You are on page 1of 10

Perceiving the Patriarchy Coletta Cook

Gender inequality and the disenfranchisement of women and femininity has been present

in modern civilization since its development. Notably, in the past century society has slowly

grown in awareness and resistance to gender inequality. Feminism, with early beginnings at the

Seneca Falls Convention, and an even earlier conceptualization in the French Revolution,

continues to evolve into the present day. New vocabulary provides even more opportunity to

discuss the effects and causes of gender oppression. With the expanding social consciousness in

this area, concepts such as “essentialism”, “patriarchy”, and “toxic masculinity” are finally being

addressed (Connell). The theoretical prevalence of toxic masculinity provides particular insight

into root causes of inequality based on perceived femininity. With each new wave of feminism,

feminist theory shifts its focus allowing the movement to direct conversation to contemporary

perceptions of oppression and disenfranchisement. Since the eighteenth century feminist theory

has shifted from the political liberation of women, to the introduction of intersectionality, to the

realization that oppression of femininity is not gender specific, and culminating in modern

concepts of toxic masculinity being the foundation of patriarchal systems and the most pressing

obstacle facing both women and men in this age.

Despite the concept of equality being fairly new, women have recognized and resisted

gender oppression while striving to stretch principles of equality beyond political boundaries.

Theories of natural freedom and equality stem from the Enlightenment Era of the eighteenth

century when philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau introduced the

concept of rule by the consent of the governed (Bristow). This principle advocates for citizens to

have the ability to willingly give up their political equality while retaining the natural right of

human dignity. Written in a political context, Locke and Rousseau were concerned mainly with
Perceiving the Patriarchy 1

empiricism, male rulers, and male voters. Aware that some might extend the theory of equality to

social areas of life, Rousseau proposed that men and women are fundamentally different. He

argued that, in the Age of Reason, women were not as rational, strong, or intelligent as men, and

were therefore dependant on men (Lewis). It follows that if women are inherently dependant

they do not require the same concept of equality that applies Locke’s natural rights of life,

liberty, and property to men(Bristow). Separating the sexes politically, psychologically, socially,

and economically, it enabled layers of boundaries and a system of disenfranchisement to be

established at the conception of modern Western civilization.

Aware of the contradictions surrounding the theory of equality, women of the French

Revolution applied the principles of ​Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité​ to themselves. In 1791, Olympe

de Gouges published the ​Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the [Female] Citizen,​

signifying definitive opposition to gender inequality (Cokely). Through this document, Gouges

demanded recognition for the role women played in the Revolution. She also clarified that the

female citizens of France are in the same oppressively classist situation as men. If there is no

difference in situation than why should there be a divide in the demand for political rights?

Gouges additionally protested the exclusively gendered language in the ​Declaration of the Rights

of Man and of the Citizen​ through her own satirically gendered pamphlet.

Not long afterwards, in 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft writes ​A Vindication of the Rights of

Women​ in England which called for the intellectual liberation of women (Moore). She directly

challenged Rousseau's degradation of women while at the same time accepted that the women's

sphere of life was limited (Lewis). Despite presuming some theories regarding what

Enlightenment philosophers considered to be a natural separation of the sexes, Wollstonecraft


Perceiving the Patriarchy 2

advocated mainly for the education of women. Like Gouges, Wollstonecraft suggested changes

in how femininity was perceived and argued against certain areas of gender oppression. Gouges’

and Wollstonecraft’s defiance were the early echoes of feminism, setting the initial trajectory of

the feminist movement towards expanding women’s political and economic rights.

Continuing in that path, the Seneca Falls Conference of 1848 ushered in the era of first

wave feminism with the goal of getting women the political power necessary to enact legislative

change and further their liberation (Sharlach). After being denied access to the World

Anti-Slavery Convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott became vocal participants

for the political mobilization of women (Guinn). Women had been invaluable proponents in the

abolitionist movement and promised representation at the World Anti-Slavery Convention.

However, men continued to deny women equality despite benefiting from the actions of women

and campaigning for a common goal. Out of the Conference came the ​Declaration of Sentiments

which proclaimed “We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men and women are created

equal” (History.com Editors). The explicit use of inclusive language in this rewrite of America’s

Declaration of Independence​ mirrors Gouges’ ​Declaration of the Rights of Women​ published

half-a-century prior. The Seneca Falls Conference marked a turning point in female resistance to

gender inequality. Women’s rights became a separate discussion from the general equality of all

humanity, shifting the concern of advocates for equality to politically enabling women (Guinn).

