.7, 107.1, 22.7 and 15.2 nm, respectively.
D. Planning the dep~itlon process. The planning for the
deposition process of a multilayer stack is, using quartz crystal
monitoring, relatively easy. The frequency shift Affor making a
single layer of thickness t of a given material follows from
A f = C/C.Cmt (1)
where
Cs is the frequency factor, depending only on the oscillating
frequency f~ of the crystal,
Cp is the position factor, depending only on the relative
positions of the crystal to vapour source and substrate and
C,, is the material factor, depending only on the material of
the layer.
The factor C / i s introduced since, afte: use in several measure-
merits, the mass loading of the crystal is increased considerably,
and then the assumption of a linear relationship between mass
and frequency is no longer valid for the total range in which the
frequency is decreased. For a single layer, however, we still can
use this relationship provided that C s is related to the total
C J vd Laan and H J Frankena: Monitoring of optical thin films using a quartz crystal monitor

decrease in frequency. Denoting the total decrease in frequency Crystal

(starting with a clean crystal) by Af, we can use Pulker and

Schiidler's graphical relation a for C I as is depicted in Figure 5
(where we normalized its value at Af, -----0 to unity). If, starting
deposition of a layer, the crystal is already loaded to a fre-
Substrote
quency shift Af,', while that layer itself will give an estimated
shift Af, one should determine Cs from Figure 5 for the mean
shift Aff' + ½Af
h.
h

,,00 ,/

,050
C, Source
Figure 6. Position of crystal, rotating substrate and directed surface
source. For the BA 510 equipment, we have hc = 514 nm, Re = 188
,000
ram, h = 464 mm, R = 165 mm and p = 91 mm which gives Cp =
"i
0.842.
1 , I , I , l , . I ,
0 2C "~0 60 80 tOO

lengths where nt = real4 (m = 1, 2 . . . . ) and the thickness

Cleon Full loaded equals
Figure 5. Relation between C~, and the total frequency shift Af, of a
crystal. We call a crystal 'clean' if, apart from electrodes, it carries t = m),/4n. (4)
no other layers. The disadvantage of this method is that for obtaining an
acceptable accuracy, very thick layers have to be deposited. In
order to avoid this, a unit, measuring thicknesses by interfero-
The factor Cp takes into account the influence of the difference metry, is in preparation which is able to determine thicknesses
in position between crystal and rotating substrate and is defined within an error of about 1 nm. If Af, t, Cp and C~ are known
as (7= follows from equation 1.
(thickness o f the layer o n the crystal) An example of the process planning of the anti-reflection
coating of Figure 4 is given in Table 1.
Cp = (thickness on substrate) (2)

Assumed is that the sticking properties on crystal and substrat¢

are equal. Then Cp depends only on the relative position of the TaNe 1. Calculation of the deposition process of a four layer anti-
crystal, substrate, vapour source and the emission characteristic reflection coating using quartz crystal monitoring.
of that source. Many authors t" ta dealt with this problem. We
use the f o r m u l a t Order of
Cp = hc2[(h 2 + R 2 + p2)2 _ 4R2p2]a12/ deposition Material C= Cp t A.f,' Ct Af
-- -- Hz/nm -- nm kHz -- Hz
[h2(hc2 + R¢Z)2(h2 + R z + p2)] (3)
1 TiO2 10.69 0.842 15.2 30.4 1.070 146
for a rotating substrate and a directed surface source. The used
2 SiO2 9.73 0.842 22.7 30.5 1.070 149
symbols are explained in Figure 6.
3 TiO2 10.69 0.842 107.1 30.7 1.071 1032
The factor C~, depends on the material of the layer and the
4 SiO2 9.73 0.842 94.7 31.8 1.073 832
conditions under which deposition takes place. C , has been
determined in the same process whereby the experimentally 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
obtained refractive indices are measured (see paragraph B).
This is done as follows:
We deposit a thick layer of several ¼A optical thickness on a
substrate (in a known position for determining Cp) which gives In order to determine A f / f o r the first layer (row l , column 6),
a frequency shift A f o f about 5 to 10 kHz. Before doing this the before planning the process, the crystal, on which the process
initial total frequency shift of the crystal Aft' is determined to will be carried out, has to be chosen. The factor C s (column 7)
obtain Ct. is now found from
In order to reduce the influence of inhomogenities the layer AZ - Aft' + CmCpt/2. (5)
of a ¼A on a test substrate, necessary for determining the re-
fractive index, is deposited about the middle of the deposition In the given simple example it appeared to be acceptable to use
process of the thick layer. The optical thickness of the thick the same Cs for all layers. Only for a stack of many layers the
layer follows from the reflectance curve by using the wave- change in C~, is important.

