TUNGSTEN

SOURCE: INTERNATIONAL TUNGSTEN INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION WEBSITE

TUNGSTEN PROPERTIES

Tungsten and Wolfram are the names given to element 74 of Mendeleev's Periodic Table of the Chemical Elements.

Its chemical symbol is W.

Tungsten has the highest melting point of all metals (3,422± 15°C). At this temperature most of the other engineering

metals (Fe, Al, Cu, Ti) have already vaporised. Its boiling point of about 5,700°C corresponds to the surface of the

sun. With its density of 19.25g/cm3, tungsten is also among the heaviest metals. Its electrical conductivity at 0°C is

about 28% of that of silver, which itself has the highest conductivity, and its coefficient of thermal expansion is the

lowest of all metals.

Tungsten features the lowest vapour pressure of all metals, very high moduli of compression and elasticity, very high

thermal creep resistance and high thermal and electrical conductivity. Tungsten is the most important metal for

thermo-emission applications, not only because of its high electron emissivity (which is caused by additions of foreign

elements) but also because of its high thermal and chemical stability.

Tungsten is a shiny white metal and, in its purest form, is quite pliant and can easily be processed. Usually, however,

it contains small concentrations of carbon and oxygen, which give tungsten metal its considerable hardness and

brittleness. For decades, scientists have worked to overcome the brittleness problem.
Most of these unusual properties are due to the half-filled 5d electron shells (d5s1) with a very high binding energy of

the tungsten in the bcc tungsten crystal arising from the strong, unsaturated covalent bonds. Based on these

properties, tungsten, tungsten alloys and some tungsten compounds cannot be substituted in many important

applications in different fields of modern technology.

PRIMARY USES OF TUNGSTEN

Cemented carbides, also called hardmetals, are the most important usage of tungsten today. The main constituent is

tungsten monocarbide (WC), which has hardness close to diamond. Hardmetal tools are the workhorses for the

shaping of metals, alloys, wood, composites, plastics and ceramics, as well as for the mining and construction

industries.

Tungsten remains an important partner for tool steels, high speed steels, stellites and creep-resistant steels and

alloys.

Tungsten mill products are either tungsten metal products, such as lighting filaments, electrodes, electrical and

electronic contacts, wires, sheets, rods etc or tungsten alloys.

Other applications include a widespread variety of chemical uses.

METAL OF POWDER METALLURGY

Due to its extremely high melting point, tungsten mill products (sheet, rod, wire, pins) are fabricated from powder and

not through melting and casting.

The tungsten powder is pressed into parts, sintered (consolidated) and worked (rolled, forged, swaged, or wire

drawn) to the desired form.

This technology, called Powder Metallurgy, was adopted from ceramics and used at first for mass production of

tungsten filaments at the dawn of the 20th century.

Tungsten mill products are either tungsten metal products, such as lighting filaments, electrodes, electrical and

electronic contacts, wires, sheet, rods, etc or tungsten alloys.

Such materials are used as components for the electronic industries, in transport (aviation, automobile, and trains),

the chemical and glass melting industries, in medical technology, for power engineering and even in sport and leisure

activities.

HISTORY OF TUNGSTEN
 Tungsten, like all the elements having a higher atomic number than iron

(Z>26), cannot be formed by nuclear fusion processes in stars, as is the case for those elements with a lower atomic

number, but originates only by neutron or proton absorption of already existing bigger nuclei. These capture

processes with extremely high fluxes of neutrons and protons occur exclusively in massive stars (>8 times the solar

mass) during the end of their life cycle. Massive stars end in a supernova explosion whereby certain amounts of their

mass are distributed to the surrounding space, including also the tungsten atoms formed.