Following the Seneca Falls Conference, first wave feminism finally achieved its objective

of legally liberating women with the ratification of the 19th Amendment (Sharlach). Lack of

political influence was seen as one of the main problems that hindered women. In order to be

liberated economically, intellectually, socially, and psychologically, change had to begin with
Perceiving the Patriarchy 3

legislation. The suffragist movement, spearheaded by outspoken suffragettes Stanton and Susan

B. Anthony, publicly accepted the theory of separation of the sexes in order to campaign for the

right to vote. By arguing that men and women were fundamentally different, it stood to reason

that women had valuable domestic and virtuous perspective to contribute to politics

(History.com Editors). This concession appeased those in power by confirming that men were

not incorrect in the promotion of gender inequality, simply that the lack of women in politics

limited legislation when it came to issues of virtue, family, and domestic life. The advent of

World War I slightly changed that argument, and suffragists could begin to demand more

equality in voting rights to accompany the heightened responsibilities of women entering the

workforce. First wave feminism ended with the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920

which extended suffrage to women, thus achieving the legal liberation of women and allowing

feminist theory to shift focus to other areas of gender oppression and disenfranchisement.

As opposed to the focuses of first wave feminism, second wave feminism addressed

much broader areas of womens’ experiences such as work, sexuality, family, and education.

Reaching its greatest point of influence in the 1960s and ‘70s, new theoretical terminology

became popularized which equipped the women’s movement with the language necessary to

discuss issues of gender inequality and disenfranchisement (Burkett). Of these concepts,

essentialism revealed itself to be one of the most pervasive obstruction to previous feminist

efforts. “Essentialism… is the kind of ideology which supports that men should behave as men

and women as women, furthermore it tells us that men and women are total opposites and blames

our innate nature for this difference” (Johannasdottir). The liberation of women in their private

lives required the gender binary to be dismantled to allow the sexes to have the same equality
Perceiving the Patriarchy 4

without being limited by perceived gender roles. Additionally, the theory of patriarchy revealed

that social structure systematically enables men to be in the position of oppressor. Initially, this

oppression was believed by the women’s movement to be based on biological determinism

(Johannasdottir). However the sexual liberation movements and the rise of intersectionality

within feminism showed that this was not accurate. At the same time that contested terminology

arose, previously unseen issues forced feminists to alter their perceptions of inequality and

disenfranchisement, splintering the greater feminist movement (Burkett).

Contrary to the message of the mainstream women’s movement, it became clear that

many men did not systematically benefit from the structure of the patriarchy. The sexual

liberation movement beginning in the 1960s finally gave a voice to gender and sexual minorities,

notably homosexuals. Homosexual men are victimized by the patriarchy due to a perceived

connection to femininity. While gay men are able to benefit from the patriarchy by not revealing

their sexuality, erasure is not unoppressive (Gaunt) . This confirmed that physical sex was not

the cause of the issue of systematic oppression. The inherent seperation of men and women was

rendered an invalid argument, because if men can be victimized by the patriarchy there is not

strictly gender issue but rather a gender​ed​ issue. Patriarchal perceptions of femininity were,

therefore, the result of a rigid social structure, distinctively shifting feminist understanding of the

cause of disenfranchisement and inequality.

Now, feminist movements are realizing that there is a problem in Western culture and

society, not inherently in men. Gay men, young boys, and men with interests construed as

feminine are victimized by the patriarchy. An intolerant, conformist rejection of femininity has

wormed its way into nearly every aspect of society (Greene). Due to the change in perspective of
Perceiving the Patriarchy 5

feminist thinking, the sexual liberation movement, it is clear that the systematic advantages that

perpetuate the patriarchy are highly selective (Edwards). The men who benefit from patriarchal

systems prop themselves up by belittling women as well as other men.

Indeed, this shift in the focus of the feminist movement has uncovered a dangerous cause

of inequality and oppression. The socialization of a rigid system of masculinity, derived from the

rejection of perceived femininity, stunts men’s cognitive, intellectual, and emotional growth

(Carley). The same negativity applied to women extends itself as emotional vulnerability, certain

professions, and mannerisms become gendered. Common phrases such as “boys don’t cry” target

young children, conditioning them to “man up” long before they call themselves men (Carley).

Encouraging on developing boys to suppress their emotions has a profound impact on as children

are forced into a social system where femininity is scorned and punished and the definition of

masculinity becomes increasingly violent.

Moreover, the distinctive shift from gender inequality and oppression, to oppression

regardless of gender leads to massive changes in the perception of the patriarchy and what

perpetuates it. Modern awareness of hyper-masculinity has lead to the concept of toxic

masculinity. “Toxic masculinity” can be categorized as a theoretical term along with

“essentialism” and “patriarchy”, but has much more tangible effects due to the extremely

harmful, inflexible social structure of hyper-masculinity. Toxic masculinity is the socialization of

a rigid system where the concept of manhood is derived from a rejection of perceived femininity

(Carley). This way of thinking is obviously in line with patriarchal systematic

disenfranchisement, but is so integrated into daily life that anyone, regardless of gender or

sexuality, can contribute to it. Parents, teachers, employers, peers, and the media shame boys for
Perceiving the Patriarchy 6

their interests, emotions, and mannerisms while making excuses for boys’ failures in empathy.