393
C J vd Laan and H J Frankana: Monitoring of optical thin films using a quartz crystal monitor
Comlmring optical monitoring with quartz crystal monitoring.
In the case of optical monitoring, by which deposition is
terminated before or after a turning value is reached, the
process has to be planned with the aid of a computer, since it is
rather complicated. Then, problems arise concerning the
number of layers that must he deposited on a single moni-
tor glass, which interference filters must be used and what
refractive indices the materials used will have in vacuum.
Much skill is necessary in meeting these problems, since the
performance of the resulting stack will strongly depend on the
way in which the process is planned. If we compare this with
the plan using quartz crystal monitoring, the simplicity of the
latter method is obvious; the calculations can be carried out
with the aid of a pocket calculator and not much experience is
required.
E. Execution of the d e p ~ t i o n process. In order to obtain a stack
with a reflectance Rp(,~) close to the calculated reflectance
Ro(,~) reproduction of the deposition conditions by which
{he } and the factors C,, arc determined is very important. In
our case the temperature of the substrate and the rate of
evaporation are controlled manually. Our methods yield
satisfactory results but, in our opinion, usage of automatic
control units is better.
The temperature of the substrate is indicated by a copper-
constantan thermocouple which is in continuous contact with
the rotating calott¢. Heating takes place by radiation from a heat
element.
The rate of evaporation is controlled by handling the vapour
source such that the (analogue) signal A f follows a straight line
on the recorder. The slope of that line determines the rate of
evaporation and must he calculated at heforehand.
In order to lower the reactivity of the residual gas a liquid N2
cooled-baffle is used. The pressure in the bell jar can be con-
trolled by bleeding in gas (N2, Ar, O , or air) by an automatic
gas-inlet system.
We prefer to use tbe same measuring crystal for all layers of a
stack, since then the sticking on crystal and substrate are as
near as possible equal. Moreover, then no effects occur from
small differences in sensitivity of the crystals. Given a certain
Af, the deposition of a layer is carried out as follows. We
preset the adjustable standard oscillator (Figure 2) on a fre-
quency which is A f + 50 Hz lower than the crystal frequency.
This gives by increasing layer thickness a decreasing frequency
difference.
The frequency difference is obtained in digital and in analo-
gue form. The analogue signal is used for controlling the rate
of evaporation. The digital readings, before and after deposition
of each layer, determine the resulting frequency shift A f The
readings appear to be easily influenced by mechanical vibra-
tions from the rotations of the calotte. To avoid this, we stop
the rotation when the digital meter is read. In Figure 7, the
operating order is illustrated by means of the analogue signal
for the case that A f = 800 Hz.
The handlings to be carried out at the various times to • • • tT,
are listed below:
to By means of the digital frequency meter the adjustable
oscillator is set on a frequency 850 Hz lower than the
crystal (monitor range is 1 kHz). The substrate is not
rotating.
t= The rotation is started and the vapour source shutter is
opened. The rate of evaporation is controlled.
394
1 I
Ir 850 Nz J" I
I
[
I
I
--~80 ~z I I I
I . ~'~
L ,
I I--X. !50Hz
I I ~-"N'=.-..~=~=-,,f--
I I
t
!-
~l !2_0 I L I [
i I
gJ I I
I I
I !
I
t t, t,; L, t5 t6 t~
t3
T~me
Figure 7. Recorder sheet obtained from deposition of a quartz crystal
monitored layer (Xf = 800 Hz). The slope of the lines a is calculated
and the lines are drawn on the sheet before deposition of the layer.
t= Reaching about 200 Hz, the monitor is switched to the
range of 0. i KHz. This is done since the terminating point
(50 Hz) is better defined in this range.
t~ When reaching a frequency of about 80 Hz, the shutter is
closed. Due to the slowness of the frequency meter over-
shoot occur which must be experimentally determined. The
rotation is stopped.
t , The digital frequency meter is read.
ts I f now the wanted terminating frequency (50 Hz) is not yet
reached, the shutter is opened again for a short time. The
substrate rotates.
t6 Shutter closed and rotation stopped.
t~ The digital frequency meter is read and A f = 800 Hz is
reached.
In this way, a certain terminating frequency can be obtained
within an accuracy of better than 5 Hz.
This procedure is repeated for each layer until the stack is
completed. Furthermore, for each stack test substrates are
evaporated with layers of all used materials, making it possible
to verify the obtained refractive indices.
C o m p m ' ~ optical monitoring with quartz crystal monitoring.
In comparison with optical monitoring the execution of the
process is somewhat easier, because the terminating points are
sharply defined. In the case of optical monitoring the obtained
reflectance of the turning value mostly differs from the calculated
value and the terminating point is influenced by this difference.
Hence, the operator has to determine this point in a very short
time making optical monitoring an uneasy job. Another
advantage of quartz crystal monitoring is the ease with which
the rate o f evaporation is controlled. This gives a better repro-
ducibility of the refractive indices.
F. Detection of errors In the stack. When the deposition process
is performed the reflectance R,,(,D of the stack is measured and
compared to the desired reflectance Rd(,D. If the difference does
not agree with the tolerances we have to determine the reason
before restarting the process. Firstly, the obtained refractive
indices are compared to those for which the stack has been
optimized. Deviations can be caused by:
Deviations from the assumed deposition conditions. This is
verified from recorder sheets and, measurements readings
during the process.
Deviations in the used evaporation materials (other type or
mark).
C J vd Laan and H J Frankena: Monitoring of optical thin films using a quartz crystal monitor