The name Wolfram is closely related to today’s important tungsten mineral wolframite. In the Middle Ages (16th

century) tin miners in the Saxony-Bohemian Erzgebirge in Germany reported about a mineral which often

accompanied tin ore (tinstone). From experience, it was known that the presence of this mineral reduced the tin yield

during smelting. Foam appeared on the surface of the tin melt and a heavy deposit formed in the smelting stove,

which retained the valuable tin. "It tears away the tin and devours it like a wolf devours a sheep", a contemporary

wrote in the symbolic language of those times. The miners gave this annoying ore German nicknames like

"wolffram", "wolform", "wolfrumb" and "wolffshar" (because of its black colour and hairy appearance). Georgius
Agricola was the first to report about this new fossil (Spuma Lupi) in his book “De Natura Fossilium”, published in

1546.

The name Tungsten came from the other important tungsten ore, which is now called scheelite. In 1750, this heavy

mineral was discovered in the Bispberg´s iron mine in the Swedish province Dalecarlia. The first person who
mentioned the mineral was Axel Frederik Cronstedt in 1757, who called it Tungsten {composed of the two Swedish

words tung (heavy) and sten (stone)} due to its density close to 6.

In 1781, the outstanding Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele published the results of his experiments on the

mineral tungsten in Kongl. Vetenskaps- Academiens Nya Handlingar, with the title: “The Constituents of Tungsten”.

In this work he demonstrated that the mineral contains lime and a still unknown acid, which he called tungstic acid.

Torbern Bergman, professor in Uppsala, suggested preparing the corresponding metal by charcoal reduction of the
obtained acid.
 In 1781/1782, the Spanish nobleman, Juan José de D´Elhuyar studied metallurgical

chemistry with Prof Bergman and gathered information about the work on the mineral tungsten. Back to Spain in

1783, Juan José analyzed a wolfram species from a tin mine in Zinnwald/Saxony, and showed it to be an iron and
manganese salt of a new acid. He also concluded that wolfram contained the same acid as Scheele had gained from

tungsten. He then reduced the oxide to the new metal by heating it with charcoal, as had been recommended by his

teacher Bergman.

His discovery, jointly with his brother Fausto Jermin, was published in 1783 by the Royal Society of Friends of the

Country in the City of Victoria (“Analysis quimico del volfram, y examen de un Nuevo metal, que entra en su

composition por D Juan Joséf y Don Fausto de Luyart de la Real Sociedad Bascongada”). The new metal was

named VOLFRAM after the mineral used for analysis.

Thereafter, an increasing number of scientists explored the new chemical element and its compounds. However, the

price for the metal was still very high and the time was not yet ripe for promising applications.

In 1847, a patent was granted to the engineer Robert Oxland. This included the preparation of sodium tungstate,

formation of tungstic acid, and the reduction to the metallic form by oil, tar or charcoal. The work constituted an

important step in modern tungsten chemistry, and opened the way to industrialisation.

First, tungsten-containing steels were patented in 1858, leading to the first self-hardening steels in 1868. High speed

steels with tungsten additions up to 20% were first exhibited at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900, and

revolutionized engineering practice in the early 20 th century. Such steels (Taylor- and White) are still used today in

practically every machine shop of the world.

The first tungsten light bulbs were patented in 1904, and rapidly replaced the less efficient carbon filament lamps on

the lighting market. Since then, tungsten filaments have illuminated the world and have revolutionized artificial

lighting in general.

To produce drawing dies with diamond-like hardness but improved toughness was the driving force for the

development of cemented carbides in the 1920s. At this time, no one, even the most optimistic, could imagine the

enormous breakthrough for this material in the tooling industry. After WW2, a huge market opened in the growing

economies and cemented carbides contributed as tool materials and construction parts for their industrial

development.

In 1944, K C Li, President of Wah Chang Corporation in the US, published a picture in the

Engineering & Mining Journal entitled: “40 Years Growth of the Tungsten Tree (1904 – 1944)” illustrating the fast

development of the various tungsten applications in the field of metallurgy and chemistry.

To compare the evolution of a technology with the growth of a tree was a unique idea which has since been

developed and expanded from 1850. This 150 years’ time span reveals a fascinating picture of scientific and

technological evolution.

The tree has grown to reach today a peculiar form, which is dominated by an increasingly thick bole (cemented

carbides) with two main branches (steel and mill products). The chemicals branch seems somehow atrophied but still

has a large number of small leaves. Due to the unique properties of tungsten, it can be assumed that in future a
steady further growth will occur, given the appropriate market opportunities.