Author James Hollis remarks on this phenomenon in his book ​Under Saturn’s Shadow​ saying,

“men’s lives are violent because their souls have been violated”. Teaching young boys to reject a

part of themselves and to fear being connected to femininity fuels toxic masculinity. Increased

social isolation as well as the mantra “boys don’t cry” and “man up” can feed into the idea that

violence and apathy are acceptable; this is the main difference between being masculine and

developing an unhealthy view of masculinity versus femininity. For the first time, with this

terminology and understanding, the feminist movement has the ability to see that the problem of

oppression does not inherently originate from men but rather from society.

Feminist theory has evolved greatly over time, with the most recent shift towards

intersectionality revealing a depravity, not in what Enlightenment philosophers believed to be a

fundamental difference between the sexes, but in Western social systems. Toxic masculinity

raises concerns related to contemporary gun violence, sexual harassment, and the questionable

empathic capacity of leaders (Greene). Where, before, feminists had to accept a certain level of

separation from men’s equality to advocate for women’s rights, it is now clear that there would

never have been the same type of equality for all men and all women due to hyper-masculine

rejection of other men who are perceived as feminine. First wave feminism, culminating in the

legal liberation of women, was one step towards equality. But, the fractured goals of second

wave feminism call into question whether inequality is the true cause of systematic

disenfranchisement. Third wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s and continuing through the

present, reveals an entirely new issue in society which may require additional development of
Perceiving the Patriarchy 7

theoretical language and shifts in how the social system of the patriarchy is perceived in order to

come up with solutions for the future.


Perceiving the Patriarchy 8

Works Cited

Bristow, William. “Enlightenment.” ​Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy​, Stanford University,

29 Aug. 2017, plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/.

Burkett, Elinor. “Women's Movement.” ​Encyclopædia Britannica,​ Encyclopædia Britannica,

Inc., 2 Aug. 2016, www.britannica.com/topic/womens-movement.

Carley, Michael. “What Is Toxic Masculinity?” ​The Good Men Project,​ 5 Apr. 2018,

goodmenproject.com/ethics-values/what-is-toxic-masculinity-dg/.

Cokely, Carrie L. “Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the [Female] Citizen.”

Encyclopædia Britannica​, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 9 Jan. 2018,

www.britannica.com/topic/Declaration-of-the-Rights-of-Woman-and-of-the-Female-Citiz

en.

Connell, R. W. “Gender and Power.” ​Google Books,​

books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=DoZuDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=gen

der+oppression+patriarchy&ots=S3Ar7iXAXn&sig=gWV15hg2UgE6jVHfXZt6BUovbi

Y#v=onepage&q=gender%20oppression%20patriarchy&f=false.

Edwards, Tim. ​Erotics and Politics: Gay Male Sexuality, Masculinity and Feminism​. London,

Routledge, 1994, file:///C:/Users/colet/Downloads/9781134858453_preview.pdf.

Accessed 30 Oct. 2018.

Gaunt, Simon. ​Gay Studies and Feminism: A Medievalist's Perspective​. pp. 3-8,

ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1603

&context=mff. Accessed 5 Nov. 2018.


Perceiving the Patriarchy 9

Greene, Mark. “Masculinity Is Not Toxic.” ​The Good Men Project,​ 17 Feb. 2018,

goodmenproject.com/featured-content/masculinity-is-not-toxic-megasahd/.

Guinn, Lisa. “Seneca Falls Convention.” ​Wiley Online Library​, American Cancer Society, 20

Apr. 2009, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp1326.

History.com Editors. “Women;s Suffrage.” ​HISTORY​, A&E Television Networks, 9 Oct. 2018,

www.history.com/topics/womens-history/the-fight-for-womens-suffrage.

Johannasdottir, Nina Katrin. ​Patriarchy and the Subordination of Women.​

skemman.is/bitstream/1946/3017/1/Nina_Katrin_Johannasdottir_fixed.pdf.

Lewis, Jone Johnson. “Rousseau on Women and Education.” ​ThoughtCo,​

www.thoughtco.com/rousseau-on-women-and-education-3528799.

Lewis, Jone Johnson. “What Rights Did Mary Wollstonecraft Advocate for Women?”

ThoughtCo​,

www.thoughtco.com/mary-wollstonecraft-vindication-rights-women-3530794​.

Moore, Jane. “On the Reception of Mary Wollstonecraft's a Vindication of the Rights of Woman

| Mary Wollstonecraft | Taylor & Francis Group.” Taylor & Francis, Routledge, 15 May

2017,

www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781351919463/chapters/10.4324%2F9781315249575-4

Sharlach, Lisa B. “First Wave Feminism.” ​Wiley Online Library,​ American Cancer Society, 20

Apr. 2009, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0556.

You might also like