In the latter case, the new refractive indices are supplied to the I O~J
program and the cycle restarts (Figure 1). If the refractive
indices are correct, the thicknesses o f the layers must differ from
the calculated values. Supposing that the deviations of the
reflectance are known accurately enough, the differing layers
can be detected from the matrix ~Rj/~t,. F o r small deviations,
however, the (unavoidable) absorbtions and inhomogenities
become important and the previous method is not applicable. T 050
In general, for incorrect layers ORj]~& is relatively high;
assuming this, a trial-and-error method can be used. If the
source of the failure cannot be found in this way, the previous
process is repeated; in many cases this second run leads to a
more satisfactory result.
ooo ~, v I I I
Comparingoptical monitoring with quartz crystal monitoring. 4oo 5oo 6oo 7oo 8oo
Not much difference exists in the error detection using optical ~j Ilm
or quartz crystal monitoring. However, there is a difference in Figure 9. Transmittance curve of a high-pass filter. The dotted line
the way in which errors in previous layers influence the errors gives the calculated transmittance, the solid line the measured
in later layers. In the case of optical monitoring, normally transmittance after the first process.
more than one layer is put on the same monitor glass in order to
avoid influences of the difference in sticking properties between The materials and the calculated thicknesses are given in
the substrate and the monitor glass. Now, an error in the Table 2. The refractive indices of the used materials as a func-
terminating point of a foregoing layer also changes the reflec- tion of the wavelength are depicted in Figure 10.
tance at the point where the calculated thickness of the next
layer is reached (Figure 8). It is not possible to correct this
Table 2. Materials and calculated thicknesses of the high-pass filter
Colculatecl
of Figure 9.
i 1
1_ ( n. t r)co, (n2t2}col _ I Thickness
_ iL _
Material nm

l
=-~ (n! "~l)ob, f= Obto,nea
BK7
TiO2
SiO2
TiO2
SiOz
36.3
70.8
48.3
82.2
TiO2 46.0
SiO2 76.3
TiOz 46.8
SiO, 83.3
TiO2 46.8
SiO2 64.3
TiO2 36.7
"SiO2 84.1
~V~L...I_ Air
KePt c o n s t o n * l