For the full story on the History of Wolfram and Tungsten, click to read the article in Newsletters June and December

2005. Further information is given in the Tungsten Brochure (2009).

 The Trewhiddle Tungsten Bloom

The ITIA does not often receive calls from TV producers but there was excitement over the discovery of a lump of

metal found in the West of England, after an article was published in “Materials World” in February 2004.

There was speculation that this lump was tungsten metal, pre-dating its presumed discovery in 1783, and a further

twist to the story suggests the involvement of that scientist, man of letters, bankrupt and thief, Rudolph Erich Raspe

(1737-1794), the author of “The Travels of Baron Munchausen”.

For the story and more information, click to view Newsletter June 2005.

GEOLOGY

 Geology

 Minerals & Deposits

 Reserves

 Supply and Demand

About 4.6 billion years ago the solar system was formed by condensation, contraction and subsequent collapse of an

interstellar cloud. More than 99% of the matter of the solar system was concentrated in the sun and the rest

contained in planets, meteorites and comets. This event stopped the continuous evolutionary change in element

concentrations of the system. Besides hydrogen and helium, as well as the other lighter elements formed by fusion

processes within stars, the cloud also contained the heavier elements generated during the short times of extremely

high proton and neutron fluxes prevailing in supernova explosions (as a result of absorption reactions). One of the

heavier elements in this "star ash" is tungsten. It ranks number 56 of the elements in terms of earth crust abundance

and number 18 among the metallic elements.

A main factor determining the location of tungsten deposits is the proximity to orogenic belts because of a marked

association between tungsten deposits and those mountain belts as, for example, in the Alpine-Himalayan and the

Circumpacific Belts.
 In particular, major tungsten deposits occur in the fold belts of the

Far East, in South China, Thailand, Burma, South Korea and Japan. Rich ore deposits are situated in the Chinese

provinces of Jiangxi, Guangdong and Hunan, where all important types of ore deposits can be found (amongst
others, the largest scheelite mine in world: Shizhuyuan). In these areas even basaltic rocks contain higher

concentrations of tungsten, which has been interpreted by Chinese researchers as an anomaly of the underlying

mantle. Similar belts extend throughout the Asiatic part of the former Soviet Union. Tungsten is also present in the

eastern costal fold belt in Australia and the Alpine belt from France to Turkey. The Rockies and Andes as part of the

Circumpacific belt contain a number of important deposits in Canada, USA, Bolivia, and Peru. Ore deposits in Africa

(Rwanda, Uganda and the Republic of Congo) and Brasil (Rio Grande del Norte, Rhodonia) indicate a common ore

formation history of Sn/W deposits before the opening of the Atlantic Ocean (ie separation of Africa and South

America) about 100 million years ago.

For the full story, click to read the article in Newsletter December 2006.

MINERALS & DEPOSITS

 Geology

 Minerals & Deposits

 Reserves

 Supply and Demand

 Tungsten occurs in nature only in the form of chemical compounds.

Although more than thirty tungsten bearing minerals are known, only two of them are important for industrial use,

namely wolframite and scheelite.

Pure scheelite has blue-white fluorescence in ultraviolet light, a property which is utilised in prospecting. Wolframite

is a general term for iron and manganese tungstates where the iron/manganese ratio can vary. A mineral with more

than 80% FeWO4 is called ferberite and a mineral with more than 80% MnWO4 is called hübnerite.

All tungsten deposits are of magmatic or hydrothermal origin. During cooling of the magma, differential crystallisation

occurs, and scheelite and wolframite are often found in veins where the magma has penetrated cracks in the earth's

crust. Most of the tungsten deposits are in younger mountain belts, ie the Alps, the Himalayas and the circum-Pacific
belt.

The concentration of workable ores is usually between 0.3 and 1.0% WO3.

For the full story, click to read the article in Newsletter June 2006.

