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Gender inequality and the disenfranchisement of women and femininity has been present
in modern civilization since its development. Notably, in the past century society has slowly
grown in awareness and resistance to gender inequality. Feminism, with early beginnings at the
Seneca Falls Convention, and an even earlier conceptualization in the French Revolution,
continues to evolve into the present day. New vocabulary provides even more opportunity to
discuss the effects and causes of gender oppression. With the expanding social consciousness in
this area, concepts such as “essentialism”, “patriarchy”, and “toxic masculinity” are finally being
addressed (Connell). The theoretical prevalence of toxic masculinity provides particular insight
into root causes of inequality based on perceived femininity. With each new wave of feminism,
feminist theory shifts its focus allowing the movement to direct conversation to contemporary
perceptions of oppression and disenfranchisement. Since the eighteenth century feminist theory
has shifted from the political liberation of women, to the introduction of intersectionality, to the
realization that oppression of femininity is not gender specific, and culminating in modern
concepts of toxic masculinity being the foundation of patriarchal systems and the most pressing
Despite the concept of equality being fairly new, women have recognized and resisted
gender oppression while striving to stretch principles of equality beyond political boundaries.
Theories of natural freedom and equality stem from the Enlightenment Era of the eighteenth
century when philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau introduced the
concept of rule by the consent of the governed (Bristow). This principle advocates for citizens to
have the ability to willingly give up their political equality while retaining the natural right of
human dignity. Written in a political context, Locke and Rousseau were concerned mainly with
Perceiving the Patriarchy 1
empiricism, male rulers, and male voters. Aware that some might extend the theory of equality to
social areas of life, Rousseau proposed that men and women are fundamentally different. He
argued that, in the Age of Reason, women were not as rational, strong, or intelligent as men, and
were therefore dependant on men (Lewis). It follows that if women are inherently dependant
they do not require the same concept of equality that applies Locke’s natural rights of life,
liberty, and property to men(Bristow). Separating the sexes politically, psychologically, socially,
Aware of the contradictions surrounding the theory of equality, women of the French
Revolution applied the principles of Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité to themselves. In 1791, Olympe
de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the [Female] Citizen,
signifying definitive opposition to gender inequality (Cokely). Through this document, Gouges
demanded recognition for the role women played in the Revolution. She also clarified that the
female citizens of France are in the same oppressively classist situation as men. If there is no
difference in situation than why should there be a divide in the demand for political rights?
Gouges additionally protested the exclusively gendered language in the Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen through her own satirically gendered pamphlet.
Not long afterwards, in 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft writes A Vindication of the Rights of
Women in England which called for the intellectual liberation of women (Moore). She directly
challenged Rousseau's degradation of women while at the same time accepted that the women's
sphere of life was limited (Lewis). Despite presuming some theories regarding what
advocated mainly for the education of women. Like Gouges, Wollstonecraft suggested changes
in how femininity was perceived and argued against certain areas of gender oppression. Gouges’
and Wollstonecraft’s defiance were the early echoes of feminism, setting the initial trajectory of
the feminist movement towards expanding women’s political and economic rights.
Continuing in that path, the Seneca Falls Conference of 1848 ushered in the era of first
wave feminism with the goal of getting women the political power necessary to enact legislative
change and further their liberation (Sharlach). After being denied access to the World
Anti-Slavery Convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott became vocal participants
for the political mobilization of women (Guinn). Women had been invaluable proponents in the
However, men continued to deny women equality despite benefiting from the actions of women
and campaigning for a common goal. Out of the Conference came the Declaration of Sentiments
which proclaimed “We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men and women are created
equal” (History.com Editors). The explicit use of inclusive language in this rewrite of America’s
half-a-century prior. The Seneca Falls Conference marked a turning point in female resistance to
gender inequality. Women’s rights became a separate discussion from the general equality of all
humanity, shifting the concern of advocates for equality to politically enabling women (Guinn).
Following the Seneca Falls Conference, first wave feminism finally achieved its objective
of legally liberating women with the ratification of the 19th Amendment (Sharlach). Lack of
political influence was seen as one of the main problems that hindered women. In order to be
liberated economically, intellectually, socially, and psychologically, change had to begin with
Perceiving the Patriarchy 3
legislation. The suffragist movement, spearheaded by outspoken suffragettes Stanton and Susan
B. Anthony, publicly accepted the theory of separation of the sexes in order to campaign for the
right to vote. By arguing that men and women were fundamentally different, it stood to reason
that women had valuable domestic and virtuous perspective to contribute to politics
(History.com Editors). This concession appeased those in power by confirming that men were
not incorrect in the promotion of gender inequality, simply that the lack of women in politics
limited legislation when it came to issues of virtue, family, and domestic life. The advent of
World War I slightly changed that argument, and suffragists could begin to demand more
equality in voting rights to accompany the heightened responsibilities of women entering the
workforce. First wave feminism ended with the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920
which extended suffrage to women, thus achieving the legal liberation of women and allowing
feminist theory to shift focus to other areas of gender oppression and disenfranchisement.