Figure g. Explanation of the error in optical thickness ~(n=t=) caused

by an error in the optical thickness of a foregoing layer A(n~t=).
(" i t 1)=,~ and (n =t=)=.~ arc the calculated optical thicknesses. (n, t =)obt
and (n2t2)obt are the obtained optical thicknesses. A is the terminating
error in the first layer.
complicated influence during the execution of the process. So,
in general, an error in a foregoing layer introduces errors in the
following layers which are deposited on the same monitor glass.
In the case of ¼,~ stacks, using turning value monitoring,
Macleodt0.1~ proved that these errors compensate, however,
for a certain wavelength only. In our case compensation effects
are not observed for the whole wavelength range of interest.
Using quartz crystal monitoring, errors in previous layers
have no influence in the later layers and this is possibly one of
the reasons for our favourable results with this method.
In Figure 9, an example is given of the measured trans-
mittance of a high-pass filter obtained after the first process.
The difference between calculated and measured transmit-
tance is mainly caused by the 4 ~o reflectance of the uncoated
reverse of the substrate. Furthermore, the measured curve is
shifted over a few nm to longer wavelengths. Nevertheless, the
performance of the fabricated stack is already acceptable for
most applications. Mostly, also other stacks, like broad-band
anti-reflectance coatings and broad-band beam-splitters give
satisfactory results after the first process. If we use optical
monitoring for the same stacks, in general, more processes are
required.
4. The reproducibility of the optical thickness
An argument in use against quartz crystal monitoring is that the
reproducibility of the optical thicknesses is worse than with
optical monitoring. In order to verify this statement we com-
pared the deviations in 10 layers, monitored by quartz crystal

395
C J vd Laan and H J Frankena: Monitoring of optical thin films using a quartz crystal monitor

2 7,:: m
monitoring, the terminating point was chosen such that the best
accuracy was obtained. Now we, calculate the relative deviation
as a function of the optical thickness, assuming that in both
2 5C
methods the absolute error in the terminating point of the
monitoring signals will remain constant. The optical monitoring
2 30 signal is approximated by

R = a cos(4~) + b, (7)

in which the phase thickness 4, equals

q~ = n x = c o n s t a n t x nt, (8)

where x denotes the fractional number of ¼,~=positions (Figure

12a). From (7) follows the terminating error AR as a function
of the error in the phase thickness ,x4, as:
X, nm AR = - a sin(~b)(A~) - ½a cos(~)(A~b) z + 0((A(b) 3) (9)
FiBre 10. Refractive indices n of TiO~ and SiO, as a function of the Neglecting third and higher orders of A~, the relative deviation
wavelength ~.
in the optical thickness equals

~?/<nt>
with 10 comparable optically monitored layers. The used
material was MgF2 and the optical thickness of all layers w a s
= + ''= (lO)
about 430 nm. Optical monitoring was performed at such a where
wavelength ,X,. that the evaporation process terminated at P = 2AR/(na). (11)
5A,,,/8 (Figure 11). The frequency shift Af using quartz crystal
The absolute values in equation 10 originate from the fact
that AR must be positive in the minima and negative in the
(0) ~.m/2 (b)
maxima. From the experimentally determined point x = 5/2,

Z\
I
ffT/<nt> = 0.0050 follows P = 0.025, after which the curve can
5hm/8 be computed to other values o f x and nt (see equation 8).
Xm/4 In the case of quartz crystal monitoring the relation
~ t / ( n t ) = 0.0054 x 430/(nt) (12)
I holds (Table 3).
Time .... -~ T~me -. ~

F~m'e 11. Monitoring signals: (a) optically. In order to correct the

influence of the small fluctuations of the ;t./2 turning value, the ),.12 ,:)
distance D was made the same for all layers. (b) quartz crystal. I

R point
monitoring was 3700 Hz. In both cases the deposition con-
ditions were carefully controlled by skilled operators. After the
processes the transmittances were measured. From the mutual
, Ill I ,
I l X, I I I I
shift of their curves the mean optical thickness nt~ and the 0 I0(, pQ.(, ~,"' 4~." ~} 500 600
standard deviation ~ defined as AI, IR;n

n~ = { ~" k I [(nt)j -- (nt>]2/(k - 1)}="z (6)

was determined. The results are given in Table 3.