TUNGSTEN RESERVES

 Geology

 Minerals & Deposits

 Reserves

 Supply and Demand

 Reserves are defined by the USGS, as "That part of the reserve base which could be economically extracted or

produced at the time of determination. The term reserves need not signify that extraction facilities are in place and

operative. Reserves include only recoverable materials". But different countries use different definitions and,

furthermore, what is deemed "could be economically extracted" will also differ between countries. So the estimated

tonnages should be treated with caution

SUPPLY AND DEMAND

 Geology

 Minerals & Deposits

 Reserves
 Supply and Demand
Primary Tungsten
That there is plenty of tungsten in the ground is not in doubt but some of the biggest deposits are in the areas where

access is difficult, or have a low ore grade, making the long-term view of tungsten prices the governing factor in

determining their economic viability.

Production in 2010

Not only have the sources of supply altered but so have the tungsten compounds traded, as fluctuating price

differentials between concentrate and upgraded products and governmental restrictions played their part in the

market. Intermediate products include tungstates, tungsten oxides and hydroxides, W and WC powders, and

ferrotungsten.

Suppl y and Demand

This graph compares the ITIA estimates for the production of concentrate over the last 10 years with demand,

calculated by the addition of imports of concentrates (ex world) as well as imports of intermediate products from
China and Russia. As supply and demand have largely been in balance over this period, production has been

supplemented by releases from stocks. Actual consumption, including recycled material (see below), is much more

difficult to assess.

Secondary Tungsten (Scrap)

Scrap recycling is an important factor in the world's tungsten supply, and the tungsten processing industry is able to

treat almost every kind of tungsten-containing scrap and waste to recover tungsten, and, if present, other valuable

constituents. Tungsten scrap, due to its high tungsten content in comparison to ore, is a valuable raw material. The

recycling of scrap is very high in several countries but is probably in the range of 35-40% minimum as a global

average depending on economic conditions.

Annual Statistics Report

An annual statistics Report covering tungsten production, processing, consumption and enduses is prepared for

members by the Secretary-General and may be purchased by non-members (the price currently is US$1,800). Click
to view the list of contents.

TUNGSTEN MINING & BENEFICIATION

Tungsten is usually mined underground. Scheelite and/or

wolframite are frequently located in narrow veins which are slightly inclined and often widen with the depth. Open pit

mines exist but are rare.

Tungsten mines are relatively small and rarely produce more than 2000t of ore per day. Mining methods for tungsten

ore are not at all exceptional and usually are adapted to the geology of the ore deposit.

Most tungsten ores contain less than 1.5% WO3 and frequently only a few tenths of a percent. On the other hand, ore

concentrates traded internationally require 65-75% WO3. Therefore, a very high amount of gangue material must be

separated. This is why ore dressing plants are always located in close proximity to the mine to save transportation

costs.

The ore is first crushed and milled to liberate the tungsten mineral crystals. Scheelite ore can be concentrated by

gravimetric methods, often combined with froth flotation, whilst wolframite ore can be concentrated by gravity (spirals,

cones, tables), sometimes in combination with magnetic separation.

TUNGSTEN PROCESSING
Concentrates (Primary Tungsten Sources)
Modern processing methods dissolve scheelite and wolframite concentrates by an alkaline pressure digestion, using

either a soda or a concentrated NaOH solution. The sodium tungstate solution obtained is purified by precipitation

and filtration, before it is converted into an ammonium tungstate solution. This stage is carried out exclusively by

solvent extraction or ion exchange resins. Finally, high purity Ammonium-Paratungstate (APT) is obtained by

crystallisation, with the formula (NH4)10(H2W 12O42) ·4H2O.

Wolframite concentrates can also be smelted directly with charcoal or coke in an electric arc furnace to produce

ferrotungsten (FeW) which is used as alloying material in steel production. Pure scheelite concentrate may also be

added directly to molten steel.

Scrap (Secondary Tungsten Sources)

Tungsten scrap due to its high tungsten content in comparison to ore is a very valuable raw material.