As opposed to the focuses of first wave feminism, second wave feminism addressed
much broader areas of womens’ experiences such as work, sexuality, family, and education.
Reaching its greatest point of influence in the 1960s and ‘70s, new theoretical terminology
became popularized which equipped the women’s movement with the language necessary to
essentialism revealed itself to be one of the most pervasive obstruction to previous feminist
efforts. “Essentialism… is the kind of ideology which supports that men should behave as men
and women as women, furthermore it tells us that men and women are total opposites and blames
our innate nature for this difference” (Johannasdottir). The liberation of women in their private
lives required the gender binary to be dismantled to allow the sexes to have the same equality
Perceiving the Patriarchy 4
without being limited by perceived gender roles. Additionally, the theory of patriarchy revealed
that social structure systematically enables men to be in the position of oppressor. Initially, this
(Johannasdottir). However the sexual liberation movements and the rise of intersectionality
within feminism showed that this was not accurate. At the same time that contested terminology
arose, previously unseen issues forced feminists to alter their perceptions of inequality and
Contrary to the message of the mainstream women’s movement, it became clear that
many men did not systematically benefit from the structure of the patriarchy. The sexual
liberation movement beginning in the 1960s finally gave a voice to gender and sexual minorities,
notably homosexuals. Homosexual men are victimized by the patriarchy due to a perceived
connection to femininity. While gay men are able to benefit from the patriarchy by not revealing
their sexuality, erasure is not unoppressive (Gaunt) . This confirmed that physical sex was not
the cause of the issue of systematic oppression. The inherent seperation of men and women was
rendered an invalid argument, because if men can be victimized by the patriarchy there is not
strictly gender issue but rather a gendered issue. Patriarchal perceptions of femininity were,
therefore, the result of a rigid social structure, distinctively shifting feminist understanding of the
Now, feminist movements are realizing that there is a problem in Western culture and
society, not inherently in men. Gay men, young boys, and men with interests construed as
feminine are victimized by the patriarchy. An intolerant, conformist rejection of femininity has
wormed its way into nearly every aspect of society (Greene). Due to the change in perspective of
Perceiving the Patriarchy 5
feminist thinking, the sexual liberation movement, it is clear that the systematic advantages that
perpetuate the patriarchy are highly selective (Edwards). The men who benefit from patriarchal
Indeed, this shift in the focus of the feminist movement has uncovered a dangerous cause
of inequality and oppression. The socialization of a rigid system of masculinity, derived from the
rejection of perceived femininity, stunts men’s cognitive, intellectual, and emotional growth
(Carley). The same negativity applied to women extends itself as emotional vulnerability, certain
professions, and mannerisms become gendered. Common phrases such as “boys don’t cry” target
young children, conditioning them to “man up” long before they call themselves men (Carley).
Encouraging on developing boys to suppress their emotions has a profound impact on as children
are forced into a social system where femininity is scorned and punished and the definition of
Moreover, the distinctive shift from gender inequality and oppression, to oppression
regardless of gender leads to massive changes in the perception of the patriarchy and what
perpetuates it. Modern awareness of hyper-masculinity has lead to the concept of toxic
“essentialism” and “patriarchy”, but has much more tangible effects due to the extremely
a rigid system where the concept of manhood is derived from a rejection of perceived femininity
disenfranchisement, but is so integrated into daily life that anyone, regardless of gender or
sexuality, can contribute to it. Parents, teachers, employers, peers, and the media shame boys for
Perceiving the Patriarchy 6
their interests, emotions, and mannerisms while making excuses for boys’ failures in empathy.
Author James Hollis remarks on this phenomenon in his book Under Saturn’s Shadow saying,
“men’s lives are violent because their souls have been violated”. Teaching young boys to reject a
part of themselves and to fear being connected to femininity fuels toxic masculinity. Increased
social isolation as well as the mantra “boys don’t cry” and “man up” can feed into the idea that
violence and apathy are acceptable; this is the main difference between being masculine and
developing an unhealthy view of masculinity versus femininity. For the first time, with this
terminology and understanding, the feminist movement has the ability to see that the problem of
oppression does not inherently originate from men but rather from society.
Feminist theory has evolved greatly over time, with the most recent shift towards
fundamental difference between the sexes, but in Western social systems. Toxic masculinity
raises concerns related to contemporary gun violence, sexual harassment, and the questionable
empathic capacity of leaders (Greene). Where, before, feminists had to accept a certain level of
separation from men’s equality to advocate for women’s rights, it is now clear that there would
never have been the same type of equality for all men and all women due to hyper-masculine
rejection of other men who are perceived as feminine. First wave feminism, culminating in the
legal liberation of women, was one step towards equality. But, the fractured goals of second
wave feminism call into question whether inequality is the true cause of systematic
disenfranchisement. Third wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s and continuing through the
present, reveals an entirely new issue in society which may require additional development of
Perceiving the Patriarchy 7
theoretical language and shifts in how the social system of the patriarchy is perceived in order to
Works Cited
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goodmenproject.com/ethics-values/what-is-toxic-masculinity-dg/.
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