T a b l e 3. Standard deviation and relative deviation of the optical

thicknesses of MgF, layers using optical and quartz crystal
A
°r")It
I~ Y_- {;.c.'b
v
~ 7;,
~ / _.._zz
2 ,, '">

monitoring.

Standard deviation Relative deviation

Monitoring m n~ll'/lll,
Method nm ....
o i, t) ')( ,'~" ;0~ ~, ,'.l b, ;
Optically 2.15 0.0050 ;11, n:-,
Quartz crystal 2.32 0.0054
Figure 12. (a) Approximated monitoring signal (equations 7 and 8).
(b) Relative deviation ;~/,tnli> as a function of the optical thickness
tit.
As can be seen, the standard deviation using a quartz crystal Solid line: using optical monitoring (equation 10).
monitor is higher in this case. However, in the case of optical Dotted line: using quartz crystal monitoring (equation 12).

396
C J vd Laan and H J Frankena: Monitoring of optical thin films using a quartz crystal monitor
For both cases, the graphs are given in Figure 12b. From
that, we conclude, that in the case of MgF2 layers, quartz
crystal monitoring is in general as good as optical monitoring
and for layers with optical thicknesses smaller than A~,/8, quartz
crystal monitoring is more accurate than optical monitoring.
Experiments with materials of higher refractive index (ZnS and
TiO2) will be carried out in the near future.
5. Conclusion
We emphasize that our experiences and results with quartz
crystal monitoring are obtained under laboratory conditions.
In the case of large-scale production, factors like differences in
position, shape and temperature of the substrates can spoil the
results. However, this is also the case when optical monitoring
instead of quartz crystal monitoring is used.
We remark that in the case of quartz crystal monitoring it is
necessary to reproduce the deposition conditions under which
the material factors Cm and the refractive indices of the used
materials are determined. Most problems with this method
arise from insufficient care by the determination, the description
and the reproduction of those conditions. Further, we restrict
our conclusions to dielectric stacks, used in the visible.
The main advantages of quartz crystal monitoring above
opticakmonitoring are:
The planning of the deposition process is easier.
The execution of the process is easier because the terminating
points are better defined. Furthermore, the rate of evapora-
tion is more easily controllable which results in a better
reproducibility of the refractive index.
The errors in foregoing layers have no influence on the errors
in the subsequent layers. This gives less deviations of the
reflectance characteristic from the calculated curve, and
consequently, quartz crystal monitoring yields stacks with
satisfactory performance faster than optical monitoring.
Concerning the reproducibility of the optical thickness of
M g F , layers, the performance is comparable to that of
optical monitoring. For layers with optical thickness smaller
than ,~m/8, quartz crystal monitoring is more accurate.
Ackno~ ledgements
We are indebted to A Kuntze and A Looyen for execution of the
deposition processes and to A Thelen, W Kindli and H A Mac-
leod for stimulating discussions.
Re~renc~
H A Macleod, Thm-Fihn Optic'a/ Filters, Adam Hilger, London
(1969).
2 Ba/zers Betriebsanleitung .4 I 1-01 d. Hochvakuum-Bedampfungs-
anlage BA 500.
a Balzers Betriebsanleituny .4 11-3995 d. Optische Schichtdicken-
Messeinrichtung GSM 210.
"~Balzers Betriebsanleitung .4 11-3918 d. Hochvakuum-Bedamp-
fungsanlage BA .5l0 Automatic.
5 Balzers Betriebsanleituny A 11-4000 d. Schwingquartz-Schicht-
dickenmessger~it QSG 201.
H K Pulker, Z Angew Phys, 20, 1966, 537.
H K Pulker and H Hilbrand, Z.4noewPhys, 23, 1967, 15.
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