Contaminated cemented carbide scrap, turnings, grindings and powder scrap are oxidized and chemically processed

to APT in a way similar to that used for the processing of tungsten ores. If present, cobalt, tantalum and niobium are

recovered in separate processing lines. Other tungsten containing scrap and residues might require a modified

process.

Clean cemented carbide inserts and compacts are converted to powder by the zinc process (treatment with molten

zinc which is dissolved in the cobalt phase and is then distilled off, leaving a spongy material which is easily crushed).

This powder is added back to the manufacture of ready-to-press powder. By this process, not only tungsten carbide

but also cobalt, tantalum carbide and other carbides are recycled.

Recycling of tungsten in high speed steel is high, and a typical melt contains 60% to 70% scrap, including internally

generated scrap.

On the other hand, recycling in such applications as lamp filaments (average coil weight: <30 mg; absolutely not

economic to recycle), welding electrodes and chemical uses is low.

Although tungsten seems to be relatively harmless to the environment, environmental concerns have led to an

increasing recycling rate, especially when the material contains other metals in addition to the tungsten (Co, Ta).

Recycling is always more environmentally friendly and usually more economic than waste disposal.

INTERMEDIATES
Ammonium Paratungstate (APT)

APT [(NH4)10[H2W 12O42] · 4 H2O] is the main intermediate and also the main tungsten raw material traded in the

market. APT is usually calcined to yellow (WO3) or blue oxide (WO3-X; a slightly substoichimetric trioxide with varying

oxygen content).

Tungsten Metal Powder (W)

Yellow or blue oxide is reduced to tungsten metal powder by hydrogen. The reduction is carried out either in pusher

furnaces, in which the powder passes through the furnace in boats, or in rotary furnaces, at 700-1,000°C.

Tungsten Carbide (WC)

Most of the tungsten metal powder is converted to tungsten carbide (WC) by reaction with pure carbon powder, e.g.

carbon black, at 900 - 2,200°C in pusher or batch furnaces, a process called carburization.

Tungsten carbide is, quantitatively, the most important tungsten compound. Because of its hardness, it is the main

constituent in cemented carbide (hardmetal).

Cast Carbide
By melting tungsten metal and tungsten monocarbide (WC) together, a eutectic composition of WC and W 2C is

formed. This melt is cast and rapidly quenched to form extremely hard solid particles having a fine crystal structure. A

tough, feather-like structure is preferred over the brittle, blocky structure obtained by insufficient quenching. The

solids are crushed and classified to various mesh sizes.

PRICING

In recent years, trade in concentrates has diminished and the market has relied more and more upon the APT

quotation as a price guide since APT is the product traded in the largest quantity. Industry prices are mainly based

on the quotations published twice a week by London’s "Metal Bulletin", although other trade journals also publish
quotations or indicative prices. Click to view historical pricing sourced from Metal-Pages and Ryan's Notes as

alternative references.

This graph is based on the quotations published by "Metal Bulletin" to which acknowledgement is due.

 Metal Bulletin has ceased quotations for Europe wolframite since November 2012

 The US APT quotations have been converted from stu to mtu for comparison purpose. Metal Bulletin has
ceased US APT quotations since August 2012
  The ferro-tungsten quotations have been converted from kg W to mtu of WO 3 for comparison purposes

 This information is based on Metal Bulletin's twice-weekly quotations, but the averages have been calculated
by ITIA and rounded.

Notes for information:

 A metric ton unit (mtu) is 10kg

 A metric ton unit of tungsten trioxide (WO3) contains 7.93kgs of tungsten

 A short ton unit (stu) is 20 pounds

 TUNGSTEN PRODUCTS
 This section covers the process by which concentrates are converted into downstream products.


 CONCENTRATES
 Marketable ore concentrates of scheelite and wolframite (hübnerite, ferberite) contain typically 65 – 70 %

WO3. Off-grade concentrates having lower WO3 concentrations are seldom on the market and if so, only for

a lower price. In fully integrated companies lower grades (6-40% WO3) are often preferred, because
upgrading to high concentrations is mostly combined with a lower yield.

 Concentrates are packaged either in large polyethylene “big bags” (1 to 2 tons) or, alternatively, in steel

drums and individual packaging (40 to 200kg).



 AMMONIUM PARATUNGSTATE

 Ammonium Paratungstate (NH4)10[H2W 12O42].4H2O is the most important precursor for the majority of

tungsten products. Exceptions are only products of melting metallurgy and Menstrum WC produced

directly from ore concentrates.

 All other intermediates such as tungsten trioxide, tungsten blue oxide, tungstic acid and ammonium

metatungstate can be derived from APT, either by thermal decomposition or chemical conversion.

 APT is a white crystallized powder having average crystal size between 30 and 100 µm. Especially crucial

for the quality is the purity. Typical levels of todays commercial APT are (upper limits in µg/g):

Al 1-7, As 5-10, Bi 0.5-1, Ca 1-10, Co 1-10, Cr 1-10, Cu 1-3, Fe 3-10, K 2-10, Mg 1-7, Mn 1-10, Mo 5-30, Na

5-10, Ni 1-7, P 5-7, Pb 1-5, S 5-7, Si 1-10, Sn 1-10, Ti 3-10, and U 3-10. APT is packaged in polyethylene-

lined drums or woven bags up to 1 ton.

 TUNGSTEN OXIDES & ACID
 Intermediates, such as tungsten trioxide, tungsten blue oxide, tungstic acid, and ammonium metatungstate

can be derived from APT as shown below, either by partial or complete thermal decomposition or by

chemical attack.


 Tungsten Trioxide (WO3)
 Tungsten trioxide is almost exclusively manufactured by calcination of APT under oxidising conditions (in
air). WO3 is one of the most important, highly pure intermediates for the production of other tungsten
 compounds including tungsten metal powder. In the latter application, it was substituted to a large extent by

tungsten blue oxide. Because of its bright yellow colour it is used as a pigment in oil and water colours. It is

employed in a wide variety of catalysts, most recently for the control of air pollution and industrial hygiene

(DeNOx).

 Tungsten trioxide particles are pseudomorphous to APT; which means the particles have the same shape

and size as the former APT crystals, but consist of very small WO3 grains. The yellow powder is packaged

in sealed polyethylene-lined steel drums and individual packaging (20 to 50kg).

 Tungsten Blue Oxide (TBO; WO3-X)
 TBO is manufactured by calcination of APT under more or less reducing conditions which vary from

producer to producer. TBO is not a chemically defined compound, but consists of various different

constituents, like trioxide, tungsten bronzes and different lower tungsten oxides. The relative amount of

these compounds in TBO depends on the calcination parameters, (the parameter x typically varies between

0.01 and 0.10).

 TBO is the most important precursor in the line from oxide to W and WC powder. The colour varies between

deep dark blue to blue, faint blue and green blue. Also the TBO particles are pseudomorphous to the original

APT crystals, as described for tungsten trioxide.

 Tungstic Acid H2WO4.nH2O
 Tungstic acid, formally the most important intermediate in tungsten chemistry, is now exclusively

manufactured from APT, in order to make use of the high purity APT level. For that purpose an aqueous

APT slurry is treated with hydrochloric acid and tungstic acid is precipitated, which is then filtered, washed

and dried. Tungstic acid has a very high active surface and is only used in small quantities for

special purposes such as the production of ultrafine W and WC powders and tungsten chemicals.

 Tungstic acid is a fine yellow powder and is packaged in sealed polyethylene-lined steel drums.

 Ammonium Metatungstate (NH4)6[H2W12O40].3H2O

 Ammonium Metatungstate (NH4)6[H6W 12O40].3H2O has gained increasing usage for a variety of

applications, especially chemicals and catalysts, because of its excellent solubility in water. The usual

commercial product contains 3 to 4 molecules of water. On an industrial scale, it is obtained by partial

thermal decomposition or partial replacement of ammonium ions by hydrogen ions using selective ion
exchange and subsequent evaporation.
  AMT is a white crystallised powder. Between 200 and 300°C, it converts to the anhydrous form. Further

decomposition leads to WO3. At 80°C, 2,200 g WO3/l are dissolved in water.

 AMT is used for the preparation of heteropoly acids, which consist of inorganic oxyacids of phosphorous or

silicon and that of tungsten. Such compounds are attractive catalysts for many kinds of organic reactions.

TUNGSTEN POWDER

Technical tungsten powder qualities are prepared by hydrogen reduction and are available in average particle sizes

from 0.1 (100nm) to 100µm. The reduction process is, in some respects, unique. It offers the possibility to produce

tungsten powder of any desired average particle size within the above limits only by changes in reduction conditions.

The whole palette of particle sizes finds applications in cemented carbide production. The main portion of tungsten

powder is directed to that manufacture. Starting tungsten powder for ductile tungsten and powdermetallurgically

produced tungsten alloys covers particle sizes between 2 and 6µm. Extremely coarse powder gained by screening to

separate any finer particles has excellent flow characteristics and is used in plasma spraying.

The purity of the tungsten powder is of particular importance in all applications and is mainly influenced by the purity

of the original APT. Typical upper limits of foreign element concentrations in µg/g are:

 Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Pb ≤ 2

 Al, Fe, Ni, Si, Ca, Cr, Sn ≤10

 Mo ≤ 20
The crucial physical properties are average particle size, particle size distribution, apparent, tap and compact or

green density, specific surface area, degree of agglomeration and morphology. They are to a certain extent related to

each other and can be influenced between limits by the oxide properties and the reduction conditions.

Tungsten powder customers have in most cases very rigid specifications.

Tungsten metal powder is packaged in sealed polyethylene-lined steel drums.

TUNGSTEN CARBIDE POWDER

Tungsten carbide powder is the intermediate in the line from W powder to cemented carbides. It can be produced

from different raw materials and by different processes. By far the biggest percentage is manufactured by the

conventional method - carburization of tungsten powder - and covers the widest range of powder qualities in regard to

average particle size (0.15–12µm). All other methods in use yield very fine or very coarse powder grades.

The conventional process of carburisation comprises mixing of the respective tungsten powder of desired particle

size with high purity carbon (lamp black or graphite) and reacting at temperatures between 1,300 to 1,600°C in

hydrogen atmosphere. The average particle size and particle size distribution of the original tungsten powder

determine size and distribution of the WC powder.

The final carbon content of the WC Powder depends on the production mode of the hardmetal producer and is one

item of the rigid specification, and varies from slightly sub-stoichiometric to stoichiometric (6.13% C) to slightly over-

stoichiometric. But not only is the carbon content specified but also a series of physical properties including: average

particle size, particle size distribution, apparent (bulk) density and homogeneity.

High temperature carburised WC powders (1,700–2,200 °C) are usually coarse 10 to 50µm, but sometimes also 5 to

10µm grades are treated that way. The percentage of high temperature WC is small.

Tungsten carbide powder is packaged in sealed polyethylene-lined steel drums.

FERRO-TUNGSTEN & MELTING BASE

Ferro-Tungsten
Ferro-tungsten is a master alloy for the production of tungsten-containing steels. The raw materials for ferro-tungsten

production are rich ore or ore concentrates of wolframite or scheelite. Also artificial scheelite or soft scrap can be

used. The tungsten trioxide in these compounds can be reduced either carbothermically in electric arc furnaces or

metallothermically by silicon and/or aluminum. Also a mixed carbothermic-silicothermic production is in use.

Commercial ferro-tungsten contains between 75 and 85% W. It has a steel grey appearance and a fine-grained
structure consisting of FeW and Fe2W. It is supplied in 80–100 mm lumps.
Melting Base
Melting Base is another master alloy in tungsten steel production. It can have various compositions according to the

tungsten scrap material in use. The tungsten content varies depending on type between 10 and 38% besides iron

and sometimes 5.5% Mo and also 5 to 10% Co.

Different types of scrap materials are mixed to meet the required composition. Reductive melting is done in electric

arc furnaces and the melt is finally granulated by casting on a rotating disc and quenching in water (size <10 mm).

TUNGSTEN COMPOUNDS
List of other important tungsten compounds: